Gröde or Gröde-Appelland (, North Frisian Groue, Low German Grööd) is an island and municipality in the district of Nordfriesland in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.

Only 9 people live on the island. This is the smallest population of any municipality in Germany. The people of the island make a living from tourism and limited agriculture. Gröde has the smallest electoral district in the country. The tally is reported almost immediately after polls close.

Gröde belongs to the Amt division of Pellworm. Its seat is on the larger island of Pellworm.

References

Other websites

Category:Islands of Germany
Category:Municipalities in Schleswig-Holstein

Gröde


In 1903, the king of Serbia was murdered and replaced with Peter I. After this, Serbia became more nationalist. Tensions with Austria-Hungary heightened when it conquered Bosnia in 1908. During this period Serbia managed to extend its borders and reconquer Kosovo and North Macedonia from the Ottoman Empire. Many Serbian nationalists wanted to create a unified state for the Slavs of the Balkans. Covert gangs attempted to assassinate Austro-Hungarian officials, like the Bosnian governor. In June 1914, a Bosnian Serb called Gavrilo Princip killed Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia. This event eventually led to World War I.

Yugoslavia came into existence in 1918 after World War I. Most of its northern territories were given to it from Austria-Hungary when it collapsed during the war. Its territories were reconquered by Serbia from the Ottoman Empire during the Balkan Wars (1912-13). The reigning king in Serbia became the king of all Yugoslavia.

For ten years, it was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It began using the name 'Yugoslavia' in 1929. The name 'Yugoslavia' is Serbo-Croatian for 'Land of the Southern Slavs'. The Kingdom was invaded by the Axis Powers in 1941 and quickly fell during World War II. A Federal Democratic Republic was declared in 1943 with the King's approval, but the monarchy was abolished shortly after.

References

Kingdom of Yugoslavia


Enchanted is a 2007 American fantasy romantic comedy musical movie.  It was produced and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures in association with Barry Sonnenfeld and Josephson Entertainment. The story is about Giselle, a typical Disney Princess, who is forced from her traditional animated world into the live-action world of New York City.

The movie was first shown on October 20, 2007, at the London Film Festival. It released on November 21, 2007 in the United States. Enchanted was well-received critically. It won the 2007 Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Motion Picture, received two nominations at the 65th Golden Globe Awards and three nominations at the 80th Academy Awards. The movie earned more than $340 million worldwide at the box office.

Release Dates

Cast
 Amy Adams as Giselle
 Patrick Dempsey as Robert
 James Marsden as Prince Edward
 Timothy Spall as Nathaniel
 Idina Menzel as Nancy Tremaine, Robert's fiancee
 Rachel Covey as Morgan. Morgan is Robert's six-year-old daughter.
 Susan Sarandon as Queen Narissa.
 Jeff Bennett and Kevin Lima as Pip
 Jon McLaughlin as Himself, singing "So Close" at the ball while Robert and Giselle dance together as do Edward and Nancy
 Fred Tatasciore as the Troll
 Several actresses who have played characters in Disney movies have cameos:
 Paige O'Hara as Angela, a soap opera character. O'Hara was the speaking and singing voice of Belle in Beauty and the Beast.
 Jodi Benson as Sam, Robert's secretary. Benson was the speaking and singing voice of Ariel in The Little Mermaid.  She also voiced the Barbie dolls in Toy Story 2 and Toy Story 3.
 Judy Kuhn as Pregnant Woman with Kids. Kuhn was the singing voice of the title character in Pocahontas and its sequel.

Julie Andrews was the narrator of the story.

Video game
A video game based on the movie was developed by Altron for Nintendo DS. It was released by Disney Interactive on November 7, 2007.

References

Other websites

Category:2007 movies
Category:Disney movies
Category:English-language movies
Category:American family movies

Enchanted


Apollo 13 was the seventh mission of NASA's Project Apollo and the third manned lunar-lander mission. The flight was commanded by Jim Lovell.  The other astronauts on board were Jack Swigert and Fred Haise.

The craft was launched successfully toward the Moon, but two days after launch a faulty oxygen tank exploded, and the Service Module became damaged, causing a loss of oxygen and electrical power. There was a very large chance that the astronauts would die before they could return to Earth. They were very short of oxygen. Oxygen is not just used to breathe; on the Apollo spacecraft it was used in a device called a Fuel cell to generate electricity. So they conserved their remaining air by turning off almost all their electrical equipment, for example heaters. It became very cold in the spacecraft.

In order to stay alive the astronauts also had to move into the Apollo Lunar Module and make it work as a sort of "lifeboat".

When they approached the Earth they were not sure that their parachutes, needed to slow the Command Module down, would work. The parachutes were thrown out by small explosive charges that were fired by batteries. The cold could have made the batteries fail, in which case the parachutes would not work and the Command Module would hit the ocean so fast that all aboard would be killed.

The flight

Apollo blasted off on the April 11, 1970 at 19:13 UTC from Cape Canaveral and went into temporary low Earth orbit. Two hours later they fired the rocket motor again to go towards the Moon. They wanted to land at Fra Mauro. Despite the hardships, the crew made it back to Earth. Though the crew did not land on the Moon, the flight became very well known.

Some people regarded it as a failure because they did not land on the Moon. However, others thought it was possibly the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations' (NASA's) greatest accomplishment in returning three men in a very damaged spacecraft back to Earth safely.

Coming up to re-entry, it was thought that the electrical equipment would short circuit because the water in the astronauts' breath had turned back into a liquid all over the computers. However, the electronics were fine.

Books were written about the event, for example one by Jim Lovell, the commander of the mission. A movie was also made about it, directed by Ron Howard and starring Tom Hanks.

Related pages
 Apollo program
 NASA

References

Other websites

Category:Apollo program

Apollo 13


Bollmora is a former urban area in the county of Stockholm in Sweden. It is the seat of Tyresö Municipality.

Category:Settlements in Stockholm County

Bollmora


In special relativity, the spacetime metric, also called the Minkowski metric', is the metric tensor that describes the line element in Minkowski spacetime.

The metric
The metric can be described by the following line element:

In units where the speed of light, , is one, then the metric in matrix form is

Category:Relativity

Spacetime metric


A rainforest is a forest that receives heavy rainfall. The most notable rainforests are in the tropics or subtropics, mostly in the Intertropical Convergence Zone. The biggest rainforest is the Amazon rainforest, which is mostly in Brazil. Forests like this have extraordinary biodiversity. Biologists say over half of all plant and animal species live in the rainforest. Also more than 1/4 of all medicines come from here. Even though they only cover 6% of the Earth's land area they are still an important source of oxygen.

The rainforest gets an average of 50 to 250 inches (1.2-6.3m) of rain through the year. It is warm all year round rarely getting above 34°C (94 °F) or getting below 20 °C (68 °F). It has an average humidity of 77 to 88%. Tropical rainforests occur in three major geographical areas around the world.
 Parts of South and Central America  the Amazon River basin, and Costa Rica.
 Africa  Congo River basin, with a small area in West Africa; also eastern Madagascar.
 South Asia and Australasia  west coast of India, Assam, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Queensland, Australia.

A less-used term is temperate rainforest. For temperate rain forests of North America, annual precipitation is over , and the mean annual temperature is between 4 and 12 °C (39 and 54 °F).
However, definitions in other countries differ considerably. For example, Australian definitions are ecological-structural rather than climatic:
 Closed canopy of trees which excludes at least 70% of the sky.
 Forest is composed mainly of tree species which do not require fire for regeneration, but with seedlings able to regenerate under shade and in natural openings.
This definition would not suit the forests of western North America, and so the term "temperate rainforest" is not so widely agreed. The weather in a rainforest would be humid, which is wet but warm like a greenhouse. The bottom most layer receives 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. The understory layer lies between the canopy and forest floor. It is a home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards as well as predators such as jaguars and leopards. The leaves are much bigger at this level and insect life is abundant.

Characteristics
The characteristics of the tropical rainforests are:

 Land is mostly under 700 metres down to below sea level
 Climate:
 High rainfall
 High temperature
 Equable: not much variation
 Vegetation: 90% or more Angiosperms
 Tall canopy trees
 Lianas (climbing plants)
 Epiphytes
 Leaves large, complete margins, with drip tips
 Flowers and fruits large
 Pollination mainly by insects
 Leguminaceae are the most common plant family
 Evergreens: leaves may be shed, but not seasonally
 Animals
 High diversity: many different species
 Many insects which eat plants, and many anti-insect defences by plants
 Many arboreal (tree-living) mammals

The five layers
Tropical rainforests are typically dominated by different plants and animals at different levels. The top layer is the emergent layer. Then there is the canopy layer. Under the tall canopy is the understory. The understory is made up of smaller trees, vines and shrubs. The next layer is called the shrub layer, and has mainly bushes. The bottom layer is the forest floor. This is made up of the small plants on the ground.

Emergent layer
The emergent layer is the farthest from the ground. High in the trees eagles perch. Their keen eyes search constantly for small monkeys and other prey. Butterflies, parrots, toucans, and hundreds of other colourful birds constantly fly through the tops of the trees.

Canopy layer
The canopy is like a huge green roof over the forest. The trees grow up thin and straight, like pillars seeking the sun. They do not put out branches until they are very tall. Then, they spread out like an umbrella in the sunlight. The trees are so close together that very little light penetrates through to the lower layers. Many kinds of monkeys, birds, and insects live in the layer. The animals that call this layer home often never touch the ground throughout their entire lives. They find everything they need existing within the canopy. Water can be accessed from the boles of trees, if not, the leaves and epiphytes that grow in the canopy can supply that need. The animals eat the leaves and fruit of the trees, insects, or other animals. The tall canopy trees must be able to reach the sunlight high in the air and still get nutrients from the thin soil on the forest floor. Their roots do not go deep into the soil because there is nothing there for the plants to reach. Instead, the roots spread out in all directions along or just under the ground. That way they can quickly make use of the nutrients from the recycled plants and animals that have fallen to the floor.

Understory layer
The understory is usually a dark, humid place, under the canopy. There is very little light and no breeze because they are blocked out by the canopy. The plants under the canopy must be able to live with very little sunlight. Bushes, large green plants, and small trees make up this layer. Often they will only grow in open patches where a big tree has fallen down. Other plants, like vines, grow on the big trees.

Shrub Layer
The shrub layer is mainly made out of bushes. It contains most of the rainforests orchids, because the orchids use water from the forest floor, vegetation from the understory and sunlight that is reflected from the canopy layer leaves. It is the smallest layer of the rainforest, yet contains over 84% of the rainforest's orchids. It is normally very dark in the shrub layer, apart from little spots of sunlight that comes through empty spaces of the emergent layer. Despite not having very much sunlight, the shrub layer is very humid [wet and warm]. Many insects live in the shrub layer such as scorpions, beetles and tarantulas. Many people categorize the rainforest into 4 layers not 5. They consider the shrub layer to be part of the understory.

Forest floor
The ground level is called the forest floor. Snakes, Tapirs, Jaguars, Tamanduas, and Gorillas are just a few of the species that live here. It is dark on the rainforest floor. Insects, giant centipedes, spiders, ants, and beetles are also very abundant here. The floor of the rainforest is often very open and easy to walk across. That is because so little light reaches the floor that very few plants can grow there.

Plants and animals

One type of plant in the rainforest does not need soil.  These plants are called epiphytes, or air plants.  Air plants live on the branches of trees in the canopy or understory, with their roots out in the air. In the humid rainforest, they collect water from the rain that falls on them.

One kind of air plant is a flower called an orchid. There are thousands of different kinds of orchids in the rainforest. Some air plants store water in pools in and around their roots. These pools can become homes for frogs and salamanders. Frogs usually need to lay their eggs in ponds, but some rainforest tree frogs lay their eggs in the pools in air plants. That way, the frogs never have to go down to the ground.Some plants are made for medicine for humans.

Millions of kinds of insects live in the rainforest. It never gets cold enough to kill them. There are bees, butterflies, termites, beetles, and many kinds of flies. There are ants everywhere. One kind of ant is the army ant. Army ants do not have nests. They march out in a line every day to hunt for other insects, which they eat. At night they hook themselves together to form a living nest around their queen and larvae, or baby ants.

Snakes live in the trees and on the forest floor. They eat frogs, eggs, birds, insects, and small animals. Some of the snakes, like the fer-de-lance of Latin America, are poisonous, but others are not. One large non-poisonous snake is the anaconda of South America. It is one of the largest snakes in the world. It kills its prey by wrapping itself around the animal and squeezing it until it cannot breathe.

Monkeys are a very common animal in the rainforest. Most live their lives up in the canopy and the understory. They have long arms to swing from branch to branch, and some use their tails to hold onto the trees while they eat. They are fast and agile, jumping easily from tree to tree for food. Different monkeys eat different things. They can eat nuts, flowers, roots, and frogs. Their hoots and howls are heard throughout the rainforest, even when they cannot be seen among the trees.

Many colorful birds also live among the canopy of the rain forest, and there are also animals that live on the forest floor. The tapir is a forest animal that looks like a large pig. It is actually related to the horse and the rhinoceros. They live in South American and Asian rain forests, eating leaves, twigs, and fruit. Tapirs are among the animals hunted by the big cats of the rain forest. Jaguars, leopards, and tigers are the largest predators of rain forests. These cats have beautiful fur coats that have been hunted for the fur trade for years. The spotted coats of the jaguar and leopards were especially popular for fur coats. Today most countries are trying to protect their big cats, but many are still hunted illegally.

These are only a few of the animals and plants in the rainforest. About half of all of the different kinds, or species, of plants and animals in the entire world live in rain forests. Many of the plants and animals, especially insects, do not even have scientific names, because they have never been classified by a biologist.

People of the rainforest
There are many tribes of people who have lived in the rainforests for thousands of years. These forest dwellers usually belong to one of two groups. They are usually hunter/gatherers or slash-and-burn farmers.

Hunter/gatherers
Hunter/gatherers live as they do in every other region of the world. They kill animals and gather what the forest provides for part of their food. Unlike in the Arctic, tools are always available. Unlike in the desert, water is always available. The people do not need clothes to protect them from the weather. The forest even provides a way to make hunting easier. Many of the people hunt with poisoned arrows. The poisons come from the plants of the forest. That makes the animals easier to kill.

Slash-and-burn farmers
Most of the forest people are slash-and-burn farmers. They raise crops in small clearings as well as hunting and gathering in the forest. This provides them with food year-round. They start by cutting (slashing) down the trees and the other plants in an area. They let the dead plants dry out, then they burn them. The ash from the burned plants goes into the soil and makes it fertile for a little while. This is called slash-and-burn farming.

The small clearings grow food crops for a few years, then the family or group moves on and clears a new field. The old field is left to be overgrown by the forest. In a few years, it once again looks like the rain forest that surrounds it.

This type of farming does not harm the rain forest when only a few people are doing it. The small clearings become rain forest again without any damage. The land is used and recycled for use again some other time. The rain forest easily regrows to fill in the clearings after the people leave. That is changing today. Today, the rain forests are getting smaller because too many people are burning them.

Rainforests in danger
There are some serious problems concerning the rainforests that need to be fixed. Rainforests are being cut down too quickly. Every year an area about the size of West Virginia is being destroyed. This is a problem for everyone.

Rainforests are so large and thick that for many years very few people lived or went there. Today, however, that is changing. Millions of poor, often hungry, people live near the rainforests of the world. These people are desperate for a better life, and they think they can find it in the forests.

Settlers can get into the rainforests because modern machines have opened roads deep into the jungle. The roads are usually built by businesses who want to cut down trees or dig up minerals in the forest. Governments build other roads for trade and to allow settlers into the forest. Poor people come into the forest by the thousands on the roads and take land to raise food. They burn off the trees and plants to make a field. Then they plant crops for food and to sell. All around them other farmers do the same, so there is no forest left to grow back.

The new farms can only grow crops for a few years in the poor soil. The farmers then sell the land to a cattle rancher or just leave and clear a new piece of land. The soil is so poor that it will not even grow grass to feed cattle for more than a few more years. By then, the ground is hard packed and grows only a few weeds. The rainforest is destroyed and nothing can be done with the land.

If this continues long enough, the forests will be destroyed and the farmers will have no place to move. Then those people will
, because there will be no land left where they can grow food. Forcing them to stop cutting down the forest will not help, because they would just starve now instead of later. New ways need to be found for these people to live on the rainforest land without destroying it.

Also, no one knows how destroying the rainforests will change the earth. We know that less rain will fall once the trees are gone. That may cause some rivers, which supply water to cities around the rainforest, to dry up during part of the year. Also, burning trees puts carbon into the air. Carbon absorbs heat from the sun. Will the burning of so many trees change the air and make the climate on the earth warmer? Experts are arguing about it, but it might be happening.

The rainforests are also the source of many things that are useful to human beings. As many as one out of every four drugs bought at the store were discovered in rainforest. Coffee, chocolate, bananas, corn, tea, sweet potatoes, Brazil nuts, rubber, and tapioca all came from the rainforest. Very valuable wood is taken from the trees of the rainforest. Mahogany, teak, and balsa wood come from there. Those trees can not be grown without the thick, wet, warm rainforests. Thus, the loss of the rainforests would hurt other people besides those that must live there.

Tropical rainforests are located in a band around the equator (Zero degrees latitude), mostly in the area between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N latitude) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S latitude). This 3,000 mile (4800 km) wide band is called the "tropics."

Related pages
 Biodiversity
 Peat swamp forest
 Congo rainforest

References

Rainforest


Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). This makes it possible to identify different substances within a test sample. GC-MS has many uses include drug detection, fire investigation, environmental analysis and explosives investigation. It can also be used to identify unknown samples. GC-MS can also be used in airport security to detect substances in luggage or on human beings. Additionally, GC-MS can identify trace elements in deteriorated materials, even after the sample fell apart so much that other tests cannot work.

GC-MS is the best way for forensic experts to identify substances because it is a specific test. A specific test positively identifies the actual presence of a particular substance in a given sample. A non-specific test only says that categories of substances are in the sample. Although a non-specific test could statistically suggest the identity of the substance, this could lead to false positive identification.

History
The first research papers on gas-liquid chromatography were published in 1950. Chemists used different detectors to see that compounds were flowing out of the end of the chromatograph.  Most of the detectors destroyed the compounds, because they burned them or ioned them.  These detectors left chemists guessing the exact identity of each compound in the sample. In the 1950s, Roland Gohlke and Fred McLafferty developed a new combined machine. They used a mass spectrometer as the detector in gas chromatography. These early devices were big, fragile, and originally limited to laboratory settings.

The design was complex. The time interval between different compounds flowing out of the chromatograph was hard to control. So, the mass spectrometer had to finish working on one compound before the next one flowed out of the chromatograph.  In the early models, the measurements from the mass spectrometer was recorded on graph paper. Highly-trained chemists studied the patterns of peaks to identify each compound.  By the 1970s, analog-to-digital converters were added to mass spectrometers. This allowed computers to store and to interpret the results. As computers grew faster and smaller, GC-MS became faster and spread from laboratories into every day life.  Today, computerized GC-MS instruments are widely used in environmental monitoring of water, air, and soil. It is also used in the regulation of agriculture, food safety and in the discovery and production of medicine.

The development of small computers has helped in the simplification of GC-MS machines. It also greatly reduced the amount of time it takes to analyze a sample. Electronic Associates, Inc. (EAI) was a leading U.S. supplier of analog computers. In 1964, EAI began development of a computer-controlled mass spectrometer under the direction of Robert E. Finnigan. By 1966, over 500  gas-analyzer instruments were sold.  In 1967, the Finnigan Instrument Corporation (FIC) was formed. In early 1968, delivered the first prototype quadrapole GC-MS instruments to Stanford and Purdue University.  FIC was eventually renamed Finnigan Corporation and went on to establish itself as the worldwide leader in GC-MS systems.

Basic operation
GC-MS can find all of the compounds mixed together in a sample object. The operator dissolves the sample in a liquid. The operator then injects the liquid into a stream of gas. (Helium, Hydrogen or Nitrogen gas are used most often.) The gas flows through a tube with a special coating.  Because each compound in the sample sticks to the coating in a different way, each compound comes out of the tube at a different time.  So the coating is used to separate each compound that was mixed together in the sample.  As each compound comes out at the end of the tube, it is ionized and gets an electric charge.  Most compounds break apart when they are ionized.  The different pieces fly under a magnet which separates the pieces based on their weight and charge.  A computer then measures all of the pieces of each compound. By comparing the measurements against a computer library of known compounds, the computer makes a list of the names of all of the compounds in the sample.  The computer can also tell how much of each compound was in the sample.

Instrumentation

The GC-MS is made up of two major building blocks: the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer. The gas chromatograph uses a capillary column which depends on the column's dimensions (length, diameter, film thickness) as well as the phase properties (e.g. 5% phenyl polysiloxane).  The difference in the chemical properties between different molecules in a mixture will separate the molecules as the sample travels the length of the column. The molecules take different amounts of time (called the retention time) to come out of (elute from) the gas chromatograph. This allows the mass spectrometer downstream to capture, ionize, accelerate, deflect, and detect the ionized molecules separately. The mass spectrometer does this by breaking each molecule into ionized fragments and detecting these fragments using their mass to charge ratio.

These two machines, used together, allow a much finer precision of substance identification than either unit used separately. It is not possible to make an accurate identification of a particular molecule by gas chromatography or mass spectrometry alone. The mass spectrometry process normally requires a very pure sample. In the past, gas chromatography use other detectors such as a Flame Ionization Detector.  These detectors cannot separate different molecules that happen to take the same amount of time to travel through the column. (When two different molecules have the same retention time they are said to "co-elute".) The co-eluting molecules will confuse the computer programs that are reading a single mass spectrum for both molecules.

Sometimes two different molecules can also have a similar pattern of ionized fragments in a mass spectrometer (mass spectrum). Combining the two processes reduces the possibility of error. It is extremely unlikely that two different molecules will behave in the same way in both a gas chromatograph and a mass spectrometer. Therefore, if a mass spectrum matches the analyte of interest, the retention time of that spectrum can be checked against a characteristic GC retention time to increased confidence that the analyte is in the sample.

Types of mass spectrometer detectors
The most common type of MS associated with a GC is the quadrupole mass spectrometer. Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) markets it under trade name "Mass Selective Detector" (MSD).  Another relatively common detector is the ion trap mass spectrometer.  Additionally one may find a magnetic sector mass spectrometer. However these particular instruments are expensive and bulky and not typically found in high-throughput service laboratories.  Other detectors are used such as time of flight (TOF), tandem quadrupoles (MS-MS) (see below), or in the case of an ion trap MSn. The n indicates the number mass spectrometry stages.

Analysis

A mass spectrometer is typically used in one of two ways: Full Scan or Selective Ion Monitoring (SIM).  The typical GC-MS can work either way alone, or both at the same time.

Full scan MS
When collecting data in the full scan mode, a target range of mass fragments is selected and put into the instrument's method.  An example of a typical broad range of mass fragments to monitor would be m/z 50 to m/z 400.  The determination of what range to use is largely set by what one expects being in the sample while being aware of the solvent and other possible interferences.  If an MS looks for mass fragments with a very low m/z, it may detect air or other possible interferring factors.  Using a large scan range decreases the sensitivity of the instrument. The machine will perform fewer scans per second because each scan will take more time to detect a wider range of mass fragments.

Full scan is useful in determining unknown compounds in a sample.  It provides more information than SIM when it comes to confirming or resolving compounds in a sample.  Most instruments are controlled by a computer which operates a computer program called an "instrument method."  The instrument method controls the temperature in the GC, the MS scan rate and the range of fragment sizes being detected. When a chemist is developing an instrument method, the chemist sends test solutions through the GS-MS in full scan mode.  This checks the GC retention time and the mass fragment fingerprint before moving to a SIM instrument method. Specialized GC-MS instruments, such as explosive detectors, have an instrument method pre-loaded at the factory.

Selected ion monitoring
In selected ion monitoring (SIM), the instrument method focuses on certain ion fragments. Only those mass fragments are detected by the mass spectrometer.  The advantages of SIM are that the detection limit is lower since the instrument is only looking at a small number of fragments (e.g. three fragments) during each scan.  More scans can take place each second.  Since only a few mass fragments of interest are being monitored, matrix interferences are typically lower.  To improve the chances of reading a positive result correctly, the ion ratios of the various mass fragments are comparable to a known reference standard.

Types of ionization
After the molecules travel the length of the column, pass through the transfer line and enter into the mass spectrometer they are ionized by various methods. Typically only one ionization method being used at any given time.  Once the sample is fragmented it will then be detected, usually by an electron multiplier diode. The diode treats the ionized mass fragment like an electrical signal that is then detected.

Chemists select an ionization technique separately from choosing Full Scan or SIM monitoring.

Electron ionization
The most common type of ionization is electron ionization (EI).  The molecules enter into the MS (the source is a quadrupole or the ion trap itself in an ion trap MS) where they are hit with free electrons emitted from a filament. This is like the filament one would find in a standard incandescent light bulb.  The electrons hit the molecules, causing the molecule to fragment in a characteristic way that can be repeated.  This "hard ionization" technique results in the creation of more fragments of low mass to charge ratio (m/z). EI has few, if any, fragments having a mass that is near the mass of the original molecule.  Chemists consider hard ionization to be shooting electrons into the sample molecules.  In contrast, "soft ionization" is placing a charge on the sample molecule by hitting it with an introduced gas.  The molecular fragmentation pattern depends on the electron energy applied to the system, typically 70 eV (electron Volts).  The use of 70 eV helps to compare the spectra generated from the test sample against known library spectra. (The library spectra can come from manufacturer-supplied software or software developed by the National Institute of Standards (NIST-USA)). The software searches the library spectra using a matching algorithm such as Probability Based Matching or dot-product matching.  Many method standardization agencies now control these algorithms and methods to assure their objectivity.

Chemical ionization
In chemical ionization (CI), a reagent gas, typically methane or ammonia is put into the mass spectrometer. There are two types of CI: positive CI or negative CI.  Either way, the reagent gas will interact with the electrons and analyte and cause a 'soft' ionization of the molecule of interest.  A softer ionization fragments the molecule to a lower degree than the hard ionization of EI.  Chemists prefer CI over EI. This is because CI produces at least one mass fragment with a weight, that is nearly the same as the molecular weight of the analyte of interest.

Positive Chemical Ionization
In Positive Chemical Ionization (PCI) the reagent gas interacts with the target molecule, most often with a proton exchange.  This produces the ion species in relatively high amounts.

Negative Chemical Ionization
In Negative Chemical Ionization (NCI) the reagent gas decreases the impact of the free electrons on the target analyte.  This decreased energy typically leaves the fragment in great supply. (The fragments do not break up further.)

Interpretation
The primary goal of instrument analysis is to measure an amount of substance. This is done by comparing the relative concentrations among the atomic masses in the generated mass spectrum. Two kinds of analysis are possible, comparative and original. Comparative analysis essentially compares the given spectrum to a spectrum library to see if its characteristics are present for some known sample in the library. This is best performed by a computer because there are many visual distortions that can take place due to variations in scale. Computers can also correlate more data (such as the retention times identified by the GC), to more accurately relate certain data.

Another method of analysis measures the peaks in relation to one another.  In this method, the tallest peak is set at 100%. The other peaks given a value equal to the ratio of the peak height to the tallest peak height.  All values above 3% are assigned. The total mass of the unknown compound is normally indicated by the parent peak. The value of this parent peak can be used to fit with a chemical formula containing the various elements which are believed to be in the compound. The isotope pattern in the spectrum  is unique for elements that have many isotopes. So, it can also be used to identify the various elements present. This tells the overall chemical formula of the unknown molecule. Because a molecule's structure and bonds break apart in characteristic ways, they can be identified from the difference in peak masses. The identified molecule structure must be consistent with the characteristics recorded by GC-MS. Typically, this identification is done automatically by computer programs which come with the instrument. Those programs match the spectra against a library of known compounds that have same list of elements which could be present in the sample.

A “full spectrum” analysis considers all the “peaks” within a spectrum. But, selective ion monitoring (SIM) only monitors selected peaks associated with a specific substance. Chemists assume that at a given retention time, a set of ions is characteristic of a certain compound. SIM is a fast and efficient analysis. SIM works best when the analyst has previous information about a sample or is only looking for a few specific substances. When the amount of information collected about the ions in a given gas chromatographic peak decreases, the sensitivity of the analysis increases. So, SIM analysis allows for a smaller quantity of a compound to be detected and measured. But the degree of certainty about the identity of that compound is reduced.

GC-tandem MS
When a second phase of mass fragmentation is added, for example using a second quadrupole in a quadrupole instrument, it is called tandem MS (MS/MS). MS/MS are good at measuring low levels of target compounds in a sample with a matrix of background compounds that are not of interest.

The first quadrupole (Q1) is connected with a collision cell (q2) and another quadrupole (Q3). Both quadrupoles can be used in scanning or static mode, depending on the type of MS/MS analysis used. Types of analysis include product ion scan, precursor ion scan, Selected Reaction Monitoring (SRM) and Neutral Loss Scan. For example: When Q1 is in static mode (looking at one mass only as in SIM), and Q3 is in scanning mode, one obtains a so-called product ion spectrum (also called "daughter spectrum"). From this spectrum, one can select a prominent product ion which can be the product ion for the chosen precursor ion. The pair is called a "transition" and forms the basis for SRM.  SRM is highly specific and almost completely eliminates matrix background.

Applications

Environmental monitoring and cleanup
Many chemists believe that GC-MS is the best tool for monitoring organic pollutants in the environment. The cost of GC-MS equipment has decreased a lot. The reliability of GC-MS has increased at the same time. Both improvements have increased use in environmental studies. Some compounds, such as certain pesticides and herbicides, cannot be identified by GS-MS. They are too similar to other related compounds. But for most organic analysis of environmental samples, including many major classes of pesticides, GC-MS is very sensitive and effective.

Criminal forensics
GC-MS can analyze the particles from a human body in order to help link a criminal to a crime. The law accepts using GC-MS to analyze fire debris. In fact, the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) has a standard for fire debris analysis. GCMS/MS is especially useful here as samples often contain very complex matrices and results, used in court, need to be highly accurate.

Law enforcement
GC-MS is used for detection of illegal narcotics, and may eventually replace drug-sniffing dogs. It is also commonly used in forensic toxicology. It helps to find drugs and/or poisons in biological specimens taken from suspects, victims, or a dead body.

Security
After the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, explosive detection systems have become a part of all US airports. These systems run on a host of technologies, many of them based on GC-MS. There are only three manufacturers certified by the FAA to provide these systems. The first is Thermo Detection (formerly Thermedics), which produces the EGIS, a GC-MS-based line of explosives detectors. The second is Barringer Technologies, which is now owned by Smith's Detection Systems. The third is Ion Track Instruments (part of General Electric Infrastructure Security Systems).

Food, beverage and perfume analysis
Foods and beverages contain a lot of aromatic compounds, some naturally present in the raw materials and some forming during processing. GC-MS is extensively used for the analysis of these compounds which include esters, fatty acids, alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, etc. It is also used to detect and measure contaminants from spoilage or adulteration which may be harmful. The contaminants are often controlled by governmental agencies, for example pesticides.

Astrochemistry
Several GC-MS have left earth. Two went to Mars in the Viking program. Venera 11 and 12 and Pioneer Venus analysed the atmosphere of Venus with GC-MS. The Huygens probe of the Cassini-Huygens mission landed one GC-MS on Saturn's largest moon, Titan. The material in the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko will be analysed by the Rosetta mission with a chiral GC-MS in 2014.

Medicine
GC-MS are used in newborn screening tests. These tests can find dozens of congenital metabolic diseases (also known as Inborn error of metabolism). GC-MS can determine compounds in urine even in very small amounts. These compounds are normally not present but appear in individuals suffering with metabolic disorders. This is becoming a common way to diagnose IEM for earlier diagnosis and beginning of treatment. This eventually leads to a better outcome. It is now possible to test a newborn for over 100 genetic metabolic disorders by a urine test at birth based on GC-MS.

In combination with isotopic labeling of metabolic compounds, the GC-MS is used for determining metabolic activity. Most applications are based on the use of 13C as the labeling and the measurement of 13C-12C ratios with an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS). A IRMS is an mass spectrometer with a detector designed to measure a few select ions and return values as ratios.

Notes

References

Bibliography

 Eiceman, G.A. (2000). Gas Chromatography. In R.A. Meyers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Analytical Chemistry: Applications, Theory, and Instrumentation, pp. 10627. Chichester: Wiley.
 Giannelli, Paul C. and Imwinkelried, Edward J. (1999). Drug Identification: Gas Chromatography. In Scientific Evidence 2, pp. 362. Charlottesville: Lexis Law Publishing. .

Other websites
 GCMS - How does it work?

 GCMS Tutorial
 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy Background
 Introduction to Mass Spectrometry

Category:Mass spectrometry
Category:Laboratory techniques

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry


In 1955, Metropolitan Cammell produced its first lightweight Diesel multiple units, the prototypes of what were to become British Rail's most successful and longest-lived First Generation DMU type, the Class 101.

Metro-Cammell
Category:Metropolitan Cammell multiple units

British Rail Metro-Cammell


Davina Lucy Pascale McCall (born 16 October 1967) is an English television presenter. She was born in London to a French mother and British father. She is best known for having presented the UK version of Big Brother through its time on Channel 4 (2000–2010). She is the presenter of quiz show ''The Million Pound Drop Live.

References
The real mcCall
Profile Davina McCall

Other websites

Category:Actors from London
Category:Channel 4 presenters
Category:English television actors
Category:English television presenters
Category:ITV presenters
Category:Television personalities from London
Category:1967 births
Category:Living people

Davina McCall


Dionne Julia Bromfield (born 1 February 1996) is an English singer, songwriter, TV presenter, and television personality. She rose to fame in 2009 signing to Amy Winehouse's record label Lioness Records.

References

Category:British R&B musicians
Category:English singers
Category:English songwriters
Category:Living people
Category:1996 births

Dionne Bromfield


Helen Dunmore FRSL  (12 December 1952 – 5 June 2017) was a British poet, novelist and children's writer. She was born in Yorkshire, Northern England. She was known for her novel Zennor in Darkness (1993).

In 2017, Dunmore published her last book, Birdcage Walk, before writing an article about mortality for the Guardian after she was diagnosed with cancer. She died on 5 June 2017 at her Bristol, South West England, aged 64.

References

Other websites
 HarperCollins Canada site

Category:1952 births
Category:2017 deaths
Category:Cancer deaths in England
Category:British poets
Category:British novelists
Category:British children's writers
Category:Writers from Yorkshire

Helen Dunmore


The arrondissement of Libourne is an arrondissement of France.  It is part of the Gironde département in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Its capital is the city of Libourne.

History
When the Gironde department was created on 17 February 1800, the arrondissement of Libourne was part of that original department.

Geography
The arrondissement of Libourne is in the northeast of Gironde, with an area of . It has 152,602 inhabitants and a population density of  inhabitants/km².

The arrondissement is bordered to the north by the Charente-Maritime department, to the east by the Dordogne department, to the southeast by the Lot-et-Garonne department, to the south by the arrondissement of Langon and to the west by the arrondissements of Bordeaux and Blaye.

Composition

Cantons
After the reorganisation of the cantons in France, cantons are not subdivisions of the arrondissements so they could have communes that belong to different arrondissements.

In the arrondissement of Libourne, there are only two cantons where not all their "communes" are in the arrondissement: Le Nord-Gironde and Le Réolais et Les Bastides. The following table shows the distribution of the "communes" in the cantons and arrondissements:

Communes
The arrondissement of Libourne has 129 communes; they are (with their INSEE codes):

 Abzac (33001)
 Arveyres (33015)
 Asques (33016)
 Baron (33028)
 Bayas (33034)
 Belvès-de-Castillon (33045)
 Bonzac (33062)
 Bossugan (33064)
 Branne (33071)
 Cabara (33078)
 Cadarsac (33079)
 Cadillac-en-Fronsadais (33082)
 Camiac-et-Saint-Denis (33086)
 Camps-sur-l'Isle (33088)
 Caplong (33094)
 Castillon-la-Bataille (33108)
 Chamadelle (33124)
 Civrac-sur-Dordogne (33127)
 Coubeyrac (33133)
 Coutras (33138)
 Daignac (33147)
 Dardenac (33148)
 Doulezon (33153)
 Espiet (33157)
 Eynesse (33160)
 Flaujagues (33168)
 Francs (33173)
 Fronsac (33174)
 Galgon (33179)
 Gardegan-et-Tourtirac (33181)
 Gensac (33186)
 Gours (33191)
 Grézillac (33194)
 Guillac (33196)
 Guîtres (33198)
 Génissac (33185)
 Izon (33207)
 Jugazan (33209)
 Juillac (33210)
 La Lande-de-Fronsac (33219)
 La Rivière (33356)
 La Roquille (33360)
 Lagorce (33218)
 Lalande-de-Pomerol (33222)
 Lapouyade (33230)
 Le Fieu (33166)
 Les Artigues-de-Lussac (33014)
 Les Billaux (33052)
 Les Lèves-et-Thoumeyragues (33242)
 Les Peintures (33315)
 Les Salles-de-Castillon (33499)
 Les Églisottes-et-Chalaures (33154)
 Libourne (33243)
 Ligueux (33246)
 Lugaignac (33257)
 Lugon-et-l'Île-du-Carnay (33259)
 Lussac (33261)
 Maransin (33264)
 Margueron (33269)
 Montagne (33290)
 Mouillac (33295)
 Mouliets-et-Villemartin (33296)
 Moulon (33298)
 Naujan-et-Postiac (33301)
 Néac (33302)
 Nérigean (33303)
 Pessac-sur-Dordogne (33319)
 Petit-Palais-et-Cornemps (33320)
 Pineuilh (33324)
 Pomerol (33328)
 Porchères (33332)
 Puisseguin (33342)
 Pujols (33344)
 Puynormand (33347)
 Périssac (33317)
 Rauzan (33350)
 Riocaud (33354)
 Sablons (33362)
 Saillans (33364)
 Saint-Aignan (33365)
 Saint-André-et-Appelles (33369)
 Saint-Antoine-sur-l'Isle (33373)
 Saint-Aubin-de-Branne (33375)
 Saint-Avit-Saint-Nazaire (33378)
 Saint-Avit-de-Soulège (33377)
 Saint-Christophe-de-Double (33385)
 Saint-Christophe-des-Bardes (33384)
 Saint-Cibard (33386)
 Saint-Ciers-d'Abzac (33387)
 Saint-Denis-de-Pile (33393)
 Saint-Genès-de-Castillon (33406)
 Saint-Genès-de-Fronsac (33407)
 Saint-Germain-de-la-Rivière (33414)
 Saint-Germain-du-Puch (33413)
 Saint-Hippolyte (33420)
 Saint-Jean-de-Blaignac (33421)
 Saint-Laurent-des-Combes (33426)
 Saint-Magne-de-Castillon (33437)
 Saint-Martin-de-Laye (33442)
 Saint-Martin-du-Bois (33445)
 Saint-Michel-de-Fronsac (33451)
 Saint-Médard-de-Guizières (33447)
 Saint-Pey-d'Armens (33459)
 Saint-Pey-de-Castets (33460)
 Saint-Philippe-d'Aiguille (33461)
 Saint-Philippe-du-Seignal (33462)
 Saint-Quentin-de-Baron (33466)
 Saint-Quentin-de-Caplong (33467)
 Saint-Romain-la-Virvée (33470)
 Saint-Sauveur-de-Puynormand (33472)
 Saint-Seurin-sur-l'Isle (33478)
 Saint-Sulpice-de-Faleyrens (33480)
 Saint-Vincent-de-Pertignas (33488)
 Saint-Émilion (33394)
 Saint-Étienne-de-Lisse (33396)
 Sainte-Colombe (33390)
 Sainte-Florence (33401)
 Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (33402)
 Sainte-Radegonde (33468)
 Sainte-Terre (33485)
 Savignac-de-l'Isle (33509)
 Tarnès (33524)
 Tayac (33526)
 Tizac-de-Curton (33531)
 Tizac-de-Lapouyade (33532)
 Vayres (33539)
 Vignonet (33546)
 Villegouge (33548)
 Vérac (33542)

The communes in the arrondissement with more inhabitants are:

Related pages
 Arrondissements of the Gironde department
 Communes of the Gironde department

References

Libourne

Arrondissement of Libourne


A class is a rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each class is split into orders. There are multiple classes in each phylum.

Mammals, for example, are one of several classes within the Vertebrates, and are subdivided into Monotremes, Marsupials, and Eutheria.

Category:Taxonomy

Class (biology)


Corey Knebel is a major league baseball player. He was MVP.

Corey Knebel


The Kalabhra dynasty ruled over entire Tamil country in South Indian between the 3rd and the 6th century C.E..

They won over the ancient Chola, Pandya and Chera dynasties and replaced them. There is little information about their origin and details about their reign. They did not leave any monuments. The only source of information on them are to be found in Buddhist and Jain literature. They were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.

Hindu scholars and authors who wrote in the 7th and 8th century C.E. when Pandya and Pallava had taken over again have written very little about the Kalabhra in their texts. Perhaps therefore the period of their rule is known as a ‘Dark Age’ – an interregnum.

Category:600 disestablishments
Category:250 establishments
Category:Royal dynasties
Category:Kerala
Category:Former monarchies of Asia
Category:Dynasties in Tamil Nadu
Category:7th century disestablishments in Asia
Category:3rd century establishments in Asia
Category:Establishments in India
Category:Disestablishments in India

Kalabhra dynasty


Parisā (, pronounced pə-REE-sa) is a Persian given name for girls. It means 'like a fairy'.

The ancient Persian name "Parysatis" () is related to this name.
"Pari" can be used as a diminutive of Parisa. Pari () (pronounced pər-REE) means "fairy" and is used as a name of its own right as well.[2] Pari does not mean angel. "Fereshteh" () is a feminine given name which actually happens to mean angel. The Pari (or Peri) in Persian mythology are described to be a race of beautiful and benevolent supernatural fairy beings, earlier regarded as malevolent. Risa (given name) can be used as a nickname also.

Notable people

Historical
 Parysatis, the wife of Darius I of Persia II, king of the Persian Empire
 Parysatis II, the youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III of Persia, who was the wife of Alexander the Great.

Modern
 Parisa Damandan, Iranian art historian
 Parisa (born Fātemeh Vā'ezi), Iranian singer of Persian classical music

Other websites
 http://www.behindthename.com/name/parisa
 http://www.behindthename.com/name/pari

Category:Given names

Parisa (given name)


Affoltern is a quarter in district 11 in the Swiss city of Zürich. Until 1934 it was a municipality on its own. Then it became part of Zürich.

Category:Former municipalities of Zürich

Affoltern (Zürich)


The U.S. state of Alabama has sixty-seven counties. The oldest is Washington County (created June 4, 1800) and the youngest is Houston County (created February 9, 1903).

Alabama was claimed by Spain, as Spanish Florida, and by England, as the Province of Carolina. The first permanent colony was made by the French on the banks of the Mobile River in 1702.

After the American Revolutionary War, West Florida south of the 31st parallel became a part of Spain while most of the rest was put in the Mississippi Territory. The territorial assembly established some of the earliest county divisions which have survived to the present. In 1817 the western part of the territory became the State of Mississippi and the remainder the Alabama Territory. The Alabama territorial legislature made some more counties.

Alabama became the 22nd state of the United States in 1819. The Alabama state legislature made more counties from former Indian lands as the Indian Removal Act took effect and settlers populated different areas of Alabama.

In 1820, Alabama had 29 counties. By 1830 there were 36, with Indians still occupying land in northeast and far western Alabama. By 1840, 49 counties had been created; 52 by 1850; 65 by 1870; and the present 67 counties by 1903.

According to 2006 U.S. Census estimates, the average population of Alabama's sixty-seven counties was 68,642, while Jefferson County had the most people (656,700), and Greene County (9,374) had the least. The average land area is . The largest county is Baldwin (), and the smallest is Etowah ().

The Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) code, which is used by the United States government to uniquely identify counties, is provided with each entry. (In this system, St. Clair County is alphabetized ahead of Shelby County.) The FIPS code links in the table point to U.S. Census "quick facts" pages for each county.

Counties

|}

Former counties and county names
 Baine County (for David W. Baine), changed to Etowah County in 1868
 Baker County (for Alfred Baker, a local landowner), changed to Chilton County in 1874
 Benton County, first named in 1832 for Thomas Hart Benton. In 1849, Benton renounced his support for slavery, alienating him from the Democratic Party. He lost his seat in 1851, and in 1858 the name of the county was changed to Calhoun County, honoring Benton's Senate rival, John C. Calhoun, who had died soon after presiding over the momentous Compromise of 1850.
 Cahawba County, for the former capital city of Cahawba, changed to Bibb County in 1820
 Cotaco County (for Cotaco Creek), changed to Morgan County in 1821
 Elk County (for the Elk River), originally part of another Houston County (for John Houstoun), changed to Lauderdale County and Limestone County in 1818
 Hancock County (for John Hancock), changed to Winston County in 1858
 Jones County (for Josiah Jones, a local political leader), changed back to Covington County in 1868 after Jones refused the honor
 Jones County (for E. P. Jones), then Sanford County, before becoming Lamar County in 1877
 Sanford County (for H. C. Sanford), changed to Lamar County in 1877

Fictional counties of note

 Aurora County, the setting for several books by Deborah Wiles.
 Beechum County, the setting for the 1992 film, My Cousin Vinny.
 Greenbow County, the title character's birthplace in the 1986 Winston Groom novel Forrest Gump, which was adapted into a feature film in 1994.
 Hazzard County, the setting for the CBS TV show The Dukes of Hazzard, that ran from 1979-1985.
 Maycomb County, the setting for Harper Lee's 1960 novel To Kill a Mockingbird, which was adapted into a feature film in 1962.
 Pearl County, the setting for William March's 1943 novel Looking Glass and of several of his short stories.

References
  - official sites

*
Alabama

List of counties in Alabama


Events
 Ayya Vaikundar appeared after the incarnation, above the sea of Thiruchendur.
 Croquet invented in Ireland.
 Mormon religion founded in New York.
 Belgium founded.
 Ecuador declares independence.
 Queen Victoria becomes ruler of Great Britain.

World leaders
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
 Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
 Pope Gregory XVI
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 King William IV (United Kingdom)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Grey (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
 President Andrew Jackson (United States)
 President Martin Van Buren (United States)
 Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
 Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834
 Mohammad Shah Qajar, 1834–1848

Births
 Emily Dickinson, writer
 Gustave Eiffel, engineer
 Johannes Brahms, German musician
 Alfred Nobel, inventor
 Grover Cleveland, politician

Deaths
 Simón Bolívar, leader
 Jean-François Champollion, Egyptologist
 Sir Walter Scott, writer
 James Weddell, explorer
 Alexander Puskin, writer

1830s


The 31st season of The Simpsons first started showing on television on September 29, 2019 with the episode "The Winter of Our Monetized Content".  It was first announced on February 6, 2019. It is the last season to show Russi Taylor because she died on July 26, 2019. She had been with the show since the first season and voices characters like Martin Prince, Sherri and Terri, and Üter Zörker. The episode "Thanksgiving of Horror" is the last episode to have her voice in it.

The episodes and writers "Go Big or Go Homer" (John Frink), "Livin' La Pura Vida" (Brian Kelley), and "Thanksgiving of Horror" (Dan Vebber) were nominated for Outstanding Writing in Animation for the 72nd Writers Guild of America Awards. On February 1, 2020, Dan Vebber and the episode "Thanksgiving of Horror" won.

Episodes

References

Category:Seasons of American television series
Category:The Simpsons
Category:2010s television seasons
Category:2020 in entertainment

The Simpsons (season 31)


The Gold Rush is a 1925 silent movie. It was written, directed, and produced by Charlie Chaplin. He stars in the movie, too. The movie is set in the Yukon during the Klondike Gold Rush. Chaplin plays the Little Tramp. It was a character he created. The Little Tramp appeared in many Chaplin movies. In this movie, the Little Tramp has many adventures with other prospectors. He falls in love with a saloon girl. Critics liked the movie. One critic wrote, "Here is a comedy with streaks of poetry, pathos, tenderness, linked with brusqueness and boisterousness. It is the outstanding gem of all Chaplin's pictures, as it has more thought and originality than even such masterpieces of mirth as The Kid and Shoulder Arms."  In 1992 The Gold Rush was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. Chaplin hoped that people would remember him for this movie.

References

Other websites

 The Greatest Films: The Gold Rush
 Bibliography

Category:Silent movies
Category:1925 movies
Category:American comedy movies
Category:United States National Film Registry movies
Category:Gold

The Gold Rush


Woodburn is a city of Kentucky in the United States.

Category:Cities in Kentucky

Woodburn, Kentucky


Åkersberga is an urban area in the county of Stockholm in Sweden. It is the seat of Östhammar Municipality.

References

Other websites

Category:Settlements in Uppsala County

Åkersberga


is a Japanese professional football club in Tottori Prefecture.

History
The club was founded in 1983.

League position
JFL
2001: 16th
2002: 13th
2003: 10th
2004: 14th
2005: 12th
2006: 11th
2007: 14th
2008: 5th
2009: 5th
2010: Champions
J2
2011: 19th

Related pages
 Sports in Japan
 List of Japanese football teams
 List of Gainare Tottori players

References

Other websites

 Gainare Tottori websitge
  J.League Club Guide

Category:Japanese football clubs
Category:Tottori Prefecture

Gainare Tottori


Air Niugini is the flag carrier airline of Papua New Guinea. Port Moresby Airport is their main hub. Air Niugini was founded in 1973. The airline started flight to Australia in 1975. The airline got its first widebody airplane in 1984. The 1990s were tough times for Air Niugini. To survive, the government helped the airline by cutting jobs and lowering wages at the airline. In 2003, Air Niugini made its first profit in many years. The airline flies to 35 cities and has 33 airplanes as of 2016.

Gallery

References

Category:Papua New Guinea
Category:Airlines of Oceania
Category:1973 establishments in Oceania

Air Niugini


Sidecar-Cross racing, also known as Sidecar Motocross, is a race that uses a different motorcycle chassis than regular motocross. It also uses a team of two people riding together, a "driver" and a "passenger".

Handling

Sidecarcross is done on the same race track as normal motocross, but the driver has to ride differently then when riding solo. The driver cannot lean over in the turns. To make sure the sidecar does not flip over, the passenger leans out of the sidecar when they are in the corners. The passenger does much more work than the driver because he moves his whole body around all the time.
One of the most important things in sidecar racing is teamwork; the best teams race together for many years.

Other websites
 The Sidecar-Cross Racing Homepage
 The Australian Sidecar-Cross Association Inc
 The British sidecar enduro association

Category:Auto racing

Sidecarcross


Saint-Jean-Poudge is a commune of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques département in the southwestern part of France.

Saint-Jean-Poudge

Saint-Jean-Poudge


Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), previously known as multiple organ failure (MOF), Total organ failure(TOF) or multisystem organ failure (MSOF), is when the organ function is acutely ill and the patient is required medical intervention to achieve homeostasis. It usually involves two or more organ systems.

The use of "multiple organ failure" or "multisystem organ failure" should be avoided since that phrase was based upon physiological parameters to determine whether or not a particular organ was failing.

Cause
The condition usually results from infection, injury (accident, surgery), hypoperfusion and hypermetabolism. The primary cause triggers an uncontrolled inflammatory response. Sepsis is the most common cause in operative and non-operative patients. Sepsis may result in septic shock.

Stages
Four clinical phases have been suggested:
Stage 1 the patient has increased volume requirements and mild respiratory alkalosis which is accompanied by oliguria, hyperglycemia and increased insulin requirements.
Stage 2 the patient is tachypneic, hypocapnic and hypoxemic; develops moderate liver dysfunction and possible hematologic abnormalities.
Stage 3 the patient develops shock with azotemia and acid-base disturbances; has significant coagulation abnormalities.
Stage 4 the patient is vasopressor dependent and oliguric or anuric; subsequently develops ischemic colitis and lactic acidosis.

References

Other websites
 The ICU Book by Marino
 Cecil Textbook of Medicine
 The Oxford Textbook of Medicine
 Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine

Category:Organ failure
Category:Medical emergencies

Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome


Charles E. Curran (born March 30, 1934) is an American Roman Catholic priest and moral theologian. He was born in Rochester, New York. He serves at Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas, as the Elizabeth Scurlock University Professor of Human Values.

References

Other websites
Curran's SMU website
Whispers in the Loggia: In Big D, SMU Swims the Tiber

Category:1934 births
Category:Living people
Category:American theologians
Category:American educators
Category:American Roman Catholics
Category:Writers from New York
Category:People from Rochester, New York

Charles Curran


Sir George Houston Reid (25 February 1845 – 12 September 1918) was the fourth Prime Minister of Australia. He was the first Leader of the Opposition and leader of Free Trade Party. He moved to London after he retired and was elected to the House of Commons.

Reid was elected to the Australian Paliament in 1901 for the Division of East Sydney. He retired in 1910.

Category:1845 births
Category:1918 deaths
Category:Prime Ministers of Australia
Category:Premiers of New South Wales
Category:Leaders of the Opposition (Australia)
Category:Government ministers of Australia
Category:Politicians from Sydney
Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives

George Reid


The Wallace Line (or 'Wallace's Line') is a boundary that separates the ecozone of Asia and the Australasian ecozone. The transitional zone is sometimes called Wallacea.

Plants and animals related to Asian species are found to the north-west. Australasian species are found mainly to the south-east, with some Asian species. The line is named after Alfred Russel Wallace, who noticed this clear dividing line during his travels through the East Indies in the 19th century.

The line runs through Indonesia, between Borneo and Sulawesi (Celebes); and through the Lombok Strait between Bali (in the west) and Lombok (in the east).

The distance between Bali and Lombok is only about 35 kilometers. Surprisingly, the distributions of many bird species observe the line, because many birds do not cross even the smallest stretches of open ocean water. Some bats have distributions that cross the Wallace Line, but other mammals are generally limited to one side or the other; an exception is the Crab-eating Macaque. Other groups of plants and animals show differing patterns, but the overall pattern is striking and reasonably consistent.

The term 'Wallace's Line' was first used by Huxley in 1868.

Cause
The root cause of Wallace's line is that the ancient supercontinent Gondwana was separated entirely from other parts of the world after Pangaea broke up. Australasia and its smaller islands were part of Gondwana, and that is why their fauna is so different from that of south-east Asia. Wallace's line marks where part of the old Gondwana plate touches part of the old Laurasia plate.

Ice age
During Quaternary ice age cold periods, when the ocean levels were up to 120 m lower, both Asia and Australia were joined with their respective islands. The deep water between those two large continental shelf areas was — for over 50 million years — a barrier that kept the flora and fauna of Australia separated from that of Asia. Wallacea consists of islands that were never recently connected by dry land to either of the continental land masses, and thus was populated by organisms capable of crossing the straits between islands. 'Weber's Line' runs through this area (rather to the east of centre), at the tipping point between dominance by species of Asian vs. species of Australian origin.

Related pages
Alfred Russel Wallace
Biogeography
Malay Archipelago

References

Category:Ecology
Category:Physical geography

Wallace Line


The Kaghan valley is a valley in the Mansehra District of Hazara Division of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It has a reputation as a place of great natural beauty. This valley also suffered from the earthquake disaster on 8 October 2005.

Lay out
The valley is approximately 160 kilometers long, starting from Balakot in the 'Lower Kaghan' to Babusar Pass at the extreme end of the 'Upper Kaghan'. It is mostly surrounded by the forests and hills of the Lesvjzxbser Himalayas and the Kunhar River runs though most of its length. The valley is mostly inhabited by semi-nomadic Gujars, and some Swatis, Awans and Syeds.

Background and main sights
Historically speaking, Kaghan was long a backward and neglected area, until the 1880s-1890s when officers of British India established a strategic supply line via the Babusar Pass to the northern areas of the Gilgit Agency. After that, the area soon opened up to tourism and resort centers like Shogran and Naran Valley were developed in it. The famous and lovely Saiful Muluk Lake is also a special feature of this valley as are some other lakes like Ansoo Lake, Dudupat Sar, Lulu Sar and the Lalazar Meadows. Malika Parbat is a high peak in the area.

Between May and August each year, thousands of tourists from Pakistan and abroad dive up from Abbottabad and Mansehra, to visit these places in the valley. For most of the rest of the year, Kaghan area is locked in by heavy snows.

Related pages
Neelum Valley

Category:Valleys of Pakistan

Kaghan Valley


Poularde Albufera, (Chicken Albufera) is a chicken dish named in honour of the Duke of Albufera. It sometimes credited to French chef Adolphe Dugléré, who invented several other dishes.  However, as Dugléré was only ten years old when Albufera fell out of favour with the king, and had his French title of nobility taken away, it is  more likely that Poularde Albufera was created by Antonin Carême, who trained Dugléré

It consists of poached chicken with a garnish of vol-au-vents filled with quenelles, cocks' kidneys, mushrooms and truffles in Albufera sauce.

References

Category:French food
Category:Dishes named after people
Category:Poultry

Poularde Albufera


Commins Menapi (18 September 1977 – 18 November 2017) was a Solomon Islands striker. He was last the manager of Western United. He guided them to their first and only Telekom S league title season 2014/2015.

In the 2006–2007 season, he became the first player to be sent off in a New Zealand Football Championship Grand Final. He represented the Solomon Islands national football team on over 30 occasions, scoring a record 34 goals (including 7 against non-FIFA members). Menapi was arguably the most famous Solomon Islands footballer.

Menapi died in Honiara on 18 November 2017 of a heart attack at the age of 40.

References

Other websites
 Player profile – Waitakere club website

Category:1977 births
Category:2017 deaths
Category:Deaths from myocardial infarction
Category:Oceanic footballers
Category:Solomon Islands

Commins Menapi


Cerdon is a commune. It is found in the region Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in the Ain department  in the east of France.

Category:Communes in Ain

Cerdon, Ain


The Football Federation of Armenia (FFA) is the governing body of football in Armenia. It organizes the football league, Armenian Premier League, and the Armenian national football team. It is based in Yerevan.

Other websites
 Football Federation of Armenia

Category:UEFA
Category:1992 establishments
Category:20th century establishments in Armenia
Category:Sport in Armenia

Football Federation of Armenia


Enma is the god of hell in the Buddhist religion. He is often called Yama. He is the god who judges whether the souls of people go to heaven or hell.

History
Enma is the god of hell who judges right and wrong after a human dies and falls into hell. Enma gives many kinds of dreadful punishments. The word Enma comes from Yama in Sanskrit and Pali, a language for Buddhist writings in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand. He is said to be a human ancestor in the Rigveda (an ancient Indian sacred book). He is a god of the Indian Veda myth and he is said to be the incarnation of the Jizo Bosatsu, the stone statue which is the god of help in Japanese Buddhism.

Believers in Buddhism think Enma comes from the start of the world. He was linked with death at first. People thought he was king of paradise for the dead, the god who ruled people when they lived in heaven. People thought he tied up souls of the people with the rope that he held in the hand. He became a feared god. Then he was treated as just the god of death. Because he is also an incarnation of the god of help, it is said that he can come and go freely between heaven and hell.

Appearance
The appearance of Enma usually frightening in nature. Enma is always shown wearing Chinese traditional clothes from the Sung era (AD 960–1279). Why he wears Chinese traditional clothes is unknown. Usually, his dress and face are both red. He has a square crown on his head and a mace in his right hand. His eyes are open wide and angry, and are slanted up awards.

However in other countries and at different times in history,  Enma is pictured differently. For example, in old pictures from India, Enma has a crown and is riding a water buffalo. He has a club and a big rope. Another Enma from ancient India has a flag and steps on water buffalo with one leg. Enma is well built, with thick arms and a very big chest.

His job
Enma was the first person in the world to die. He went to paradise, called Gokuraku Jyoudo (極楽浄土). He lived in paradise and his job was looking after the dead. People believed Enma was the god of paradise. Over time people became scared of Enma. His job was changed from looking after the dead to judging them. Enma used a club and a big rope to tie up the souls of dead people. He ruled the lower world and judged the dead. He decided if a dead person went to heaven or hell. He made his judgment on what they had done in their lives. People who had behaved well went to heaven. People who had behaved badly go to hell.

Stories
The stories about Enma are very mysterious. The most famous story is how Enma will pull someone’s tongue out if they did a bad thing. Japanese parents teach their children to be honest by using this story. Enma can also bring dead people back to life. Abe-no-seimei,  a famous person in Japanese history, died and was revived by Enma. He also can decide when life should end. This is the strangest story; an actor died and met Enma. The actor went to hell because he plays other people – it means "lying". He told Enma all about himself his life and Enma started to be interested in his acting. He said “I would like to see you act.” The actor agreed and said "I need a costume, so please give me yours." Enma gave it to him and the actor played as Enma, saying "Ogres! Ogres! Take this bad man away!" Enma was taken away and punished. The actor became a new Enma instead of the real Enma.

Books and movies
There are a number of books and movies about Enma in Japan and even in other countries. Enma has been written about by many Japanese novelists. The First Love of Enma, Bungeisya, by  Hideo Watanabe, is about escaping from hell and falling in love with a beautiful dead woman along the way. Another side of Enma is shown in  Enma’s sword, Syodensya and Hiraiwa by Koshihiro Igawa and The Worship of Enma by Yumie.  Enma is not fearful or strong at all. In comic books, like Dragon Ball , Enma is shown as kind and calm. Enma in Ojarumaru is funny. In the American movie called Heaven Can Wait (1943), a dead man talked with Enma about his whole life before his death. This Enma is not kind but strict. This movie was nominated for best picture.Enma also appeared in one piece as the name of odens sword that was carried by Kozuki Hiyori, she asked zoro if he wants to trade shusui for her father sword.Some writers write about his power and the fear he causes and others write about his opposite side, kind, and calm.

Other websites
Enma.  Yahoo encyclopedia. Retrieved on 4 June 2009.
http://100.yahoo.co.jp/detail/閻魔/

Maturi-da Maturi-da. The author of the site is unknown.   Retrieved on 27 May 2009.

Saburo Ienaga.  Nippon bunnka-shi.  Iwanami shotenn, Tokyo.  ISBN, 0-3337-4940-5
http://www.hi-ho.ne.jp/kyoto/sinnyodou.html, 4th, June
http://www.e-kyoto.net/sanpo/rekishi/b01/tour03.htm, 4th, June

 Heaven Can Wait (1943)
Watanabe, Hideo (2005), The First Love of Enma, Bungeisya.

Category:Buddhist gods and goddesses
Category:Japanese deities

Enma


Turbatrix aceti (also called vinegar eels) is a species of nematode. They feed on the acidic bacteria from vinegar and other things, like fermented apples. They range from 1mm to 10mm long or larger. These nematodes go through a six-stage life cycle. The stages are: an egg, four larval stages, and reaching adulthood. They live about 10 months.

Anatomy
The nematode's reproductive system is sexual. Female vinegar eels have ovaries and produce eggs. Their reproductive system is in the form of a tube. The females also have a short sac-like seminal receptacle that stores sperm. A fertilized egg hatches in the uterus before leaving the womb. Vinegar eels give birth to as many as 45 babies every 8-10 days.  A male vinegar eels’ reproductive system is smaller than the female’s. They have testis and a vas deferens. The testes open into a wide sperm duct and then into a muscular duct which can push out the sperm. The duct empties into a  cloaca.

Nematodes, such as the vinegar eels, have no circulatory system. Through their body’s wall, gas and excretion waste are diffused. Oxygen from the outside environment is diffused into the body, and carbon dioxide is diffused out of the body. Vinegar eels have to live in liquids that have enough oxygen so that it can diffuse into their bodies.

Aging research
Experiments with T. aceti were done to understand the cause of ageing.  DNA damage accumulates when the rate of damage occurrence is more than the rate of DNA repair.  Accumulation of DNA damage leads to a decline in gene expression. There is a consistent decline in DNA repair capacity with age in the nematode. A second report measured the ability to repair DNA damage in young and old nematodes after exposure to ionizing radiation.  They observed that the old nematodes were strikingly less able to carry out this type of DNA repair than young nematodes.  These experiments suggest that a decline in DNA repair capability occurs with age. This is the the "DNA damage theory of aging".

References

Aquatic Community. "Raising Vinegar Eels." AC Tropical Fish & Aquarium. Aquaticcommunity.com, 2004-06. Web. 19 Apr. 2012.
Pinckney, Rhonda DVM, PhD. "(The Parasitology Resource UW - Madison)." The Parasitology Rescource/ VetMed. UW School of Veterinary Medicine. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. <http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/pbs/foodsafety/parasite/vinegar.html>.
Tappin, Adrian R. "Vinegar Eels." Home of the Rainbowfish- Feeding. Selected for Inclusion in the National Library of Australia Digital Archive of Australian Online Publications (Jan. 1998), Dec. 2008. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. <http://rainbowfish.angfaqld.org.au/vinegar.htm>.
Wetman. "Vinegar Eels." The Skeptical Aquarist.com. The Skeptical Aquarist ©, 21 Mar. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. <http://www.skepticalaquarist.com/turbatrix>.

Category:Nematodes

Turbatrix aceti


Appenzell Innerrhoden is one of the twenty-six cantons of Switzerland. It is the smallest canton by population and the second smallest by area.

Districts
The 6 (districts) of Appenzell Innerrhoden are:

Appenzell, population 5587 (2002)
Gonten, population 1398 (2002)
Oberegg, population 1831 (2002)
Rüte, population 3036 (2002)
Schlatt-Haslen, population 1160 (2002)
Schwende, population 2094 (2002)

Other websites
Official Page
Official Statistics
Säntis (German)

Appenzell Innerrhoden


Waltham is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 59,226 at the 2000 census.

Other websites

Waltham official website
Bentley College
Waltham Watchdog
Waltham Community website
Key dates in Waltham, Mass., History
 Discover Waltham
 Waltham Daily News Tribune
 Waltham Arts Council
 Embassy Cinema
 Brandeis University
 Waltham Museum
 Immanuel United Methodist Church
 Waltham Community Access Corporation
 The Center for Digital Imaging Arts at Boston University
 Borderline: A Waltham Blog

Category:Cities in Massachusetts

Waltham, Massachusetts


Every Canadian with income must file an income tax return every year. People earning a small amount are exempt from this requirement. Unlike Americans, Canadian citizens who live outside Canada are exempt from filing an income tax return and paying taxes to Canada, unless their income is derived in Canada.

The income tax returns are assessed by Canada Revenue Agency (CRA). Sometimes the filer must pay and other times they get a refund. Most employees pay income tax in advance through employer deductions. This is called tax withholding. When tax witholding exceeds the income tax due for the year, the employee can get a refund when filing their tax return.

Income tax in Canada is very complex. The Income Tax Act contains over over one million words

The deadline for filing an income tax return is April 30th of the following year.  Those who owe money to the government and miss the deadline pay interest on the amount owed plus a penalty.

References

Category:Taxation in Canada
tax

Income taxes in Canada


¡Mucha Lucha!: Gigante is an animated American-Mexican-Canadian series produced by 20th Century Fox Television.

The series was released on FOX on February 26, 2005 and then premiered on ABC on March 11, 2005 and April 9, 2005 on ABC Family.

The series has only twenty-six episodes broadcasted in Japan, Europe and Latin America, along with his direct-to-video film. It was aired on Discovery Kids, Nickelodeon and Jetix on May 11, 2005 in Latin America and on Kids' CBC on June 11, 2005 in Canada.

It was aired on ABC Family, ABC, Disney Channel Europe and FOX Japan.

The series also had only fifty-two episodes with a season instead of the regular standard of three seasons.

Plot

The Began in 2005
Rikochet, Buena Girl, and The Flea must rescue Blue Demon Jr. from a group of vampires who'll be at large during the solar eclipse.

The Finale in 2009
The world of Lucha Libre is threatened when a dark force named El Maléfico is accidentally released. Our three Mascaritas, Rikochet, Buena Girl, and The Flea must rise to the challenge and send this evil back from whence it came. Their battle with El Maléfico will decide the fate of the universe!

Characters
 Rikochet
 Buena Girl
 The Flea
 Minotauro
 El Perrito
 French Twist
 El Loco Mosquito
 Megawatt

International Broadcast
 : ABC, ABC Family and FOX
 Latin America: Discovery Kids, Nickelodeon and Jetix
 : Azteca 7
 : Kids' CBC
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : Disney Channel
 : FOX

Related pages
 ABC
 ABC Family
 FOX
 TV Azteca
 CBC Television
 Disney Channel
 Nickelodeon
 Jetix

Category:2005 American television series debuts
Category:2009 American television series endings

¡Mucha Lucha!: Gigante


Hollywood is a district of Los Angeles, California, which lent its name to the American motion-picture industry.

Hollywood may also refer to:

Places
 North Hollywood, Los Angeles
 West Hollywood, California
 Hollywood Boulevard Street in Hollywood, California
 Hollywood Walk of Fame
 Hollywood, Florida
 Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport, Florida

People
 Jesse James Hollywood (born 1980), convicted murderer

Music
 Hollywood Records, an American record label part of the Disney Music Group
 Hollywood (Jay-Z) (2007)
 Hollywood Tonight (Michael Jackson) (2011)
 Hollywood Undead Rap band

Other
 Hollywood blacklist
 Hollywood Pictures
 The Hollywood Reporter Magazine
 Holly wood, wood from a holly plant

Hollywood (disambiguation)


Keely Smith (born Dorothy Jacqueline Keely, March 9, 1932 — December 16, 2017) was a Grammy Award-winning American jazz and popular music singer. She performed and recorded many times in the 1950s with then-husband Louis Prima, and throughout the 1960s as a solo-artist.

With her former husband Prima, their songs included Johnny Mercer's and Harold Arlen's "That Ol' Black Magic", which was a Top 20 hit in the US in 1958. At the 1st Annual Grammy Awards in 1959, Smith and Prima won the first Grammy for Best Performance by a Vocal Group for "That Ol' Black Magic".

Smith died of apparent heart failure in Palm Springs, California on December 16, 2017 at the age of 85.

References

Other websites
 NPR: "Keely Smith: A Swingin' Icon of Early Vegas"
 Interview by KUOW-FM's Amanda Wilde

Category:Grammy Award winners
Category:1932 births
Category:2017 deaths
Category:Deaths from heart failure
Category:American pop singers
Category:American jazz musicians
Category:Singers from Virginia
Category:Musicians from Virginia
Category:People from Norfolk, Virginia

Keely Smith


A nail is a metal object with a flat head and a long, sharp tip. A hammer or nail gun is used to put it into another object. It is often used to join two objects together.

The history of the nail came in three periods:
 Hand-wrought (forged) nail (pre-history until 19th century)
 Cut nail (roughly 1800 to 1914)
 Wire nail (roughly 1860 to the present)

Nails date back at least to Ancient Egypt – bronze nails found in Egypt have been dated 3400 BC. The Bible has references to nails. King David gave iron to make nails for what would become Solomon's Temple.

The Romans made extensive use of nails. The Roman army left behind seven tons of nails when it evacuated the fortress of Inchtuthil in Perthshire, Scotland, in 86 or 87 AD.

References

Category:Basic English 850 words
Category:Hardware (mechanical)

Nail


Oriana Fallaci (29 June 1929 - 15 September 2006) was an Italian journalist, author, and political interviewer. A young partisan during World War II, she had a long and successful journalistic career.

She has interviewed many internationally known leaders and celebrities such as the Dalai Lama, Henry Kissinger, the Shah of Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini, Willy Brandt, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Walter Cronkite, Omar Khadafi, Federico Fellini, Sammy Davis Jr, Nguyen Cao Ky, Yasser Arafat, Indira Gandhi, Alexandros Panagoulis, Archbishop Makarios III, Golda Meir, Nguyen Van Thieu, Haile Selassie and Sean Connery.

After retirement, she returned to writing a series of articles and books critical of Islam and Arabs and some people interpreted the articles under the guise of racism and so-called Islamophobia.

Life and career
Fallaci was born in Florence, Italy. During World War II, she joined the resistance in the democratic armed group "Giustizia e Libertà". Her father Edoardo Fallaci, was a famous antifascist political activist, in Florence.

Fallaci began her journalistic career in her teens, becoming a special correspondent for the Italian paper Il mattino dell'Italia centrale in 1946. After 1967 she worked as a war correspondent, in Vietnam, for the Indo-Pakistani War, in the Middle East and in South America. For many years, Fallaci was a special correspondent for the political magazine L'Europeo and wrote for a number of leading newspapers and Epoca magazine. During the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre prior to the 1968 Summer Olympics, Fallaci was shot three times, dragged down stairs by her hair, and left for dead by Mexican forces. The demonstrations by immigrants in the United States these past few months "disgust" her, especially when protesters displayed the Mexican flag. "I don't love the Mexicans," Fallaci said, invoking her nasty treatment at the hands of Mexican police in 1968. "If you hold a gun and say, 'Choose who is worse between the Muslims and the Mexicans,' I have a moment of hesitation. Then I choose the Muslims, because they have broken my balls."

In the late 1970s, she had an affair with the subject of one of her interviews, Alexandros Panagoulis, who was a big rebel in the Greek resistance against the 1967 dictatorship, having been captured, heavily tortured and imprisoned for his (unsuccessful) assassination attempt against dictator and ex-Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos. In 1972 she interviewed  Henry Kissinger.

Fallaci has twice received the St. Vincent Prize for journalism, as well as the Bancarella Prize (1971) for Nothing, and So Be It; Viareggio Prize (1979), for Un uomo: Romanzo; and Prix Antibes, 1993, for Inshallah.  She received a D.Litt. from Columbia College (Chicago). She has lectured at the University of Chicago, Yale University, Harvard University, and Columbia University. Fallaci’s writings have been translated into 21 languages including English, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Greek, Swedish, Polish, Croatian, Hungarian and Slovenian.

Fallaci, smoked always during her life, died on 15 September 2006 where she was born, in Florence, from lung cancer.

Bibliography
The Seven Sins of Hollywood 1958.
The Useless Sex: Voyage around the Woman 1961.
Penelope at War 1962.
Limelighters 1963.
The Egotists: Sixteen Surprising Interviews 1968.
Quel giorno sulla Luna 1970.
Interview With History, (a collection of interviews with various political figures) 1976.
A Man, a novel about a hero who fights alone for freedom and for truth, never giving up, and so he dies, killed by all. 1979
Inshallah,1983.
If the Sun Dies, (about the US space program).
Letter to a Child Never Born, (a dialogue between a mother and her unborn child).
Nothing, and so be it, report on the Vietnam war based on personal experiences.
The Rage and The Pride (An expose on Islam) December 2001..
The Force of Reason (La Forza della Ragione ) April 2004.
Oriana Fallaci intervista Oriana Fallaci, Fallaci interviews herself on the subject of "Eurabia" and "Islamofacism".August 2004.
Oriana Fallaci intervista sé stessa - L'Apocalisse. An update of the interview with herself. November 2004.

Category:1929 births
Category:2006 deaths
Category:Cancer deaths in Italy
Category:Deaths from lung cancer
Category:Journalists
Category:People from Florence
Category:Writers from Tuscany

Oriana Fallaci


Chad Robert Turton (better known as Chad Kroeger) is a Canadian singer and guitarist for the rock band, Nickelback. He was born on November 15, 1974, in Hanna, Alberta, Canada.

Kroeger is of American, English, German, Irish, Norwegian, Scottish, Swiss-German, and Welsh descent. Kroeger became engaged to Canadian singer Avril Lavigne in 2012. The couple married in 2013 and separated in 2015.

Nickelback consists of four band members. Chad Kroeger (vocals, lead guitar), Mike Kroeger (bass guitar), Ryan Peake (rhythm guitar) and Daniel Adair (drums).

References

Category:1974 births
Category:Living people
Category:Canadian rock singers
Category:Canadian rock guitarists
Category:Musicians from Alberta

Chad Kroeger


Hasliberg is a municipality in the administrative district of Interlaken-Oberhasli in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

References

Other websites

 Official Website of Hasliberg

Category:Municipalities of Bern

Hasliberg


Glenwood is a village in northeastern Illinois, near Chicago. At the 2010 Census, about 8,969 people were living there.

References

Category:Villages in Illinois
Category:Settlements in Cook County, Illinois
Category:Suburbs of Chicago, Illinois
Category:1903 establishments in the United States
Category:1900s establishments in Illinois

Glenwood, Illinois


Andrew Geoffrey "Andy" Kaufman (January 17, 1949 – May 16, 1984) was an American entertainer, comedian, actor, and singer. Kaufman was known for his role as Latka Gravas in the comedy television series Taxi and for creating Tony Clifton, a fictional character.

Kaufman was born in New York City to a Jewish family. He was raised in Great Neck, Long Island, New York. Kaufman studied at Grahm Junior College. He was never married and had no children.

Kaufman died on May 16, 1984 in West Hollywood, California from a rare case of lung cancer, aged 35. He was buried at Beth David Cemetery, Elmont, New York.

Kaufman allegedly told many people—including Bob Zmuda—that he wished to fake his own death. This had caused some fans to believe Kaufman was still alive when he died. Kaufman himself said that if he were to fake his death, he would return 20 years later, which would have been in 2004. Many of Kaufman's fans saw a picture that looks similar to that of Andy.

There is a website related to this theory, and, recently, "a grainy video has surfaced that purports to show Kaufman living under an assumed name in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

References

Other websites

The Tony Clifton Story the "lost" Kaufman screenplay

Category:1949 births
Category:1984 deaths
Category:Actors from New York City
Category:American movie actors
Category:American stage actors
Category:American television actors
Category:American voice actors
Category:Cancer deaths in the United States
Category:Comedians from New York City
Category:Deaths from lung cancer
Category:Jewish American actors
Category:Jewish American comedians
Category:Jewish American musicians
Category:Singers from New York City

Andy Kaufman


"Aneurysm" is a song by American grunge band Nirvana. The song was released in 1996. It was released in two studio versions, as well as a live version that was featured on the album Muddy Banks of the Wishkah and was released in 1996 as a promotional single.

On the Billboard charts, "Aneurysm" was able to peak at #11 on the Mainstream Rock, #13 on the Alternative Songs, and #63 on the Radio Songs charts.

The first studio version of "Aneurysm" was recorded on 1 January 1991 by producer Craig Montgomery and it appeared on the 1991 single Smells Like Teen Spirit as a b-side. The second studio version of the song was recorded on 9 November 1991 at Maida Vale Studios for Mark Goodier's BBC session and it was first aired on 18 November 1991. A live performance of the song by Nirvana was recorded in 1991 at Del Mar Fairgrounds, California. It was released later as a promotional single in 1996 on the live album From the Muddy Banks of the Wishkah.

References

Other websites
"Aneurysm (Live at Reading 1992)" on YouTube

Category:1991 songs
Category:Nirvana songs

Aneurysm (song)


Angus Lennie (18 April 1930 – 14 September 2014) was a Scottish actor. He was best known for his movie appearance as Steve McQueen's friend Archibald Ives in the 1963 movie The Great Escape. He was also known for being in the television soap opera Crossroads.

Lennie died in London, England, aged 84

References

Other websites

Category:1930 births
Category:2014 deaths
Category:Actors from Glasgow
Category:Scottish movie actors
Category:Scottish television actors

Angus Lennie


Linda Taylor (born Martha Louise White; c. January 1926 – April 18, 2002) was an American criminal. She committed welfare fraud and, after an article in the Chicago Tribune in fall 1974, became known as the "welfare queen".

Her activities were used by Ronald Reagan, from his 1976 presidential campaign onwards, to defend his criticisms of social programs in the United States.

Her criminal activities are believed to have extended beyond welfare fraud and may have included assault, theft, insurance fraud, bigamy, the abduction and sale of children, and possibly even murder.

References

Category:1926 births
Category:2002 deaths
Category:Deaths from myocardial infarction
Category:Cardiovascular disease deaths in Illinois
Category:American fraudsters
Category:Criminals from Chicago
Category:People from Tennessee

Linda Taylor


Ram Baran Yadav (born 4 February 1948) is a Nepalese politician and physician. He was the 1st President of Nepal  following the declaration of a republic in 2008. He was president from 23 July 2008 to 29 October 2015.

Yadav was Minister of State for Health in the 1991–1994 Nepali Congress government. He was elected to the House of Representatives in 1999.

References

Category:1948 births
Category:Living people
Category:Presidents of Nepal

Ram Baran Yadav


Gert-Jan Maarten Segers (born July 9, 1969 in Lisse) is a Dutch writer and politician of the ChristianUnion (CU). He has been political leader since 2015.

He has been a member of the Second Chamber since 2012 and a parliamentary leader since 2015.

Segers studied political science at Leiden University. He worked as an assistant to the RPF  parliamentary group and briefly as a radio journalist at the Dutch Evangelical Broadcasting (EO). Successively he was a missionary in Egypt for seven years, whereafter he obtained a masters in Western-Islam relations and the Middle East at the Johns Hopkins University. Afterwards he headed the scientific institute of the ChristianUnion.

Segers has written several novels and non-fiction books, and is also a columnist of the Dutch Protestant newspaper Nederlands Dagblad.

He is a Reformed Christian.

References
  Bio at Parlement.com

Category:1969 births
Category:Living people
Category:Calvinists
Category:Dutch columnists
Category:Dutch journalists
Category:Leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Category:Dutch Protestants
Category:Johns Hopkins University alumni
Category:Members of the Second Chamber (Netherlands)
Category:Missionaries
Category:Novelists
Category:Politicians from South Holland
Category:Writers from South Holland

Gert-Jan Segers


Klaus Schütz (17 September 1926 in Heidelberg – 29 November 2012 in Berlin) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party (SPD).

Biography
He was Mayor of West Berlin from 1967 to 1977, and was President of the Bundesrat in 1967/68. After his resignation he worked as German Ambassador to Israel until 1981 and Director General of the Deutsche Welle broadcaster from 1981 to 1987. He was also president of the German Red Cross.

Other websites

References

Category:1926 births
Category:2012 deaths
Category:People from Heidelberg
Category:Politicians from Baden-Württemberg
Category:Politicians of the Social Democratic Party of Germany

Klaus Schütz


Wayne County is a county in Missouri, United States. The county seat is Greenville. In 2010, 13,521 people lived there. It is in the Ozark foothills.

Category:1818 establishments in Missouri Territory
Category:Missouri counties

Wayne County, Missouri


Drass () is a sub-district of the Kargil District in Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Category:Tehsils of Jammu and Kashmir

Drass


Shara Nelson is an English singer.  She is known for singing in the Massive Attack song "Unfinished Sympathy".

Category:1965 births
Category:Living people
Category:English singers

Shara Nelson


Robert Christian Hansen (February 15, 1939 - August 21, 2014), known in the media as the "Butcher Baker", was an American serial killer.

Hansen was born in Estherville, Iowa to Edna and Christian Hansen, who was a Danish immigrant. In 1960, he burned down a bus garage. He was convicted of arson and sent to prison. His wife divorced him when he was in prison. He was assessed as having an infantile personality and released in 1962. He married another woman in 1963. The couple and their two children moved to Anchorage, Alaska, in 1967. In 1977, he was convicted of theft and sent to prison. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder and in 1978 was released. In 1983, he was charged with assault, kidnapping, firearms offences, theft and deception.

Between 1971 and 1983, Hansen abducted, raped, tortured and murdered at least 17 and possibly as many as 21 women in and around Anchorage. He was discovered, arrested, and convicted of four murders in 1984. He was sentenced to 461 years plus a life sentence with no possibility of parole.

Hansen died at the age of 75, at Alaska Regional Hospital in Anchorage on August 21, 2014 due to an illness.

References

Other websites

Category:1939 births
Category:2014 deaths
Category:American fraudsters
Category:American kidnappers
Category:American prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Category:American rapists
Category:American serial killers
Category:American thieves
Category:Arsonists
Category:Disease-related deaths in the United States
Category:People from Iowa
Category:People who died in prison custody in the United States
Category:People with bipolar disorder
Category:People with personality disorders

Robert Hansen


The Council of the Isles of Scilly is the local government for the Isles of Scilly. There are 16 councilors in it, they help run the Isles of Scilly, but don't make any laws. Only the Parliament of the United Kingdom can make laws for the Isles of Scilly.

References

Category:Isles of Scilly
Category:Government of Cornwall

Council of the Isles of Scilly


Creek County is a county that can be found in the U.S. state of Oklahoma.  As of 2000, about 67,367 people lived in Creek County. The county seat of Creek County is Sapulpa.

Geography
The county has a total area of 970 square miles.

References

Category:Oklahoma counties
Category:1907 establishments in Oklahoma

Creek County, Oklahoma