text:
Televac MV2A Vacuum Controller - Vacuum Pressure Controller

Part Number: 2-7900-071

The Televac MV2A vacuum controller (also called a vacuum control unit or vacuum pressure controller) can be connected to 1 Televac passive vacuum gauges (the 2A thermocouple). It includes a 0 to 5 V DC analog output for the gauge connected to the vacuum controller for simple integration with a PC or PLC, and 2 set point relays to act as a vacuum pressure controller for process control in your vacuum system.

The MV2A vacuum controller’s user interface includes a bright LED display of the current vacuum measurement and indication LEDs for the setpoints, which can be set via two buttons on the front panel. This vacuum control unit supports nitrogen/air, and Televac can provide compensation factors for argon, hydrogen, helium, neon, krypton, and carbon dioxide. The MV2A is our simplest vacuum controller, providing an efficient, low-cost solution for various vacuum markets and applications.

Looking for a more versatile version of this vacuum controller? Check out the MX200. Need a vacuum controller with an analog display? Check out the Compact 2A.

Televac MV2A Vacuum Controller (Vacuum Control Unit, Vacuum Pressure Controller) Features:

  • Rack mountable
  • High contrast LED display with 180° viewing angle
  • Gas conversion functions available for nitrogen/air, argon, hydrogen, helium, neon, krypton, and carbon dioxide
  • Analog output (0 to 5 V DC) for the connected passive vacuum gauge
  • Excellent customer support
  • Designed and manufactured in the USA
  • NIST traceable calibration optional
Operating Range (Torr) 1×10-3 to 20 Torr
Communications None
Analog Output 0 to 5 V DC
Programmable Set Points 2
Set Point Type Relay
Supply Voltage 90 V to 135 V AC, 60 Hz
Calibration Medium Dry air or nitrogen
Overpressure Sensor-dependent
Operating Temperature 0 °C to 50 °C
Storage Temperature -40 °C to 85 °C
Display Readable Distance 3 m (10 ft)
1 mTorr to 10 mTorr ±1 mTorr
10 mTorr to 100 mTorr ±10% of reading
100 mTorr to 1 Torr ±20% of reading
1 Torr to 20 Torr Indication only
Analog Output ±5 mV
Maximum Sensors Controlled 1
Instrument Part Number
MV2A Thermocouple Controller 2-7900-071
2A Brass Sensor Part Number
1/8” NPT Nickel Plated Brass 2-2100-10
NW16 (DN16 ISO-KF) Nickel Plated Brass 2-2100-016
NW25 (DN25 ISO-KF) Nickel Plated Brass 2-2100-025
2A Stainless Steel Sensor Part Number
1/8” NPT Stainless Steel 2-2126-001
1/2” Straight Stainless Steel 2-2126-011
NW16 (DN16 ISO-KF) Stainless Steel 2-2126-030
NW25 (DN25 ISO-KF) Stainless Steel 2-2126-031
NW40 (DN40 ISO-KF) Stainless Steel 2-2126-032
1.33” CF (DN16 ISO-CF-F) Stainless Steel 2-2126-050
2.75” CF (DN40 ISO-CF-F) Stainless Steel 2-2126-052
Sensor Cables Part Number
10 ft (3 m) 2-9800-077
20 ft (6 m) 2-9800-078
35 ft (11 m) 2-9800-079
50 ft (15 m) 2-9800-080

CC-10 Active Vacuum Gauge – This gauge utilizes dual-sensor technology to replace multiple conventional vacuum gauges, permitting seamless measurement of twelve decades of pressure. It has a variety of features including a wide range of measurement from 1 × 10-9 Torr up to 1000 Torr, RS-485 communications, three programmable set points, and a selectable analog output and a bright LED display. Options can be set from either four touch controls located on the front of the unit or through RS-485 communications. The simplicity of use and wide measurement range make this unit an excellent choice for a variety of vacuum applications.

MM200 Vacuum Sensor Controller – The MM200 controls any Televac vacuum sensor including cold cathode, convection, diaphragm, hot ion, and thermocouple sensors. It also has optional features including up to 8 relay set points and RS-232/RS-485 communications. The large, bright LED display makes it easy to read from a distance. The MM200 is a modular unit, allowing customers to choose a vacuum sensing solution specific to their needs.


Content-Type: application/http; msgtype=response

WARC-Identified-Payload-Type: text/html

WARC-Type: response

text:
Quebec Strippers

Real Quebec stripper pictures and videos on demand of live girls getting naked in front of their webcams. Welcome to the largest webcam network featuring live strippers from around the world. Click a city within Quebec or scroll to the left and begin watching live strippers get naked.

Stripper Quebec
Strippers Quebec

warcinfo:
isPartOf: CC-MAIN-2020-05
publisher: Common Crawl
description: Wide crawl of the web for January 2020
operator: Common Crawl Admin (info@commoncrawl.org)
hostname: ip-10-67-67-129.ec2.internal
software: Apache Nutch 1.16 (modified, https://github.com/commoncrawl/nutch/)
robots: checked via crawler-commons 1.1-SNAPSHOT (https://github.com/crawler-commons/crawler-commons)
format: WARC File Format 1.1
conformsTo: http://iipc.github.io/warc-specifications/specifications/warc-format/warc-1.1/


text:
Supreme Court Rules in Favor of Autistic Student

Supreme CourtThe US Supreme Court has ruled that school districts must provide disabled students with the opportunity to make meaningful and "appropriately ambitious" progress in their education.

As NPR reported,

The decision in Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District could have far-reaching implications for the 6.5 million students with disabilities in the United States.

The case involved a boy named Endrew, who was diagnosed with autism and attention deficit disorder.

As the Court described his situation,

Although Endrew displayed a number of strengths—his teachers described him as a humorous child with a “sweet disposition” who “show[ed] concern[] for friends”—he still “exhibited multiple behaviors that inhibited his ability to access learning in the classroom.” ... Endrew would scream in class, climb over furniture and other students, and occasionally run away from school. ... He was afflicted by severe fears of common-place things like flies, spills, and public restrooms.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

As the Supreme Court noted,

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) offers States federal funds to assist in educating children with disabilities. The Act conditions that funding on compliance with certain statutory requirements, including the requirement that States provide every eligible child a “free appropriate public education,” or FAPE, by means of a uniquely tailored “individualized education program,” or IEP.

Endrew's parents felt that his academic and functional progress had stalled. The school district presented the parents with an IEP that resembled those from past years.  So the parents removed Endrew from public school in the fifth grade, and sent him to a specialized private school where he made better progress.

The parents sought compensation from the public school district for the cost of their son's private school education.  Their claims were denied, and a federal court affirmed that denial. The parents appealed, the Tenth Circuit also affirmed the denial, and the parents appealed all the way to the Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court held that:

To meet its substantive obligation under the IDEA, a school must offer an IEP reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.

With respect to a child with a disability, the Court held,

A child’s IEP need not aim for grade-level advancement if that is not a reasonable prospect. But that child’s educational program must be appropriately ambitious in light of his circumstances, just as advancement from grade to grade is appropriately ambitious for most children in the regular classroom. The goals may differ, but every child should have the chance to meet challenging objectives.

The Newest Justice

The decision is particularly notable because the newest member of the Supreme Court — Justice Neil Gorsuch — had ruled the opposite way in similar cases, according to NPR.

Gorusch wrote in a similar case involving an autistic child:

Though IDEA is certainly evidence that Congress intends that States, acting through local school districts, provide assistance to disabled students and their families, the assistance that IDEA mandates is limited in scope. The Act does not require that States do whatever is necessary to ensure that all students achieve a particular standardized level of ability and knowledge. Rather, it much more modestly calls for the creation of individualized programs reasonably calculated to enable the student to make some progress towards the goals within that program.

During confirmation hearings, Gorsuch admitted that his prior decision had been a mistake. As he told Senator John Cornyn of Texas,

I was wrong, Senator, because I was bound by circuit precedent, and I'm sorry.

comments powered by Disqus

Find the Right Lawyer for Your Legal Issue!

Fast, Free, and Confidential


text:
Doggy Dans Online Dog Trainer Review – Shocking Reviews

I need to say from the beginning this merchandise is just THE BEST dog and puppy training program online before I get into the details of the online dog trainer review. Span. Quite honestly I’m blown away by what and at the price it’s no wonder this website is getting such rave reviews. I would like to describe some of the things that make this product completely unique and so great.

Firstly. The On-Line Dog Trainer has the stamp of acceptance, just that in the Royal New Zealand SPCA. It is actively promoted by them at all their saving shelters because they understand that new rescue dog owners who follow the training of Doggy Dan, are much more unlikely to return the dog. They have the link.

Every topic covered with over 250 videos

I’d like to describe what’s on the website before we get into things. Now there are over 250 videos alone covering off to training a puppy allowing one to choose a bone to still down a dog in the automobile from becoming the pack leader. Everything you are able to imagine is covered.

Videos of actual consultations

Something you will adore relating to this website is that if you are viewing the videos you happen to be really seeing Doggy Dan during consultations that are live. You’re not seeing up some staged mock or reading another eBook! Certainly, there are some videos where he’s speaking you through the theory but as it pertains to distressed dogs this man is really there working together and producing results. This can be the real deal, a fantastic dog trainer and dog behaviorist in activity with severely challenging dogs, and it is possible to see him as he gets the results. Evidence the system works.

Video is the response

But what’s more is you could see how he does it. What becomes clear is that’s what he does and that Doggy Dan has an incredible ability to share his knowledge. His fire to help actually comes across, and you really get to understand not only the theory but also the strategy that is realistic. He describes everything in a sense that means it is got by you, in a language that makes it possible to associate with your dog. And you start to truly see things and that is why his strategy works. He could be working against them, not with the dogs.

Approach that is tender and techniques

The process itself is just amazing. There’s no anxiety or aggression as you’d expect with the sanction in the SPCA. Yet the dogs react so fast, as well as occasionally instantly. Needless to say, the thing that is amazing in which you can see it all occurring – how he uses his body language, his voice, and the dog’s reactions. There aren’t any secrets, nothing hidden, nothing the system all makes so much sense and held back. If you should be after a straightforward but powerful method of acquiring an incredible relationship with your dog or puppy, or you need to discontinue any behaviors that are unwanted then this website gives just that to you. And more…

Puppy Training

Among most exciting improvements to the website and the most recent is Project Moses. In this part of the website, Doggy Dan has chosen a miniature new puppy named Moses and videoed every phase of his training old and those videos are going to the website. It actually is stunning footage as you see the pup growing into quite a fantastic dog, and learning all the orders. This job alone is worthy and simply a brilliant theory of being true merchandise he could bill for all by itself. But it is all contained. So for folks needing to train a puppy… there is not anything to compare this to. Nothing.

The Forum

Among the free bonuses is a Forum when you join The On-Line Dog Trainer. This really is rather distinct from many newsgroups where users are just left to chat to estimate a third person or another step is used to answer questions. Inside The On-Line Dog Trainer Doggy Dan is there to help if you need special professional advice for your own scenario which will be an enormous bonus.

Doggy Dan

A thing that becomes evident fire to help, and viewing Doggy Dan is his knowledge make a difference to the lives of dog owners. He comes across as being an excellent dog trainer, behaviorist, write, and speaker together with a real man. His capable and comfortable nature on camera united with the bulks of video and knowledge footage he’s to share, makes for some entertaining and quite educational viewing.

Elective: Learn more about Doggy Dan in this brief video:

Enjoy a FREE trial of Doggy Dans site today

Dog Behavioral problems

The last but perhaps the most remarkable thing relating to this website is Doggy Dan’s skill to help individuals understand the actual cause of their dog’s problems. Regardless of what the issue you’ve he covers away it in his videos, but he also makes sure your dog and you find yourself with a more powerful relationship. With Doggy Dan no dog is not too young, or too obstinate, they all can be helped when they’re first correctly comprehended, and his website The Online Dog Trainer is the website to allow you to do exactly that.

Here is a listing of some of only some of the videos that address particular dog problems:

  • People Aggression
  • Aggression Towards Objects
  • Aggression Towards Animals
  • Barking On the Walk
  • Barking Around the Property
  • Barking For Attention
  • Dog Aggression
  • Barking In the Car
  • Barking At the Door
  • Barking When Left
  • Dogs Running Away
  • Hyperactivity
  • Separation Anxiety
  • Jumping Up
  • Pulling On the Leash
  • Jumping on Furniture
  • Not Coming When Called
  • Obsessions
  • Fears and Phobias
Audio Files

Another outstanding feature is the usage of audio files for folks who enjoy going into real depth with issues. New sounds are being added and the quality of these is extraordinary covering issues like toilet training away through to the best way to function as the pack leader. Each sound is about half a hour supplying users with valuable understanding of it all fits together although not only what to do.

Extraordinary $1 Trial

doggy dans online dog trainer review

It’s possible for you to get all this for a $1 trial of the website for 3 days that’s an incredible offer from Doggy Dan. This really is actually another stand out attribute. Being able to see what the website resembles before committing to the monthly price is an advantage that is HUGE. The $1 Trial provides you with a feel for what you’re getting and the way the website operates and allows you to check out the whole website.

Having a look around I instantly realized that I’d some work to do – there is no silver bullet to solve my dog’s problems. Get the learning into exercise and learn, I’ve to see the videos, keep watching to make sure I am doing it right, and once I get past the first couple of measures, spend enough time to get onto another stage of the training. Therefore I now understand what I am in for, and it is going to take a month roughly to get on top of it.

As expected the review about The Online Dog Trainer by Doggy Dan is of a genuine delight to read. The major difference between these live opinions which can be constantly being posted up other websites and by individuals is that there’s nothing fake about them. They’re done using a 3rd party Facebook program interface. What this means is that nobody solely the individual posting the opinion has any access to the…they’re all 100% authentic. This removes any feeling that then changed till they seemed great and were collected quite a while past by doubtful approaches! These are absolutely opinions that are actual, from actual folks who just adore the approach of Doggy Dan and The On-Line Dog Trainer. It’s another change that is refreshing.

Optional: See what others have to say…

What It Costs

Elective: See what others must say… You pay $37 per month once you have determined to stay on after the 3-day trial. Compared to few other options that are online, it does appear to be more beloved… but it is just like that old saying ‘You get what you pay for’… there is undoubtedly that $37 a month may be worth every cent. Let us face it, those other products out there do not actually function, or just operate on a very special issue, like toilet training. With The On-Line Dog Trainer, you get everything, particularly the pack leader comprehension which solves almost all dog behavioral difficulties.

And that just covers several hours. With The On-Line Dog Trainer, you get whenever you want him Doggy Dan with his proven system that operates, in your house.

Money back guarantee

doggy dans online dog trainer reviewYou’ve got nothing to lose… The On-Line Dog Trainer offers 60-day money-back guarantee supplying entire confidence.

Closing Ideas

This incredible resource is backed by a national SPCA, has over 250 videos, with Doggy Dan himself in the newsgroup. Add Project Moses from 8 weeks old, the whole section on becoming the pack leader, a no anxiety or aggression procedure used, and every behavioral matter covered away, and you’ve got a one-stop, complete dog training alternative that’s accessible 24/7, on your computer or any mobile device.

My guidance is clearly… DO IT NOW! Take advantage of the $1 Trial for 3 Days here

doggy dans online dog trainer review


text:
MegaBlast newsletter informs customers of new developments and products appearing regularly in the videogame console industry in Australia. All console, no PC, with an emphasis on user-friendly tech, and perpetuating the flow of *useful* and different information.

  • » List Category: Gaming
  • » List Archive: megablast Archive
  • » RSS Feed:
  • » List Type (help): Announcement-only (newsletter)
  • » Log in directly to this list
  • » ListRank: ListRank: 0ListRank: 0
  • » Subscriber Actions:

    We'll send you an email to verify your address.


WARC-Identified-Payload-Type: application/xhtml+xml

text:
The Goat in the Grey Fedora

The Goat in the Grey Fedora - Free PC Gamers - Free PC Games"The Goat in the Grey Fedora" is the follow up to the award winning Point & Click adventure, "A Case of the Crabs". This time, detective Nick Bounty sets out to find a missing ceramic goat for the neice of a recently deceased lawyer. He soon finds out, however, that he isn't the only one looking for it!

-Beautiful pre-rendered 3D graphics.
-Black & White, "film noir" atmosphere.
-Original music and soundtrack.
-Fully voiced by professional actors!
-Available to download or play online!

Free Full PC Game Download (45 MB):
Official link


text:
French Merchants

Sold out.

Filt, based in Normandy near Mount Saint-Michel, specializes in knitting and has produced these string bags since1860. They are typical and authentic, the same ones used in France by our grandmothers for marketing and groceries. Strong, expandable, practical, ecological, the fiber is dyed in the north of France using Oeko-Tex 100 standards and then knitted and stitched at the factory in Caen. With a resurgence in their use, facile pour les courses et tres, tres chic.

As featured on the March cover of RealSimple!

See more colors here...

- 100% cotton

- Oeko-Tex 100 standard dyes

- 15.75" x 15.75" plus handles

- Expandable

- Click the logo below to learn the story behind this product.

Featured Products

BONNE ANNEE! Take 20% off your entire order and enjoy $5 flat shipping. At checkout enter code 20off2020 and choose sale 2020 shipping

Welcome, bienvenue to our website! Since 2004, French Merchants has offered products from France made with the time-honored techniques and traditions of their respective regions. Each are made with a quality and standard set sometimes hundreds of years ago, in designs that have stood the test of time and ones given a contemporary edge by their current guardians. Take a moment to read each of their stories. We are always adding new finds, so visit us often. May they bring beaucoup de plasir!


text:
Employers warned over share scheme reporting penalties

French Duncan

Employers are being warned that share scheme reporting is essential to avoid penalties according to leading accountants and business advisers French Duncan. As share schemes become a more common way of rewarding staff employers need to be aware of the stringent reporting requirements which these schemes attract. There is also the concern that failure to fulfil this reporting carries hefty penalties which are strictly imposed by HMRC.

As Stephen Oates, tax director with French Duncan, explains: “Since April 2014 HMRC has required all reportable share schemes to be registered online under Employment Related Securities (ERS) which is part of the Employers PAYE online services. There are several tax advantaged schemes including the Enterprise Management Incentive Plans (EMI), Share Incentive Plans (SIP), Company Share Option Plans (CSOP), Growth Share Plans (GSP) and Save As You Earn (SAYE) and the employer is responsible for all annual returns, submissions, and declarations.”

“New grants of EMI options must be notified to HMRC within 92 days of the date of grant through the ERS online service. If the registration deadline is missed the tax advantages of qualifying as an EMI option could be removed thus resulting in the tax treatment for the option being the same as that for a non-tax advantaged share option.”

Stephen continues: “Annual returns must be submitted to HMRC by 6th July following the tax year in which a new scheme has been established or an existing scheme is continuing and has not been closed. Many employers make the mistake of not closing a scheme once it has ended. If it is not formally closed, then this can lead to large penalties accruing and HMRC seldom takes a common sense approach and will rigorously enforce any penalties raised.”

“If the 6th July deadline is missed there is an automatic £100 penalty and further penalties of £300 for every three months the return is outstanding up to nine months. After that daily penalties of £10 are applied.”

 “There are further rules for non-tax advantaged arrangements where employees receive options or subscribe for shares. In such cases HMRC must be notified and an annual return must be completed and submitted. HMRC do not send reminders to file a return, but they will issue automatic penalties for failure to file on time. A return is needed each year following the registration of the scheme or arrangement.”

Stephen concludes: “While HMRC are strict in their application of the rules and penalties it is important that you don’t assume that you cannot appeal. Appeals can be made through appropriate channels but must be submitted within 30 days of the penalty being applied. If the 92-day notification deadline is missed for EMI purposes it is possible to make a reasonable excuse claim (REC) to HMRC and if this is accepted by HMRC none of the tax advantages will be lost. However, negotiating the claims procedure with HMRC can be tricky so if in doubt please take advice on these schemes, which are an important tool in staff remuneration, but which can be difficult and costly if not administered correctly.”

Click here to see Stephen's profile and contact details
Get in


text:
Impact Factor 3.928 | CiteScore 3.76
More on impact ›

Front. Syst. Neurosci., 17 June 2015 |

Artificial gravity as a countermeasure for mitigating physiological deconditioning during long-duration space missions

  • 1Wyle Science and Engineering Group, Houston, TX, USA
  • 2International Space University, Arlington, VA, USA
  • 3NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX, USA

In spite of the experience gained in human space flight since Yuri Gagarin’s historical flight in 1961, there has yet to be identified a completely effective countermeasure for mitigating the effects of weightlessness on humans. Were astronauts to embark upon a journey to Mars today, the 6-month exposure to weightlessness en route would leave them considerably debilitated, even with the implementation of the suite of piece-meal countermeasures currently employed. Continuous or intermittent exposure to simulated gravitational states on board the spacecraft while traveling to and from Mars, also known as artificial gravity, has the potential for enhancing adaptation to Mars gravity and re-adaptation to Earth gravity. Many physiological functions are adversely affected by the weightless environment of spaceflight because they are calibrated for normal, Earth’s gravity. Hence, the concept of artificial gravity is to provide a broad-spectrum replacement for the gravitational forces that naturally occur on the Earth’s surface, thereby avoiding the physiological deconditioning that takes place in weightlessness. Because researchers have long been concerned by the adverse sensorimotor effects that occur in weightlessness as well as in rotating environments, additional study of the complex interactions among sensorimotor and other physiological systems in rotating environments must be undertaken both on Earth and in space before artificial gravity can be implemented.

Preparations for human missions to Mars in the not-too-distant future are underway. As a result of these years long missions, explorers will face severe physiological deconditioning due to weightlessness if new, more effective countermeasures are not developed. Space experiments and operational flight experience have identified detrimental effects on human health and performance as a result of exposure to weightlessness, even when currently available countermeasures are implemented. The requirements for effective countermeasures become more complex as a function of increased mission duration coupled with varying gravity levels as we advance from the International Space Station to the Moon and on to Mars.

Many years of effort on the part of space biomedical engineers have been invested in developing countermeasures to mitigate the physiological deconditioning associated with prolonged weightlessness. Nevertheless, during the first few days after landing, most astronauts experience problems with spatial orientation and balance. Because they risk bone fractures and muscle tears during their recovery period, they must exercise an added degree of caution (Clément, 2011). More effective countermeasures or combinations of countermeasures must be developed because the purpose of a human mission to Mars is to do more than simply survive. Mission success would be greatly compromised if the astronauts arriving at Mars were in no condition to ambulate or carry out basic functions as a result of a weakened physical condition. Sensorimotor performance failures during piloting, extra-vehicular activity, or remote guidance tasks would put the crew at increased risk. Long-duration human missions like going to Mars cannot be seriously considered until the problems associated with weightlessness exposure are successfully addressed.

A number of different countermeasures that are generally aimed at the stimulation of a particular physiological system have been employed in attempts to mitigate the effects of human exposure to weightlessness (Sawin et al., 1998). While for some astronauts these countermeasures are inefficient and onerous, they are reasonably effective against some of the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal losses. However, they have manifested only limited effectiveness in countering the full range of cognitive, sensory, and sensorimotor changes that occur during space flight.

Artificial gravity, in the context of spaceflight, is the simulation of gravity on board a crewed spacecraft achieved by the linear acceleration or steady rotation of all or part of the vehicle (Stone, 1973). Artificial gravity is an alternative approach to addressing the problems of weightlessness-induced effects on the human body. Addressing each individual physiological system in a piecemeal fashion, which is the current mode of operation, is only valid if the principle of superposition holds for the combined effect of these interacting subsystems. All physical and physiological systems are challenged through the application of artificial gravity, which stimulates these systems simultaneously by approximating the normal Earth gravitational environment. Antigravity muscles are activated, bones and the cardiovascular system are stressed, and the otoliths of the vestibular system are stimulated in a manner similar to that on Earth (Young et al., 2006; Clément and Bukley, 2007).

It is obvious that artificial gravity cannot address all of the problems associated with long duration space flight. Clearly it can do nothing for radiation exposure, altered day-night cycles, and the psychological issues that are likely to arise from extended confinement and isolation. What it does is to offer a countermeasure with the potential to address the debilitating and potentially fatal problems of bone loss, cardiovascular deconditioning, muscle weakening, sensorimotor and neurovestibular disturbances, and regulatory disorders. Artificial gravity can be considered as an integrated countermeasure because it addresses all of these systems (Clément and Pavy-Le Traon, 2004).

Another driver for introducing artificial gravity might be as a countermeasure for the impairment of visual acuity and ocular trauma seen in long-duration crewmembers, the so-called Vision Impairment due to Intracranial Pressure (VIIP) syndrome. The hypothesized cause for VIIP is that the weightlessness-induced fluid shift is the precipitating factor leading to impairment in cerebrospinal fluid re-sorption and central nervous system venous drainage (Mader et al., 2011). It is possible that interventions like venous limb occlusion and lower body negative pressure could play a preventive role, and these are being investigated. However, continuous or intermittent artificial gravity might be the most efficient countermeasure. For the time being, we do not fully understand all ramifications of the VIIP syndrome and whether it has long-term effects on brain function. However, the VIIP syndrome is currently a matter of great concern for long duration missions.

Many books and review articles have been written on the topic of artificial gravity (Stone, 1973; Lackner and DiZio, 2000; Young et al., 2006; Clément and Bukley, 2007; Hall, 2009). The objective of this paper is to provide a broad overview of recent ground-based and in-flight studies that relate to the effects of artificial gravity as a potential countermeasure. One of the major issues associated with humans in rotating environments is the adverse effect on sensorimotor functions. The vestibular system is involved in the regulation of other physiological systems, including respiratory, cardiovascular, circadian, and even bone mineralization systems. The physiological responses of these systems to continuous exposure of humans to anything other than Earth gravity and weightlessness are unknown. Research must be undertaken to identify the minimum level, duration, and frequency of the level of artificial gravity exposure that is needed to maintain normal physiological functions. In addition, the limits for human adaptation to rotation rate, gravity gradient, and Coriolis and cross-coupled accelerations need to be revisited.

Rotation of the Space Vehicle

The rationale for using centrifugation is that the resulting centrifugal force provides an apparent gravity vector during rotation about an eccentric axis. The centrifugal force produced by rotation is a function of the square of the angular rate (ω) and the radius (r) of rotation. For example, a crewmember standing on the rim of a habitat rotating at about 4 rpm about an axis located at 56 m would experience the sensation of standing upright closely approximating the same experience as on Earth (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Artificial gravity. Continuous rotation of a large spacecraft that creates a centrifugal force of 1 G in the habitat would give the static crewmembers the sensation of standing upright as on Earth. The magnitude of the centrifugal force is function of the square of the rotation rate (ω) times the distance (r) from the axis of rotation. In the example of the spacecraft shown in the insert, a 4-rpm rotation rate would generate 1 G in the crew habitat located at 56 m from the axis of rotation.

During the early concept phase of human space travel, scientists introduced the idea of creating a substitute for Earth gravity by using centrifugation. Korolev proposed to connect two Voskhod modules by a 300-m tether and rotate them at 1 rpm to produce 0.16 G (Harford, 1973). Inspired by the pioneering works of Oberth (1923) and Noordung (1928), von Braun also proposed a spacecraft having a diameter of 76 m rotating at 3 rpm, the result of which would be a suitable platform for Mars expeditions exposing the occupants to 0.3 G (Von Braun, 1953). On the same principle, O’Neil’s 1.8-km radius Stanford torus spinning at exactly 1 rpm generated Earth gravity to the inhabitants of a space colony (O’Neill, 1977).

When any linear motion is attempted in any plane that is not parallel to the axis of rotation, a Coriolis force is generated. This is a significant drawback associated with rotating environments. The Coriolis force combines with the centrifugal force to produce an apparent gravity vector that differs in magnitude or in both magnitude and direction. This vector may be manifested in two ways for a human walking in a rotating environment: (a) it adds to the apparent weight of the body moving in the direction of rotation and subtracts from the apparent weight when the body is moving in the opposite direction of motion; and (b) when the body moves radially toward the center of rotation, the Coriolis force is exerted at right angles to the body’s motion in the direction of rotation. When the body is moving away from the center of rotation, the force is opposite to the direction of rotation. By contrast, a body motion parallel to the axis of rotation will generate no Coriolis force (Crosbie, 1960; Stone, 1973).

In addition, any angular displacement of the whole body or body part that is not parallel to the spin axis will create cross-coupled angular accelerations that induce stimulation of all three semicircular canals of the vestibular system. Such movement in a stationary environment normally stimulates only the semi-circular canals that correspond to the plane of head rotation. The same head movement in a rotating environment also stimulates the canals that lie in the plane of the rotating environment. The latter combination of canal stimulation results in illusory sensations of bodily or environmental motion and possibly motion sickness (Guedry and Benson, 1978).

Given that centrifugal force depends on both rotation rate and radius, changes in the artificial gravity level can be achieved either by increasing or decreasing the radius, or by increasing or decreasing the rate of rotation. The radius of the structure will have a direct impact on the cost and complexity of the space vehicle, whereas the rotation rate will mostly influence physiological and psychological responses of the crew on board. The final design will be the result of a trade-off study between these two options (Diamandis, 1997).

The results of studies on humans living aboard slow rotating rooms in the 1960’s (Graybiel et al., 1960, 1965, 1969; Kennedy and Graybiel, 1962; Guedry et al., 1964) suggested that the lightest acceptable system for providing “comfortable” artificial gravity using a rotating spacecraft would be one rotating at 6 rpm at a radius ranging from 12–24 m, such as to create an artificial gravity level ranging from 0.3 G to 1 G (Stone and Letko, 1965; Figure 2). These theoretical limits to rotation rates and radii were based on casual observations of humans walking, climbing, moving objects, and performing nominal head movements in a large-radius centrifuge. These assumptions have largely been taken at face value as correct, but they need to be validated by experimental evidence. More recent data suggest that the adaptation limits of humans to rotating environment are much greater than these earlier studies had anticipated. For example, it has been observed that subjects in a rotating environment could tolerate a rotation rate up to 10 rpm provided that the exposure is progressive (Graybiel et al., 1965) or even up to 23 rpm after habituation of motion sickness symptoms (Young et al., 2001).

Figure 2. Hypothetical comfort zone bounded by values of artificial gravity level and rotation rate based on theoretical studies in the 1960s (see Hall, 2009, for details). The “comfort zone” is the area in blue delimited by a maximum rotation rate of 6 rpm. According to the model of Stone and Letko (1965) the Coriolis and cross-coupled angular accelerations generated at these rotation rates during walking, climbing and handling materials should be the most comfortable for the crewmembers. However, very little experimental data were actually collected to validate this model. Recent data indicate that the limit of 6 rpm is overly conservative.

Graybiel et al. (1977) noted that when astronauts were making voluntary head movements while being passively spun on a rotating chair on board the Skylab space station, they no longer experienced motion sickness or spatial disorientation after 1 week in orbit. Parabolic flight experiments indicated that “the severity of side effects from Coriolis forces during head movements is gravitational force-dependent, raising the possibility that an artificial gravity level less than 1 G would reduce the motion sickness associated with a given rotation rate” (Lackner and DiZio, 2000). The nausea-inducing effects of Coriolis and cross-coupled accelerations can also be mitigated by restraining head movement during centrifugation. The empirically determined limits for rotation rate and radii proposed in the 60 s for humans to adapt to a rotating environment therefore seem overly conservative. These limits were derived by experimentation under specific limited conditions. Additional experimentation under more extreme conditions may allow extension of these limits. Clearly, further research is warrented.

Short-Radius Centrifugation

A rotating spacecraft presents serious design, operational, and financial challenges. Practically speaking, it is highly likely that humans do not require gravity (or fraction of it) for 24 h a day 7 days a week to remain healthy. A continuously rotating spacecraft would not be required if intermittent gravity proves to be sufficient. A human rated short-radius centrifuge presents a realistic near-term opportunity for providing intermittent artificial gravity.

A human-rated centrifuge designed for studying vestibular responses to linear accelerations in orbit flew aboard the Space Shuttle Neurolab mission (STS-90) in 1998. This experiment was the first and only in-flight evaluation of artificial gravity on astronauts. The results of this experiment suggested that centrifugal force of 0.5 G and 1 G along the subjects’ longitudinal and transversal axis, respectively, was well tolerated by the crew (Clément et al., 2001). For those astronauts who rode the centrifuge 20 min every other day during a 16-day space mission, cardiovascular deconditioning was reduced (Moore et al., 2005).

A human-powered centrifug that couples exercise with artificial gravity is an interesting and novel approach. Exercise was introduced as a countermeasure in the days of the Gemini program, by means of ingenious elastic, pneumatic, mechanical, hydraulic, and electrical devices. Crewmembers are held “down” by wearing a harness attached to exercise bike or treadmill. Elastic devices only effectively create force, not sustained acceleration. Various designs have been proposed for exercising during centrifugation, such as the “Twin Bike” of the University of Udine (Antonutto et al., 1993; di Prampero, 2000), the “Space Cycle” of the University of California at Irvine (Caiozzo et al., 2004), and NASA Ames Research Center’s human-powered centrifuge (Greenleaf et al., 1996). The assumption is that exercising under such increased inertial forces would decrease the exercise time required to maintain health and fitness in space. If trial results prove positive and the amount of exercise is indeed reduced by centrifugation, such devices are good candidates for long-duration mission countermeasures.

On a short-radius centrifuge, the subjects are generally lying supine with their head close to the axis of rotation and their feet directed outwards. During centrifugation in space, the subject is only exposed to the centrifugal force along their longitudinal body axis, referred to as artificial gravity. However, during centrifugation on Earth, centrifugal force combines with the gravitational force resulting in the so-called gravito-inertial force, which is both larger in magnitude than the centrifugal force itself, and tilted with respect to the longitudinal body axis (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Constraints for short-radius centrifugation. On Earth, the actual forces exerted on the body during centrifugation are the resultant of the gravitational force (in blue) and the centrifugal (inertial) forces (in red). These gravito-inertial forces (in green) are larger than 1 G and tilted relative to vertical. In space, the centrifugal forces are the only forces generated by centrifugation and aligned with the longitudinal body axis. Note also the gravity gradient, i.e., the different magnitude of centrifugal force along the longitudinal body axis.

In addition, on a short-radius centrifuge, there is a noticeable difference in the magnitude of centrifugal force at the subject’s head and at the feet. The gravity gradient is the variation in artificial gravity level as a function of distance from the center of rotation. The gravity gradient also has an effect on the hydrostatic pressure along the longitudinal body axis. The hydrostatic pressure influences the circulation of blood to the head and from the lower extremities and therefore affects the functioning of the cardiovascular system. It is not known if the gravity gradient has any critical influences on the cardiovascular and neurovestibular systems.

The Coriolis force is proportional to the linear velocity of the imparted motion, the mass of the moving object, and the rotation rate of the rotating environment. It is important to note that the magnitude of the Coriolis force is not dependent on the radius of the rotating environment. The Coriolis force is therefore equally present in both short- and long-radius centrifuges. For a given centrifugal force level, the rotation rate of an on-board short-radius centrifuge must be greater than that of a rotating spacecraft, so body motion will result in larger Coriolis force. However, the crewmembers’ head, body and limb movements will be more restricted, therefore the crew comfort limits during short-radius centrifugation must be re-evaluated.

Currently unknown and quite logistically difficult to determine is the ideal “prescription” of how much acceleration/gravity is required to maintain normal health and over what period of time. The ideal solution is of course a rotating spacecraft that provides a constant 1 G acceleration. In the case of intermittent centrifugation using an onboard short-radius centrifuge, a research program is needed to identify the gravity levels that are necessary to mitigate the deconditioning of physiological systems, determine how these loads should be applied (e.g., duration, frequency, time of day), and provide protocols to minimize or eliminate undesirable side effects. Artificial gravity should also be integrated with other countermeasures such as exercise, sensorimotor training, and pharmacological prescriptions to optimize crew health.

One method for evaluating the effects of different levels or duration of gravity loading on the physiological systems is to test whether intermittent short-radius centrifugation can overcome the deconditioning of bed rest. In these investigations, the physiological responses measured during bed rest alone are compared with the same physiological responses during bed rest and intermittent centrifugation. The assumption is that the differences observed between the responses in the two conditions are due to the net forces acting along the longitudinal body axis (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Rationale for evaluating the effects of intermittent short-radius centrifugation during bed rest.

A total of 19 studies have been performed evaluating the effectiveness of short-radius centrifugation providing 1–2 G at the heart during bed rest or dry immersion interventions lasting from 3–28 days. The results of these studies showed that intermittent centrifugation with and without concurrent aerobic exercise during otherwise continuous bed rest: (a) attenuated plasma volume loss (Lee et al., 1997; Iwasaki et al., 1998, 2001, 2005); (b) maintained exercise capacity (Katayama et al., 2004); (c) improved post-bed rest orthostatic tolerance time (Schneider et al., 2002; Iwase, 2005; Watenpaugh et al., 2007; Guinet et al., 2009; Shibata et al., 2010; Linnarsson et al., 2015); and (d) reduced the exaggerated responses to head-up tilt after bed rest, such as elevated heart rate and increased muscle sympathetic nerve activity (Iwasaki et al., 2005).

Very few bed rest and short-radius centrifugation studies have compared bone and muscle changes. Smith et al. (2009) did not find significant differences in bone mineral density during centrifugation compared to controls. However, this study was only 21 days long, whereas traditional countermeasure studies showing changes in bone during bed rest were of much longer duration; e.g., 30 days (Zwart et al., 2007) to 117 days (Shackelford et al., 2004). However, recent 5-day bed rest investigations showed a decrease in serum levels of markers for bone formation (CD200) and an increase in serum levels of markers for bone resorption (CD200R1) in control subjects. In subjects undergoing 30 min of centrifugation per day, the changes in levels of markers for bone homeostasis seen under conditions of bed rest were attenuated, suggesting that centrifugation is a promising countermeasure for bone loss (Kos et al., 2014).

No bed rest studies combined with intermittent centrifugation have examined the structural integrity of muscle fibers (i.e., CSA and distribution by fiber type) after deconditioning, although this test has been performed in many of the traditional countermeasure studies. Future artificial gravity studies on skeletal muscle deconditioning should therefore focus on the analysis of global muscle parameters, like muscle volume and endurance, but also individual muscle fibers by fiber type.

Regarding sensorimotor performance, recent studies have shown that after prolonged bed rest, subjects exhibit significant changes in the monosynaptic stretch reflex and in functional mobility evaluated by the time it takes for subjects to complete an obstacle course (Reschke et al., 2009). However, there were no significant effects of bed rest on the functional stretch reflex and on balance control parameters associated with computerized dynamic posturography (Reschke et al., 2009). Cognitive functioning, assessed by a self-administered battery of tests used on the International Space Station, does not appear to be adversely affected by long-duration head-down bed rest (Seaton et al., 2009). It has been proposed that body unloading long-duration head-down bed rest might serve as an exclusionary analog to differentiate proprioceptive and somatosensory changes from graviceptor changes in post-spaceflight sensorimotor behavior (Reschke et al., 2009). A 21-day bed rest study comparing the neurovestibular effects after bed rest showed no difference in balance control and ocular counter-rolling whether intermittent centrifugation was used or not (Jarchow and Young, 2010). In the same study, the error in the subjective visual vertical was significantly different from zero in the centrifuged group and not different in the control group; however, this effect was short-lived (Moore et al., 2010).

Investigators also tested whether intermittent standing or a combination of heel raising, squatting and hopping exercises was sufficient to prevent alteration in balance and gait following a 5-day bed rest. A cross-over design study was performed with 10 male subjects during 6° head down tilt: (a) with no countermeasure; (b) while standing 25 min per day; (c) during locomotion-like activities 25 min per day. Gait was evaluated by grading subjects’ performance during various locomotion tasks. Equilibrium scores were derived from peak-to-peak anterior-posterior sway while standing on a foam pad with the eyes open or closed or while making pitch head movements. When no countermeasure was used, head movements led to decreased postural stability and increased incidence of falls immediately after bed rest compared to before. When upright standing or locomotion-like exercises were used, postural stability and the incidence of falls were not significantly different from the baseline after bed rest. These results indicate that daily 25 min periods of standing or locomotion-like exercise prove useful against postural instability following a 5-day bed rest. The efficacy of these countermeasures on locomotion could not be evaluated, however, because gait was not found to be altered after a 5-day bed rest (Mulder et al., 2014).

The results of studies using rotating chairs in orbit suggest that the threshold for human perception of verticality is between 0.22 G and 0.5 G (Arrott et al., 1990; Benson et al., 1997; Clément et al., 2001). However, in some investigations the subject’s head was on-center whereas in other studies it was off-center, either on the same side as the feet or on the opposite side (Clément and Reschke, 2008). Recent studies confirmed that the threshold for the perception of verticality in parabolic flight is also comprised between 0.16 G and 0.38 G (de Winkel et al., 2012; Harris et al., 2014). It is interesting to note that this threshold is much higher than the threshold for the perception of linear acceleration, which ranges from 0.005 G to 0.02 G depending on the axis of motion (Benson et al., 1986).

The perception of verticality is also subject-dependent. A recent ground-based study (Clément et al., 2014) attempted to determine the rotation parameters of a short-radius centrifuge so that subjects in the dark would feel as if they were standing upright. Results showed that about half of the subjects felt like they were vertical when centrifugation elicited 1 G at their center of mass along their body longitudinal axis, whereas the other half felt they were vertical when they experienced about 1 G at ear level. Heart rates varied with the subjects’ perception of verticality. These results suggest that one group of subjects was relying principally on the otolith organs for the perception of verticality, whereas the other group was also relying on extra-vestibular somatosensory receptors. The crewmember’s perception of verticality might therefore be a factor to take into account for the prescription for artificial gravity during space flight.

Partial Gravity Simulators

Another method for simulating partial gravity on Earth is through the use of body inclination or suspension techniques. For example, a 9.5° head-up inclination results in a 0.16 G force along the body longitudinal axis, simulating lunar gravity; a 22.3° inclination results in a 0.38 G force along the body longitudinal axis, simulating Martian gravity (Figure 5). The principle seen above for comparing the changes in physiological responses between intermittent centrifugation and bed rest (see Figure 4) can be applied for comparing the changes between static body tilt and bed rest. A previous study used a 9.5° head-up tilt during bed rest to simulate a lunar mission. Subjects were placed in 6° head-down tilt for 4 days to simulate microgravity during the travel to the Moon, then in 9.5° head-up tilt for 6 days to simulate the effects of Moon gravity (0.16 G), and again in 6° head-down tilt for 4 days to simulate the return journey. Muscular exercise was performed during the head-up tilt period to simulate 6 h of lunar EVA. Results showed that hormonal and body fluids responses were not different between this simulated mission and a full 14-day head-down tilt bed rest or a 14-day spaceflight (Pavy-Le Traon et al., 1997). These results indicate that Moon gravity is not effective for preventing cardiovascular deconditioning following spaceflight. It is not known whether Mars gravity is effective or not.

Figure 5. Rationale for evaluating the effects of Martian gravity during head-up tilt.

The subjects in these earlier simulations were not weight-bearing, and thus these protocols did not provide an analog for load on the musculoskeletal system. Cavanagh et al. (2013) proposed a novel analog that included the capability to simulate standing and sitting in a lunar loading environment. In the proposed design, the 9.5° head-up tilted bed is mounted on six linear bearings and is free to travel with one degree of freedom along rails, thus allowing approximately 16% weight loading of the feet during standing. They demonstrated that the reaction forces at the feet during periods of standing were a reasonable simulation of lunar standing, and that “lunar” sitting could also be successfully simulated. In fact, during a 6-day test they measured significant changes in the volume of the quadriceps muscles.

A partial gravity environment can also be simulated by unloading a portion of a subject’s weight using suspension techniques. The subjects are either upright or lying on one side. Overhead suspension systems are used to partially or fully unload the subject’s legs by means of cables, springs, and a bicycle harness. This simple set-up provides a satisfactory simulation of a partial gravity environment on the lower extremities. However, the non-vertical lifting force that occurs during locomotion and the discomfort of the harness are the main disadvantages of the system. Also, although the subject experiences less weight, the 1 G force is still acting on their vestibular system and internal organs.

The MIT partial gravity simulator, also known as the Moonwalker, is capable of simulating partial gravity as low as 0.05 G (Figure 6A). A recent study tested 12 healthy subjects before and after Martian gravity (0.38 G) simulation to determine the effects of partial gravity adaptation on walking performance. Results showed that the subjects walked with an altered gait characterized by an increased downward center of mass acceleration, reduced muscle activity, and increased maximum joint angles after Martian gravity simulation (Wu, 1999).

Figure 6. Partial-gravity simulators. (A) A harness connected to a rolling-trolley mechanism ensures that only a vertical force is applied to the subject. (B) Subject walking on a treadmill with lower body positive pressure (LBPP) support that reduces weight bearing. (C) The reduced-gravity walking simulator at NASA Langley Research Center used long cables to support a subject walking on a tilted surface Photo credit: NASA.

Recently, a lower body positive pressure (LBPP) treadmill was introduced that offers the ability to study gait dynamics during body weight unloading. While on the treadmill, subjects wear a pair of neoprene shorts with a kayak-style skirt that zips into an air chamber, creating an airtight seal. When the air chamber inflates, there is an increase in air pressure around the lower body that lifts the subject upwards at the hips (Figure 6B), effectively reducing gravitational forces at the feet. The reduction in apparent body weight can range from 1 to 80%. Compared to to a suspension system, the air pressure is applied uniformly over the lower body in the LBPP, thus reducing the formation of pressure points that are common with harness-based systems while maintaining normal muscle activation and gait patterns (Takacs et al., 2013).

Another suspension configuration has the subjects suspended horizontally and allowed to “walk on the wall” of a rotating platform (Figure 6C). The tilt of the walkway determines the magnitude of the force along the subject’s longitudinal body axis. Studies performed with this ingenious system at the NASA Langley Research Center in the 1960s showed that subjects were comfortable walking, running, and jumping at simulated gravity levels ranging from 0.16 to 0.3 G. At levels above 0.3 G, the subjects reported “sensations of leg and body heaviness”, which became quite disturbing at 0.5 G (Letko and Spady, 1970).

A recent study showed that lower body negative pressure combined with walking on a horizontal treadmill for 40 min daily provided enough longitudinal body axial loads to prevent lumbar spine deconditioning following a 28-day bed rest, as this combination produced a force equivalent to one body weight in the head-to-foot direction for a sufficient time period (Macias et al., 2007).

Research Projects

To help inform the final decision on whether to conduct continuous spin of the whole space vehicle or to intermittently expose the crewmember to short-radius centrifugation, the limits of human adaptation in a rotating environment must be revisited. We need to identify the acceptable and/or optimal ranges for radius and rotation rate to avoid unacceptable crew health and performance consequences. For intermittent applications, we need to identify what level, duration, frequency, and time of day of exposure to artificial gravity are optimal. We also need to investigate the physiological responses to transitions between artificial gravity, microgravity, and Moon or Mars gravity because such studies would be useful in assessing whether dual adaptation to a rotating and a non-rotating environment is possible.

Space agencies are working on a global research program on artificial gravity that would leverage the facilities available around the world (e.g., short- and long-radius centrifuges, slow rotating rooms, bed rest/dry immersion facilities, suspension systems, etc.) and integrate studies on human, animal, and cell models. Standardization of measures performed before and after each artificial gravity intervention will allow for more compatible assessment across various studies. The biomedical measurements will focus on countermeasure validation, medical events, and subject acceptance and comfort.

Regarding sensorimotor performance, artificial gravity projects that could be performed in the near future include the following: (a) test more gravity level values along Gz within the range from microgravity to 1 G, using the methods described above, to reasonably reach conclusions on the threshold, optimal stimulus-response, and saturation for the effects of centrifugation on sensorimotor performance; (b) test the effects of gravity levels higher than 1 G to assess whether increasing the intensity of the Gz stimulus actually reduces the time of exposure needed; (c) compare whether exposure to centrifugation for intermittent, short periods of time in one or multiple sessions is as beneficial as continuous exposure to Earth’s gravity; (d) investigate whether Gz centrifugation reduces intracranial pressure and possibly mitigates the VIIP syndrome; (e) assess whether centrifugation can possibly mitigate post-flight decrease in performance by studying the effect of centrifugation on cognitive and functional tasks; and (f) assess the effects of gravity gradient on spatial orientation by comparing the responses in subjects placed at various distances from the axis of rotation on a long radius centrifuge.

Although ground-based studies have the potential for determining a sound artificial gravity prescription, validation of these studies can only be performed in space. No human-rated centrifuges that have been built specifically to counteract cardiovascular and musculoskeletal deconditioning have flown in space to date. Some information could be gained from studies using animal models by comparing the potential differences between the effects of an artificial gravity prescription during centrifugation on Earth and in space. However, questions such as what are the impacts of centrifugation inside a space vehicle on the vibration level, motion sickness, or crew time need to be addressed by use of a human-rated centrifuge. The short-term effects of centrifugation could be assessed by studying changes in biomarkers or gene expressions. Any positive results from this space centrifuge would also provide the impetus for further ground-based research.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The Associate Editor, Ajitkumar Mulavara and the Review Editor, Malcolm Martin Cohen declare that, despite being associated with the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI), the review process was handled objectively. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

We would like to thank Carrie Gilder and Laura Taylor for editing the manuscript.

Antonutto, G., Linnarsson, D., and di Prampero, P. E. (1993). On-Earth evaluation of neurovestibular tolerance to centrifuge simulated artificial gravity in humans. Physiologist 36, S85–S87.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Arrott, A. P., Young, L. R., and Merfeld, D. M. (1990). Perception of linear acceleration in weightlessness. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 61, 319–326.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Benson, A. J., Guedry, F. E., Parker, D. E., and Reschke, M. F. (1997). Microgravity vestibular investigations: perception of self-orientation and self-motion. J. Vestib. Res. 7, 453–457. doi: 10.1016/S0957-4271(96)00167-X

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Benson, A. J., Kass, J. R., and Vogel, H. (1986). European vestibular experiments on the Spacelab-1 mission: 4. Thresholds of perception of whole-body linear oscillation. Exp. Brain Res. 64, 264–271. doi: 10.1007/bf00237742

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Caiozzo, V. J., Rose-Gottron, C., Baldwin, K. M., Cooper, D., Adams, G., and Hicks, J. (2004). Hemodynamic and metabolic responses to hypergravity on a human-powered centrifuge. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 75, 101–108.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Cavanagh, P. R., Rice, A. J., Licata, A. A., Kuklis, M. M., Novotny, S. C., Genc, K. O., et al. (2013). A novel lunar bed rest analogue. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 84, 1191–1195. doi: 10.3357/asem.3472.2013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Clément, G. (2011). Fundamentals of Space Medicine. 2nd Edn. New York, NY: Springer.

Google Scholar

Clément, G., and Bukley, A. P. (2007). Artificial Gravity. Hawthorne, CA: Microcosm Inc.

Google Scholar

Clément, G., Deliere, Q., and Migeotte, P. F. (2014). Perception of verticality and cardiovascular responses during short-radius centrifugation. J. Vestib. Res. 24, 1–8. doi: 10.3233/VES-130504

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Clément, G., Moore, S., Raphan, T., and Cohen, B. (2001). Perception of tilt (somatogravic illusion) in response to sustained linear acceleration during space flight. Exp. Brain Res. 138, 410–418. doi: 10.1007/s002210100706

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Clément, G., and Pavy-Le Traon, A. (2004). Centrifugation as a countermeasure during actual and simulated microgravity: a review. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 92, 235–248. doi: 10.1007/s00421-004-1118-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Clément, G., and Reschke, M. F. (2008). Neuroscience in Space. New York, NY: Springer.

Google Scholar

Crosbie, R. J. (1960). Explicit Expressions for the Angular Accelerations and Linear Accelerations Developed at a Point Off Center in a Gondola Mounted with a Three Gimbal System on the End of a Moving Centrifuge Arm. NADC MA 6034, Patent US5021982.

de Winkel, K., Clément, G., Werkhoven, P., and Groen, E. (2012). Human threshold for gravity perception. Neurosci. Lett. 529, 7–11. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.09.026

CrossRef Full Text

Diamandis, P. H. (1997). “Countermeasure and artificial gravity,” in Fundamentals of Space Life Sciences, ed. S. E. Churchill (Malabar, FL: Krieger), 159–175.

di Prampero, P. E. (2000). Cycling on earth, in space, on the moon. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 82, 345–360. doi: 10.1007/s004210000220

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Graybiel, A., Clark, B., and Zarriello, J. J. (1960). Observations on human subjects living in a “slow rotation room” for periods of two days. Arch. Neurol. 3, 55–73. doi: 10.1001/archneur.1960.00450010055006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Graybiel, A., Dean, F. R., and Colehour, J. K. (1969). Prevention of overt motion sickness by incremental exposure to otherwise highly stressful Coriolis accelerations. Aerosp. Med. 40, 142–148.

PubMed Abstract

Graybiel, A., Kennedy, R. S., Knoblock, E. C., Guedry, F. E., Mertz, W., McLeod, M. W., et al. (1965). Effects of exposure to a rotating environment (10 RPM) on four aviators for a period of twelve days. Aerosp. Med. 36,733–754.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Graybiel, A., Miller, E. F., and Homick, J. L. (1977). “Experiment M131. Human vestibular function,” in Biomedical Results from Skylab (NASA SP-377), eds R. S. Johnston and L. F. Dietlein (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office), 74–103.

Google Scholar

Greenleaf, J. E., Gundo, D. P., Watenpaugh, D. E., Mulenburg, G. M., McKenzie, M. A., Looft-Wilson, R., et al. (1996). Cycle-powered short radius (1.9M) centrifuge: exercise vs. passive acceleration. J. Gravit. Physiol. 3, 61–62.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Guedry, F. E., and Benson, A. J. (1978). Coriolis cross-coupling effects: disorienting and nauseogenic or not. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 49, 29–35.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Guedry, F. E., Kennedy, R. S., Harris, D. S., and Graybiel, A. (1964). Human performance during two weeks in a room rotating at three RPM. Aerosp. Med. 35, 1071–1082.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Guinet, P., Schneider, S., Macias, B., Watenpaugh, D., Hughson, R., Pavy-Le Traon, A., et al. (2009). WISE-2005: effect of aerobic and resistive exercises on orthostatic tolerance during 60 days bed rest in women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 106, 217–227. doi: 10.1007/s00421-009-1009-6

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hall, T. W. (2009). “Artificial gravity,” in Out of This World: The New Field of Space Architecture, eds A. S. Howe and B. Sherwood (Reston, VA: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics), 12, 133–152.

Google Scholar

Harford, J. (1973). Korolev. New York: Wiley.

Harris, L. R., Herpers, R., Hofhammer, T., and Jenkin, M. (2014). How much gravity is needed to establish the perceptual upright? PLOS One 9:e106207. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106207

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Iwasaki, K., Hirayanagi, K., Sasaki, T., Kinoue, T., Ito, M., Miyamoto, A., et al. (1998). Effects of repeated long duration +2Gz load on man’s cardiovascular function. Acta Astronaut. 42, 175–183. doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(98)00115-5

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Iwasaki, K., Sasaki, T., Hirayanagi, K., and Yajima, K. (2001). Usefulness of daily +2Gz load as a countermeasure against physiological problems during weightlessness. Acta Astronaut. 49, 227–235. doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(01)00101-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Iwasaki, K., Shiozawa, T., Kamiya, K., Michikami, D., Hirayanagi, K., Yajima, K., et al. (2005). Hypergravity exercise against bed rest induced changes in cardiac autonomic control. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 94, 285–291. doi: 10.1007/s00421-004-1308-x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Iwase, S. (2005). Effectiveness of centrifuge-induced artificial gravity with ergometric exercise as a countermeasure during simulated microgravity exposure in humans. Acta Astronaut. 57, 75–80. doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2005.03.013

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Jarchow, T., and Young, L. R. (2010). Neurovestibular effects of bed rest and centrifugation. J. Vestib. Res. 20, 45–51. doi: 10.3233/VES-2010-0350

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Katayama, K., Sato, K., Akima, H., Ishida, K., Takada, H., and Watanabe, Y. (2004). Acceleration with exercise during head down bed rest preserves upright exercise responses. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 75, 1029–1035.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Kennedy, R. S., and Graybiel, A. (1962). Symptomatology during prolonged exposure in a constantly rotating environment at a velocity of one revolution per minute. Aerosp. Med. 33, 817–825.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Kos, O., Hughson, R. L., Hart, D. A., Clément, G., Frings-Meuthen, P., Linnarsson, D., et al. (2014). Elevated serum soluble CD200 and CD200R as surrogate markers of bone loss under bed rest conditions. Bone 60, 33–40. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2013.12.004

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lackner, J. R., and DiZio, P. (2000). Human orientation and movement control in weightless and artificial gravity environments. Exp. Brain Res. 130, 2–26. doi: 10.1007/s002210050002

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lee, S., Bennett, B., Hargens, A., Watenpaugh, D., Ballard, R., Murthy, G., et al. (1997). Upright exercise or supine lower body negative pressure exercise maintains exercise responses after bed rest. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 29, 892–900. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199707000-00008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Letko, W., and Spady, A. A. (1970). “Walking in simulated lunar gravity,” in Fourth Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular Organs in Space Exploration (NASA SP-187), ed A. Graybiel (Washington, DC: NASA), 347–351.

Google Scholar

Linnarsson, D., Hughson, R. L., Fraser, K., Clément, G., Karlsson, L., Mulder, E., et al. (2015). Effects of an artificial gravity countermeasure on orthostatic tolerance, blood volumes and aerobic capacity after short-term bed rest. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 118, 29–35. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00061.2014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Macias, B. R., Cao, P., Watenpaugh, D. E., and Hargens, A. R. (2007). LBNP treadmill exercise maintains spine function and muscle strength in identical twins during 28-day simulated microgravity. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 102, 2274–2278. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00541.2006

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mader, T. H., Gibson, C. R., Pass, A. F., Kramer, L. A., Lee, A. G., Fogarty, J., et al. (2011). Optic disc edema, globe flattening, choroidal folds and hyperopic shifts observed in astronauts after long-duration space flight. Ophthalmology 118, 2058–2069. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.06.021

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Moore, S., Diedrich, A., Biaggioni, I., Kaufmann, H., Raphan, T., and Cohen, B. (2005). Artificial gravity: a possible countermeasure for post-flight orthostatic intolerance. Acta Astronaut. 56, 867–876. doi: 10.1016/j.actaastro.2005.01.012

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Moore, S., MacDougall, H. G., and Paloski, W. H. (2010). Effects of head-down bed rest and artificial gravity on spatial orientation. Exp. Brain Res. 204, 617–622. doi: 10.1007/s00221-010-2317-0

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mulder, E., Linnarsson, D., Paloski, W. H., Rittweger, J., Wuyts, F., Zange, J., et al. (2014). Effects of five days of bed rest with and without exercise countermeasure on postural stability and gait. J. Musculoskelet. Neuronal Interact. 14, 359–366.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Noordung, H. (1928). The Problem of Space Travel: The Rocket Motor. Darby, PA: Diane Publishing Co.

Google Scholar

Oberth, H. (1923). The Rocket Into Interplanetary Space. Munich: Oldenbourg.

O’Neill, G. K. (1977). The High Frontier. New York: William Morrow.

Google Scholar

Pavy-Le Traon, A., Allevard, A. M., Fortrat, J. O., Vasseur, P., Gauquelin, G., Guell, A., et al. (1997). Cardiovascular and hormonal changes induced by a simulation of a lunar mission. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 68, 829–837.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Reschke, M. F., Bloomberg, J. J., Paloski, W. H., Mulavara, A. P., Feiveson, A. H., and Harm, D. L. (2009). Postural reflexes, balance control and functional mobility with long-duration head-down bed rest. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 80, A45–A54. doi: 10.3357/asem.br06.2009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Sawin, C. F., Baker, E., and Black, F. O. (1998). Medical investigations and resulting countermeasures in support of 16-day space shuttle missions. J. Gravit. Physiol. 5, 1–12.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Schneider, S., Watenpaugh, D., Lee, S., Ertl, A., Williams, W., Ballard, R., et al. (2002). Lower-body negative-pressure exercise and bed-rest mediated orthostatic tolerance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 34, 1446–1453. doi: 10.1097/00005768-200209000-00008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Seaton, K. A., Slack, K. J., Sipes, W. A., and Bowie, K. E. (2009). Cognitive functioning in long-duration head-down bed rest. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 80, A62–A65. doi: 10.3357/asem.br09.2009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shackelford, L. C., LeBlanc, A. D., Driscoll, T. B., Evans, H. J., Rianon, N. J., Smith, S. M., et al. (2004). Resistance exercise as a countermeasure to disuse-induced bone loss. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 97, 119–129. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00741.2003

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shibata, S., Perhonen, M., and Levine, B. (2010). Supine cycling plus volume loading prevent cardiovascular deconditioning during bed rest. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 108, 1177–1786. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01408.2009

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Smith, S., Zwart, S., Heer, M., Baecker, N., Evans, H., Feiveson, A., et al. (2009). Effects of artificial gravity during bed rest on bone metabolism in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 107, 47–53. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.91134.2008

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Stone, R. W. (1973). “An overview of artificial gravity,” in Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on the Role of the Vestibular Organs in Space Exploration (NASA SP-314), ed A. Graybiel (Pensacola, FL: Naval Aerospace Medical Center), 23–33.

Google Scholar

Stone, R. W., and Letko, W. (1965). “Some observations on the stimulation of the vestibular system of man in a rotating environment,” in The Role of the Vestibular Organs in the Exploration of Space (NASA SP-77), ed. A. Graybiel (Washington, DC: NASA), 263–277.

Google Scholar

Takacs, J., Anderson, J. E., Leiter, J. R., MacDonald, P. B., and Peeler, J. (2013). Lower body positive pressure: an emerging technology in the battle against knee osteoarthritis? Clin. Interv. Aging 8, 983–991. doi: 10.2147/CIA.s46951

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Von Braun, W. (1953). The baby space station: first step in the conquest of space. Collier’s Magazine. 27, 33–35, 38, 40.

Watenpaugh, D., O’Leary, D., Schneider, S., Lee, S., Macias, B., Tanaka, K., et al. (2007). Lower body negative pressure exercise plus brief post-exercise lower body negative pressure improve post-bed rest orthostatic tolerance. J. Appl. Physiol. (1985) 103, 1964–1972. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00132.2007

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, R. H. (1999). Human Readaptation to Normal Gravity following Short-Term simulated Martian Gravity Exposure and the Effectiveness of Countermeasures. Master of Sciences Thesis. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Google Scholar

Young, L. R., Hecht, H., Lyne, L. E., Sienko, K. B., Cheung, C. C., and Kavelaars, J. (2001). Artificial gravity: head movements during short-radius centrifugation. Acta Astronaut. 49, 215–226. doi: 10.1016/s0094-5765(01)00100-x

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Young, L. R., Paloski, W. E., and Fuller, C. F. (2006). Artificial Gravity as a Tool in Biology and Medicine. Final Report. Study Group 2.2. Paris: International Academy of Astronautics.

Google Scholar

Zwart, S., Hargens, A., Lee, S., Macias, B., Watenpaugh, D. E., Tse, K., et al. (2007). Lower body negative pressure treadmill exercise as a countermeasure for bed rest-induced bone loss in female identical twins. Bone 40, 529–537. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2006.09.014

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Keywords: gravity, adaptation, international space station, microgravity, centrifuge, countermeasure

Citation: Clément GR, Bukley AP and Paloski WH (2015) Artificial gravity as a countermeasure for mitigating physiological deconditioning during long-duration space missions. Front. Syst. Neurosci. 9:92. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00092

Received: 03 April 2015; Accepted: 30 May 2015;
Published online: 17 June 2015.

Edited by:

Ajitkumar Mulavara, Universities Space Research Association, USA

Reviewed by:

Malcolm Martin Cohen, Independent Consultant, USA
Braden McGrath, University of Canberra, Australia

Copyright © 2015 Clément, Bukley and Paloski. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution and reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Gilles R. Clément, Wyle Science and Engineering Group, 1290 Hercules Avenue, Houston, TX 77058, USA,


text:
Kacey Musgraves’ ‘Golden Hour’ Isn’t Just for Country Music Fans

Emily McCarthy, Staff Writer

When Kacey Musgraves’ fourth studio album, ‘Golden Hour,’ won the Grammy award for Best Album of the Year it came as a bit of a shock. The country music star beat both Cardi B and Drake in winning this award. Musgraves is no stranger to the country music genre, winning numerous country music awards previously and touring with popular names in country music, like Lady Antebellum. This is the first time one of Musgraves’ albums has been nominated and has won for a general Grammy category as opposed to a strictly country music category.

When listening to ‘Golden Hour,’ you’ll understand why it won Best Album. Musgraves’ album can appeal to all music fans with its pop and disco influences. For example, ‘High Horse’ combines a Bee Gees-inspired track with classic country lyrics. The disco-infused sound from this song appeals to all kinds of music listeners yet, the lyrics keep pure country fans hooked on the song with each “giddy up.”

Each song on the album combines the best of pop and country music. Musgraves masters the magnetic twang of a classic country singer with her honest lyrics and upbeat sound to appeal to all audiences. ‘Golden Hour’ cannot be labeled as solely country, which music experts who decided the Grammy wins realized in choosing the album. Musgraves plays to all of music fans’ tastes, therefore it should be no surprise why ‘Golden Hour’ won overall.

Andrew Bird's "My Finest Work Yet"

Zachary Bethel, Arts & Culture Editor

There is a funk about Andrew Bird. It isn't exactly heavy, syncopated bass lines or blaring horns, but his sound evokes dance and fun nonetheless. "Sisyphus" is the opening track off of his latest album "My Finest Work Yet" and features tuneful whistling and driving drum kit. Bird sashays from song to song as he taps into his existential-folk side and utilizes his typical experimental forms in songwriting.

Bird's songs never feel rushed or in a hurry to end which remains pretty clear through the 10-song album. Through beautiful and harrowing lyrics, Bird creates little scenes with his music, each song a pocket of conflict and resolution.

Bird takes ideas and themes from his past works and cleverly works them into his newer material such as in "Cracking Codes" and "Archipelago." These tracks, along with "Manifest," are some of the more moving pieces. "Olympians" and "Fallorun" are a bit lighter and quicker in tempo.

At about 45 minutes, "My Finest Work Yet" sits well with the rest of his discography as Bird's twelfth studio album. Bird begins touring in April and will travel through most of the United States. His last performance will be Nov. 2 at The Tabernacle in Atlanta.

Read or Share this story:


text:
Experimental feature

Listen to this article

Experimental feature

Rodney Smith, a 73-year-old former civil servant, had planned carefully for his retirement, living fairly modestly to build a reasonable level of savings for later life.

So the former economist with the Northern Ireland Department for Education was shocked to receive a letter last November saying that his pension had been overpaid by £1,800 and the scheme wanted the money paid back.

“I was rather angry to receive this,” says Mr Smith, who retired in Scotland.

“In my email to Civil Service Pensions, I said it should be their responsibility to pay the correct amount. I accepted the amount I was given in good faith and should not have to repay it.”

After challenging the letter, Mr Smith has not been asked to repay the £1,800, but his retirement income was lowered to the amount now deemed correct.

Across the UK, tens of housands of people could be in for similar shocks as pension schemes across the land complete a massive record-checking exercise, which is throwing up significant errors in pension records dating back four decades.

More than 10,000 retired members of the UK civil service are expected to receive letters advising of reductions to pension payments this year — just as Mr Smith has done — after the Civil Service Pension Scheme identified £22m of overpayments.

Similar letters are also expected to be sent to thousands of retired private sector workers as their workplace retirement funds uncover errors dating back four decades.

What is more, state pension payments could even be reduced as a direct consequence of mistakes being uncovered in the same record-checking exercise.

The FT has discovered that behind the scenes, consultants, investment advisers and trustees are agreeing between themselves how incorrect pension payments should be amended, putting savers in a confusing position. Some may not even know their benefits have been cut.

Here, we explain how the problem has arisen and what can be done if your scheme asks you to pay back an overpaid pension.

Rodney Smith in his home, with his pension letter, in Stathaven, Scotland, on 14 June 2018.
© Jeremy Sutton-Hibbert/FT

What is the issue?
What is driving the pension adjustments is a hugely complex record-checking exercise which began in 2014. The UK tax authority is seeking to marry its records with those held for millions of private sector and public sector workers in “final salary” pension schemes.

More specifically, workplace schemes and HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) have been comparing records concerning “guaranteed minimum pensions” — an entitlement offered to millions of workers who “contracted out” of contributing to part of the state pension between 1978 and 1997. Any errors in the way this guaranteed minimum pension has been calculated will lead to revisions of both private and state pensions.

What is contracting out?
Before 2016, the state pension consisted of two parts. First was the basic state pension, to which people built entitlement on the basis of their national insurance record. The second element was the additional state pension, which was related to earnings, with higher earners able to build a bigger state pension entitlement

From 1978, it was possible for workers to “contract out” of this second element, known as the State Earnings Related Pension (Serps). The incentive for employers and employees to do this was that they both paid a reduced rate of national insurance. In return, the workplace pension scheme had to provide a guaranteed minimum pension (GMP) to the employee.

“The GMP is equivalent to what the member would have got from the state pension had they not contracted out of Serps and paid a reduced rate of national insurance,” says Chris Tagg, partner with Barnett Waddingham, a financial consultancy, which is helping several pension schemes with reconciliation exercises.

Rules were set by the government on inflation proofing these minimum pensions. For example, pension schemes are required to index GMP rights accrued between 1988 and 1997 in line with the consumer price index, subject to a 3 per cent cap.

Why are some records wrong?
HMRC keeps records of GMP entitlements for contracted out workers. These records are then used to calculate state pension payments for the same workers — plus the subsequent annual uprating of GMP rights by occupational schemes.

However, schemes are finding that their GMP records do not match those held by HMRC, due to missing paperwork and inaccurate records dating back four decades. HMRC records are assumed correct, unless the scheme can prove otherwise.

“It is not unusual for HMRC and the administrator of a contracted-out pension scheme to hold different information concerning which employees were contracted out of a state additional pension, which periods of service were contracted out, or the rate of compensation,” says Philip Titchener, GMP specialist with Willis Towers Watson, the pension consultants.

“Without an exercise to reconcile these differences, the member may receive the wrong amount of GMP, the wrong amount of additional state pension, the wrong amount of [their company pension], or occasionally, all of the above.”

Why are these problems only surfacing now?
At present, most schemes should reconcile records with HMRC when the member reaches GMP age (60 for women and 65 for men).

However, as contracting out was ended in 2016, HMRC is closing its GMP reconciliation service later this year. This has prompted a push by company pension schemes to reconcile all records by the October 2018 deadline. When GMPs are incorrectly recorded, it leads to wrong annual increases being paid. This can result in overpayments and underpayments.

What is the link with the state pension?
When a person reaches state pension age — currently 65 for men, and set to reach 65 for women by the end of this year — any additional state pension they have accrued is adjusted for previous periods of being contracted out, when a lower rate of national insurance was paid. This “contracted out deduction”, which appears on the new state pension statements, relies on GMP records held by HMRC.

Who is affected?
Private and public sector workers who were contracted out between 1988 and 1997, the period in which members could accrue GMP rights, and who have not previously had their GMP checked. Those affected include those who have yet to retire, and those who are already receiving their pension.

What has the reconciliation uncovered?
Initial feedback from the industry suggests that up to a quarter of GMP records could be wrong. Most errors are said to be modest, but some overpayments are known to have reached six figures in a minority of cases.

In 2017, the Civil Service Pension Scheme reported its GMP review had uncovered £22m in overpayments, likely affecting around 10,000 or so retired civil servants. There were also 5,600 members who had been underpaid to the tune of £36 per member.

Reconciliation exercises are still under way in the biggest public sector schemes including the NHS and teachers’ pensions plans.

How big are the errors?
A recent review of a private sector scheme with 1,000 members by Willis Towers Watson found GMP errors for most people were small (less than £50 per pension a year — and less than £200 in previous overpayments or underpayments).

However, about 80 people in the scheme had a difference of more than £50 a year to their pension. A dozen members were found to have overpayments or underpayments of more than £5,000 in total. And a slightly larger group of members had errors that were expected to alter their pension by more than £10,000 over their lifetimes.

“There are going to be some winners and some losers, says Mr Tagg of Barnett Waddingham.

Those likely to see the biggest errors are the oldest pensioners, where the GMP makes up a larger slice of their pension.

“I’ve seen an overpayment of £60,000 and that pension had been in payment since 1983,” says Matt Ashton-Smith, a consultant working on GMP reconciliations.

“Once the benefit was recalculated to the correct amount, it effectively halved the pension.”

What about the state pension?
The government has also been writing to pensioners where errors have been identified in GMP records.

If the individual’s GMP changes, this means the amount of the contracted out deduction on their state pension will also change. The Department for Work and Pensions says the amounts that may have been underpaid or overpaid will depend on an individual’s unique circumstances. “People’s pensions could increase or decrease,” it says.

What position are schemes taking on overpayments?
It varies. As a rule of thumb, the better-funded private sector schemes are more likely to write off overpayments, but struggling schemes may seek to recover them.

The Cabinet Office says that it won’t seek recovery of the £22m in overpayments it identified at the civil service, but will adjust pensions to the correct level.

The Scottish Public Pensions Agency and the Local Government Pension schemes are yet to declare how they will handle GMP-related overpayments.

The Pensions Regulator says: “Trustees are entitled to request repayment of any overpayments caused by an error. However, where the trustees were responsible for the error they should allow a reasonable time for the payments to be made, and offer the option of paying back in instalments.”

The DWP says it will not attempt to recover overpaid state pensions, but will adjust future payments to correct levels.

What about underpayments?
Trustees are obliged to make good any underpayment in the pension. The underpaid will receive a lump sum and an uplift to their annual pension.

How are schemes handling overpayments?
In practice, company schemes and trustees are all working out their own approach to the problem with the support of professional advisers and often lawyers.

Legal experts say trustees are obliged regularly to give members details of their benefits and to correct any errors that may have occurred in the past.

“Trustees can ask the member for the money back and can take action to recover the outstanding sums,” says Rosalind Connor, partner at ARC Pensions Law. In addition, it is often possible to reduce future payments in order to recover the overpayment already provided, which tends to be easier to get the member on side.

However, there is no guarantee that individual members will be informed about how an overpaid pension will be recovered.

Some trustees may impose a repayment schedule without the agreement of the member. Trustees could also look to change the structure of a pension, which is made of different slices attracting different rates of annual increases. Industry officials say this is something members may not be told about — particularly if the tweak is small.

“On occasion, when the change is very small, trustees may choose not to send out a correcting communication, but this is unusual,” says Ms Connor.

For larger amounts, trustees will usually propose a recovery method for the member to agree to, sometimes asking them to sign and return a form authorising a monthly deduction from their pension, says Mr Tagg.

“Trustees will consider the size of the overpayment in absolute terms and relative to annual pension and also the length of time over which the overpayment was received. Typically, recovery would not be more than, say, 25 per cent of the monthly pension and the recovery period would, if possible closely match the overpayment period.”

If the mistake that led to an GMP overpayment was made more than six years ago, it may be possible that overpayments do not need to be repaid, says Michelle Cracknell, chief executive of The Pensions Advisory Service.

“This will depend on if it was reasonable for the mistake to have been found earlier than it was. This is a complex area, so we would suggest that people talk to us.”

Members will usually be given the option to respond with an alternative repayment plan, perhaps within certain limits set by the trustees. They could also opt to pay the amount back in one go — which advisers say happens more often than you might think.

Help! I’ve got a demand to repay my pension

If you receive a letter informing you that your pension has been overpaid, there is no need to panic. Here are the steps you should take to deal with any repayment demand:

  1. Obtain a full explanation of how the repayment arose. Establish whose fault it was initially and whether the error has been fixed properly.
  2. Clarify what the scheme’s position is on overpayments. Many government schemes are writing off overpayments.
  3. How far back do the overpayments go? Prospect, the union, says that in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, schemes cannot recover overpayments that are more than six years old. In Scotland, the time limit is five years. This may result in the scheme having to write off at least a portion of the overpayment.
  4. Challenge any decision you are not happy with. Most pension schemes have a two-stage internal dispute resolution process. Once completed, if you’re still not happy, members have up to three years to bring a complaint to the Pension Ombudsman, which settles disputes between schemes and members.
  5. Arguments can be made against the recovery of an overpaid pension. The most common defence against clawback of an overpaid pension is “change of position”. This is when the recipient has changed their circumstances so much that it would be unjust to require them to repay the overpayment either in whole or in part. To establish a “change of position” defence, certain conditions must be met, including that the money was received in good faith. An “estoppel” defence may also apply. The conditions for this defence are similar to those for “change of position”, but the recipient would need to show they had received an “unambiguous promise” that they were entitled to the higher pension income. The hurdle for proving this defence is much higher.

Get alerts on Next Act when a new story is published

Copyright The Financial Times Limited 2020. All rights reserved.
Reuse this content (opens in new window)

Commenting on this article is temporarily unavailable while we migrate to our new comments system.

Note that this only affects articles published before 28th October 2019.

Follow the topics in this article


text:
Dye Discharge Textile Ink PVC / Phthalate Free Water Based

Fujifilm Sericol’s direct print water-base and water-based dye discharge ink system provides extremely bright, vivid colors, exceptionally soft hand and superior wash fastness.

With recent government regulations and a continuing search for more environmentally responsible products, TexCharge provides you a PVC/Phthalate Free alternative in a water based discharge ink system.

  • Exceptionally Soft Hand
  • 10 Ready-For-Use Toners
  • Extremely Bright and Clean Colors
  • Seritone Color Matching System
  • Excellent Printability and Screen Stability
  • Low Odor
  • Superior Washfastness
  • Resistant to Dry Cleaning and Ironing

Download Documents

Adobe® Reader® is required to see the PDF data.

Watch the ABC World New Tonight Interview and More

Did you ever wish an opportunity would fall in your lap? Well our customer at The Mountain in Keene, NH had that happen recently. They have a T-Shirt design that has reached the #1 selling T-shirt on Amazon.com.

The short story is about a law student who was on amazon.com and they suggested if you like this you might also like 3WM (the Three Wolf Moon T-shirt). So the law student posted a review that included the following conclusion about the shirt: "Fits my girthy frame, has wolves on it, attracts women."

About TexCharge Performance

Designed to produce
exceptionally vibrant colors
super soft hand
Available in
10 Colors of the Seritone Matching System*
* SMS has been developed to enable printers to quickly and economically match a wide variety of special shades. The colors have been selected for their cleanliness of tone, color strength, and suitability for intermixing.
Five Fluorescent Shades
Four-Color Process
Tinting White
High Opacity (HO) White
1, 5 and 30 gallon containers
Improved production time benefiting from
excellent wet-on-wet printability
reliable ready to use colors
ink performance that is consistent and repeatable
excellent screen stability
superior wash fastness

  • TexCharge direct print water-base and water based discharge inks, are Fujifilm Sericol's top selling product for t-shirt printers.
  • TexCharge is formulated to comply with CPSIA regulations regarding lead, heavy metals and phthalates-and it’s PVC free.
  • Primarily used as a direct print water-base and water based discharge system on suitably dyed fabrics


text:
Fulbright Scholar Presentation Evening, Melbourne 2016

All photos were taken at the RACV City Club, Melbourne on 25 February 2016 and are reproduced with the permission of the Public Affairs Office at the Australian Government, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, and the U.S. Embassy. Please contact public.relations@fulbright.com.au if you wish to enquire about these photos.