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Bacterial/Microbial Source Tracking (BST/MST)-
A Review

Soil & Water Conservation Society of Metro Halifax (SWCSMH)

Modified: August 03, 2017                  Soil & Water Conservation Society of Metro Halifax (SWCSMH) Master Homepage

(cf. Mandaville, S.M. 2002)

Bacterial Source Tracking (BST) is a new methodology that is being used to determine the sources of fecal bacteria in environmental samples (e.g. from human, livestock, or wildlife origins). BST methodology has been described as having the ability to turn nonpoint sources into point sources. BST is also called Microbiological Source Tracking (MST), fecal source tracking, or fecal typing.

This review concludes that there is no easy, low-cost method for differentiating between human and non-human sources of bacterial contamination at the present time. Quantifying the contribution from different sources is as yet not possible.

The North American research into various identification methodologies is ongoing and it is difficult at the present time to definitively recommend a single one as the most preferable which could be used in perpetuity. Not all methods are being reviewed in this report.

A selection of representative published papers in peer reviewed journals and/or at scientific conferences are herewith included in Section 5: Appendices.

A "toolbox" approach seems warranted where the method chosen depends on the types of fecal sources that one has to deal with (or the questions one needs answered). Obtaining similar results with different BST methods also improves the chances that the source identifications are correct. (Hagedorn, 2002)

The field of bacterial source tracking (BST) continues to evolve rapidly, and researchers see promising developments emerging.

[Img-Prof. Kate Field PhD] One of the challenges is to identify a low-cost, simple methodology. Based on literature survey and consultations, the fecal Bacteroides-Prevotella detection methodology of Prof. Katherine Field PhD of the Dept. of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon appears to be the most economic as well as reliable. Prof. Field’s methodology generally does not require samples of feces of common sources like humans, dogs, ducks, cows. Only the water sample filters are needed for her analyses.

Further, the New York State Department of Health (cf. Email from Prof. Ellen Braun-Howland PhD, June 2001) is in preference of the aforementioned methodology of Prof. Katherine Field. The New York State chose not to go with ribotyping (e.g., Washington State) or antibiotic resistance genes since both those methods require the establishment of large libraries of organisms before one can get any meaningful results. They found it costly and time-intensive.

And based on a timely state-of-the-art Microbiological Source Tracking Workshop organized by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority (SCCWRP, 2002) in cooperation with several Government stakeholders, Scientist, John Griffith also prefers Prof. Kate Field’s Bacteriodes source ID (pers. comm. February, 25, 2002).

Notwithstanding, there is considerable support for genetic fingerprinting involving isolates of pure cultures of E. coli which is the preferred methodology of the Washington State Department of Ecology among numerous other agencies. Ribotyping is a molecular method first applied to bacterial source detection 11 years ago. Based on discussions with Prof. Mansour Samadpour, I find it quite costly and intensive both in the field as well as in the laboratory work. Dr. Samadpour of the University of Washington is a leading specialist in ribotyping and continues to apply it widely. He is reputed to have the largest library of DNA signatures in North America and has consulted with some regulatory agencies in British Columbia as well).

There was a state-of-the-art Microbiological Source Tracking Workshop organized by the Southern California Coastal Water Research Project Authority (SCCWRP, 2002) in cooperation with the US Environmental Protection Agency, State Water Quality Control Board, and the National Water Research Institute during February 5-7, 2002.

    The goals of the workshop were to:
  1. bring leading researchers together with regulators and other interested parties to discuss the current state of methods used to track microbial contaminants in surface waters, and
  2. begin the process of developing a protocol for a comparison study of microbial source tracking methods. It brought together prominent researchers in the field.
    The SCCWRP member agencies were:
  1. Orange County Sanitation District
  2. City of Los Angeles Bureau of Sanitation
  3. County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County
  4. California State Water Resources Control Board
  5. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Los Angeles Region
  6. City of San Diego Metro Wastewater Dept.
  7. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San Diego Region
  8. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, Santa Ana Region, and the
  9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region IX

[Img-pathogenic_enteric_bacteria_1.gif] Fecal contamination of aquatic environments afflicts many regions and may carry risks to human health. For example, human fecal pollution may spread dangerous bacterial and viral pathogens, such as hepatitis, while other human pathogens such as Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Salmonella spp., and E. coli O157:H7 are associated with animal fecal pollution.

Further, contamination of coastal and inland waters by fecal bacteria results in beach closures that suspend recreation and strike a blow to the economies of beach communities.

Often the source of fecal contamination in water cannot be determined. For example, non-point sources such as failing septic systems, overloads at sewage treatment facilities, overflows from sanitary sewage pumping stations, or flows from sewage pipe breaks may all be candidates. In addition, the contribution of bacterial pollution "stored" in sediments and re-suspended during storm events is unknown. In order to adequately assess human health risks and develop watershed management plans, it is necessary to know the sources of fecal contamination.

Erroneous assumptions of fecal sources

Commonly, fecal sources are misinterpreted and more often than not the sources are assumed to be anthropogenic in nature as a result of lack of credible scientific investigations. Following is a full extract from the USEPA’s Nonpoint Source News-Notes:

cf.   DNA Fingerprinting Aids Investigation — Fecal Coliform Sources Traced to Unlikely Suspects. Issue Number: 48, Chapter Name: Technical Notes. Date: 04/97

Tracking the source of fecal coliform contamination may not sound as exciting as reading a good mystery. But recent research into fecal coliform pollution in the southern Chesapeake Bay had more than enough suspense to qualify as a mystery, including several suspects and high tech investigative methods. By systematically tracking clues in the field and using DNA fingerprinting in the lab, researchers at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University appear to have cracked the case.

According to George M. Simmons Jr., Alumni Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, tracking the source of fecal coliform contamination was actually a spinoff of other research he was conducting on Virginia's Eastern Shore. It started when Roger Buyrn, a local land owner and clam grower, approached him with the case. Buyrn faced losing his clam business because of contaminated harvest areas in a tidal creek. Harvest area closures can have serious negative impacts on the local economy, and they are becoming commonplace. According to the Division of Shellfish Sanitation in Richmond, Virginia, the number of acres condemned over the last two decades for shellfish harvest in Virginia has increased from 62,272 acres in 1970, to 98,826 acres in 1994. Hoping to avoid condemnation of his own harvest area, Buyrn opened up his land to Simmons and his team of student investigators.

Rounding Up the Usual Suspects

Nonpoint fecal coliform sources may come from human waste, agricultural areas, or wildlife. Although identifiable sources of coliform contamination are not always evident, fecal coliform sources are often linked to faulty on-site waste disposal systems. Few of the inlets in the study area however, were inhabited, intensifying the mystery.

The researchers tracked fecal coliform levels in the field by sampling at land/water interfaces and across marshes or up creeks. Simmons points out that rigorous sampling in creek beds, marshes, and each tiny rivulet that drained to them was the major tool for tracing the fecal coliform signals. Once the general source areas were identified, the study group monitored them extensively.

All along, Simmons and his colleagues believed that the sources would be anthropogenic in nature. ‘It took me about a year to come to grips with the fact that the fecal coliform were not coming from a leaky septic tank or other effluent,’ said Simmons. ‘It got to the point where I was climbing trees to see if I could see any potential sources (i.e., houses), but there weren't any. We all were pretty baffled.’

Breaking the Case

Simmons used DNA fingerprinting of E. Coli to confirm his growing suspicion that the sources were not human. Simmons's group collected fresh fecal samples from raccoon, waterfowl, otter, muskrat, deer, and humans in the area and analyzed and characterized the DNA of coliform found in the samples. The result was a library of more than 200 DNA patterns distributed through more than 700 E. Coli strains. In the process, the researchers developed a DNA dichotomous key and an index of descriptions for the known strains.

Identifying unknown sources was a challenging endeavor. Some E. Coli strains are specific to certain animal species; others may contain several different strains. ‘A total of 88 E. Coli strains from unknown sources were fingerprinted, and of those 88 strains, 58 of them resulted in some degree of [species] identification using the dichotomous key of E. Coli strains from known sources.’ In addition, 22 of the strains closely matched known strains in the existing library. Simmons noted that only eight of the 88 unknown samples collected from the study area could have come from a human source. Comparing E.coli from the samples against the fingerprints of known strains in the DNA library, Simmons traced the sources to deer and raccoon.

Victim's Reprieve

During the winter of 1993, several hundred animals, including deer, raccoon, and muskrat, were removed from the Buyrn property and other nearby areas and by spring 1994, fecal coliform had decreased by one to two orders of magnitude. Threatened areas of the tidal creeks were reopened or escaped closure.

Major funding for this project came from the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Soil and Water Conservation, and from the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality, Coastal Resources Management Program through a grant from NOAA. In his next case, Simmons hopes to expand the DNA library to see if it is applicable to other parts of the Chesapeake Bay and beyond. As funding becomes available, he would also like to develop libraries for agricultural and urban areas which would also include stormwater runoff. ‘This research to date indicates that field and laboratory methods, alone or in combination, provide a very high likelihood that nonpoint fecal coliform sources can be identified and remediated for the improvement of water quality,’ concludes Simmons."

Microbiological Indicators

Bacterial Pollution Indicators versus Fecal Bacterial Source Indicators

Indicators are used when quantifying possible impacts to water from animal and sewage wastes. They are usually used as a surrogate for more harmful pathogens. It is impossible to try to identify all the enteric pathogens present in the water. The cost is too great and the techniques have not been developed to test for all known pathogens.

There are three important requirements of an indicator. It should be native to the intestinal tract, enter the water with fecal discharge, and be found in the presence of other enteric pathogens. The indicator should normally survive longer than their disease-producing companions. They should be easy to isolate and identify.

Since the early work of Escherich, who identified Bacillus coli (now Escherichia coli) as a dominant bacterium in feces, considerable effort has been expended to identify the dominant bacteria associated with the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and warm-blooded animals.

Total Coliform (TC)

Total coliform was originally used as an indicator of fecal contamination in surface water. Total coliform includes all the aerobic and facultative anaerobic, gram-negative, non-spore forming bacilli that, when incubated at 35oC, can ferment lactose and produce gas within 48 hours. This definition includes the genera Escherichia, Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter. Not all of these organisms inhabit the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals exclusively.

Fecal Coliform (FC)

The fecal coliform group is a sub-group of total coliform that grow mainly in the intestines of warm-blooded animals. These organisms may be separated from the total coliform group by their ability to grow at elevated temperatures. The most common member of this group is Escherichia coli (an enteric bacteria), but also includes Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Serratia which can also be found free-living on plants and in soils.

Fecal Streptococci (FS) and Enterococci Groups

Another group of bacteria less numerous in human feces than coliform is fecal streptococci. This group contains a number of species of the genus Streptococcus. Fecal streptococci indicate the presence of fecal contamination by warm-blooded animals. It is not known to multiply in the environment like fecal coliform. At one time S. faecalis and S. faecium were thought to be more human-specific than other Streptococcus species. Other species have been observed in human feces but less frequently. At the same time, S. bovis, S. equinus, and S. avium are not exclusive to animals, although they usually occur at higher densities in animal feces.

Enterococci are a sub-group of the fecal streptococcus group. This group consists of a number of species of Streptococci, S. faecalis, S. faecium, S. gallinarum, and S. avium. The enterococci portion of the fecal streptococcus group is a valuable bacterial indicator for determining the extent of fecal contamination in surface waters. Water quality guidelines based on enterococcal density have been proposed for recreational waters.

Other Bacterial Indicators

The intestines of warm-blooded animals host an incredible variety of bacteria. Most bacteria are a part of the normal intestinal flora. The type and quantity of bacteria species present can vary depending on animal species (Table 1). Testing for specific bacterial species more common to certain animals can give information on possible bacterial sources. Some of the more species-specific microbiological indicators are described below. It is important to remember that bacteria flora can vary among the same species due to diet or location. Also, bacteria can colonize other animals if the environment is hospitable.

Table 1. Numbers of viable bacteria found in the feces of adult animals: logarithm of viable count per gram of feces (Todar, 2002)*
Animal Escherichia coli Clostridium perfringens Streptococci Bacteroides Lactobacilli
Cattle 4.3 2.3 5.3 0 2.4
Sheep 6.5 4.3 6.1 0 3.9
Horses 4.1 0 6.8 0 7.0
Pigs 6.5 3.6 6.4 5.7 8.4
Chickens 6.6 2.4 7.5 0 8.5
Rabbits 2.7 0 4.3 8.6 0
Dogs 7.5 8.4 7.6 8.7 4.6
Cats 7.6 7.4 8.3 8.9 8.8
Mice 6.8 0 7.9 8.9 9.1
Humans 6.7 3.2 5.2 9.7 8.8
*Median values from 10 animals

Table 2. Bacteria found in the large intestine of humans (Todar, 2002)
Bacterium Range of Incidence
Bacteroides fragilis 100
Bacteroides melaninogenicus 100
Bacteroides oralis 100
Lactobacillus 20-60
Clostridium perfringens 25-35
Clostridium septicum 5-25
Clostridium tetani 1-35
Bifidobacterium bifidum 30-70
Staphylococcus aureus 30-50
Enterococcus faecalis 100
Escherichia coli 100
Salmonella enteritidis 3-7
Salmonella typhi 0.00001
Klebsiella sp. 40-80
Enterobacter sp. 40-80
Proteus mirabilis 5-55
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3-11
Peptostreptococcus sp. common
Peptococcus sp. moderate
Methanogens (Archaea) common

Fecal Coliform to Fecal Streptococci Ratios (FC:FS)

The ratio of fecal coliform (FC) to fecal streptococci (FS) concentrations has been used to try to differentiate human from non-human sources of fecal contamination. A ratio of four or greater is considered human fecal contamination, a ratio of less than 0.7 suggests non-human sources. The value of this ratio has been questioned because of variable survival rates of fecal streptococcus group species.  Streptococcus bovis and S. equinus die off rapidly once exposed to aquatic environments, whereas S. faecalis and S. faecium tend to survive longer.

The ratio is also affected by the methods for enumerating fecal streptococci. For these reasons, Standard Methods (Eaton et al., 1995) and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME, 1993), among other government agencies, do not any longer recommend FC:FS ratios as a method for differentiating between human and non-human sources of fecal contamination.

Peruse also the email from the Ontario Ministry of the Environment (2001).

Bacterial Source Tracking (BST) Methods

BST methods vary in many ways, including costs, level of training and expertise required to implement the method, turnaround time, degree of statistical rigor, and whether a given method is location-specific or database-dependent.

Both molecular (genotype) and biochemical (phenotype) BST methods are under development. DNA fingerprinting has received the greatest publicity, but to date there are at least ten or so different methods described in the scientific literature that show potential. However, BST development is so new that no extensive research comparing BST methods or identifying their relative strengths and weaknesses has yet been completed. Such comparison research has only recently been started, and results should become available over the next few years. At this point it seems reasonable to assume that some combination of BST methods will be needed to provide the most accurate and reliable source identification answers. It is doubtful that any one BST method will emerge as the "best" method for all situations.

Molecular methods may offer the most precise identification of specific types of sources, but are limited by high per-isolate costs, detailed and time-consuming procedures, and are not yet suitable for assaying large numbers of samples in a reasonable time frame. Biochemical methods may or may not be as precise, but are simpler, quicker, less costly, and allow large numbers of samples to be assayed in a short period of time. Perhaps the best approach at this point is to use a biochemical method to determine sources on large numbers of fecal bacterial isolates, and then confirm (validate) both the method and the results by assaying some smaller subset of isolates with a molecular procedure.

Reliability of BST

At present, BST can reliably determine if fecal bacteria are from human or animal sources. If the bacteria are from animal sources, BST can also tell if the animals are livestock or wildlife, but less reliably than the human vs. animal separation. It is unknown at this time if BST can eventually achieve distinctions between different types of livestock (e.g. cattle, horse, swine, poultry, etc.) or wildlife (e.g. deer, waterfowl, raccoon, etc.) or pets (dogs, cats, etc.). Many in the molecular biology community believe such fine differentiation is feasible.

BST methods have been used primarily with E. coli and the fecal streps, and to a lesser degree with bifidobacteria, Bacteroides-Prevotella, and coliphages. While regulatory agencies often prefer E. coli because that is the most widely used indicator standard, there are good reasons to consider other fecal organisms, depending on the situation. For example, E. coli is difficult to detect in composted poultry litters or in high quality biosolids, while the fecal streps are very numerous in both materials.

Also, there is increasing evidence of regrowth of E. coli and fecal streps in tropical and/or subtropical waters and sediments. Under these conditions, other organisms such as the bifidobacteria, Bacteroides-Prevotella, or coliphages may be better organisms for source tracking and perhaps also as better indicators of fecal pollution.

With all BST methodologies (except chemical) it is necessary to first build a library or database of isolates taken from known sources, e.g., human, cow, deer, etc. The size of the library will be partly determined by the number of potential major sources of fecal pollution in the target area. Nobody knows at this point how large a library has to be or how similar libraries from different geographical areas may be. Publications to date indicate that at least a few hundred isolates from each major known source will be needed. Once the known source library has been developed, and correct source identifications are sufficiently high for the desired purpose, then the second step can be taken of comparing fecal isolates of unknown origin against the library to obtain source identification. It is also necessary to regularly recheck the database with known source isolates to be sure that correct source identification remains high. (Hagedorn, 2002)

Well published investigators conducting research in BST (Hagedorn, 2002)

Soil & Water Conservation Society of Metro Halifax (SWCSMH) Master Homepage

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Imperial Preceptor: di shi 帝師, Tib. ti shri

A government post created during the reign of the Mi nyag/Xixia emperor Renzong (r. 1139-1193), probably in the 1170s. The first known Imperial Preceptor was Boluo xiansheng 波囉顯勝, who may have been a Tibetan. In terms of his rank, his other title was the equivalent to that of an imperial prince. This tendency to treat high-ranking monks as the equals of royalty continued into the Qing dynasty. By the late 12th century, Tibetans appear to have served in this post. The Central Tibetan Gtsang po pa Dkon mchog seng ge and his student 'Gro mgon Ti shri ras pa were probably the last Imperial Preceptors. The responsibilities of this post included first, serving as the emperor's chaplain, teacher and consecrator and, more generally, teaching, writing, translating and editing. For instance, the Imperial Preceptor oversaw the Mi nyag revisions of the Tangut and Chinese Buddhist canons.

In the Yuan dynasty, this post was continued, but with an added responsibility of overseeing the political situation in Central Tibet. 'Phags pa was a State Preceptor (guoshi) from 1260-1270, and then became the first Mongol Imperial Preceptor in 1270. They continued to have important religious roles at the court. 'Phags pa in particular wrote a large number of texts for the benefit and training of the imperial family, especially Qubilai Khan's chosen heir Jingim (who died before he could take power). To provide the imperial family with ready service, their official residence (Me tog ra ba) was within the precincts of the imperial palace.

However, their role was broader than merely serving the imperial family. The Imperial Preceptors had more political responsibilities (for Tibet) than they had in the Mi nyag dynastic period. For instance, they would issue decrees, under the emperor's authority to both protect and command monasteries in Tibet. Moreover, they directed all Buddhist establishments in the Yuan empire and were charged with promoting Buddhism in the empire. They oversaw routine Buddhist ceremonies and special rituals upon the enthronement and funerals of the emperors. They held rituals and dedicated stupas to the protection of the state and its subjects, in general terms or in specific instances, such as to prevent flooding. During the preceptorship (1327-1329) of Kun dga' legs pa'i 'byung nas rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po, officials concerned about the expenses of Buddhist ceremonies successfully petitioned the emperor to abolish the Du gongde shi (central office in charge of Buddhist affairs). The elimination of this office temporarily reduced the power of the imperial preceptor, though the office was restored sometime between 1333-1358 when Kun dga' rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po was the Imperial Preceptor.

List of Imperial Preceptors in the Yuan Dynasty*
1270-1273 1) 'Phags pa
1273-1279/1282 2) Rin chen rgyal mtshan (1235-1279/1282), 'Phags pa's younger step-brother, came to Beijing in 1269 with 'Phags pa
1282-1286 3) Dharmapâla rakshîta (1268-1287), 'Phags pa's nephew
1286-1294 4) Ye shes rin chen (1248-1294), 'Phags pa's disciple
1294-1303 5) Grags pa 'od zer (1246-1303), 'Phags pa's disciple
1304-1305 6) Rin chen rgyal mtshan (1258-1305), 'Phags pa's disciple
1305-1314 7) Sang rgyas dpal (1267-1314), Grags pa 'od zer's nephew
[c. 1312] Sga A gnyan Dam pa Kun dga' dgrags (1230-1303), 'Phags pa's disciple, was posthumously declared Imperial Preceptor
1315-1327 8) Kun dga' blo gros rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po (1299-1327), Sa skya 'Khon family member
1322/1323-1325 9) Dbang phyugs rgyal mtshan (?-1325), concurrent and acting Imperial Preceptor, while Kun dga' blo gros rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po was in Tibet
1327-1329 10) Kun dga' legs pa'i 'byung nas rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po (1308-1329), Sa skya family member
1329 11) Rin chen grags [bkra?] shis, also appointed as Tai situ (Great Minister of Education)
1333-1358 12) Kun dga' rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po (1310-1358), stepbrother of Kun dga' blo gros rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po, Sa skya 'Khon family member
1361-1362 13) Bsod names blo gros rgyal mtshan (1332-1362), grand-nephew of 'Phags pa
c. 1368 14) Rnam rgyal dpal bzang po, Imperial Preceptor at end of Yuan rule of China; sent emissary to Ming Court in 1372
*Of these, only three (#9, 11, 14) do not have clear connection to 'Phags pa as either related family members or direct disciples.

  • Ruth Dunnel. The Hsia Origins of the Yüan Institution of Imperial Preceptor. Asia Major. Third Series, Vol. 5, part 1, 1992, pp. 85-111.
  • Elliot Sperling, Rtsa-mi lo-tsa-ba Sangs-rgyas Grags-pa and the Tangut background to early Mongol-Tibetan relations," PIATS6 Oslo, 801-824 & “‘Lama to the King of Hsia’” The Journal of the Tibet Society, vol. 7, 1987, pp. 31-50.
  • Herbert Franke.1978. From tribal chieftain to universal emperor and god: the legitimation of the Yuan dynasty, Sitzungsberichte - Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. Munchen: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Focus on pp. 52-79.
  • Rinchen trashi. “Tibetan Buddhism and the Yuan Royal Court.” Tibet Studies. 1-26.
  • Wang Yao and Chen Qingying. Xizang lishi wenhua cidian/ Bod kyi lo rgyus rig gnas tsig mdzod. Xizang renmin chubanshe/Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1998, pp. 66-67. Listing of imperial preceptors.
  • Luciano Petech. 1980. Sang-ko, a Tibetan statesman in Yüan China. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientarium Hungaricae 34:193-208.

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The First International LAMS Conference: Designing the Future of Learning

Workshop - LAMS Beginners

Presenter: Leanne Cameron (English) and Ernie Ghiglione (Spanish)

Length of workshop

10.00am - 1.00pm

Intended audience

This workshop is designed for teachers, instructors and students from any educational context, who have little or no practical experience with LAMS.

Maximum number of participants

20 participants

Workshop description and aims

The overall aim of the workshop is to provide a general overview of what LAMS is. We will also look at how the development of LAMS has evolved and how it is different from (but complementary to) other Learning Management Systems. Results from various trials will also be discussed. There will be a brief introduction to the LAMS Community site and the resources that are offered.

The workshop will be highly practical with participants having ample opportunity to explore the Learner, Monitor and Authoring interfaces in LAMS. There will be a number of ready made sequences available for participants to look at and/or adapt.

Outcomes for participants

During the workshop participants will:

  • Examine the place of LAMS in e-learning;
  • Examine the integration of LAMS with other Learning Management systems;
  • Discuss learning and teaching issues and results from various trials;
  • Participate as a learner in an introductory LAMS sequence;
  • Author a sequence in LAMS;
  • Explore various existing sequences and discuss pedagogical approaches;
  • Explore the monitoring environment;
  • Evaluate LAMS as a tool for facilitating e-learning.

Familiarity with using the Internet, and basic computer skills. No prior experience with LAMS is necessary for this workshop.

Presenter: Leanne Cameron (English) and Ernie Ghiglione (Spanish)

Click here for details about the Advanced workshop

6th - 8th December 2006, Sydney Australia


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Ryan Bain
Las Lomas High

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Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics

New NASA Missions to Investigate How Mars Turned Hostile

November 18, 2011
Artist's concept of MAVEN in orbit at Mars

MAVEN will measure the upper atmosphere of Mars to determine the climate history of the planet. (Courtesy NASA/GSFC)

Maybe because it appears as a speck of blood in the sky, the planet Mars was named after the Roman god of war. From the point of view of life as we know it, that’s appropriate. The Martian surface is incredibly hostile for life. The Red Planet’s thin atmosphere does little to shield the ground against radiation from the Sun and space. Harsh chemicals, like hydrogen peroxide, permeate the soil. Liquid water, a necessity for life, can’t exist for very long here—any that does not quickly evaporate in the diffuse air will soon freeze out in subzero temperatures common over much of the planet.

It wasn’t always this way. There are signs that in the distant past, billions of years ago, Mars was a much more inviting place. Martian terrain is carved with channels that resemble dry riverbeds. Spacecraft sent to orbit Mars have identified patches of minerals that form only in the presence of liquid water. It appears that in its youth, Mars was a place that could have harbored life, with a thicker atmosphere warm enough for rain that formed lakes or even seas.

Two new NASA missions, one that will roam the surface and another that will orbit the planet and dip briefly into its upper atmosphere, will try to discover what transformed Mars. “The ultimate driver for these missions is the question, did Mars ever have life?” says Paul Mahaffy of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. “Did microbial life ever originate on Mars, and what happened to it as the planet changed? Did it just go extinct, or did it go underground, where it would be protected from space radiation and temperatures might be warm enough for liquid water?”

The Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission features Curiosity, the largest and most advanced rover ever sent to the Red Planet. The Curiosity rover bristles with multiple cameras and instruments, including Goddard’s Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument suite. By looking for evidence of water, carbon, and other important building blocks of life in the Martian soil and atmosphere, SAM will help discover whether Mars ever had the potential to support life. Scheduled to launch in late November or December 2011, Curiosity will be delivered to Gale crater, a 96-mile-wide crater that contains a record of environmental changes in its sedimentary rock, in August 2012.

The Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN (MAVEN) mission, scheduled to launch in late 2013, will orbit Mars and is devoted to understanding the Red Planet’s upper atmosphere. It will help determine what caused the Martian atmosphere—and water— to be lost to space, making the climate increasingly inhospitable for life.

“Both MAVEN and Curiosity/SAM will determine the history of the Martian climate and atmosphere using multiple approaches,” said MAVEN Principal Investigator Bruce Jakosky of the University of Colorado’s Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics. “Measurements of isotope ratios are an approach shared by both missions.”

Isotopes are heavier versions of an element. For example, deuterium is a heavy version of hydrogen. Normally, two atoms of hydrogen join to an oxygen atom to make a water molecule, but sometimes the heavy (and rare) deuterium takes a hydrogen atom’s place.

When water gets lofted into Mars’ upper atmosphere, solar radiation can break it apart into hydrogen (or deuterium) and oxygen. Hydrogen escapes faster because it is lighter than deuterium. Since the lighter version escapes more often, over time, the Martian atmosphere has less and less hydrogen compared to the amount of deuterium remaining. The Martian atmosphere therefore becomes richer and richer in deuterium.

The MAVEN team will measure the amount of deuterium compared to the amount of hydrogen in Mars’ upper atmosphere, which is the planet’s present-day deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) ratio. They will compare it to the ratio Mars had when it was young—the early D/H ratio. (The early ratio can be measured from the D/H ratio in ancient Martian minerals and estimated from observations of the D/H ratio in comets and asteroids, which are believed to be pristine, “fossil” remnants of our solar system’s formation.)

Comparing the present and early D/H ratios will allow the team to calculate how much hydrogen (and, therefore, water) has been lost over Mars’ lifetime. MAVEN will also determine how much Martian atmosphere has been lost over time by measuring the isotope ratios of other elements in the very high atmosphere, such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, and noble gases like argon.

MAVEN is expected to reach Mars in 2014. By then, SAM on board the Curiosity rover will have made similar measurements from Gale crater, which will help guide the interpretation of MAVEN’s upper atmosphere measurements.

Measuring isotopes in the atmosphere will reveal its present state. To find out what the Martian atmosphere was like in the past, scientists will use what they discover with MAVEN about the various ways the atmosphere is being removed. With that data, they will build computer simulations, or models, to estimate the condition of the Red Planet’s atmosphere billions of years ago.

Scientists estimate Gale crater may have formed more than three billion years ago. Curiosity will grind up Gale crater minerals and deliver them to SAM so the isotope ratios can be measured, giving a glimpse at the Martian atmosphere from long ago, perhaps when it could have supported life. “SAM’s inputs from the surface of past Martian history will help the MAVEN team work backwards to discover how the Martian atmosphere evolved,” said Joseph Grebowsky of NASA Goddard, MAVEN Project Scientist.

“For example, MAVEN will focus primarily on how solar activity erodes the Martian atmosphere,” adds Mahaffy. Things like the solar wind, a tenuous stream of electrically conducting gas blown from the surface of the Sun, and explosions in the Sun’s atmosphere called solar flares, and eruptions of solar material called coronal mass ejections can all strip away the upper atmosphere of Mars in various ways. “If we figure out how much atmosphere is removed by changes in solar activity, we can extrapolate back to estimate what the isotope ratios should have been billions of years ago. However, if the measurements of the ancient ratios from SAM don’t match up, this suggests that we may have to look at other ways the atmosphere could have been lost, such as giant impacts from asteroids,” says Mahaffy, who is Principal Investigator for SAM and Instrument Lead for the Neutral Gas and Ion Mass Spectrometer instrument on MAVEN. Some scientists believe giant impacts could have blasted significant amounts of the Martian atmosphere into space.

Also, Curiosity will carry a weather station, which will help the MAVEN team understand how changes in the upper atmosphere are related to changes at the surface. “For example, if the rover detects a dust storm, it may have an effect higher up because of the winds and the gravity waves (the bobbing up and down of a parcel of air) it sets up,” says Grebowsky.

“Curiosity will focus on geology and minerals to determine if the environment on Mars in the distant past had the potential to support life,” said Mahaffy. “It will be digging in the dirt trying to understand the habitability issue in a place where water may have flowed, where there could have been a lake. Habitability is also the basic theme of MAVEN—it will be trying to understand from the top down how the atmosphere evolved over time and how it was lost, which ties back to how clement it was early on.”

MAVEN is part of NASA’s Mars Scout program, funded by NASA Headquarters, Washington, D.C. The project is led out of the University of Colorado and managed by NASA Goddard. The Mars Science Laboratory is managed for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C., by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena.

Bill Steigerwald
NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md.

To read the original NASA feature story, visit

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Being the second under the Sovereign Pontiff, Pius IV., celebrated on the twenty-sixth day of February, MDLXII.

The sacred and holy, oecumenical and general Synod of Trent,--lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the same Legates of the Apostolic See presiding therein,--not confiding in human strength, but relying on the succour and assistance of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has promised that he would give to His Church a mouth and wisdom, hath especially in view to restore at length to its native purity and splendour, the doctrine of the Catholic faith, which is in many places defiled and obscured by the conflicting opinions of many who differ from each other; to bring back, to a better method of life, manners, which have divaricated from ancient usage; and to turn the heart of the fathers unto tke children, and the heart of the children unto the fathers. Whereas, then, first of all, it has noticed that the number of suspected and pernicious books, wherein an impure doctrine is Contained, and is disseminated far and wide, has in these days increased beyond measure, which indeed has been the cause that many censures have been, out of a godly zeal, published in divers provinces, and especially in the fair city of Rome,--and yet that no salutary remedy has availed against so great and pernicious a disorder; It hath thought good, that Fathers specially chosen for this inquiry, should carefully consider what ought to be done in the matter of censures and of books, and also in due time report thereon to this holy Synod; to the end that It may more easily separate the various and strange doctrines, as cockle from the wheat of Christian truth, and may more conveniently deliberate and determine, in regard thereof, that which shall seem best adapted to remove scruples from the minds of very many, and to do away with various causes of complaint. And the Synod wishes all this to come to the knowledge of all persons whatsoever, as by this present decree It doth make them cognizant thereof; in order that if any person may think himself in any way concerned, either in this matter of books and censures, or in the other things which It has declared beforehand are to be treated of in this General Council, he may not doubt but that he will be kindly listened to by the Holy Synod. And forasmuch as this said holy Synod heartily desires, and earnestly beseeches God for the things that are for the peace of the Church, that we all, acknowledging our common mother on earth, who cannot forget the sons of her womb, with one mouth may glorify Cod, and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ; It invites and exhorts, by the bowels of the mercy of our same God and Lord, all who hold not communion with us, unto concord and reconciliation, and to come unto this holy Synod; to embrace charity, which is the bond of perfection, and to show forth the peace of Christ rejoicing in thoir hearts, whereunto they are called, lit one body. Wherefore, in hearing this voice, not of man, but of the Holy Ghost, let them not harden their hearts, but, walking not after their own sense, nor pleasing themselves, let them be moved and converted by this so charitable and salutary an admonition of their own mother; for, as the holy Synod invites, so will It embrace them with all proofs of love. Moreover, this same holy Synod has decreed, that the public faith may be granted in a general congregation, and that It shall have the same force, and shall be of the same authority and weight as if it had been given and decreed in public Session.

The same sacred and holy Synod of Trent, lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the same Legates of the Apostolic See presiding therein, resolves and decrees, that the next ensuing Session be held and celebrated on the Thursday after the most sacred festival of the Ascension of our Lord, which will be on the fourteenth day of the month of May.

In a General Congregation, on the fourth day of March, MDLXII.

The sacred and holy, ocecumenical and general Synod of Trent,--lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the same Legates of the Apostolic See presiding therein,--certifies to all men, that, by the tenour of these presents, It grants and wholly concedes the public faith, and the fullest and most true security, which they entitle a safe-conduct, to all and singular the priests, electors, princes, dukes, marquisses, counts, barons, nobles, soldiers, commonalty, and to all other persons whatsoever, of what state, condition, or quality soever they may be, of the province and nation of Germany, and to the cities and other places thereof, and to all the ecclesiastical and secular persons, especially those of the Confession of Augsburg, who shall come, or shall be sent with them to this General Council of Trent, and to those that shall set forth, or have already repaired hither, by whatsoever name they are entitled, or may be designated,--to Come freely to this city of Trent, and there to remain, abide, sojourn, and to propose, speak, and treat of, examine and discuss any matters whatsoever together with the said Synod, and freely to present and set forth all whatsoever they may think fit, and any articles whatever, either in writing or by word of mouth, and to explain, establish, and prove them by the sacred Scriptures, and by the words, passages, and reasons of the blessed Fathers, and to answer even, if it be needful, to the objections of the General Council, and to dispute, or to confer in charity, without any hindrance with those who have been selected by the Council, all opprobrious, railing, and contumelious language being utterly discarded; and, in particular, that the controverted matters shall be treated of, in the aforesaid Council of Trent, according to sacred Scripture, and the traditions of the apostles, approved Councils, the consent of the Catholic Church, and the authorities of the holy Fathers; with this further addition, that they shall not be punished under pretence of religion, or of offences already committed, or that may be committed, in regard thereof; as also, that the divine offices shall not, on account of their presence, be in any way interrupted, either upon the road, or in any place during their progress, their stay, or their return, or in the city of Trent itself ; and that, upon these matters being concluded, or before they are concluded, if they, or any of them, shall wish, and whensover such is their or his pleasure, or the command and leave of their superiors, to return to their own homes, they shall forthwith be able at their good pleasure, to return freely and securely, without any let, obstacle, or delay, without injury done to their property, or to the honour also and persons of their attendants respectively,--notifying, however, this their purpose of withdrawing, to those who shall be deputed hereunto by the said Synod, that so, without deceit or fraud, proper measures may be taken for their safety. The holy Synod also wills that all clauses whatsoever, which may be necessary and useful for a full, effectual, and sufficient security in coming, sojourning, and returning, be included and comprised, and be accounted as comprised, in this public faith and safe-conduct. It also expressly declares, with a view to their greater security, and the blessing of peace and reconciliation, that if, which God forbid, any one, or divers amongst them, should, either on the road when coming to Trent, or whilst sojourning at, or returning from that same city, perpetrate or commit any heinous act, whereby the benefit of this public faith and assurance might be annulled and quashed, that It wills and grants, that the persons discovered in any such crime shall be forthwith punished by their own countrymen, and not by others, with a proportionate chastisement and a sufficient reparation, which the Synod on its part may justly approve of and commend,--the form, conditions, and terms of their safe-conduct remaining wholly untouched thereby. It also reciprocally wills, that if, which God forbid, any one, or divers, of this Synod, should, either on the road, or whilst sojourning at, or returning therefrom, perpetrate or commit any heinous act, whereby the benefit of this public faith and assurance may be violated, or in any way set aside, the persons discovered in any such Crime shall be forthwith punished by the Synod itself, and not by others, with a proportionate chastisement and a sufficient reparation, which the Germans of the Confession of Augsburg, who may be present here at the time, may on their part justly approve of and commend,--the present form, Conditions, and terms of the safe-conduct remaining wholly untouched thereby. The said Synod also wills, that all and each of the ambassadors shall be allowed to go out of the City of Trent to take the air, as often as it shall be convenient or necessary, and to return thither; as also freely to send or despatch their messenger or messengers to any plaCes whatsoever, according as their affairs may require, and to receive the said messengers or messenger, despatches or despatch, as often as they shall think fit; so as however one or more be associated therewith by the deputies of the Council, to provide for the safety of the said couriers: and this safe-conduct and these securities shall stand good and endure, both from and during the time that they shall have been received under the Care of the said Synod, and the pro tection of its agents ; and further, after they have had a sufficient audience, and twenty days having expired after they have themselves asked, or after the Council, upon that audience had, shall have given them notice, to return, It will, all deceit and fraud being entirely excluded, reconduct them, with God's help, from Trent to that place of safety which each may select for himself. All which things It promises, and in good faith pledges Itself, shall be inviolably observed towards all and each of the faithful of Christ, towards all ecclesiastical and secular princes, and towards all other ecclesiastical and secular persons, of whatsoever state and condition they may be, or by whatsoever name designated.

Furthermore, It promises in sincere and good faith, without fraud or deceit, that the said Synod will, neither openly nor covertly, seek for any opportunity, nor make use of, nor suffer any one else to make use of, any authority, power, right, or statute, privilege of laws or canons, or of any Councils whatsoever, especially those of Constance and Sienna, under what form soever expressed; to the prejudice in any way of this public faith, and most full security, and of the public and free hearing, by this said Synod granted to the above-named;--derogating from the aforesaid in this regard and for this occasion. And if the holy Synod, or any member thereof, or of their followers, of whatsoever condition, state, or pre-eminence, shall violate--which may the Almighty for fend-the form and terms of the security and safe-conduct as above set down, in any point or clause whatever, and a sufficient reparation shall not have forthwith followed, and one that may with reason be approved of and praised by the (interested) parties themselves; they may and shall hold the said Synod to have incurred all those penalties, which, by law human and divine, or by custom, the violators of such safe-conducts can possibly incur,--without there being any excuse, or Contrary allegation in this regard.

The same sacred and holy Synod, lawfully assembled in the Holy Ghost, the same Legates a latere of the Apostolic See presiding therein, grants the public faith, or a safe-conduct, under the same form, and in the same terms, wherein it is granted to the Germans, to all and each of those others, who hold not communion with us in matters of faith, of whatsoever kingdoms, nations, provinces, Cities, and places they may be, wherein the contrary, to that which the holy Roman Church holds, is publicly and with impunity preached, taught, or believed.

Latin Rite Mass


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Law Religion Culture Review

Exploring the intersections of law, religion and culture. Copyright by Richard J. Radcliffe. All rights reserved.

Tuesday, March 22, 2005

Constitution Anyone?, Part III.

This is not your parents' 4-H Club.

Members of this club made a film depicting teenagers killing other teenagers with knives. The local 4-H director suspended them pending an investigation to determine whether they posed a risk of violent behavior. The students sued the Regents of the University of California (who administered the club), contending the suspension from the 4-H club violated their free speech rights. (Robbins v. Regents of the University of California, Case No. B169470, March 16, 2005; read the full case here.)

Finding no constitutional violation, the trial court granted the Regents' motion for summary judgment. The Court of Appeal affirmed. The appellate court observed that the movie indisputably contained violence and raised concerns about the possibility of future violence. The temporary suspension was intended to protect the club members, rather than to discipline the filmmakers. Under these facts, there was no First Amendment violation.

This case demonstrates two general principles of constitutional jurisprudence. First, courts often engage in a balancing of competing interests or principles. Here, the potential danger to the minors in the club was to be balanced against the members' free speech rights. In light of recent events, a brief suspension to investigate potential violence hardly seems unreasonable.

Second, the First Amendment is not absolute; not all speech is "free". There are limits to free speech, such as liability for slander.

This case crystallizes the application of such principles in a reasonable opinion.


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Stream A Monster Calls

28 wins & 41 nominations.

Internet Movie Database
A Monster Calls

Genres: Drama, Fantasy

Countries: USA, UK, Spain

Released: 2016

A Monster Calls

Stream A Monster Calls now online

A Monster Calls

The monster does not come walking often. This time it comes to Connor, and it asks for the one thing Connor cannot bring himself to do. Tell the truth. This is a very touching story about a boy who feels very damaged, guilty and mostly angry. He struggles at school with bullies, and pity looks from everyone, and at home with his mother's sickness. Will Connor overcome his problems? Will everything be okay? Will Connor be able to speak the truth?

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To find ideas for your child, click on the age range blog label or on the theme/topic you are looking for (on the left side of the page). In each post, we try to list optimal age ranges for the activity, but you must judge for yourself if it is appropriate for your child. When you try an activity out, please comment and let us (and everyone else) know how your child liked it!

Wednesday, December 23, 2009

Gingerbread Tips

Last year, I had a fabulous idea. We would make a gingerbread house as a family! I had in my head this picture perfect scene of my husband and me with our two beautiful children joyously creating this item so closely connected with the Christmas season.

Oh. My. It was far from that. I spent most of my time telling the children to be patient and that they couldn't eat the candy. Kaitlyn (then about 1.5) spent most of the time upset that she wasn't able to eat candy. Bradyen (then 3.5) spent most of the time anxious to decorate the house.

Once they did start decorating, my husband and I foolishly directed their moves. The whole time we were looking at each other with this laugh of, "What were we thinking?" We pretty much decided to never do that again until our kids were much older.

Fast forward one year. The effects of last year had worn off and I decided it wasn't that bad. I went for a train kit this year; a train would be better than a house! My husband kind of gave me this look like I was crazy, but was nice enough to go along with my plan.

I had thought things over and realized the problem with last year's experience was fully with the parents (um, that would be me and my husband). We wanted this perfect looking house. This year, we decided we didn't care how the train turned out--we would just let the kids have fun.

It worked! We had fun, the kids had fun, and the train turned out quite nice (pictured above)! So what are my tips for making a gingerbread creation with your children?
  1. Assemble the house/train/whatever beforehand. That way, the kids won't be sitting by you constantly asking when you are going to be done so they can decorate. This will also give the item time to set up before little hands come along...these hands are not delicate :)
  2. Give the kids candy. Give your children a little bowl of candy to eat at will. It is really quite unfair to give a child a pile of candy and then forbid him to eat any. Give him an amount you are okay with him eating.
  3. Leave perfectionism in the other room. Let your kids decorate it and forget about how it looks. In the end, in my experience, you treasure the chaotic one they created themselves more than the symmetrical one you micromanaged. If you are like me and tend to hover, do something to prevent yourself from doing so. I held my baby the whole time so I was distracted and just happy to have the older two busy :)
  4. Have fun!

Michael and Natalie said...

Val it really does look good! If I made a gingerbread anything right now, that is exactly what it would look like. I also have a hard time coloring in the lines.

Anonymous said...

What a great blog!
I post lots of craft and learning activities on my blog! I love children and learning right along with them!
Come on by for a visit, I love blog visits!
Merry Christmas!
I know I will be back to visit you!

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Full text
30.3. Subject to section 34 of this basic school regulation and section 470 of the Act, a student’s result for an examination set by the Minister is worth 20% of the student’s final mark.
O.C. 699-2007, s. 9; O.C. 712-2010, s. 7.


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Full text
34. For all programs of studies offered at the secondary level that lead to a Secondary School Diploma, the pass mark is 60%.
For all programs of studies for which the Minister sets an examination, the Minister shall take into account the summative evaluation of the student transmitted by the school board in a proportion of 50%, subject to section 470 of the Education Act (chapter I-13.3). The Minister shall then certify success or failure in that program.
O.C. 651-2000, s. 34.