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Existentialism ([1] or [2]) is a tradition of philosophical enquiry that explores the nature of existence by emphasizing experience of the human subject--not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.[3] In the view of the existentialist, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential angst" (or, variably, existential attitude, dread, etc.), or a sense of disorientation, confusion, or anxiety in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.[4]

Existentialism is associated mainly with certain 19th- and 20th-century European philosophers who shared an emphasis on the human subject, despite profound doctrinal differences.[5][3][6] Many existentialists regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[7][8] A primary virtue in existentialist thought is authenticity.[9]Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher,[5][10][11] though he did not use the term existentialism.[12] He proposed that each individual--not society or religion--is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or "authentically".[13][14]

Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, thanks to Jean-Paul Sartre, who read Martin Heidegger while in a POW camp and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.[15]

The term existentialism (French: L'existentialisme) was coined by the French Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-1940s.[16][17][18] At first, when Marcel applied the term to Jean-Paul Sartre at a colloquium in 1945, Sartre rejected it.[19] Sartre subsequently changed his mind and, on October 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist label in a lecture to the Club Maintenant in Paris, published as L'existentialisme est un humanisme (Existentialism is a Humanism), a short book that did much to popularize existentialist thought.[20] Marcel later came to reject the label himself in favour of the term Neo-Socratic, in honor of Kierkegaard's essay "On The Concept of Irony".

Some scholars argue that the term should be used only to refer to the cultural movement in Europe in the 1940s and 1950s associated with the works of the philosophers Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Albert Camus.[5] Other scholars extend the term to Kierkegaard, and yet others extend it as far back as Socrates.[21] However, the term is often identified with the philosophical views of Sartre.[5]

Definitional issues and background

The labels existentialism and existentialist are often seen as historical conveniences in as much as they were first applied to many philosophers in hindsight, long after they had died. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, the first prominent existentialist philosopher to adopt the term as a self-description was Sartre. Sartre posits the idea that "what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence," as the philosopher Frederick Copleston explains.[22] According to philosopher Steven Crowell, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better understood as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy itself.[5] Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as "the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism."[23]

Although many outside Scandinavia consider the term existentialism to have originated from Kierkegaard himself,[who?] it is more likely that Kierkegaard adopted this term (or at least the term "existential" as a description of his philosophy) from the Norwegian poet and literary critic Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven.[24] This assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern. Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. It is in the first conversation that it is believed that Welhaven came up with "a word that he said covered a certain thinking, which had a close and positive attitude to life, a relationship he described as existential".[25] This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern.

The second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term "existential" was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that "Hegelians do not study philosophy "existentially;" to use a phrase by Welhaven from one time when I spoke with him about philosophy."[26]

Existence precedes essence

Sartre argued that a central proposition of existentialism is that existence precedes essence, which means that the most important consideration for individuals is that they are individuals--independently acting and responsible, conscious beings ("existence")--rather than what labels, roles, stereotypes, definitions, or other preconceived categories the individuals fit ("essence"). The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their "true essence" instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them. Thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life.[27] This view is in contradistinction to what Aristotle and Aquinas held; they taught that essence precedes individual existence.[] Although it was Sartre who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of existentialist philosophers such as Heidegger, and Kierkegaard:

The subjective thinker's form, the form of his communication, is his style. His form must be just as manifold as are the opposites that he holds together. The systematic eins, zwei, drei is an abstract form that also must inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be applied to the concrete. To the same degree as the subjective thinker is concrete, to the same degree his form must also be concretely dialectical. But just as he himself is not a poet, not an ethicist, not a dialectician, so also his form is none of these directly. His form must first and last be related to existence, and in this regard he must have at his disposal the poetic, the ethical, the dialectical, the religious. Subordinate character, setting, etc., which belong to the well-balanced character of the esthetic production, are in themselves breadth; the subjective thinker has only one setting--existence--and has nothing to do with localities and such things. The setting is not the fairyland of the imagination, where poetry produces consummation, nor is the setting laid in England, and historical accuracy is not a concern. The setting is inwardness in existing as a human being; the concretion is the relation of the existence-categories to one another. Historical accuracy and historical actuality are breadth. Søren Kierkegaard (Concluding Postscript, Hong pp. 357-358)

Some interpret the imperative to define oneself as meaning that anyone can wish to be anything. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call "bad faith". Instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are (1) defined only insofar as they act and (2) that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, defined as a cruel person. Furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity (cruel persons). This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, bearing the blame.

As Sartre says in his lecture Existentialism is a Humanism: "man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world--and defines himself afterwards". The more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied: a person can choose to act in a different way, and to be a good person instead of a cruel person.[28]

Sartre's definition of existentialism was based on Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time (1927). In the correspondence with Jean Beaufret later published as the Letter on Humanism, Heidegger implies that Sartre misunderstood him for his own purposes of subjectivism, and that he did not mean that actions take precedence over being so long as those actions were not reflected upon.[29] Heidegger commented that "the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement", meaning that he thought Sartre had simply switched the roles traditionally attributed to essence and existence without interrogating these concepts and their history in the way that Heidegger claimed to have done.[30]

The absurd

Sisyphus, the symbol of the absurdity of existence, painting by Franz Stuck (1920)

The notion of the absurd contains the idea that there is no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give it. This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality or "unfairness" of the world. This conceptualization can be highlighted in the way it opposes the traditional Abrahamic religious perspective, which establishes that life's purpose is about the fulfillment of God's commandments.[31] Such a purpose is what gives meaning to people's lives. To live the life of the absurd means rejecting a life that finds or pursues specific meaning for man's existence since there is nothing to be discovered. According to Albert Camus, the world or the human being is not in itself absurd. The concept only emerges through the juxtaposition of the two, where life becomes absurd due to the incompatibility between human beings and the world they inhabit.[31] This view constitutes one of the two interpretations of the absurd in existentialist literature. The second view, which was first elaborated by Søren Kierkegaard, holds that absurdity is limited to actions and choices of human beings. These are considered absurd since they issue from human freedom, undermining their foundation outside of themselves.[32]

The notion of the absurd in existentialism contrasts with the claim that "bad things don't happen to good people"; to the world, metaphorically speaking, there is no such thing as a good person or a bad person; what happens happens, and it may just as well happen to a "good" person as to a "bad" person.[33] Because of the world's absurdity, at any point in time, anything can happen to anyone, and a tragic event could plummet someone into direct confrontation with the Absurd. The notion of the Absurd has been prominent in literature throughout history. Many of the literary works of Kierkegaard, Samuel Beckett, Franz Kafka, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Eugène Ionesco, Miguel de Unamuno, Luigi Pirandello,[34][35][36][37] Sartre, Joseph Heller, and Camus contain descriptions of people who encounter the absurdity of the world.

It is in relation to the concept of the devastating awareness of meaninglessness that Camus claimed that "there is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide" in his The Myth of Sisyphus. Although "prescriptions" against the possibly deleterious consequences of these kinds of encounters vary, from Kierkegaard's religious "stage" to Camus' insistence on persevering in spite of absurdity, the concern with helping people avoid living their lives in ways that put them in the perpetual danger of having everything meaningful break down is common to most existentialist philosophers. The possibility of having everything meaningful break down poses a threat of quietism, which is inherently against the existentialist philosophy.[38] It has been said that the possibility of suicide makes all humans existentialists. The ultimate hero of absurdism lives without meaning and faces suicide without succumbing to it.[39]

Facticity is a concept defined by Sartre in Being and Nothingness (1943) as the in-itself, which delineates for humans the modalities of being and not being. This can be more easily understood when considering facticity in relation to the temporal dimension of our past: one's past is what one is, in the sense that it co-constitutes oneself. However, to say that one is only one's past would be to ignore a significant part of reality (the present and the future), while saying that one's past is only what one was, would entirely detach it from oneself now. A denial of one's own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of facticity (having a human body--e.g., one that does not allow a person to run faster than the speed of sound--identity, values, etc.).[40]

Facticity is both a limitation and a condition of freedom. It is a limitation in that a large part of one's facticity consists of things one could not have chosen (birthplace, etc.), but a condition of freedom in the sense that one's values most likely depend on it. However, even though one's facticity is "set in stone" (as being past, for instance), it cannot determine a person: the value ascribed to one's facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person. As an example, consider two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the other who remembers everything. They both have committed many crimes, but the first man, knowing nothing about this, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feeling trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime, blaming his own past for "trapping" him in this life. There is nothing essential about his committing crimes, but he ascribes this meaning to his past.

However, to disregard one's facticity when, in the continual process of self-making, one projects oneself into the future, that would be to put oneself in denial of oneself, and thus would be inauthentic. In other words, the origin of one's projection must still be one's facticity, though in the mode of not being it (essentially). An example of one focusing solely on one's possible projects without reflecting on one's current facticity:[40] if one continually thinks about future possibilities related to being rich (e.g. a better car, bigger house, better quality of life, etc.) without considering the facticity of not currently having the financial means to do so. In this example, considering both facticity and transcendence, an authentic mode of being would be considering future projects that might improve one's current finances (e.g. putting in extra hours, or investing savings) in order to arrive at a future-facticity of a modest pay rise, further leading to purchase of an affordable car.

Another aspect of facticity is that it entails angst, both in the sense that freedom "produces" angst when limited by facticity, and in the sense that the lack of the possibility of having facticity to "step in" for one to take responsibility for something one has done, also produces angst.

Another aspect of existential freedom is that one can change one's values. Thus, one is responsible for one's values, regardless of society's values. The focus on freedom in existentialism is related to the limits of the responsibility one bears, as a result of one's freedom: the relationship between freedom and responsibility is one of interdependency, and a clarification of freedom also clarifies that for which one is responsible.[41][42]

Many noted existentialist writers consider the theme of authentic existence important. Authentic existence involves the idea that one has to "create oneself" and then live in accordance with this self. What is meant by authenticity is that in acting, one should act as oneself, not as "one's acts" or as "one's genes" or any other essence requires. The authentic act is one that is in accordance with one's freedom. As a condition of freedom is facticity, this includes one's facticity, but not to the degree that this facticity can in any way determine one's transcendent choices (in the sense that one could then blame one's background [facticity] for making the choice one made [chosen project, from one's transcendence]). The role of facticity in relation to authenticity involves letting one's actual values come into play when one makes a choice (instead of, like Kierkegaard's Aesthete, "choosing" randomly), so that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of choosing either-or without allowing the options to have different values.[43]

In contrast to this, the inauthentic is the denial to live in accordance with one's freedom. This can take many forms, from pretending choices are meaningless or random, through convincing oneself that some form of determinism is true, to a sort of "mimicry" where one acts as "one should".

How "one should" act is often determined by an image one has, of how one such as oneself (say, a bank manager, lion tamer, prostitute, etc) acts. In Being and Nothingness, Sartre relates an example of a "waiter" in bad faith: he merely takes part in the "act" of being a typical waiter, albeit very convincingly.[44] This image usually corresponds to some sort of social norm, but this does not mean that all acting in accordance with social norms is inauthentic: The main point is the attitude one takes to one's own freedom and responsibility, and the extent to which one acts in accordance with this freedom.

The Other and the Look

The Other (when written with a capital "O") is a concept more properly belonging to phenomenology and its account of intersubjectivity. However, the concept has seen widespread use in existentialist writings, and the conclusions drawn from it differ slightly from the phenomenological accounts. The experience of the Other is the experience of another free subject who inhabits the same world as a person does. In its most basic form, it is this experience of the Other that constitutes intersubjectivity and objectivity. To clarify, when one experiences someone else, and this Other person experiences the world (the same world that a person experiences)--only from "over there"--the world itself is constituted as objective in that it is something that is "there" as identical for both of the subjects; a person experiences the other person as experiencing the same things. This experience of the Other's look is what is termed the Look (sometimes the Gaze).[45]

While this experience, in its basic phenomenological sense, constitutes the world as objective, and oneself as objectively existing subjectivity (one experiences oneself as seen in the Other's Look in precisely the same way that one experiences the Other as seen by him, as subjectivity), in existentialism, it also acts as a kind of limitation of freedom. This is because the Look tends to objectify what it sees. As such, when one experiences oneself in the Look, one does not experience oneself as nothing (no thing), but as something. Sartre's own example of a man peeping at someone through a keyhole can help clarify this: at first, this man is entirely caught up in the situation he is in; he is in a pre-reflexive state where his entire consciousness is directed at what goes on in the room. Suddenly, he hears a creaking floorboard behind him, and he becomes aware of himself as seen by the Other. He is thus filled with shame for he perceives himself as he would perceive someone else doing what he was doing, as a Peeping Tom. For Sartre, this phenomenological experience of shame establishes a proof for the existence of other minds and defeats the problem of solipsism. For the conscious state of shame to be experienced, one has to become aware of oneself as an object of another look, proving a priori, that other minds exist.[46] The Look is then co-constitutive of one's facticity.

Another characteristic feature of the Look is that no Other really needs to have been there: It is quite possible that the creaking floorboard was nothing but the movement of an old house; the Look is not some kind of mystical telepathic experience of the actual way the other sees one (there may also have been someone there, but he could have not noticed that the person was there). It is only one's perception of the way another might perceive him.

Angst and dread

"Existential angst", sometimes called existential dread, anxiety, or anguish, is a term that is common to many existentialist thinkers. It is generally held to be a negative feeling arising from the experience of human freedom and responsibility. The archetypical example is the experience one has when standing on a cliff where one not only fears falling off it, but also dreads the possibility of throwing oneself off. In this experience that "nothing is holding me back", one senses the lack of anything that predetermines one to either throw oneself off or to stand still, and one experiences one's own freedom.

It can also be seen in relation to the previous point how angst is before nothing, and this is what sets it apart from fear that has an object. While in the case of fear, one can take definitive measures to remove the object of fear, in the case of angst, no such "constructive" measures are possible. The use of the word "nothing" in this context relates both to the inherent insecurity about the consequences of one's actions, and to the fact that, in experiencing freedom as angst, one also realizes that one is fully responsible for these consequences. There is nothing in people (genetically, for instance) that acts in their stead--that they can blame if something goes wrong. Therefore, not every choice is perceived as having dreadful possible consequences (and, it can be claimed, human lives would be unbearable if every choice facilitated dread). However, this does not change the fact that freedom remains a condition of every action.

Despair is generally defined as a loss of hope.[47] In existentialism, it is more specifically a loss of hope in reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the defining qualities of one's self or identity. If a person is invested in being a particular thing, such as a bus driver or an upstanding citizen, and then finds their being-thing compromised, they would normally be found in a state of despair--a hopeless state. For example, a singer who loses the ability to sing may despair if they have nothing else to fall back on--nothing to rely on for their identity. They find themselves unable to be what defined their being.

What sets the existentialist notion of despair apart from the conventional definition is that existentialist despair is a state one is in even when they are not overtly in despair. So long as a person's identity depends on qualities that can crumble, they are in perpetual despair--and as there is, in Sartrean terms, no human essence found in conventional reality on which to constitute the individual's sense of identity, despair is a universal human condition. As Kierkegaard defines it in Either/Or: "Let each one learn what he can; both of us can learn that a person's unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy."[48] In Works of Love, he says:

When the God-forsaken worldliness of earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the confined air develops poison, the moment gets stuck and stands still, the prospect is lost, a need is felt for a refreshing, enlivening breeze to cleanse the air and dispel the poisonous vapors lest we suffocate in worldliness. ... Lovingly to hope all things is the opposite of despairingly to hope nothing at all. Love hopes all things--yet is never put to shame. To relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of the good is to hope. To relate oneself expectantly to the possibility of evil is to fear. By the decision to choose hope one decides infinitely more than it seems, because it is an eternal decision. [pages 246-250]

Opposition to positivism and rationalism

Existentialists oppose definitions of human beings as primarily rational, and, therefore, oppose positivism and rationalism. Existentialism asserts that people actually make decisions based on subjective meaning rather than pure rationality. The rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the feelings of anxiety and dread that we feel in the face of our own radical freedom and our awareness of death. Kierkegaard advocated rationality as a means to interact with the objective world (e.g., in the natural sciences), but when it comes to existential problems, reason is insufficient: "Human reason has boundaries".[49]

Like Kierkegaard, Sartre saw problems with rationality, calling it a form of "bad faith", an attempt by the self to impose structure on a world of phenomena--"the Other"--that is fundamentally irrational and random. According to Sartre, rationality and other forms of bad faith hinder people from finding meaning in freedom. To try to suppress their feelings of anxiety and dread, people confine themselves within everyday experience, Sartre asserts, thereby relinquishing their freedom and acquiescing to being possessed in one form or another by "the Look" of "the Other" (i.e., possessed by another person--or at least one's idea of that other person).[50]

An existentialist reading of the Bible would demand that the reader recognize that they are an existing subject studying the words more as a recollection of events. This is in contrast to looking at a collection of "truths" that are outside and unrelated to the reader, but may develop a sense of reality/God. Such a reader is not obligated to follow the commandments as if an external agent is forcing these commandments upon them, but as though they are inside them and guiding them from inside. This is the task Kierkegaard takes up when he asks: "Who has the more difficult task: the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life--or the learner who should put it to use?"[51]

Confusion with nihilism

Although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philosophies, they are often confused with one another as both are rooted in the human experience of anguish and confusion stemming from the apparent meaninglessness of a world in which humans are compelled to find or create meaning.[52] A primary cause of confusion is that Friedrich Nietzsche is an important philosopher in both fields. Existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of Angst as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced to a moral or an existential nihilism. A pervasive theme in the works of existentialist philosophy, however, is to persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus ("One must imagine Sisyphus happy"),[53] and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one's self-created meaning: Kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the religious (although he wouldn't himself agree that it was ethical; the religious suspends the ethical), and Sartre's final words in Being and Nothingness are "All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or impure) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane. We shall devote to them a future work."[44]

19th century

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were two of the first philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the term "existentialism" and it is unclear whether they would have supported the existentialism of the 20th century. They focused on subjective human experience rather than the objective truths of mathematics and science, which they believed were too detached or observational to truly get at the human experience. Like Pascal, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape from boredom. Unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices, particularly regarding fundamental values and beliefs, and how such choices change the nature and identity of the chooser.[54] Kierkegaard's knight of faith and Nietzsche's Übermensch are representative of people who exhibit Freedom, in that they define the nature of their own existence. Nietzsche's idealized individual invents his own values and creates the very terms they excel under. By contrast, Kierkegaard, opposed to the level of abstraction in Hegel, and not nearly as hostile (actually welcoming) to Christianity as Nietzsche, argues through a pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths (specifically Christian) is not only impossible, but even founded on logical paradoxes. Yet he continues to imply that a leap of faith is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life. Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were also precursors to other intellectual movements, including postmodernism, and various strands of psychotherapy. However, Kierkegaard believed that individuals should live in accordance with their thinking.

Dostoyevsky and Sartre

The first important literary author also important to existentialism was the Russian, Dostoyevsky.[55] Dostoyevsky's Notes from Underground portrays a man unable to fit into society and unhappy with the identities he creates for himself. Sartre, in his book on existentialism Existentialism is a Humanism, quoted Dostoyevsky's The Brothers Karamazov as an example of existential crisis. Sartre attributes Ivan Karamazov's claim, "If God did not exist, everything would be permitted"[56] to Dostoyevsky himself, though this quote does not appear in the novel.[57] However, a similar sentiment is explicitly stated when Alyosha visits Dimitri in prison. Dimitri mentions his conversations with Rakitin in which the idea that "Then, if He doesn't exist, man is king of the earth, of the universe" allowing the inference contained in Sartre's attribution to remain a valid idea contested within the novel.[58] Other Dostoyevsky novels covered issues raised in existentialist philosophy while presenting story lines divergent from secular existentialism: for example, in Crime and Punishment, the protagonist Raskolnikov experiences an existential crisis and then moves toward a Christian Orthodox worldview similar to that advocated by Dostoyevsky himself.[59]

Early 20th century

In the first decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas. The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo, in his 1913 book The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations, emphasized the life of "flesh and bone" as opposed to that of abstract rationalism. Unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the individual's quest for faith. He retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in the eponymous character from the Miguel de Cervantes novel Don Quixote. A novelist, poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the University of Salamanca, Unamuno wrote a short story about a priest's crisis of faith, Saint Manuel the Good, Martyr, which has been collected in anthologies of existentialist fiction. Another Spanish thinker, Ortega y Gasset, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be defined as the individual person combined with the concrete circumstances of his life: "Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia" ("I am myself and my circumstances"). Sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an abstract matter, but is always situated ("en situation").

Although Martin Buber wrote his major philosophical works in German, and studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and Frankfurt, he stands apart from the mainstream of German philosophy. Born into a Jewish family in Vienna in 1878, he was also a scholar of Jewish culture and involved at various times in Zionism and Hasidism. In 1938, he moved permanently to Jerusalem. His best-known philosophical work was the short book I and Thou, published in 1922. For Buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is "man with man", a dialogue that takes place in the so-called "sphere of between" ("das Zwischenmenschliche").[60]

Two Ukrainian born thinkers, Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev, became well known as existentialist thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris. Shestov, born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in Kiev, had launched an attack on rationalism and systematization in philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of aphorisms All Things Are Possible.

Berdyaev, also from Kiev but with a background in the Eastern Orthodox Church, drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world of objects. Human freedom, for Berdyaev, is rooted in the realm of spirit, a realm independent of scientific notions of causation. To the extent the individual human being lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom. "Man" is not to be interpreted naturalistically, but as a being created in God's image, an originator of free, creative acts.[61] He published a major work on these themes, The Destiny of Man, in 1931.

Marcel, long before coining the term "existentialism", introduced important existentialist themes to a French audience in his early essay "Existence and Objectivity" (1925) and in his Metaphysical Journal (1927).[62] A dramatist as well as a philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of metaphysical alienation: the human individual searching for harmony in a transient life. Harmony, for Marcel, was to be sought through "secondary reflection", a "dialogical" rather than "dialectical" approach to the world, characterized by "wonder and astonishment" and open to the "presence" of other people and of God rather than merely to "information" about them. For Marcel, such presence implied more than simply being there (as one thing might be in the presence of another thing); it connoted "extravagant" availability, and the willingness to put oneself at the disposal of the other.[63]

Marcel contrasted secondary reflection with abstract, scientific-technical primary reflection, which he associated with the activity of the abstract Cartesian ego. For Marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken by a sensing, feeling human being incarnate--embodied--in a concrete world.[62][64] Although Sartre adopted the term "existentialism" for his own philosophy in the 1940s, Marcel's thought has been described as "almost diametrically opposed" to that of Sartre.[62] Unlike Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, and became a Catholic convert in 1929.

In Germany, the psychologist and philosopher Karl Jaspers--who later described existentialism as a "phantom" created by the public[65]--called his own thought, heavily influenced by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, Existenzphilosophie. For Jaspers, "Existenz-philosophy is the way of thought by means of which man seeks to become himself...This way of thought does not cognize objects, but elucidates and makes actual the being of the thinker".[66]

Jaspers, a professor at the University of Heidelberg, was acquainted with Heidegger, who held a professorship at Marburg before acceding to Husserl's chair at Freiburg in 1928. They held many philosophical discussions, but later became estranged over Heidegger's support of National Socialism (Nazism). They shared an admiration for Kierkegaard,[67] and in the 1930s, Heidegger lectured extensively on Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the extent to which Heidegger should be considered an existentialist is debatable. In Being and Time he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (Dasein) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (existentiale); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement.

After the Second World War

Following the Second World War, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural movement, mainly through the public prominence of two French writers, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, who wrote best-selling novels, plays and widely read journalism as well as theoretical texts.[68] These years also saw the growing reputation of Being and Time outside Germany.

French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir

Sartre dealt with existentialist themes in his 1938 novel Nausea and the short stories in his 1939 collection The Wall, and had published his treatise on existentialism, Being and Nothingness, in 1943, but it was in the two years following the liberation of Paris from the German occupying forces that he and his close associates--Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and others--became internationally famous as the leading figures of a movement known as existentialism.[69] In a very short period of time, Camus and Sartre in particular became the leading public intellectuals of post-war France, achieving by the end of 1945 "a fame that reached across all audiences."[70] Camus was an editor of the most popular leftist (former French Resistance) newspaper Combat; Sartre launched his journal of leftist thought, Les Temps Modernes, and two weeks later gave the widely reported lecture on existentialism and secular humanism to a packed meeting of the Club Maintenant. Beauvoir wrote that "not a week passed without the newspapers discussing us";[71] existentialism became "the first media craze of the postwar era."[72]

By the end of 1947, Camus' earlier fiction and plays had been reprinted, his new play Caligula had been performed and his novel The Plague published; the first two novels of Sartre's The Roads to Freedom trilogy had appeared, as had Beauvoir's novel The Blood of Others. Works by Camus and Sartre were already appearing in foreign editions. The Paris-based existentialists had become famous.[69]

Sartre had traveled to Germany in 1930 to study the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger,[73] and he included critical comments on their work in his major treatise Being and Nothingness. Heidegger's thought had also become known in French philosophical circles through its use by Alexandre Kojève in explicating Hegel in a series of lectures given in Paris in the 1930s.[74] The lectures were highly influential; members of the audience included not only Sartre and Merleau-Ponty, but Raymond Queneau, Georges Bataille, Louis Althusser, André Breton, and Jacques Lacan.[75] A selection from Being and Time was published in French in 1938, and his essays began to appear in French philosophy journals.

French philosopher, novelist, and playwright Albert Camus

Heidegger read Sartre's work and was initially impressed, commenting: "Here for the first time I encountered an independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which I think. Your work shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before encountered."[76] Later, however, in response to a question posed by his French follower Jean Beaufret,[77] Heidegger distanced himself from Sartre's position and existentialism in general in his Letter on Humanism.[78] Heidegger's reputation continued to grow in France during the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1960s, Sartre attempted to reconcile existentialism and Marxism in his work Critique of Dialectical Reason. A major theme throughout his writings was freedom and responsibility.

Camus was a friend of Sartre, until their falling-out, and wrote several works with existential themes including The Rebel, Summer in Algiers, The Myth of Sisyphus, and The Stranger, the latter being "considered--to what would have been Camus's irritation--the exemplary existentialist novel."[79] Camus, like many others, rejected the existentialist label, and considered his works concerned with facing the absurd. In the titular book, Camus uses the analogy of the Greek myth of Sisyphus to demonstrate the futility of existence. In the myth, Sisyphus is condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom again. Camus believes that this existence is pointless but that Sisyphus ultimately finds meaning and purpose in his task, simply by continually applying himself to it. The first half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of what Camus took to be existentialist philosophy in the works of Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger, and Jaspers.

Simone de Beauvoir, an important existentialist who spent much of her life as Sartre's partner, wrote about feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including The Second Sex and The Ethics of Ambiguity. Although often overlooked due to her relationship with Sartre,[80] de Beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, resulting in alienation from fellow writers such as Camus.[59]

Paul Tillich, an important existentialist theologian following Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, applied existentialist concepts to Christian theology, and helped introduce existential theology to the general public. His seminal work The Courage to Be follows Kierkegaard's analysis of anxiety and life's absurdity, but puts forward the thesis that modern humans must, via God, achieve selfhood in spite of life's absurdity. Rudolf Bultmann used Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's philosophy of existence to demythologize Christianity by interpreting Christian mythical concepts into existentialist concepts.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an existential phenomenologist, was for a time a companion of Sartre. Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception (1945) was recognized as a major statement of French existentialism.[81] It has been said that Merleau-Ponty's work Humanism and Terror greatly influenced Sartre. However, in later years they were to disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de Beauvoir,[59] who sided with Sartre.

Colin Wilson, an English writer, published his study The Outsider in 1956, initially to critical acclaim. In this book and others (e.g. Introduction to the New Existentialism), he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. He was not, however, academically trained, and his work was attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and critical standards.[82]

Influence outside philosophy

Film and television

Adolphe Menjou (left) and Kirk Douglas (right) in Paths of Glory (1957)

Stanley Kubrick's 1957 anti-war film Paths of Glory "illustrates, and even illuminates...existentialism" by examining the "necessary absurdity of the human condition" and the "horror of war".[83] The film tells the story of a fictional World War I French army regiment ordered to attack an impregnable German stronghold; when the attack fails, three soldiers are chosen at random, court-martialed by a "kangaroo court", and executed by firing squad. The film examines existentialist ethics, such as the issue of whether objectivity is possible and the "problem of authenticity".[83]Orson Welles' 1962 film The Trial, based upon Franz Kafka's book of the same name (Der Process), is characteristic of both existentialist and absurdist themes in its depiction of a man (Joseph K.) arrested for a crime for which the charges are neither revealed to him nor to the reader.

Neon Genesis Evangelion is a Japanese science fiction animation series created by the anime studio Gainax and was both directed and written by Hideaki Anno. Existential themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the entire series, particularly through the philosophies of Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. Episode 16's title, "The Sickness Unto Death, And..." (, Shi ni itaru yamai, soshite) is a reference to Kierkegaard's book, The Sickness Unto Death.

Some contemporary films dealing with existentialist issues include Melancholia, Fight Club, I Heart Huckabees, Waking Life, The Matrix, Ordinary People, and Life in a Day.[84] Likewise, films throughout the 20th century such as The Seventh Seal, Ikiru, Taxi Driver, the Toy Story films, The Great Silence, Ghost in the Shell, Harold and Maude, High Noon, Easy Rider, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, A Clockwork Orange, Groundhog Day, Apocalypse Now, Badlands, and Blade Runner also have existentialist qualities.[85]

Notable directors known for their existentialist films include Ingmar Bergman, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Michelangelo Antonioni, Akira Kurosawa, Terrence Malick, Stanley Kubrick, Andrei Tarkovsky, Hideaki Anno, Wes Anderson, Gaspar Noé, Woody Allen, and Christopher Nolan.[86]Charlie Kaufman's Synecdoche, New York focuses on the protagonist's desire to find existential meaning.[87] Similarly, in Kurosawa's Red Beard, the protagonist's experiences as an intern in a rural health clinic in Japan lead him to an existential crisis whereby he questions his reason for being. This, in turn, leads him to a better understanding of humanity. The French film, Mood Indigo (directed by Michel Gondry) embraced various elements of existentialism.[] The film The Shawshank Redemption, released in 1994, depicts life in a prison in Maine, United States to explore several existentialist concepts.[88]

A simple book cover in green displays the name of the author and the book
First edition of The Trial by Franz Kafka (1925)

Existential perspectives are also found in modern literature to varying degrees, especially since the 1920s. Louis-Ferdinand Céline's Journey to the End of the Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) celebrated by both Sartre and Beauvoir, contained many of the themes that would be found in later existential literature, and is in some ways, the proto-existential novel. Jean-Paul Sartre's 1938 novel Nausea[89] was "steeped in Existential ideas", and is considered an accessible way of grasping his philosophical stance.[90] Between 1900 and 1960, other authors such as Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke, T.S. Eliot, Herman Hesse, Luigi Pirandello,[34][35][37][91][92][93]Ralph Ellison,[94][95][96][97] and Jack Kerouac, composed literature or poetry that contained, to varying degrees, elements of existential or proto-existential thought. The philosophy's influence even reached pulp literature shortly after the turn of the 20th century, as seen in the existential disparity witnessed in Man's lack of control of his fate in the works of H.P. Lovecraft.[98] Since the late 1960s, a great deal of cultural activity in literature contains postmodernist as well as existential elements. Books such as Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968) (now republished as Blade Runner) by Philip K. Dick, Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk and Formless Meanderings by Bharath Srinivasan[99] all distort the line between reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing existential themes.

Sartre wrote No Exit in 1944, an existentialist play originally published in French as Huis Clos (meaning In Camera or "behind closed doors"), which is the source of the popular quote, "Hell is other people." (In French, "L'enfer, c'est les autres"). The play begins with a Valet leading a man into a room that the audience soon realizes is in hell. Eventually he is joined by two women. After their entry, the Valet leaves and the door is shut and locked. All three expect to be tortured, but no torturer arrives. Instead, they realize they are there to torture each other, which they do effectively by probing each other's sins, desires, and unpleasant memories.

Existentialist themes are displayed in the Theatre of the Absurd, notably in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, in which two men divert themselves while they wait expectantly for someone (or something) named Godot who never arrives. They claim Godot is an acquaintance, but in fact, hardly know him, admitting they would not recognize him if they saw him. Samuel Beckett, once asked who or what Godot is, replied, "If I knew, I would have said so in the play." To occupy themselves, the men eat, sleep, talk, argue, sing, play games, exercise, swap hats, and contemplate suicide--anything "to hold the terrible silence at bay".[100] The play "exploits several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos."[101] The play also illustrates an attitude toward human experience on earth: the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of human experience that can be reconciled only in the mind and art of the absurdist. The play examines questions such as death, the meaning of human existence and the place of God in human existence.

Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead is an absurdist tragicomedy first staged at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1966.[102] The play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from Shakespeare's Hamlet. Comparisons have also been drawn to Samuel Beckett's Waiting For Godot, for the presence of two central characters who appear almost as two halves of a single character. Many plot features are similar as well: the characters pass time by playing Questions, impersonating other characters, and interrupting each other or remaining silent for long periods of time. The two characters are portrayed as two clowns or fools in a world beyond their understanding. They stumble through philosophical arguments while not realizing the implications, and muse on the irrationality and randomness of the world.

Jean Anouilh's Antigone also presents arguments founded on existentialist ideas.[103] It is a tragedy inspired by Greek mythology and the play of the same name (Antigone, by Sophocles) from the 5th century BC. In English, it is often distinguished from its antecedent by being pronounced in its original French form, approximately "Ante-G?N." The play was first performed in Paris on 6 February 1944, during the Nazi occupation of France. Produced under Nazi censorship, the play is purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of authority (represented by Antigone) and the acceptance of it (represented by Creon). The parallels to the French Resistance and the Nazi occupation have been drawn. Antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless but without affirmatively choosing a noble death. The crux of the play is the lengthy dialogue concerning the nature of power, fate, and choice, during which Antigone says that she is, "... disgusted with [the]...promise of a humdrum happiness." She states that she would rather die than live a mediocre existence.

Critic Martin Esslin in his book Theatre of the Absurd pointed out how many contemporary playwrights such as Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, and Arthur Adamov wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are absurd beings loose in a universe empty of real meaning. Esslin noted that many of these playwrights demonstrated the philosophy better than did the plays by Sartre and Camus. Though most of such playwrights, subsequently labeled "Absurdist" (based on Esslin's book), denied affiliations with existentialism and were often staunchly anti-philosophical (for example Ionesco often claimed he identified more with 'Pataphysics or with Surrealism than with existentialism), the playwrights are often linked to existentialism based on Esslin's observation.[104]

Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy

A major offshoot of existentialism as a philosophy is existentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which first crystallized in the work of Otto Rank, Freud's closest associate for 20 years. Without awareness of the writings of Rank, Ludwig Binswanger was influenced by Freud, Edmund Husserl, Heidegger, and Sartre. A later figure was Viktor Frankl, who briefly met Freud as a young man.[105] His logotherapy can be regarded as a form of existentialist therapy. The existentialists would also influence social psychology, antipositivist micro-sociology, symbolic interactionism, and post-structuralism, with the work of thinkers such as Georg Simmel[106] and Michel Foucault. Foucault was a great reader of Kierkegaard even though he almost never refers this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance as secret as it was decisive.[107]

An early contributor to existentialist psychology in the United States was Rollo May, who was strongly influenced by Kierkegaard and Otto Rank. One of the most prolific writers on techniques and theory of existentialist psychology in the USA is Irvin D. Yalom. Yalom states that

Aside from their reaction against Freud's mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind and their assumption of a phenomenological approach in therapy, the existentialist analysts have little in common and have never been regarded as a cohesive ideological school. These thinkers--who include Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Eugène Minkowski, V. E. Gebsattel, Roland Kuhn, G. Caruso, F. T. Buytendijk, G. Bally and Victor Frankl--were almost entirely unknown to the American psychotherapeutic community until Rollo May's highly influential 1958 book Existence--and especially his introductory essay--introduced their work into this country.[108]

A more recent contributor to the development of a European version of existentialist psychotherapy is the British-based Emmy van Deurzen.

Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in psychotherapy. Therapists often offer existentialist philosophy as an explanation for anxiety. The assertion is that anxiety is manifested of an individual's complete freedom to decide, and complete responsibility for the outcome of such decisions. Psychotherapists using an existentialist approach believe that a patient can harness his anxiety and use it constructively. Instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change. By embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his full potential in life. Humanistic psychology also had major impetus from existentialist psychology and shares many of the fundamental tenets. Terror management theory, based on the writings of Ernest Becker and Otto Rank, is a developing area of study within the academic study of psychology. It looks at what researchers claim are implicit emotional reactions of people confronted with the knowledge that they will eventually die.

Also, Gerd B. Achenbach has refreshed the Socratic tradition with his own blend of philosophical counseling. So did Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium.

General criticisms

Walter Kaufmann criticized 'the profoundly unsound methods and the dangerous contempt for reason that have been so prominent in existentialism.'[109]Logical positivist philosophers, such as Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, assert that existentialists are often confused about the verb "to be" in their analyses of "being".[110] Specifically, they argue that the verb "is" is transitive and pre-fixed to a predicate (e.g., an apple is red) (without a predicate, the word "is" is meaningless), and that existentialists frequently misuse the term in this manner. Wilson has stated in his book The Angry Years that existentialism has created many of its own difficulties: "we can see how this question of freedom of the will has been vitiated by post-romantic philosophy, with its inbuilt tendency to laziness and boredom, we can also see how it came about that existentialism found itself in a hole of its own digging, and how the philosophical developments since then have amounted to walking in circles round that hole".[111]

Sartre's philosophy

Many critics argue Sartre's philosophy is contradictory. Specifically, they argue that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claiming that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticized Being and Nothingness for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: "Insofar as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine: it hypostatizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics. Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory".[112]

In Letter on Humanism, Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:

Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this statement he is taking existentia and essentia according to their metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of Being.[113]

See also

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  92. ^ Bassanese, Fiora A. (Jan 1, 1997). Understanding Luigi Pirandello. University of South Carolina Press. Retrieved 2015. existential.
  93. ^ DiGaetani, John Louis (Jan 25, 2008). Stages of Struggle: Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations. McFarland. Retrieved 2015.
  94. ^ Graham, Maryemma; Singh, Amritjit (1995). Conversations with Ralph Ellison. University of Mississippi Press. Retrieved 2015.
  95. ^ Cotkin, George (2005). Existential American. JHU Press. Retrieved 2015.
  96. ^ Thomas, Paul Lee (2008). Reading, Learning, Teach Ralph Ellison. Peter Lang. ISBN 9781433100901. Retrieved 2015.
  97. ^ Jackson, Lawrence Patrick (2007). Ralph Ellison: Emergence of Genius. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 9780820329932. Retrieved 2015.
  98. ^ Gurnow, Michael (2008-10-15). "Zarathustra . . . Cthulhu . Meursault: Existential Futility in H.P. Lovecraft's 'The Call of Cthulhu'". The Horror Review. Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. Retrieved .
  99. ^ Srinivasan, Bharath (2009). Formless Meanderings. Kolkata: Writers Workshop. p. 352. ISBN 978-81-8157-945-4.CS1 maint: ignored ISBN errors (link)
  100. ^ The Times, 31 December 1964. Quoted in Knowlson, J., Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London: Bloomsbury, 1996), p. 57
  101. ^ Cronin, A., Samuel Beckett The Last Modernist (London: Flamingo, 1997), p. 391
  102. ^ Michael H. Hutchins (14 August 2006). "A Tom Stoppard Bibliography: Chronology". The Stephen Sondheim Reference Guide. Retrieved .
  103. ^ Wren, Celia (12 December 2007). "From Forum, an Earnest and Painstaking 'Antigone'". Washington Post. Retrieved .
  104. ^ Kernan, Alvin B. The Modern American Theater: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1967.
  105. ^ [Frankl, Viktor: Recollections: An Autobiography. Perseus Publishing, Massachusetts 2000, p. 51]
  106. ^ Stewart, Jon. Kierkegaard and Existentialism. p. 38
  107. ^ Flynn, Thomas R. Sartre, Foucault, and Historical Reason, p. 323.
  108. ^ Yalom, Irvin D. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. New York: BasicBooks (Subsidiary of Perseus Books, L.L.C. p. 17. ISBN 0-465-02147-6. Note: The copyright year has not changed, but the book remains in print.
  109. ^ Kaufmann, Walter Arnold, From Shakespeare To Existentialism (Princeton University Press 1979), p. xvi
  110. ^ Carnap, Rudolf, Uberwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der Sprache [Overcoming Metaphysics by the Logical Analysis of Speech], Erkenntnis (1932), pp. 219-41. Carnap's critique of Heidegger's "What is Metaphysics".
  111. ^ Colin, Wilson, The Angry Years (2007), p. 214
  112. ^ Marcuse, Herbert. "Sartre's Existentialism". Printed in Studies in Critical Philosophy. Translated by Joris De Bres. London: NLB, 1972. p. 161
  113. ^ Martin Heidegger, "Letter on Humanism", in Basic Writings: Nine Key Essays, plus the Introduction to Being and Time , trans. David Farrell Krell (London, Routledge; 1978), p. 208. Google Books

Further reading

  • Appignanesi, Richard; Oscar Zarate (2001). Introducing Existentialism. Cambridge, UK: Icon. ISBN 1-84046-266-3.
  • Appignanesi, Richard (2006). Introducing Existentialism (3rd ed.). Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books (UK), Totem Books (USA). ISBN 1-84046-717-7.
  • Barrett, William (1958). Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy (1st ed.). Doubleday.
  • Cattarini, L.S. (2018) Beyond Sartre and Sterility: Surviving Existentialism (Montreal: contact argobookshop.ca) ISBN 978-0-9739986-1-0
  • Cooper, David E. (1999). Existentialism: A Reconstruction (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21322-8.
  • Deurzen, Emmy van (2010). Everyday Mysteries: a Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37643-3.
  • Fallico, Arthuro B. (1962). Art & Existentialism. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1855). Attack Upon Christendom.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). The Concept of Anxiety.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1846). Concluding Unscientific Postscript.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). Either/Or.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1843). Fear and Trembling.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1849). The Sickness Unto Death.
  • Kierkegaard, Søren (1847). Works of Love.
  • Luper, Steven (ed.) (2000). Existing: An Introduction to Existential Thought. Mountain View, California: Mayfield. ISBN 0-7674-0587-0.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  • Marino, Gordon (ed.) (2004). Basic Writings of Existentialism. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75989-1.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  • Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of Perception [Colin Smith]. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
  • Rose, Eugene (Fr. Seraphim) (1994). Nihilism: The Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age. Saint Herman Press (1 September 1994). ISBN 0-938635-15-8. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013.
  • Sartre, Jean-Paul (1943). Being and Nothingness.
  • Sartre, Jean-Paul (1945). Existentialism and Humanism.
  • Stewart, Jon (ed.) (2011). Kierkegaard and Existentialism. Farnham, England: Ashgate. ISBN 978-1-4094-2641-7.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  • Solomon, Robert C. (ed.) (2005). Existentialism (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517463-1.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  • Wartenberg, Thomas E. Existentialism: A Beginner's Guide.

External links

Journals and articles

  This article uses material from the Wikipedia page available here. It is released under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.

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we can't solve problems

problems & solutions
by Postmaters blogger 28 May , 2016

     If you google search Albert Einstein quotes you will see this one on the very front page itself. Even if it appears everywhere it is quite confusing for most of us. It can be understood if you give sufficient amount of time to think about it.I found 3 different ways to explain it. So you will get a clear understanding. Besides, I am not sure  if there  are any other dimensions to his opinion.I guess not.

Firstly let's do some mathematics we learned at school.

Heard about integration and differentiation in calculus.

Where we can't solve an integral equation just by applying integration. We solve an integral equation by differentiating it. Likewise, a differential equation is solved by integration, not by differentiation itself. Maybe now things are getting a bit easier for you. I know that not everyone studied maths.

Now consider that we are holding a balance in our hand. We need to maintain equal weight on each side. If the weights at both sides are not the same, What we need to do is to balance it. Sure we don't add more weight to the hanging side. We just add it on the opposite side.

Where we interfere most of our problems is in our day-to-day life. Not a single person or a country is problem free in this world. For instance, take two examples. "War and fire". A fire cannot be stopped by the fire itself .We need water to do that. Starting another war is not the solution to existing war. So that is a well sophisticated and simple quote. Isn't ?

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Posts with tag: "Be Filled"
Wednesday, November 06, 2013
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  It's been QUITE awhile since I've posted anything about the Be Filled frames - work and children and life seem to take over very easily!  But Christmas shopping has begun, and there's a lot happening with Be Filled!

   First off, there is a new product available!  Introducing the 'Forever Frame':

   A creative way to style up your home!  Each frame is UV treated, water resistant, and designed for outdoor use. Choose from predesigned inserts, or put in whatever you'd like!  The options are endless!  These frames are available in 8x10 or 11x14, and come in black, brown, cream and red. Shoot me a message for more details and prices!

   And since Christmas really is just around the corner, and we're all starting to think about those people on our lists, we've got a Christmas special!

   This is a great way to cross a ton of people off of your list, and get them something they'll love!  Or maybe a little something for you. :)

   Check out the website for available colors and sizes, and message me for a price list!

Tags: Be Filled
Monday, April 08, 2013
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   As a photographer with my own business, I get to decide how I run things.  One of the big decisions is whether I sell prints or digital files.  Personally, when I get a session done, I LOVE having the files.  That way I can print whatever I want whenever I want, print off multiples for family, and add to baby books!  That's one of the big reasons that I decided to keep it simple and just include the cd of your images on cd with your session.

   One of the downsides of that is wondering how many of those pictures actually get printed, and how many sit on cd, because the printing just never happens.  SO PAINFUL!  I feel so strongly that we need to print off these memories to be able to have forever!  Fill your homes with memories and moments of your life!  Surround yourself with images of the ones you love most at points in your life that seem to be over so quickly!

   And that is why I'm SO excited to announce that I will now be selling stunning frames from Be Filled.  A way to hang your memories with style!  They're beautifully done, reasonably prices, and there are SO many options!  There are 12 different colors, 4 different styles, and the option of 'stacked' frames as well, which is 2 different colors together!  Mirrors are also available, which I can't wait to order for myself!  Please note that these are not on the website yet, as they will not be available for 3 months.  But they're coming!!!  What I also really love about this is that 10% of the sales will go directly to Compassion, an organization that gives children an opportunity to thrive in hopeless situations.  So great to be a part of that!

   Styles, colors and different options are all shown on the Be Filled website.  There are prices listed there, but mine are a bit lower, so please message me for a price list and I'd love to send it on over and answer any questions you may have!  I'll be putting an order in once or twice a month, and will be announcing on the facebook page when the order is going in!

   Those that have sessions with me will be given a 2 week period after recieving their cd to get 10% off of their order!  It'll be the perfect opportunity to get those pictures printed, decide on the perfect colors and styles and take advantage of the discount!

   I'm really excited about this and hope that you are too!  Let me know if you have any questions, would like a price list, or would like to put in an order!

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Entwicklung einer Video Wissensplattform für die Namibische Landbevölkerung

Development of a Video Knowledge Platform for Namibian Rural Communities.

Sorry this page is only available in (my bad) English. 🙂

I was often asked what i did as my bachelor thesis. So here is a short description of the project, the idea, and what we did so far.

About the Project

The project is a collaboration between 4 universities. The Polytechnic of Namibia as the initiator of the project, Aalborg University in Denmark, the University of Cape Town and the South-Westphalia University of Applied Sciences in Germany. The goal of the project is to produce several prototypes of a video-platform which then should be tested „in the wild“. Research should be done on how good the implementation fits the needs of the villagers, where improvements could be done and what has to be implemented in future versions (additional features).[1]

The reason for the project is, that the young villagers often migrate into the cities, leaving their traditions and all the knowledge of the elders behind. Due to the fact, that the rate of illiterates is very high, and the language spoken is sometimes nearly not documented in a written form[2] the knowledge should be conserved in videos giving the elders the opportunity to transfer their knowledge to future generations.

The Idea

Our Idea was to create a web-based platform based on the feedback of a prototype done before. The logic should be provided by a XML-RPC server to allow different future GUI implementations. The new specifications said that the prototype should work without any textual input. Everything had to be done by clicking on proper icons.

The hard part was to map the new workflow specifications:

The user:

  • should be able to share videos among other villagers.
  • should be able to lock videos.
  • and should be able to create video-lists.

What we did so far

We rewrote the whole web-interface to cover all the specifications we received. All textual input was exchanged by icons or removed to reduce irritations. Every page now had a sound file describing what to do on that page to the user. The picture shows how the interface for the video sharing now looked like.

The logic was removed from the website and is now completely handled by the server. During a test which we did in the village the villagers had less hesitations to interact with this interface than they have shown in a test with the previous textual interface. Even though this interface wasn’t perfect it covered the natural setup much better. Some improvements have been discussed afterwards and will now be implemented in a future prototype.

[1] Chivuno-Kuria, S., Kapuire, G. K., Bidwell, N. J., & Winschiers-Thophilus, H. (2010). Determining requirements within an indigenous knowledge system of African rural communities. Paper presented at SAICSIT ’10, October 11-13, 2010, Bella Balla, South Africa., http://hdl.handle.net/10628/257

[2] Example: The Nama Language, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nama_language

Further Information / Background:
Kapuire, Gereon Koch, Heike Winschiers Theophilus, Shilumbe Chivuno Kuria, Nicola J Bidwell and Edwin Blake (2010) A revolution in ICT, the last hope for African Rural Communities‘ technology appropriation. In Proceedings International Development Informatics Association Conference (IDIA2010), Cape Town, South Africa . http://pubs.cs.uct.ac.za/archive/00000640/

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Sunday, July 24, 2011

Historic Spanish Point

Just a short drive south of Sarasota,Florida you will find a little eight-mile long island known as Casey Key. Here you will find a place where time has stood still. Bask in the natural beauty of this island which enjoys bay to gulf water views,or,if you want to explore the history of the area, visit Historic Spanish Point in Osprey,Florida.

Historic Spanish Point was the prehistoric home of the Calusa Indians,among the first people to settle in the area around 3000 BC. The artifacts from this prehistoric people can be found throughout the grounds.

The island was later settled by John and Eliza Webb from New York. They planted citrus and vegetable plants, opened a citrus packing house and boat building operation and operated the Webb Winter Resort which attracted winter-weary residents from the North. Among those Northern visitors was Bertha Palmer of Chicago, who established her winter estate on Spanish Point. She transformed the landscape with her gardens and architecture.

Spanish Point has been preserved thanks to the donation of the property by the family of Bertha Palmer to the Gulf Heritage Association in 1980. Today, Spanish Point is a 30-acre archaeological, historical and environmental museum. Walk the nature trails where you will see historic pioneer buildings. Enjoy the boardwalk which rambles through native coastal habitats with live oaks and gumbo-limbo trees and a beautiful views of Little Sarasota Bay. You may even spot the resident American Bald Eagle!

See the magnificent display of colorful flowers in the Butterfly Garden, one of the largest on the Gulf Coast. Visit the “Window to the Past” built inside a prehistoric shell mound.

A popular site for weddings, Mary’s Chapel is a beautiful wooden structure which floods with brilliant sunlight as it streams through its stained glass windows.

Visit the Guptill House built in 1901 on top of a 50000 old Indian shell mound.

See a living history reenactment of pioneer life with performances in Mrs. Palmer’s pergola and sunken garden.

Take a trip across Little Sarasota Bay on a sharpie sailboat, a hand-built wooden reproduction.

At the end of the day, relax at the Spanish Point Pub & Marina where you will be sure to find something for everyone’s taste at this casual waterfront establishment.

Contact the John Allen Team for information on Casey Key real estate. Our real estate agents show Casey Key homes for sale regularly and will assist you in a smooth real estate transaction.

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09 Oct 2013
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25.Cesar Salad
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29.Paradise Salad (watercress, lettuce, tropical fruits and carrots)
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Building a Night Garden

The week earlier than remaining I was lucky sufficient to attend Custom House’s Grand Designs convention, wherein over 1000 one-of-a-kind exhibitors displayed a range of latest products, techniques and disciplines, applicable now not simplest to indoors layout and ornament but also (on a smaller scale) to horticulture and outside decoration.

In this regard, the overall recognition largely fell to the commercial of industrial ventures such outside furniture (as a way to be blanketed in our subsequent segment) or ecological building options, but there has been one show off that struck me as specially specific – that of a night time based lawn.

The impetus of the design lay inside the philosophy that due to the stressful lifestyle required to support a grand outside space, a lot of us don’t get the choice to enjoy our garden throughout the daylight-ironic no? So, ‘The 24 Hour Garden’, because it turned into so aptly named, became constructed with not only its lit aesthetic in thoughts, but additionally the programs it would promise after hours, specifically those of web hosting and catering.

It regarded a topic no longer oft mentioned in conventional lawn layout, so I desired to set apart a few column inches to signify how one would possibly move about building your very own area whose usefulness is whole, regardless of whether or not the clock reads lunchtime or past due-o-clock.

Despite the night garden being traditionally a dimmed location, lighting is an crucial component to make the gap each useable inside the summer months, and visually on hand within the winter, however, like the palette you pick for your planting, lights is, at exceptional, a diffused art, that means that even though it is a feature of the day time there may be no want for yours to be harking back to blazing sunshine. Indeed, as any photographer will let you know, the nightscape offers lighting possibilities now not available while daylight is abundant – therefore the attraction of black and white celluloid where the mild will become a way of punctuation in place of the prose itself. The splendor of modern lighting is the variety of different paperwork it is available in: stairway lights, underwater illumination, overhead down-lighters or vertical up-lighters, not to mention the ones hid inside the flora themselves. This latter is a famous choice as it helps negate the tone of artificiality that the plastics and metals of a lighting fixtures gadget evoke. The underwater light is likewise a marvellous addition to the night time lawn which, while not in particular useful, gives an get entry to to view any flora and fauna inhabiting your ponds you may not otherwise be privy to.

However, the possibly motivation for constructing or adapting a night lawn is so that you have the approach and the location to entertain and to loosen up afterhours and to this give up I could additionally propose, both recessed walkover ground lights, or focal point spot lighting in preference to harsh floodlighting as is so often seen in gardens. Floor lights is a softer alternative and could now not threaten any ride risk inside the twilight, in particular with the use of frosted lenses, while spotlighting will lend a glamorous purple-carpet sense to not most effective the garden but to any tree canopies above it too

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