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Model in a designer gown reflecting the contemporary fashion trend at an Haute couture fashion show, Paris, 2011

Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture.[1] The term implies a look defined by the fashion industry as that which is trending. Everything that is considered fashion is available and popularized by the fashion system (industry and media).

Due to increased mass-production of commodities and clothing at lower prices and global reach, sustainability has become an urgent issue among politicians, brands, and consumers.[2][3]

Definitions of fashion[edit]

Reconstructed Roman women's fashion from Florence, Taipei 2013

Fashion scholar Susan B. Kaiser states that everyone is "forced to appear", unmediated before others.[4] Everyone is evaluated by their attire, and evaluation includes the consideration of colors, materials, silhouette, and how garments appear on the body. Garments identical in style and material also appear different depending on the wearer's body shape, or whether the garment has been washed, folded, mended, or is new.

Fashion is defined in a number of different ways, and its application can be sometimes unclear. Though the term fashion connotes difference, as in "the new fashions of the season", it can also connote sameness, for example in reference to "the fashions of the 1960s", implying a general uniformity. Fashion can signify the latest trends, but may often reference fashions of a previous era, leading to the understanding of fashions from a different time period re-appearing. While what is fashionable can be defined by a relatively insular, esteemed and often rich aesthetic elite who make a look exclusive, such as fashion houses and haute couturiers, this 'look' is often designed by pulling references from subcultures and social groups who are not considered elite, and are thus excluded from making the distinction of what is fashion themselves.

Whereas a trend often connotes a peculiar aesthetic expression, often lasting shorter than a season and being identifiable by visual extremes, fashion is a distinctive and industry-supported expression traditionally tied to the fashion season and collections.[5] Style is an expression that lasts over many seasons and is often connected to cultural movements and social markers, symbols, class, and culture (such as Baroque and Rococo). According to sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, fashion connotes "the latest difference."[6]

Even though the terms fashion, clothing and costume are often used together, fashion differs from both. Clothing describes the material and the technical garment, devoid of any social meaning or connections; costume has come to mean fancy dress or masquerade wear. Fashion, by contrast, describes the social and temporal system that influences and "activates" dress as a social signifier in a certain time and context. Philosopher Giorgio Agamben connects fashion to the qualitative Ancient Greek concept of kairos, meaning "the right, critical, or opportune moment", and clothing to the quantitative concept of chronos, the personification of chronological or sequential time.[7]

While some exclusive brands may claim the label haute couture, the term is technically limited to members of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture[8] in Paris.[5] Haute couture is more aspirational; inspired by art and culture, and in most cases, reserved for the economic elite.

Fashion is also a source of art, allowing people to display their unique tastes and styling.[9] Different fashion designers are influenced by outside stimuli and reflect this inspiration in their work. For example, Gucci's 'stained green' jeans[10] may look like a grass stain, but to others, they display purity, freshness, and summer.[1]

Fashion is unique, self-fulfilling and may be a key part of someone's identity. Similarly to art, the aims of a person's choices in fashion are not necessarily to be liked by everyone, but instead to be an expression of personal taste.[9] A person's personal style functions as a "societal formation always combining two opposite principles. It is a socially acceptable and secure way to distinguish oneself from others and, at the same time, it satisfies the individual's need for social adaptation and imitation."[11] While philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that fashion "has nothing to do with genuine judgements of taste", and was instead "a case of unreflected and 'blind' imitation",[11] sociologist Georg Simmel[12] thought of fashion as something that "helped overcome the distance between an individual and his society".[11]

Clothing fashions[edit]

Reconstructed Roman women's fashions from Florence

Fashion is a form of expression. Fashion is what people wear in a specific context. If a stranger would appear in this setting, adorning something different, the stranger would be considered "out of fashion."

Early Western[when?] travelers who visited India, Persia, Turkey, or China, would frequently remark on the absence of change in fashion in those countries. In 1609, the secretary of the Japanese shōgun bragged inaccurately to a Spanish visitor that Japanese clothing had not changed in over a thousand years.[13] However, these conceptions of non-Western clothing undergoing little, if any, evolution are generally held to be untrue; for instance, there is considerable evidence in Ming China of rapidly changing fashions in Chinese clothing.[14] Similar changes in clothing can be seen in Japanese clothing between the Genroku period and the later centuries of the Edo period (1603-1867), during which a time clothing trends switched from flashy and expensive displays of wealth to subdued and subverted ones.

Changes in clothing often took place at times of economic or social change, as occurred in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate, followed by a long period without significant changes. In 8th-century Moorish Spain, the musician Ziryab introduced to Córdoba[15][unreliable source][16] sophisticated clothing styles based on seasonal and daily fashions from his native Baghdad, modified by his inspiration. Similar changes in fashion occurred in the 11th century in the Middle East following the arrival of the Turks, who introduced clothing styles from Central Asia and the Far East.[17]

Additionally, there is a long history of fashion in West Africa.[18] Cloth was used as a form of currency in trade with the Portuguese and Dutch as early as the 16th century,[18] and locally-produced cloth and cheaper European imports were assembled into new styles to accommodate the growing elite class of West Africans and resident gold and slave traders.[18] There was an exceptionally strong tradition of weaving in the Oyo Empire, and the areas inhabited by the Igbo people.[18]

Fashion in Europe and the Western hemisphere[edit]

The beginning in Europe of continual and increasingly-rapid change in clothing styles can be fairly reliably dated to late medieval times. Historians, including James Laver and Fernand Braudel, date the start of Western fashion in clothing to the middle of the 14th century,[19][20] though they tend to rely heavily on contemporary imagery,[21] as illuminated manuscripts were not common before the 14th century.[22] The most dramatic early change in fashion was a sudden drastic shortening and tightening of the male over-garment from calf-length to barely covering the buttocks,[23] sometimes accompanied with stuffing in the chest to make it look bigger. This created the distinctive Western outline of a tailored top worn over leggings or trousers.

The pace of change accelerated considerably in the following century, and women's and men's fashion, especially in the dressing and adorning of the hair, became equally complex. Art historians are, therefore, able to use fashion with confidence and precision to date images, often to within five years, particularly in the case of images from the 15th century. Initially, changes in fashion led to a fragmentation across the upper classes of Europe of what had previously been a very similar style of dressing and the subsequent development of distinctive national styles. These national styles remained very different until a counter-movement in the 17th to 18th centuries imposed similar styles once again, mostly originating from Ancien Régime France.[24] Though the rich usually led fashion, the increasing affluence of early modern Europe led to the bourgeoisie and even peasants following trends at a distance, but still uncomfortably close for the elites – a factor that Fernand Braudel regards as one of the main motors of changing fashion.[25]

Albrecht Dürer's drawing contrasts a well-turned out bourgeoise from Nuremberg (left) with her counterpart from Venice. The Venetian lady's high chopines make her look taller.
Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI, was a leader of fashion. Her choices, such as this 1783 white muslin dress called a chemise a la Reine, were highly influential and widely worn.[26]

In the 16th century, national differences were at their most pronounced. Ten 16th century portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. Albrecht Dürer illustrated the differences in his actual (or composite) contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the 15th century (illustration, right). The "Spanish style" of the late 16th century began the move back to synchronicity among upper-class Europeans, and after a struggle in the mid-17th century, French styles decisively took over leadership, a process completed in the 18th century.[27]

Though different textile colors and patterns changed from year to year,[28] the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut, changed more slowly. Men's fashions were primarily derived from military models, and changes in a European male silhouette were galvanized in theaters of European war where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of different styles such as the "Steinkirk" cravat or necktie. Both parties wore shirts under their clothing, the cut and style of which had little cause to change over a number of centuries.

Though there had been distribution of dressed dolls from France since the 16th century and Abraham Bosse had produced engravings of fashion in the 1620s, the pace of change picked up in the 1780s with increased publication of French engravings illustrating the latest Paris styles. By 1800, all Western Europeans were dressing alike (or thought they were); local variation became first a sign of provincial culture and later a badge of the conservative peasant.[29]

Although tailors and dressmakers were no doubt responsible for many innovations, and the textile industry indeed led many trends, the history of fashion design is generally understood to date from 1858 when the English-born Charles Frederick Worth opened the first authentic haute couture house in Paris. The Haute house was the name established by the government for the fashion houses that met the standards of the industry. These fashion houses continue to adhere to standards such as keeping at least twenty employees engaged in making the clothes, showing two collections per year at fashion shows, and presenting a certain number of patterns to costumers.[30] Since then, the idea of the fashion designer as a celebrity in their own right has become increasingly dominant.[31]

Although fashion can be feminine or masculine, additional trends are androgynous.[32] The idea of unisex dressing originated in the 1960s, when designers such as Pierre Cardin and Rudi Gernreich created garments, such as stretch jersey tunics or leggings, meant to be worn by both males and females. The impact of unisex wearability expanded more broadly to encompass various themes in fashion, including androgyny, mass-market retail, and conceptual clothing.[33] The fashion trends of the 1970s, such as sheepskin jackets, flight jackets, duffel coats, and unstructured clothing, influenced men to attend social gatherings without a dinner jacket and to accessorize in new ways. Some men's styles blended the sensuality and expressiveness, and the growing gay-rights movement and an emphasis on youth allowed for a new freedom to experiment with style and with fabrics such as wool crepe, which had previously been associated with women's attire.[34]

Cover of Marcus Clarks' spring & summer catalogue 1926–27

The four major current fashion capitals are acknowledged to be Paris, Milan, New York City, and London, which are all headquarters to the most significant fashion companies and are renowned for their major influence on global fashion. Fashion weeks are held in these cities, where designers exhibit their new clothing collections to audiences. A succession of major designers such as Coco Chanel and Yves Saint-Laurent have kept Paris as the center most watched by the rest of the world, although haute couture is now subsidized by the sale of ready-to-wear collections and perfume using the same branding.

Modern Westeners have a vast number of choices in the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect their personality or interests. When people who have high cultural status start to wear new or different styles, they may inspire a new fashion trend. People who like or respect these people are influenced by their style and begin wearing similarly styled clothes.

Fashions may vary considerably within a society according to age, social class, generation, occupation, and geography, and may also vary over time. The terms fashionista and fashion victim refer to someone who slavishly follows current fashions.

In the early 2000s, Asian fashion became increasingly significant in local and global markets. Countries such as China, Japan, India, and Pakistan have traditionally had large textile industries with a number of rich traditions; though these were often drawn upon by Western designers, Asian clothing styles gained considerable influence in the early- to mid-2000s.[35]

Fashion industry[edit]

Male and female fashion models on the runway, Los Angeles Fashion Week, 2008

In its most common use, the term fashion refers to the current expressions on sale through the fashion industry. The global fashion industry is a product of the modern age.[36] In the Western world, tailoring has since medieval times been controlled by guilds, but with the emergence of industrialism, the power of the guilds was undermined. Before the mid-19th century, most clothing was custom-made. It was handmade for individuals, either as home production or on order from dressmakers and tailors. By the beginning of the 20th century, with the rise of new technologies such as the sewing machine, the rise of global trade, the development of the factory system of production, and the proliferation of retail outlets such as department stores, clothing became increasingly mass-produced in standard sizes and sold at fixed prices.

Although the fashion industry developed first in Europe and America, as of 2017, it is an international and highly globalized industry, with clothing often designed in one country, manufactured in another, and sold worldwide. For example, an American fashion company might source fabric in China and have the clothes manufactured in Vietnam, finished in Italy, and shipped to a warehouse in the United States for distribution to retail outlets internationally.

The fashion industry was for a long time one of the largest employers in the United States,[36] and it remains so in the 21st century. However, U.S. employment in fashion began to decline considerably as production increasingly moved overseas, especially to China. Because data on the fashion industry typically are reported for national economies and expressed in terms of the industry's many separate sectors, aggregate figures for the world production of textiles and clothing are difficult to obtain. However, by any measure, the clothing industry accounts for a significant share of world economic output.[37] The fashion industry consists of four levels:

  1. The production of raw materials, principally Fiber, and textiles but also leather and fur.
  2. The production of fashion goods by designers, manufacturers, contractors, and others.
  3. Retail sales.
  4. Various forms of advertising and promotion.

The levels of focus in the fashion industry consist of many separate but interdependent sectors. These sectors include Textile Design and Production, Fashion Design and Manufacturing, Fashion Retailing, Marketing and Merchandising, Fashion Shows, and Media and Marketing. Each sector is devoted to the goal of satisfying consumer demand for apparel under conditions that enable participants in the industry to operate at a profit.[36]

Fashion trend[edit]

A fashion trend signifies a specific look or expression that is spread across a population at a specific time and place. A trend is considered a more ephemeral look, not defined by the seasons when collections are released by the fashion industry. A trend can thus emerge from street style, across cultures, from influencers and celebrities.

Fashion trends are influenced by several factors, including cinema, celebrities, climate, creative explorations, innovations, designs, political, economic, social, and technological. Examining these factors is called a PEST analysis. Fashion forecasters can use this information to help determine the growth or decline of a particular trend.

Social influences[edit]

Celebrities such as Britney Spears have popularised the concept of wearing underwear as outerwear.
Red carpet fashion: Italian actors Gabriel Garko and Laura Torrisi wearing designer formal wear at Venice Film Festival, 2009

Fashion is inherently a social phenomenon. A person cannot have a fashion by oneself, but for something to be defined as fashion, there needs to be dissemination and followers. This dissemination can take several forms; from the top-down ("trickle-down") to bottom-up ("bubble up"), or transversally across cultures and through viral memes and media.

Fashion relates to the social and cultural context of an environment. According to Matika,[38] "Elements of popular culture become fused when a person's trend is associated with a preference for a genre of music…like music, news or literature, fashion has been fused into everyday lives." Fashion is not only seen as purely aesthetic; fashion is also a medium for people to create an overall effect and express their opinions and overall art.

This mirrors what performers frequently accomplish through music videos. In the music video ‘Formation’ by Beyoncé, according to Carlos,[39] "The pop star pays homage to her Creole roots.... tracing the roots of the Louisiana cultural nerve center from the post-abolition era to present day, Beyoncé catalogs the evolution of the city's vibrant style and its tumultuous history all at once. Atop a New Orleans police car in a red-and-white Gucci high-collar dress and combat boots, she sits among the ruins of Hurricane Katrina, immediately implanting herself in the biggest national debate on police brutality and race relations in modern day."

The annual or seasonal runway show is a reflection of fashion trends and a designer's inspirations. For designers like Vivienne Westwood, runway shows are a platform for her voice on politics and current events. For her AW15 menswear show, according to Water,[40] "where models with severely bruised faces channeled eco-warriors on a mission to save the planet." Another recent example is a staged feminist protest march for Chanel's SS15 show, rioting models chanting words of empowerment with signs like "Feminist but feminine" and "Ladies first." According to Water,[40] "The show tapped into Chanel's long history of championing female independence: founder Coco Chanel was a trailblazer for liberating the female body in the post-WWI era, introducing silhouettes that countered the restrictive corsets then in favour."

The annual Academy Awards ceremony is also a venue where fashion designers and their creations are celebrated.

Social media is also a place where fashion is presented most often. Some influencers are paid huge amounts of money to promote a product or clothing item, where the business hopes many viewers will buy the product off the back of the advertisement. Instagram is the most popular platform for advertising, but Facebook, snapchat, Twitter and other platforms are also used.[41]

Economic influences[edit]

Circular economy[edit]

With increasing environmental awareness, the economic imperative to "Spend now, think later" is getting increasingly scrutinized.[42] Today's consumer tends to be more mindful about consumption, looking for just enough and better, more durable options. People have also become more conscious of the impact their everyday consumption has on the environment and society, and these initiatives are often described as a move towards sustainable fashion, yet critics argue a circular economy based on growth is an oxymoron, or an increasing spiral of consumption, rather than a utopian cradle-to-cradle circular solution.

In today's linear economical system, manufacturers extract resources from the earth to make products that will soon be discarded in landfills, on the other hand, under the circular model, the production of goods operates like systems in nature, where the waste and demise of a substance becomes the food and source of growth for something new. Companies such as MUD Jeans, which is based in the Netherlands employ a leasing scheme for jeans. This Dutch company "represents a new consuming philosophy that is about using instead of owning," according to MUD's website. The concept also protects the company from volatile cotton prices. Consumers pay €7.50 a month for a pair of jeans; after a year, they can return the jeans to Mud, trade them for a new pair and start another year-long lease, or keep them. MUD is responsible for any repairs during the lease period.[42] Another ethical fashion company, Patagonia set up the first multi-seller branded store on eBay to facilitate secondhand sales; consumers who take the Common Threads pledge can sell in this store and have their gear listed on's "Used Gear" section.[42]

China's domestic spending[edit]

Consumption as a share of gross domestic product in China has fallen for six decades, from 76 percent in 1952 to 28 percent in 2011. China plans to reduce tariffs on a number of consumer goods and expand its 72-hour transit visa plan to more cities in an effort to stimulate domestic consumption.[43]

The announcement of import tax reductions follows changes in June 2015, when the government cut the tariffs on clothing, cosmetics and various other goods by half. Among the changes – easier tax refunds for overseas shoppers and accelerated openings of more duty-free shops in cities covered by the 72-hour visa scheme. The 72-hour visa was introduced in Beijing and Shanghai in January 2013 and has been extended to 18 Chinese cities.[43]

According to reports at the same time, Chinese consumer spending in other countries such as Japan has slowed even though the yen has dropped.[44] There is clearly a trend in the next 5 years that the domestic fashion market will show an increase.

China is an interesting market for fashion retail as Chinese consumers' motivation to shop for fashion items are unique from Western Audiences.[45] Demographics have limited association with shopping motivation, with occupation, income and education level having no impact; unlike in Western Countries. Chinese high-street shoppers prefer adventure and social shopping, while online shoppers are motivated by idea shopping. Another difference is how gratification and idea shopping influence spending over ¥1k per month on fashion items, and regular spending influenced by value shopping.

Market research[edit]

Consumers of different groups have varying needs and demands. Factors taken into consideration when thinking of consumers' needs include key demographics.[46] To understand consumers' needs and predict fashion trends, fashion companies have to do market research[47] There are two research methods: primary and secondary.[48] Secondary methods are taking other information that has already been collected, for example using a book or an article for research. Primary research is collecting data through surveys, interviews, observation, and/or focus groups. Primary research often focuses on large sample sizes to determine customer's motivations to shop.[45]

The benefits of primary research are specific information about a fashion brand's consumer is explored. Surveys are helpful tools; questions can be open-ended or closed-ended. Negative factor surveys and interviews present is that the answers can be biased, due to wording in the survey or on face-to-face interactions. Focus groups, about 8 to 12 people, can be beneficial because several points can be addressed in depth. However, there are drawbacks to this tactic, too. With such a small sample size, it is hard to know if the greater public would react the same way as the focus group.[48] Observation can really help a company gain insight on what a consumer truly wants. There is less of a bias because consumers are just performing their daily tasks, not necessarily realizing they are being observed. For example, observing the public by taking street style photos of people, the consumer did not get dressed in the morning knowing that would have their photo taken necessarily. They just wear what they would normally wear. Through observation patterns can be seen, helping trend forecasters know what their target market needs and wants.

Knowing the needs of consumers will increase fashion companies' sales and profits. Through research and studying the consumers' lives the needs of the customer can be obtained and help fashion brands know what trends the consumers are ready for.

Symbolic consumption[edit]

Consumption is driven not only by need, the symbolic meaning for consumers is also a factor. Consumers engaging in symbolic consumption may develop a sense of self over an extended period of time as various objects are collected as part of the process of establishing their identity and, when the symbolic meaning is shared in a social group, to communicate their identity to others. For teenagers, consumption plays a role in distinguishing the child self from the adult. Researchers have found that the fashion choices of teenagers are used for self-expression and also to recognize other teens who wear similar clothes. The symbolic association of clothing items can link individuals' personality and interests, with music as a prominent factor influencing fashion decisions.[49]

Political influences[edit]

Ivanka Trump (right) along with Japanese PM Shinzō Abe wearing Western-style business suits, 2017

Political figures have played a central role in the development of fashion, at least since the time of French king Louis XIV. For example, First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was a fashion icon of the early 1960s. Wearing Chanel suits, structural Givenchy shift dresses, and soft color Cassini coats with large buttons, she inspired trends of both elegant formal dressing and classic feminine style.[50]

Cultural upheavals have also had an impact on fashion trends. For example, during the 1960s, the U.S. economy was robust, the divorce rate was increasing, and the government approved the birth control pill. These factors inspired the younger generation to rebel against entrenched social norms. The civil rights movement, a struggle for social justice and equal opportunity for Blacks, and the women's liberation movement, seeking equal rights and opportunities and greater personal freedom for women, were in full bloom. In 1964, the leg-baring mini-skirt was introduced and became a white-hot trend. Fashion designers then began to experiment with the shapes of garments: loose sleeveless dresses, micro-minis, flared skirts, and trumpet sleeves. Fluorescent colors, print patterns, bell-bottom jeans, fringed vests, and skirts became de rigueur outfits of the 1960s.[51]

Concern and protest over U.S involvement in the failing Vietnam War also influenced fashion . Camouflage patterns in military clothing, developed to help military personnel be less visible to enemy forces, seeped into streetwear designs in the 1960s. Camouflage trends have disappeared and resurfaced several times since then, appearing in high fashion iterations in the 1990s.[52] Designers such as Valentino, Dior, and Dolce & Gabbana combined camouflage into their runway and ready-to-wear collections. Today, variations of camouflage, including pastel shades, in every article of clothing or accessory, continue to enjoy popularity.

Technology influences[edit]

Today, technology plays a sizable role in society, and technological influences are correspondingly increasing within the realm of fashion. Wearable technology has become incorporated; for example, clothing constructed with solar panels that charge devices and smart fabrics that enhance wearer comfort by changing color or texture based on environmental changes.[53] 3D printing technology has influenced designers such as Iris van Herpen and Kimberly Ovitz. As the technology evolves, 3D printers will become more accessible to designers and eventually, consumers — these could potentially reshape design and production in the fashion industry entirely.

Internet technology, enabling the far reaches of online retailers and social media platforms, has created previously unimaginable ways for trends to be identified, marketed, and sold immediately.[54] Trend-setting styles are easily displayed and communicated online to attract customers. Posts on Instagram or Facebook can quickly increase awareness about new trends in fashion, which subsequently may create high demand for specific items or brands,[55] new "buy now button" technology can link these styles with direct sales.

Machine vision technology has been developed to track how fashions spread through society. The industry can now see the direct correlation on how fashion shows influence street-chic outfits. Effects such as these can now be quantified and provide valuable feedback to fashion houses, designers, and consumers regarding trends.[56]

Latin dancers in their costumes. The woman is wearing backless dress with deep slits on its lower portion, while the man is wearing a shirt with top buttons open.

The media plays a significant role when it comes to fashion. For instance, an important part of fashion is fashion journalism. Editorial critique, guidelines, and commentary can be found on television and in magazines, newspapers, fashion websites, social networks, and fashion blogs. In recent years, fashion blogging and YouTube videos have become a major outlet for spreading trends and fashion tips, creating an online culture of sharing one's style on a website or social media accounts (like instagram, tiktok, or twitter). Through these media outlets, readers and viewers all over the world can learn about fashion, making it very accessible.[57] In addition to fashion journalism, another media platform that is important in fashion industry is advertisement. Advertisements provide information to audiences and promote the sales of products and services. The fashion industry utilizes advertisements to attract consumers and promote its products to generate sales. A few decades ago when technology was still underdeveloped, advertisements heavily relied on radio, magazines, billboards, and newspapers.[58] These days, there are more various ways in advertisements such as television ads, online-based ads using internet websites, and posts, videos, and live streaming in social media platforms.

Fashion in printed media[edit]

There are two subsets of print styling: editorial and lifestyle. Editorial styling is the high - fashion styling seen in fashion magazines, and this tends to be more artistic and fashion-forward. Lifestyle styling focuses on a more overtly commercial goal, like a department store advertisement, a website, or an advertisement where fashion is not what's being sold but the models hired to promote the product in the photo.[59]

The dressing practices of the powerful has traditionally been mediated through art and the practices of the courts. The looks of the French court were disseminated through prints, from the 16th century, but became prevalent with the promotion of the centralized court around king Louis XIV, and the style that became known under his name.[60] At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to include photographs of various fashion designs and became even more influential than in the past.[61] In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought after and had a profound effect on public taste in clothing. Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was La Gazette du Bon Ton, which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).[62]

A see-through top worn along with pasties by a model at a fashion show in USA, 2017. Such fashion trends get popularised through media.

Vogue, founded in the United States in 1892, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the hundreds of fashion magazines that have come and gone. Increasing affluence after World War II and, most importantly, the advent of cheap color printing in the 1960s, led to a huge boost in its sales and heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream women's magazines, followed by men's magazines in the 1990s. One such example of Vogue's popularity is the younger version, Teen Vogue, which covers clothing and trends that are targeted more toward the "fashionista on a budget". Haute couture designers followed the trend by starting ready-to-wear and perfume lines which are heavily advertised in the magazines and now dwarf their original couture businesses. A recent development within fashion print media is the rise of text-based and critical magazines which aim to prove that fashion is not superficial, by creating a dialogue between fashion academia and the industry. Examples of this development are: Fashion Theory (1997), Fashion Practice: The Journal of Design, Creative Process & the Fashion Industry (2008), and Vestoj (2009).

Fashion in television[edit]

Television coverage began in the 1950s with small fashion features. In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent, and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion shows such as Fashion Television started to appear. FashionTV was the pioneer in this undertaking and has since grown to become the leader in both Fashion Television and new media channels. The Fashion Industry is beginning to promote their styles through Bloggers on social media's. Vogue specified Chiara Ferragni as "blogger of the moment" due to the rises of followers through her Fashion Blog, that became popular.[63]

A few days after the 2010 Fall Fashion Week in New York City came to a close, The New Islander's Fashion Editor, Genevieve Tax, criticized the fashion industry for running on a seasonal schedule of its own, largely at the expense of real-world consumers. "Because designers release their fall collections in the spring and their spring collections in the fall, fashion magazines such as Vogue always and only look forward to the upcoming season, promoting parkas come September while issuing reviews on shorts in January", she writes. "Savvy shoppers, consequently, have been conditioned to be extremely, perhaps impractically, farsighted with their buying."[64]

The fashion industry has been the subject of numerous films and television shows, including the reality show Project Runway and the drama series Ugly Betty. Specific fashion brands have been featured in film, not only as product placement opportunities, but as bespoke items that have subsequently led to trends in fashion.[65]

Videos in general have been very useful in promoting the fashion industry. This is evident not only from television shows directly spotlighting the fashion industry, but also movies, events and music videos which showcase fashion statements as well as promote specific brands through product placements.

Controversial advertisements in fashion industry[edit]

Racism in fashion advertisements[edit]

There are some fashion advertisements that were accused of racism and led to boycotts from the customers. Globally known, Swedish fashion brand H&M faced this issue with one of its children's wear advertisements in 2018. A black child wearing a hoodie with a slogan written as "coolest monkey in the jungle" right at the center was featured in the ad. When it was released, it immediately became controversial and even led to a boycott. A lot of people including celebrities posted on social media about their resentments towards H&M and refusal to work with and buy its products. H&M issued a statement saying "we apologise to anyone this may have offended", which seemed insincere to some.[66] Another fashion advertisement regarding racism is from GAP, an American worldwide clothing brand. GAP collaborated with Ellen DeGeneres in 2016 for the advertisement. It features playful, four young girls where a tall white girl is leaning with her arm on a shorter black girl's head. When this ad was released, some viewers harshly criticized that it underlies passive racism. A representative from The Root, black culture magazine commented on the ad that it portrays the message that black people are undervalued and seen like props for white people to look better.[67] There were different points of views on this issue, some saying that people are being too sensitive, and some getting offended. Regardless of various views and thoughts, GAP replaced the ad to different image and apologized to critics.[68]

Sexism in fashion advertisements[edit]

Many fashion brands have published ads that were too provocative and sexy to attract customers’ attention. British high fashion brand, Jimmy Choo, was blamed for having sexism in its ad which featured a female British model wearing the brand's boots. In this two-minute ad, men whistle at a model, walking on the street with red, sleeveless mini dress. This ad gained much backlash and criticism by the viewers since sexual harassment and misconduct were a huge issue during this time and even till now. Many people showed their dismay through social media posts, leading Jimmy Choo to pull down the ad from social media platforms.[69]

French luxury fashion brand Yves Saint Laurent also faced this issue with its print ad shown in Paris in 2017. A female model is wearing a fishnet tights with roller-skate stilettos, almost lying down with her legs opened in front of the camera. This advertisement brought harsh comments from the viewers and French advertising organization directors for going against the advertising codes related to "respect for decency, dignity and those prohibiting submission, violence or dependence, as well as the use of stereotypes." They even said that this ad is causing "mental harm to adolescents."[70] Lot of sarcastic comments were made in social media about the ad and the poster was removed from the city.

Public relations and social media[edit]

A Mexican sports reporter wearing little black dress and knee-high boots

Fashion public relations involves being in touch with a company's audiences and creating strong relationships with them, reaching out to media, and initiating messages that project positive images of the company.[71] Social media plays an important role in modern-day fashion public relations; enabling practitioners to reach a wide range of consumers through various platforms.[72]

Building brand awareness and credibility is a key implication of good public relations. In some cases, the hype is built about new designers' collections before they are released into the market, due to the immense exposure generated by practitioners.[73] Social media, such as blogs, microblogs, podcasts, photo and video sharing sites have all become increasingly important to fashion public relations.[74] The interactive nature of these platforms allows practitioners to engage and communicate with the public in real-time, and tailor their clients' brand or campaign messages to the target audience. With blogging platforms such as Instagram, Tumblr, WordPress, Squarespace, and other sharing sites, bloggers have emerged as expert fashion commentators, shaping brands and having a great impact on what is ‘on trend’.[75] Women in the fashion public relations industry such as Sweaty Betty PR founder Roxy Jacenko and Oscar de la Renta's PR girl Erika Bearman, have acquired copious followers on their social media sites, by providing a brand identity and a behind the scenes look into the companies they work for.

Social media is changing the way practitioners deliver messages,[23] as they are concerned with the media, and also customer relationship building.[76] PR practitioners must provide effective communication among all platforms, in order to engage the fashion public in an industry socially connected via online shopping.[77] Consumers have the ability to share their purchases on their personal social media pages (such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, etc.), and if practitioners deliver the brand message effectively and meet the needs of its public, word-of-mouth publicity will be generated and potentially provide a wide reach for the designer and their products.

Fashion and political activism[edit]

As fashion concerns people, and signifies social hierarchies, fashion intersects with politics and the social organization of societies. Whereas haute couture and business suits are associated by people in power, also groups aiming to challenge the political order also use clothes to signal their position. The explicit use of fashion as a form of activism, is usually referred to as "fashion activism."

There is a complex relationship between fashion and feminism. Some feminists have argued that by participating in feminine fashions women are contributing to maintaining the gender differences which are part of women's oppression.[78] Brownmiller felt that women should reject traditionally feminine dress, focusing on comfort and practicality rather than fashion.[78] Others believe that it is the fashion system itself that is repressive in requiring women to seasonally change their clothes to keep up with trends.[79] Greer has advocated this argument that seasonal changes in dress should be ignored; she argues that women can be liberated by replacing the compulsiveness of fashion with enjoyment of rejecting the norm to create their own personal styling.[80] This rejection of seasonal fashion led to many protests in the 1960s alongside rejection of fashion on socialist, racial and environmental grounds.[81] However, Mosmann has pointed out that the relationship between protesting fashion and creating fashion is dynamic because the language and style used in these protests has then become part of fashion itself.[81]

Fashion designers and brands have traditionally kept themselves out of political conflicts, there has been a movement in the industry towards taking more explicit positions across the political spectrum. From maintaining a rather apolitical stance, designers and brands today engage more explicitly in current debates.[82]

For example, considering the U.S.'s political climate in the surrounding months of the 2016 presidential election, during 2017 fashion weeks in London, Milan, New York, Paris and São Paulo amongst others, many designers took the opportunity to take political stances leveraging their platforms and influence to reach their customers.[83][84] This has also led to some confusion around democratic values, as fashion is not always the most inclusive platform for political debate, but a one-way broadcast of top-down messages.

When taking an explicit political stance, designers appear to favor issues around which can be phrased using clear language with virtuous undertones. For example, aiming to "amplify a greater message of unity, inclusion, diversity, and feminism in a fashion space", designer Mara Hoffman invited the founders of the Women's March on Washington to open her show which featured modern silhouettes of utilitarian wear, described by critics as "Made for a modern warrior" and "Clothing for those who still have work to do".[85] Prabal Gurung debuted his collection of T-shirts featuring slogans such as "The Future is Female", "We Will Not Be Silenced", and "Nevertheless She Persisted", with proceeds going to the ACLU, Planned Parenthood, and Gurung's own charity, "Shikshya Foundation Nepal".[82] Similarly, The Business of Fashion launched the #TiedTogether movement on Social Media, encouraging member of the industry from editors to models, to wear a white bandana advocating for "unity, solidarity, and inclusiveness during fashion week".[86]

Fashion may be used to promote a cause, such as to promote healthy behavior,[87] to raise money for a cancer cure,[88] or to raise money for local charities[89] such as the Juvenile Protective Association[90] or a children's hospice.[91]

One fashion cause is trashion, which is using trash to make clothes, jewelry, and other fashion items in order to promote awareness of pollution. There are a number of modern trashion artists such as Marina DeBris, Ann Wizer,[92] and Nancy Judd.[93] Other designers have used DIY fashions, in the tradition of the punk movement, to address elitism in the industry to promote more inclusion and diversity.[94]

Anthropological perspective[edit]

From an academic lens, the sporting of various fashions has been seen as a form of fashion language, a mode of communication that produced various fashion statements, using a grammar of fashion.[95] This is a perspective promoted in the work of influential French philosopher and semiotician Roland Barthes.

Anthropology, the study of culture and of human societies, examines fashion by asking why certain styles are deemed socially appropriate and others are not. From the theory of interactionism, a certain practice or expression is chosen by those in power in a community, and that becomes "the fashion" as defined at a certain time by the people under influence of those in power. If a particular style has a meaning in an already occurring set of beliefs, then that style may have a greater chance of become fashion.[96]

According to cultural theorists Ted Polhemus and Lynn Procter, one can describe fashion as adornment, of which there are two types: fashion and anti-fashion. Through the capitalization and commoditization of clothing, accessories, and shoes, etc., what once constituted anti-fashion becomes part of fashion as the lines between fashion and anti-fashion are blurred, as expressions that were once outside the changes of fashion are swept along with trends to signify new meanings.[97] Examples range from how elements from ethnic dress becomes part of a trend and appear on catwalks or street cultures, for example how tattoos travel from sailors, laborers and criminals to popular culture.

To cultural theorist Malcolm Bernard, fashion and anti-fashion differ as polar opposites. Anti-fashion is fixed and changes little over time,[98] varying depending on the cultural or social group one is associated with or where one lives, but within that group or locality the style changes little. Fashion, in contrast, can change (evolve) very quickly[99] and is not affiliated with one group or area of the world but spreads throughout the world wherever people can communicate easily with each other. An example of anti-fashion would be ceremonial or otherwise traditional clothing where specific garments and their designs are both reproduced faithfully and with the intent of maintaining a status quo of tradition. This can be seen in the clothing of some kabuki plays, where some character outfits are kept intact from designs of several centuries ago, in some cases retaining the crests of the actors considered to have 'perfected' that role.

Anti-fashion is concerned with maintaining the status quo, while fashion is concerned with social mobility. Time is expressed in terms of continuity in anti-fashion, and in terms of change in fashion; fashion has changing modes of adornment, while anti-fashion has fixed modes of adornment.

From this theoretical lens, change in fashion is part of the larger industrial system and is structured by the powerful actors in this system to be a deliberate change in style, promoted through the channels influenced by the industry (such as paid advertisements).[100]

Intellectual property[edit]

In the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music industry. Robert Glariston, an intellectual property expert, mentioned in a fashion seminar held in LA[which?] that "Copyright law regarding clothing is a current hot-button issue in the industry. We often have to draw the line between designers being inspired by a design and those outright stealing it in different places."[101] To take inspiration from others' designs contributes to the fashion industry's ability to establish clothing trends. For the past few years, WGSN has been a dominant source of fashion news and forecasts in encouraging fashion brands worldwide to be inspired by one another. Enticing consumers to buy clothing by establishing new trends is, some have argued, a key component of the industry's success. Intellectual property rules that interfere with this process of trend-making would, in this view, be counter-productive. On the other hand, it is often argued that the blatant theft of new ideas, unique designs, and design details by larger companies is what often contributes to the failure of many smaller or independent design companies.

Since fakes are distinguishable by their poorer quality, there is still a demand for luxury goods, and as only a trademark or logo can be copyrighted, many fashion brands make this one of the most visible aspects of the garment or accessory. In handbags, especially, the designer's brand may be woven into the fabric (or the lining fabric) from which the bag is made, making the brand an intrinsic element of the bag.

In 2005, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) held a conference calling for stricter intellectual property enforcement within the fashion industry to better protect small and medium businesses and promote competitiveness within the textile and clothing industries.[102][103]

See also[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

  • Breward, Christopher, The culture of fashion: a new history of fashionable dress, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7190-4125-9
  • Cabrera, Ana, and Lesley Miller. "Genio y Figura. La influencia de la cultura española en la moda." Fashion Theory: The Journal of Dress, Body & Culture 13.1 (2009): 103–110
  • Cumming, Valerie: Understanding Fashion History, Costume & Fashion Press, 2004, ISBN 0-89676-253-X
  • Hollander, Anne, Seeing through clothes, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993, ISBN 978-0-520-08231-1
  • Hanifie, Sowaibah (5 August 2020). "Australia's first National Indigenous Fashion Awards winners revealed, signalling hope for a more diverse industry". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
  • Hollander, Anne, Sex and suits: the evolution of modern dress, New York: Knopf, 1994, ISBN 978-0-679-43096-4
  • Hollander, Anne, Feeding the eye: essays, New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1999, ISBN 978-0-374-28201-1
  • Hollander, Anne, Fabric of vision: dress and drapery in painting, London: National Gallery, 2002, ISBN 978-0-300-09419-0
  • Kawamura, Yuniya, Fashion-ology: an introduction to Fashion Studies, Oxford and New York: Berg, 2005, ISBN 1-85973-814-1
  • Lipovetsky, Gilles (translated by Catherine Porter), The empire of fashion: dressing modern democracy, Woodstock: Princeton University Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-691-10262-7
  • McDermott, Kathleen, Style for all: why fashion, invented by kings, now belongs to all of us (An illustrated history), 2010, ISBN 978-0-557-51917-0 – Many hand-drawn color illustrations, extensive annotated bibliography and reading guide
  • Perrot, Philippe (translated by Richard Bienvenu), Fashioning the bourgeoisie: a history of clothing in the nineteenth century, Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-00081-7
  • Steele, Valerie, Paris fashion: a cultural history, (2. ed., rev. and updated), Oxford: Berg, 1998, ISBN 978-1-85973-973-0
  • Steele, Valerie, Fifty years of fashion: new look to now, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-300-08738-3
  • Steele, Valerie, Encyclopedia of clothing and fashion, Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005
  • Davis, F. (1989). Of maids' uniforms and blue jeans: The drama of status ambivalences in clothing and fashion. Qualitative Sociology, 12(4), 337–355.

External links[edit]

  • Media related to Fashion at Wikimedia Commons
  • The dictionary definition of fashion at Wiktionary
  • Quotations related to Fashion at Wikiquote


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You Can't Go Home Again

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You Can't Go Home Again
Cover to the first edition of "You Can't Go Home Again" by Thomas Wolfe
First edition cover
EditorEdward Aswell (edited and compiled work from writings of Wolfe, published posthumously)[1]
AuthorThomas Wolfe
GenreAutobiographical fiction, Romance
PublishedNew York, London, Harper & Row, 1940

You Can't Go Home Again is a novel by Thomas Wolfe published posthumously in 1940, extracted by his editor, Edward Aswell, from the contents of his vast unpublished manuscript The October Fair. It is a sequel to The Web and the Rock, which, along with the collection The Hills Beyond, was extracted from the same manuscript.

The novel tells the story of George Webber, a fledgling author, who writes a book that makes frequent references to his home town of Libya Hill which was actually Asheville, North Carolina. The book is a national success but the residents of the town had been unhappy with what they view as Webber's distorted depiction of them, send the author menacing letters and death threats.[2][3]

Wolfe, as in many of his other novels, explores the changing American society of the 1920s/30s, including the stock market crash, the illusion of prosperity, and the unfair passing of time which prevents Webber ever being able to return "home again". In parallel to Wolfe's relationship with the United States, the novel details his disillusionment with Germany during the rise of Nazism.[4][5] Wolfe scholar Jon Dawson argues that the two themes are connected most firmly by Wolfe's critique of capitalism and comparison between the rise of capitalist enterprise in the United States in the 1920s and the rise of fascism in Germany during the same period.[6]

The artist Alexander Calder appears, fictionalized as "Piggy Logan".[7]

Plot summary[edit]

George Webber has written a successful novel about his family and hometown. When he returns to that town, he is shaken by the force of outrage and hatred that greets him. Family and lifelong friends feel naked and exposed by what they have seen in his books, and their fury drives him from his home.

Outcast, George Webber begins a search for his own identity. It takes him to New York and a hectic social whirl; to Paris with an uninhibited group of expatriates; to Berlin, lying cold and sinister under Hitler's shadow. The journey comes full circle when Webber returns to America and rediscovers it with love, sorrow, and hope.

Wolfe took the title from a conversation with the writer Ella Winter, who remarked to Wolfe: "Don't you know you can't go home again?" Wolfe then asked Winter for permission to use the phrase as the title of his book.[8][9]

The title is reinforced in the denouement of the novel in which Webber realizes: "You can't go back home to your family, back home to your childhood ... back home to a young man's dreams of glory and of fame ... back home to places in the country, back home to the old forms and systems of things which once seemed everlasting, but which are changing all the time – back home to the escapes of Time and Memory." (Ellipses in original)[10]

  1. ^ You Can't Go Home Again. OCLC Worldcat. OCLC 964311.
  2. ^ "You Can't Go Home Again". Magill Book Reviews. 15 March 1990.
  3. ^ Strauss, Albrecht B. (Spring 1995). "You Can't Go Home Again – Thomas Wolfe and I". Southern Literary Journal. 27 (2): 107–116.
  4. ^ Godwin, Rebecca (2009). "'You Can't Go Home Again': Does Nazism Really Transform Wolfe's Romanticism?". Thomas Wolfe Review. 33 (1/2): 24–31.
  5. ^ Hovis, George (2009). "Beyond the Lost Generation: The Death of Egotism in 'You Can't Go Home Again.'". Thomas Wolfe Review. 33 (2): 32–47.
  6. ^ Dawson, John (2009). "Look Outward, Thomas: Social Criticism as Unifying Element in 'You Can't Go Home Again.'". Thomas Wolfe Review. 33 (1/2): 48–66.
  7. ^ Shattuck, Kathryn (October 10, 2008). "From a Big Imagination, a Tiny Circus". The New York Times. Retrieved January 11, 2014.
  8. ^ Fred R. Shapiro, ed. (2006). The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 832. ISBN 978-0-300-10798-2.
  9. ^ Godwin, Gail (2011). "Introduction". You Can't Go Home Again. Simon and Schuster. p. xii. ISBN 9781451650488. Retrieved 2013-03-05.
  10. ^ Madden, David (2012). "'You Can't Go Home Again': Thomas Wolfe's Vision of America". Thomas Wolfe Review. 36 (1/2): 116–126.

External links[edit]

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The Deal Economy

6 ways rebate management software can increase your bottom line

For most organizations your ultimate goal is to increase your bottom line. The more profits a company generates, the better your overall growth. Rebates for example can have a significant impact on your bottom-line however we have learnt that 4% of potential rebate revenue typically goes unclaimed due to manual processes and outdated software. Want to avoid that happening at your organization? We’re here to show you how implementing rebate management software can increase your bottom line.

  1. Improve operational efficiency

If your organization heavily relies on tedious, manual processes that are putting a drain on time and productivity this can have a direct impact on your bottom line. If there are too many touchpoints behind a given process, the potential for human error increases exponentially. Duplicate and repetitive work is potentially being done in a few different departments and may not even be identified until it’s too late. A rebate management system can streamline your deal workflow, freeing up your team’s time which they can instead spend increasing your bottom line. This improves the processes overall, making your team more effective and ultimately, providing more value.

  1. Better cash flow

Relying on spreadsheets for managing your rebates means data and calculations can be incorrect due to human error and you can end up with a limited view into your cash flow as the spreadsheets are not updated in real time. Whereas a rebate management system can provide you with accurate, real time visibility so you can keep a close eye on your cash flow which will effectively increase your bottom line. More importantly, with built in reports you can see how your cash flow fluctuates on a daily, weekly, or quarterly basis.

  1. Claim all your rebates

We’re seeing more and more evidence of companies who rely on their suppliers or vendors to tell them what rebates they should claim. This is surprising given that rebates can be the largest contributor to profit and that missed rebate claims can directly impact the bottom line. Even rebates that are not missed take significant man hours and elapsed time to calculate and claim. By implementing a rebate management system, you can make sure your organization is claiming all additional rebate by keeping track of your deals and embracing collaboration with your trading partners. This directly will increase your bottom line.

  1. Better decision making

Rebate management relies on real-time data collected on a weekly, quarterly, monthly or yearly basis. Your company can then make important decisions accordingly. However, when lots of data is stuck inside many spreadsheets it can be difficult to piece everything together. A rebate management system is used to view real-time information surrounding your deals, delays can be eliminated, increasing the potential for more accurate and faster decision-making which then can lead to an increase in your bottom line.

  1. Reduce exposure to compliance risk

Financial compliance requires your business to adhere to their financial regulations that are in place. Regardless of how highly trained and reliable, your staff are, the fact remains that manually administering rebates increases the likelihood of human error. Contract oversights, incorrect filing, and missed milestones can all result in disputes with trading partners, and harsh regulatory fines. Such consequences can negatively impact future business and, in extreme cases, your bottom line. These compliance risks can be avoided with the successful implementation of rebate management software.

  1. Enhanced collaboration

With a lot of organizations now working remotely it’s even more important to consider how poor collaboration is affecting your business. This could be in the form of costly errors, miscommunication, long sign off processes and lack of productivity. For rebate teams to successfully collaborate on their deals, trading agreements needs to be easily accessible and shared within a centralized deal repository. Building collaborative partnerships internally and externally is critical to your bottom line because those working together toward a common goal will always outperform a set of individuals working on their own.

Take the first step to increasing your bottom line today

As you can see, streamlining your processes and technology is key to your business’ success and potentially the determining factor of whether or not your bottom line improves. To determine which rebate management system the best fit for your organization, assess your requirements and how it will truly benefit your organization. A system that is properly matched to the needs of your company and improves your processes will directly contribute to increasing your bottom line.


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Encore Records Ltd

Various - Vol 4 Redux - CD

Regular price $16.99 CAD
Regular price Sale price $16.99 CAD
1 CD - Import

Magnetic Eye bows at the Birmingham altar to celebrate Black Sabbath's 50th anniversary, offering an end-to-end re-imagining of "Vol. 4", one of the most acclaimed albums in the Sabbath canon.

A pantheon of metal and doom heavyweights, including some of metal's most famously Sabbath-inspired icons, pays homage to the record where the masters began to expand their minds and their weighty foundation. "Vol. 4 [Redux]" features stunning takes on each song from the undeniable classic, with incomparable tributes by Matt Pike, Haunt, The Obsessed, Thou, Zakk Sabbath, Spirit Adrift, and more.


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December 1, 2020
The Sacrifice of Anton Stacey
December 3, 2020
Show all

by John Wooley & Ron Wolfe

After twenty years away, Mick Winters has come home to find his worst childhood fears waiting for him. The spider so big it fills the mouth of the culvert. The black shadow lurking in the old coal pit. The slithering thing under the bed. Old fears, nothing but figments of a child’s imagination. Except — why is Jerry Meyers lying in the morgue with a torn jugular full of insect venom? What’s terrorizing the miners of Tanapah, Oklahoma? And what dragged Mike Henshaw beneath his bed and suffocated him? A horror epidemic for which there is no explanation — and no cure — descends upon the town and turns Mick’s dream vacation into a nightmare where old fears become deadly realities.

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The power of a good purchasing management

Time puts each of us in our place, and there is no doubt that the complex  economic, financial and business environment, looking like coming to an end and having been left behind, has positioned the purchasing management inside the company structure.

During the years while we were living a period of economic expansion, the main focus was to keep gaining ground, walking over scorched-earth, the fundamental strategic decisions were those focused on the external factors. But the decrease experimented by the turnovers, oriented the point of view to the interior of the company and found out the purchasing function, that, until that moment, had been placed in secondary levels in the organizing structure, with no visibility at all. They did not participate in the direction meetings, did not take part on the strategic decisions, they represented intermediate levels of responsibility and did not have an specific weight in the company, usually they were part of a bigger and more important department.

“Even though, with the margins decreasing and the search of efficiency and resources optimization being vital, purchasing management was recognized as one of the main points to ameliorate the  income statement, resources materialization… In essence, as kick board to hold in order to maintain the profit margins. his new point of view of the purchasing management, has catapulted the purchasing managers to the direction committees, enabling them to get an specific weight in any organization and taking part in the strategic decisions of the company.”

However, the recent discovery on the importance of an adequate organization when shopping, doesn’t only focus on the optimization of resources , cost savings of supplies and  in the hiring of services, but it focuses also in the control and management of stock suppliers. That is, the crisis has affected all organizations equally. Some companies have fallen on the way and the survival of those who exist today has not only depend on the company itself, but on its suppliers too. There have been cases in which a company has financially supported its suppliers , and vice versa, where supplies have supported companies. These type of events can only take place with correct  and responsible management relations with suppliers and clients. Demanding our suppliers an adjusted price and a quality service, but in a sustainable manner, can lead to the implementation of an indefinite and timeless alliance, assuring our supplies and optimizing our costs, at the same time that it allows the survival and growth of our suppliers. However, all this requires a continuous process of control and care in the relationship with our supplier. This will avoid negative impacts in the development of our own business, in that it results positive for the organization’s strategy.

Each day has a stimulation and the current crisis revealed the importance in having in the organization a team of professional buyers that carry out an excellent management of purchasing. After all, purchases are an important investment in companies, and like all investments, they require a previous analysis and the elaboration of their control and pursuit  later on. The function of purchasing must develop strategies of efficiency and control of expense in a continuous manner., allowing  a cost optimization and a reduction in expenditure, resulting in a liberation of resources and an improvement in the income statement.

The development and evolution of purchasing management, that has emerged from the crisis and its supervening needs, should lead us to reflect on its real importance and its permanent establishment, as part of the strategic decision making mechanism in the organization with the consolidation of its presence in the direction committees. We must not forget what has been learned in an obliged manner during the crisis, and we should incorporate it to our corporate culture as an element of added value. The efficient purchasing management has become essential in many aspects of the organization.


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Omega Centauri Unlikely to Harbor Life

Omega Centauri, colorful stars, habitable planets, globular star cluster
There are colorful stars galore, but likely no habitable planets, inside the globular star cluster Omega Centauri. (NASA, ESA, and the Hubble SM4 ERO Team)

Close encounters between stars in the Milky Way’s largest globular cluster leave little room for habitable planetary systems

By Sarah Nightingale

Riverside, CA-(ENEWSPF)- Searching for life in the vast universe is an overwhelming task, but scientists can cross one place off their list. Omega Centauri — a densely packed cluster of stars in our galactic backyard — is unlikely to be home to habitable planets, according to a study by scientists at the University of California, Riverside, and San Francisco State University.

Forthcoming in The Astrophysical Journal, the study was led by Stephen Kane, an associate professor of planetary astrophysics in UCR’s Department of Earth Sciences and a pioneer in the search for habitable planets outside our solar system, known as exoplanets. Sarah Deveny, a graduate student at San Francisco State who is working with Kane, co-authored the paper.

In the hunt for habitable exoplanets, Omega Centauri, the largest globular cluster in the Milky Way, seemed like a good place to look. Comprising an estimated 10 million stars, the cluster is nearly 16,000 light years from Earth, making it visible to the naked eye and a relatively close target for observations by the Hubble Space Telescope.

“Despite the large number of stars concentrated in Omega Centauri’s core, the prevalence of exoplanets remains somewhat unknown,” Kane said. “However, since this type of compact star cluster exists across the universe, it is an intriguing place to look for habitability.”

Starting with a rainbow-colored assortment of 470,000 stars in Omega Centauri’s core, the researchers homed in on 350,000 stars whose color — a gauge of their temperature and age — means they could potentially harbor life-bearing planets.

For each star, they then calculated the habitable zone — the orbital region around each star in which a rocky planet could have liquid water, which is a key ingredient for life as we know it. Since most of the stars in Omega Centauri’s core are red dwarfs, their habitable zones are much closer than the one surrounding our own larger sun.

“The core of Omega Centauri could potentially be populated with a plethora of compact planetary systems that harbor habitable-zone planets close to a host star,” Kane said. “An example of such a system is TRAPPIST-1, a miniature version of our own solar system that is 40 light years away and is currently viewed as one of the most promising places to look for alien life.”

Ultimately, though, the cozy nature of stars in Omega Centauri forced the researchers to conclude that such planetary systems, however compact, cannot exist in the cluster’s core. While our own sun is a comfortable 4.22 light years from its nearest neighbor, the average distance between stars in Omega Centauri’s core is 0.16 light years, meaning they would encounter neighboring stars about once every 1 million years.

“The rate at which stars gravitationally interact with each other would be too high to harbor stable habitable planets,” Deveny said. “Looking at clusters with similar or higher encounter rates to Omega Centauri’s could lead to the same conclusion. So, studying globular clusters with lower encounter rates might lead to a higher probability of finding stable habitable planets.”

The title of the paper is “Habitability in the Omega Centauri Cluster.”

This story is published with permission from the University of California, Riverside


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19 October 2021, 14:57

Belarus to roll out own COVID-19 vaccine in 2023

An archive photo
An archive photo

MINSK, 19 October (BelTA) – Belarus will roll out its own COVID-19 vaccine in 2023, Belarusian President Aleksandr Lukashenko said at the meeting to discuss the epidemiological situation and the COVID-19 response in Belarus on 19 October, BelTA has learned.

“The experts here put it right: a vaccine is not a 100% guarantee that you will not get sick. You can get sick but COVID-19 deaths are close to zero among vaccinated,” the head of state emphasized.

Likewise, severe cases of COVID-19 are just as rare among those who got a shot.

“Thus we can assume that the vaccine works. At least we need to live through the autumn and winter until next summer. The vaccine is a great help for us here. After that we will figure out what to do. It was a smart decision of ours to develop our own vaccine that will be available in 2023. We already have it in a test tube,” Aleksandr Lukashenko said.

He recalled that this decision was prompted by the assumption that a completely different variant of COVID might emerge by that time. “Today we see that it is highly likely to happen. We have already survived four or five variants. Today we deal with a delta strain. Therefore, we will develop our vaccine and adapt it to the virus that will circulate in 2023,” the president said.

He emphasized that a lot has now been done to be able to produce a domestic vaccine. “There is a project. We are purchasing equipment to set up our own vaccine production plant, as in China, Russia, the United States, and in several other states. We must have our own reliable vaccine,” the head of state added.

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Thought leadership

British Steel pension scheme members were targeted by “vulture” financial advisers after Tata was allowed to offload its retirement fund, MPs say.

In 2017 the Indian firm announced a restructuring of the £14bn fund to keep its UK loss-making operations afloat.

But the government, Tata and regulators failed to protect 124,000 members from a “major mis-selling scandal”, the Work and Pensions Select Committee said.

The UK government has yet to issue its response to the “neglect” claim. The Pensions Regulator said it would continue to work to protect savers.

The report from the Work and Pensions Select Committee was looking at the closure of the British Steel Pension Scheme (BSPS).

Regulators had accepted that Tata Steel UK would be insolvent if it continued to sponsor the scheme.

About 8,000 people are employed by Tata across England and Wales, including 3,500 in Port Talbot, but those figures were dwarfed by number of retired steelworkers – more than 100,000 – who were members of the scheme.

Those members had to decide what to do with their pension funds after the scheme was separated from Tata last September.

Between October and December 2017, they had a choice of entering into a new Tata-backed scheme, BSPS2, or the Pension Protection Fund (PPF).

Both were less generous than the scheme that closed but BSPS2 was better for the majority of people than the PPF.

A third option was transferring out of the scheme completely – a so-called DB transfer – but the committee said this is “not usually in someone’s interests”.

But circumstances surrounding the BSPS “created perfect conditions for vultures to take advantage”, the MPs concluded.

One Tata worker told the BBC he lost almost £200,000 by transferring out of the BSPS after seeking independent financial advice.

Last week, the scheme’s trustees said that, since March 2017, it has processed 2,600 pension DB transfers with a total value of £1.1bn. The average amount transferred out was £400,000 and in around 20 cases the transfer value exceeded £1 million.

The committee noted that an outline plan to save Tata Steel UK, the “sponsor” of the BSPS, had been in place since May 2017.

But it said those signatories to the deal – Tata, the UK government and Pensions Regulator – had neglected the pension scheme’s members.

Committee chairman Frank Field said: “Once again we find the pensions regulator fiddling while Rome burns, when it should have seen this rip-off coming.”

He added: “All the responsible authorities must act, now, to stop more people being cheated.”

The financial advisers’ regulator, the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), also faces serious criticism for how it handled concerns over mis-selling.

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How much warning do you have before a wildfire?

Are there any warning signs before a wildfire?

Moving fast: High rate of spread. Prolific crowning and/or spotting. Presence of fire whirls. Strong convection column.

Is there a warning system for wildfires?

A Red Flag Warning is issued for weather events which may result in extreme fire behavior that will occur within 24 hours. … A Red Flag Warning is the highest alert. During these times extreme caution is urged by all residents, because a simple spark can cause a major wildfire.

Can you predict a wildfire?

Using different projections of temperature and precipitation, scientists predict where and when wildfires are most likely to occur. … Using computer models and Geographic Information Systems (GIS), scientists create maps showing areas that will be more susceptible to wildfires.

What is the biggest wildfire in history?

America’s Most Devastating Wildfires

Fire Date Acres Burned
The Great Michigan Fire October 8, 1871 2.5 million
Hinckley Fire September 1, 1894 160,000
Yacolt Fire September 1902 Over 1 million
The Big Burn August 1910 3 million

What should you never do during a wildfire?

5 things you should never do in a fire

  • Breaking windows. …
  • Opening hot doors. …
  • Returning for your belongings. …
  • Hiding. …
  • Do not use lifts. …
  • Use the appropriate fire extinguisher. …
  • Call the emergency services. …
  • Escape.
IT IS IMPORTANT:  Can you use a home fire extinguisher more than once?

Can you grill during Red Flag Warning?

When Red Flag Warning conditions are in effect, the wind has the highest potential to blow fire embers that can easily ignite fast-burning wildfires. Visitors may use propane cook stoves during their stay and are encouraged to regularly check weather conditions before choosing to grill outdoors.

How do you spot a wildfire?

One of the ways fires are detected is by lookout stations. These are situated at a location with extensive visibility and have associated structures manned by a lookout observer whose prime purpose is to locate and report wildfires.

How do you survive a wildfire?

While in your home:

  1. Stay calm, keep your family together.
  2. Call 911 and inform authorities of your location.
  3. Fill sinks and tubs with cold water.
  4. Keep doors and windows closed, but unlocked.
  5. Stay inside your house.
  6. Stay away from outside walls and windows.

What two things should you do before a wildfire approaches your house?

Remove lightweight curtains. Move flammable furniture to the center of the room, away from windows and doors. Shut off gas at the meter; turn off pilot lights. Leave your lights on so firefighters can see your house under smoky conditions.

Can a wildfire be prevented?

Cautiously burn debris and never when it’s windy or restricted. Prineville District fuel crews burn debris piles to reduce summer fires and keep firefighters safe. … If you plan to burn debris on your private property, make sure you have water nearby (such as a garden hose) and never burn anything if it’s windy.

IT IS IMPORTANT:  Your question: How can you tell if wood is good to burn?

Why is studying the weather helping in predicting the fires?

All fires need three things —fuel, oxygen, and heat—to ignite and be sustained. Weather can influence each of these factors, which is why it is called fire weather. Air temperature contributes to wild fires as a heat source.

Tame a raging fire