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Common Frog (Rana temporaria)

Of the three species of amphibian found in Ireland the common frog is by far the most familiar. Most people think of frogs as aquatic creatures, but in fact they spend most of their lives on land, only returning to the water in order to breed. Adult frogs are from 6-10cm (2.4-4 inches) long. They […]

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25% off Select Apparel, code 25OFF

Hex was born from a pure goal, a desire to create timeless products for modern living. Founders Dan Maryville and Trent Valladares began their journey as musicians in Southern California. They were not only musicians but visual artists who incorporated their venues into the experience by including art installations and also created their own clothing and accessories.

This eye for fashion and creative drive brought them to launch a small startup focused on accessories. Their early collections gained widespread popularity and were picked up by many large brands so they began designing for well established brands. Together with their years of experience in the industry they launched their own brand, HEX.

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Jalpari Earring

Rs. 395.00

Partners JALPARI  SKU: JP1502009

Shipping Ready stock. It can be delivered within 3-5 days. Returns accepted
Size Length - 2.7 inches. Width -1.2  inches. Weight under 20 grams approx.
Product Description This blissful creation of Jalpari will lend you a look worth flaunting. Featuring an eye-catching design will surely add to your personality. Give your ears a stunning look with this pair of earrings. A fabulous thing to don in all functions that will prettify your girly look when worn with matching attire.
Material Brass beads & threads.
Care Wipe jewellery with a soft cotton cloth. Keep away from perfumes, sprays, water and other liquid substances. After wearing, just take a moment to return it to its zip locked bag or box for safe keeping.
Colour Slight difference in colour from the visible product image is possible. Read more.
Brand Creating blissful jewelry, accessories & clothing which are contemporary, fun and affordable at the same time, Jia has never been part of any formal design training. She creates out of love and madness of creating, admiring and sharing experiences & colors within everyday lives. She works with household women from underprivileged backgrounds of her hometown, Gwalior. She has been retailing through various format store across India.

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a A

The Children Should Know What Happened

Salomon Hauser is currently working on a commemoration book for the members of the Zionist youth movement B’nei Akiva, who had all lived in Antwerp prior to the invasion of German troops in 1940. The Israeli visited the International Tracing Service (ITS) in Bad Arolsen for three days in early August to pursue his research. “When I heard the archives had opened to the public, I decided to make the trip,” said Hauser.

Hauser and his co-author Jacque Offen have been working on the commemoration book for three years now. Both authors want to publish the youths’ names, photographs and biographies. A total of 97 Jewish teenagers were members of the B’nei Akiva movement in Antwerp back then. According to research by the Israeli duo, most of them were murdered in Auschwitz. “The most tedious task to start with consisted of searching for the names and photographs,” Hauser noted. “In Arolsen, I’ve been able to close some of the biographical gaps.”

The author had copies of prisoners’ cards and transport lists made, and matched birth dates and personal stories of persecution. Thanks to his worldwide research efforts, Hauser has managed to compile a nearly full-fledged documentation of most of the youths’ individual fates. In a few cases, however, he only has a photograph or a name. “Their next of kin live all throughout the world - in Israel, the US, South America and Europe,” explained Hauser.

The native Belgian lost his own entire family in the Holocaust - only one sister survived. He has never been able to get the subject off his mind. Now that the physicist has retired, he can dedicate all of his time to historical research. Hauser, who lives in Tel Aviv, also wants to document the fate of his own family once the commemoration book is finished. “I’m doing it for our children. They should know what happened,” he said.

Hauser plans on returning to ITS for future research. “I didn’t know what to expect here and simply wanted to get an initial impression. Now I have a pretty good idea of what I can find here.” The bilingual commemoration book on the youth from Antwerp is set to be published in Hebrew and English in roughly six months. The project is supported by the Yad Vashem memorial in Jerusalem.


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Networking for Nature: Merger of EUROPARC and Eurosite

"Europe's nature needs a new network", say protected area professionals gathered at the annual EUROPARC conference in Genk, Belgium, hosted by the Regional Landscape Kempen & Maasland. In a landmark decision, two of Europe's biggest nature conservation NGOs, the EUROPARC Federation and Eurosite, agreed to come together and form a new united network purpose-built to meet nature’s needs in the years ahead. Together, the new network will be representing a membership responsible for managing and protecting Europe's natural and cultural heritage.

Merger of EUROPARC and Eurosite Photo: EUROPARC

Both NGOs will invest all their energy in the development of the strategy “Networking for Nature” to be implemented across Europe. A core focus will be to ensure the protection goals central to Natura 2000 and the EU 2020 Biodiversity Strategy are integrated and strengthened within the practical work for Europe’s nature and rich natural heritage.

Thomas Hansson, President of the EUROPARC Federation expressed his satisfaction and joy about this decision: “In these times, Europe needs a strong organization that builds upon expertise and experience in crucial fields of re-connecting society with biodiversity. The EUROPARC Federation and Eurosite complement each others’ skills and will bring nature conservation onto a next step in Europe.”

For Eurosite, Teo Wams strongly agrees: “I am thrilled that we have now decided to go forward with all our efforts and spirit to build this new “network for nature” in which we will focus on nature protection from a social, economic and ecological perspective. We catch the momentum and show that we are ready to move on with inspiration”.

The current economic crisis in Europe is seen as an opportunity to build on the strong expertise of both organizations and combine their experiences into one network in the future.

EUROPARC Federation´s Annual Conference, in partnership with Eurosite, is closing today in Genk, Limburg, Belgium. More than 600 conservation experts have gathered for four days to exchange their experience of sustainable management of protected areas.

The EUROPARC Federation is a Member of IUCN.

More information:
For EUROPARC: Julia Schönhärl, E-mail:, Telephone: : +49 (0)941 599 35 98-3; Mobile: +49 176 810 578 28

For Eurosite: Neil McIntosh Telephone: +31 73 61 29 222

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Protected Areas
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01531 631 533
1 replies

Mounting an Iguana Aplano radiator on partition walls.

Posted on 16/11/2012 6:54am

The weight of my Iguana Aplano radiator is given as 28.5 kg. I have to install this on non load-bearing walls of breeze/cinder block. Any advice on fixin(gs)?

1 Replies
  • Justin_Jagauk
    Commented on 15/08/2011 1:00pm

    Hello, thank you for your post. From your information the Aplano should be fine on the wall mentioned, however, the installer needs to ensure that they use appropriate rawl plugs suitable for the wall / conditions.
    Hope that this helps.

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English wool-silk tie in macartney stripe

Item 15037
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If you have to wear one, wear a good one. Like this one crafted in a blend of English wool and silk (from a mill that's been producing bespoke fabrics for over nine generations) and hand-finished in NYC's Long Island City.

  • English wool/silk.
  • 2 1/2" at widest point.
  • USA.
  • Item 15037.


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Chiffon top

Item 35530
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Silk chiffon, shaped to figure-flattering perfection and finished with a sweet row of pleats along the neckline, makes this top an irresistibly luxe addition to your wardrobe. Tucked into a pencil skirt or worn languid and loose with jeans, it's our newest have-to-have silhouette.

  • Silk chiffon.
  • Long sleeves.
  • Dry clean.
  • Import.
  • Item 35530.


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    ZXTY8070 Last Online 28-May-17
    • 28, 5' 5"
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     She is really an accomplished girl and virtuous enough to be equally best at home and office. She is very sweet, loving, caring. Given her beliefs and value system in life, she is going to be an inspiring, compatible and enviable life companion in each and every eventuality. She enjoys travelling, watching movies, going out for dinner, family get together's, functions, parties and listening to music, etc. She is also watm, soft-hearted & trustworthy person. The most important thing in her life is religious beliefs,moral values & respect for elders. She is a modern thinker but also believe in good values given by her ancestors.

    About her Family

    We are nuclear family based in Mumbai.

    She did her schooling from Bombay Cambridge School, graduation in commerce from one of the renowned college I.e. Mithibai College.  She did her masters from Mumbai university.  She is qualified Chartered Accountant from Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. Later she did her Bachelor's in law from Jitendra Chauhan college of law.

    Chartered Accountant, LLB, M.com

    Education & Career
    • Highest Education

    • School Name

      Bombay Cambridge School

    • UG Degree

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      Jitendra Chauhan College of Law

    • PG College

      Mithibai College of Arts

    • Other UG Degree

      Not filled in

    • Other PG Degree

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    • Occupation

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    • Organization Name

      one of the big 4s

    • Annual Income

      Rs. 10 - 15 Lakh

    • Interested in settling abroad
    Family Details
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    • Father is

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      1 sister of which 0 married

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      0 brother

    • Sub-caste

      bisa agarwal

    • Gothra

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    • Family Status

      Upper Middle

    • Family Income

      No Income

    • Family Type

      Nuclear Family

    • Family Values

    • Family based out of

      mumbai, Maharashtra

    • Living with parents
    • Appearance

      Average, Very Fair

    • Habits

      Vegetarian, Doesn't drink, Doesn't smoke

    • Assets

      House - Yes, Car - Yes

    • Languages Known

      English, Hindi, Marathi

    • Blood Group

      Not filled in

    • Residential Status

      Not filled in

    • Special Cases

      Challenged - None, Thalassemia - No, HIV+ - No

    • Not open to pets
    She Likes
    Art / Handicraft, Cooking, Photography, Singing, Dancing
    Listening to music, Movies, Watching television, Travel / Sightseeing, Sports - Outdoor, Sports - Indoor, Health & Fitness, Volunteering / Social Service
    Latest film songs, Ghazals, Bhajans / Devotional, Disco
    Favourite read
    Poetry, Romance, Thriller / Suspense
    Favourites : not that fond of reading... Under Screening
    Dress style
    Trendy - in line with the latest fashion, Classic Western - typically western formal wear, Designer - only leading brands will do
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    YRKKH, DABH, YHM, Under Screening
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    Visited most of South East Asia recently.. Dream of exploring the whole world around.. Under Screening
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    • Age

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      Mumbai, Thane, Navi Mumbai, Bhayander

    • Religion

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      Aggarwal- All, Aggarwal, Bania- All

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      Hindi-Delhi, Hindi-MP, Hindi-UP, Bihari, Haryanvi, Rajasthani/Marwari, Punjabi

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      Manglik, Non Manglik, Angshik (partial manglik)

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      Rs.20 Lakh and above,  $60,001 and above

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    • Place of Birth

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      Oct 24, 1988

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Shwetamber Brides Matrimonial

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Shwetamber Brides

Shwetamber is one of the two sects of Jainism and are found mainly in western part of India. They have a vegetarian diet and are mainly businessmen having good education. Jains come in the category of Bania community as it is a trader class. Shwtamber Jains marry within the community or within the religion and practice mostly arranged marriage. The wedding celebrations among Jains are grand and expensive where a Shwetamber bride is adorned with expensive jewelry and wedding attire.

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A Quick Reminder

lshookDaily Devotionals

And now let me remind you [since it seems to have escaped you], brethren, of the Gospel (the glad tidings of salvation) which I proclaimed to you, which you welcomed and accepted and upon which your faith rests. (1 Corinthians 15:1 AMP)

There are times in each of our lives when it may feel as if our spiritual walk has dried up. Instead of experiencing an abiding joy, we feel only dissatisfaction. Perhaps you may be feeling this way right now.

The apostle Paul may have encountered the same situation, because he knew just what to write to the church in Corinth. These people were born-again, spirit-filled believers, yet he said it was needful to remind them of something: he wanted them to hold on to what they’d already learned. If doing so was necessary in Paul’s time, then it’s even more necessary for us.

Oftentimes we think we just need the minister to bring a new revelation we’ve never heard to get us back on the right spiritual track. But we don’t. What we really need is to be reminded of the truths that have escaped us.

Some Christians have an attitude that says, “I’ve heard that before” or “I already know that.” What they don’t understand is this: “Faith comes by hearing, and hearing by the word of God” (Romans 10:17 NKJV). Faith comes when the Holy Spirit reveals the truth afresh to you, when the God’s Word drops from your head to your heart.

As you review and remind yourself of the truths you learned before, ask the Holy Spirit to make them a fresh revelation to you.

Confession: Holy Spirit, I ask You to give me a fresh revelation of the basic truths that set me free. I ask for a fresh revelation of the power of Your word, of faith, and of Jesus.

Author: Jerry Savelle


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Handcrafted Jewelry to Inspire Your Unique Style.
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Get To The Point, Bracelets, Jewelry By Renee - Jewelry By Renee

Get To The Point

This beautiful birthstone bracelet is for Sagittarius individuals born in November.  The topaz Swarovski crystals and rondelles are on each side of the Sagittarius slider charm.  One the back of the charm is a picture of Sagittarius.

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Crazy Cats - Tea Time Treats - 2 x 500 Piece Jigsaw Puzzle

£13.99 **Free Delivery on orders over £10**

These puzzles show that even those loveable Crazy Cats enjoy the delights of a slap up traditional afternoon tea. In Wonderland Tea Party the moggies seem to have been inspired by the adventures of Alice, and we can see a little mouse hiding in the teapot. The cafe scene depicts a feline teashop, complete with cute little tables, cakes on display and towering teacups.

Art by Linda Jane Smith

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Product Information

Availability: Now
Product Code: RV14075
Dimensions: 2 x (49cm x 36cm)
Manufacturer: Ravensburger Jigsaws

Pieces This jigsaw puzzle has 500 pieces
Artist Artist: Linda Jane Smith
Age Group Suitable for Adult

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Mitel Engineer (Telecomms Engineer)

Job Title: Mitel Engineer (Telecomms Engineer)
Contract Type: Permanent
Location: Chester
Salary: £28,000-£34,000 + O/T Bens
REF: 000107
Contact Name: Mark Crump
Contact Email:
Job Published: 4 months ago

Job Description

A well established telecommunication service provider are looking for a skilled Mitel Telecoms Engineer to join their growing engineering team.

The Telecoms Engineer (Mitel 5000 or 3300) will be working for a business which is increasingly involved  in Voice over IP (VoIP), hosted PBX, and Unified Communications (UC) products to build, deploy, and scale enterprise communications systems. The role also entails Helpdesk Support, so certain days will be office based.

The Mitel Telecoms Engineer should have the following skills experience:
- Extensive previous experience with Mitel 5000 and or  the Mitel 3300
- Accreditations / Certifications:  Mitel MCA OR Mitel MCP , Phone Manager and Understanding Sip Protocol
- Optional knowledge of MBG or MiCollab an advantage
- Excellent communication skills

Due to the nature of the business you will need to continually strive to stay ahead of technology trends and techniques with self-learning as well as being in a position to attend residential courses away from home.

Travel away from home is required when the need arises
Key Skills: Installation, Maintenance, Diagnostics, Support,  Mitel 5000, MIVoice Office, Cat5 and or Cat6 cabling

Relocation costs will be considered for the right applicant


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A story about Picasso

Legend has it that Pablo Picasso was sketching in the park when a bold woman approached him.

“It’s you — Picasso, the great artist! Oh, you must sketch my portrait! I insist.”

So Picasso agreed to sketch her. After studying her for a moment, he used a single pencil stroke to create her portrait. He handed the women his work of art.

“It’s perfect!” she gushed. “You managed to capture my essence with one stroke, in one moment. Thank you! How much do I owe you?”

“Five thousand dollars,” the artist replied.

“B-b-but, what?” the woman sputtered. “How could you want so much money for this picture? It only took you a second to draw it!”

To which Picasso responded, “Madame, it took me my entire life.”


text:
Posts Categorized: Student Blogs

This blog project is in partnership with McKinney Christian Academy and Mrs. Clark’s 7th grade Bible class. The students are studying Josh McDowell's book, Don't Check Your Brains at the Door, and then take time to think about their faith and unashamedly express their thoughts in a fresh and modern way, here on the blog.

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JoVE Visualize What is visualize?
Related JoVE Video
Pubmed Article
A reduced number of mtSNPs saturates mitochondrial DNA haplotype diversity of worldwide population groups.
PUBLISHED: 01-14-2010
The high levels of variation characterising the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecule are due ultimately to its high average mutation rate; moreover, mtDNA variation is deeply structured in different populations and ethnic groups. There is growing interest in selecting a reduced number of mtDNA single nucleotide polymorphisms (mtSNPs) that account for the maximum level of discrimination power in a given population. Applications of the selected mtSNP panel range from anthropologic and medical studies to forensic genetic casework.
Authors: Christopher J. Gaffney, Joseph J. Bass, Thomas F. Barratt, Nathaniel J. Szewczyk.
Published: 11-13-2014
Muscle is a dynamic tissue that responds to changes in nutrition, exercise, and disease state. The loss of muscle mass and function with disease and age are significant public health burdens. We currently understand little about the genetic regulation of muscle health with disease or age. The nematode C. elegans is an established model for understanding the genomic regulation of biological processes of interest. This worm’s body wall muscles display a large degree of homology with the muscles of higher metazoan species. Since C. elegans is a transparent organism, the localization of GFP to mitochondria and sarcomeres allows visualization of these structures in vivo. Similarly, feeding animals cationic dyes, which accumulate based on the existence of a mitochondrial membrane potential, allows the assessment of mitochondrial function in vivo. These methods, as well as assessment of muscle protein homeostasis, are combined with assessment of whole animal muscle function, in the form of movement assays, to allow correlation of sub-cellular defects with functional measures of muscle performance. Thus, C. elegans provides a powerful platform with which to assess the impact of mutations, gene knockdown, and/or chemical compounds upon muscle structure and function. Lastly, as GFP, cationic dyes, and movement assays are assessed non-invasively, prospective studies of muscle structure and function can be conducted across the whole life course and this at present cannot be easily investigated in vivo in any other organism.
24 Related JoVE Articles!
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Genetic Manipulation in Δku80 Strains for Functional Genomic Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii
Authors: Leah M. Rommereim, Miryam A. Hortua Triana, Alejandra Falla, Kiah L. Sanders, Rebekah B. Guevara, David J. Bzik, Barbara A. Fox.
Institutions: The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth.
Targeted genetic manipulation using homologous recombination is the method of choice for functional genomic analysis to obtain a detailed view of gene function and phenotype(s). The development of mutant strains with targeted gene deletions, targeted mutations, complemented gene function, and/or tagged genes provides powerful strategies to address gene function, particularly if these genetic manipulations can be efficiently targeted to the gene locus of interest using integration mediated by double cross over homologous recombination. Due to very high rates of nonhomologous recombination, functional genomic analysis of Toxoplasma gondii has been previously limited by the absence of efficient methods for targeting gene deletions and gene replacements to specific genetic loci. Recently, we abolished the major pathway of nonhomologous recombination in type I and type II strains of T. gondii by deleting the gene encoding the KU80 protein1,2. The Δku80 strains behave normally during tachyzoite (acute) and bradyzoite (chronic) stages in vitro and in vivo and exhibit essentially a 100% frequency of homologous recombination. The Δku80 strains make functional genomic studies feasible on the single gene as well as on the genome scale1-4. Here, we report methods for using type I and type II Δku80Δhxgprt strains to advance gene targeting approaches in T. gondii. We outline efficient methods for generating gene deletions, gene replacements, and tagged genes by targeted insertion or deletion of the hypoxanthine-xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HXGPRT) selectable marker. The described gene targeting protocol can be used in a variety of ways in Δku80 strains to advance functional analysis of the parasite genome and to develop single strains that carry multiple targeted genetic manipulations. The application of this genetic method and subsequent phenotypic assays will reveal fundamental and unique aspects of the biology of T. gondii and related significant human pathogens that cause malaria (Plasmodium sp.) and cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium).
Infectious Diseases, Issue 77, Genetics, Microbiology, Infection, Medicine, Immunology, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Biomedical Engineering, Bioengineering, Genomics, Parasitology, Pathology, Apicomplexa, Coccidia, Toxoplasma, Genetic Techniques, Gene Targeting, Eukaryota, Toxoplasma gondii, genetic manipulation, gene targeting, gene deletion, gene replacement, gene tagging, homologous recombination, DNA, sequencing
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Ratiometric Biosensors that Measure Mitochondrial Redox State and ATP in Living Yeast Cells
Authors: Jason D. Vevea, Dana M. Alessi Wolken, Theresa C. Swayne, Adam B. White, Liza A. Pon.
Institutions: Columbia University, Columbia University.
Mitochondria have roles in many cellular processes, from energy metabolism and calcium homeostasis to control of cellular lifespan and programmed cell death. These processes affect and are affected by the redox status of and ATP production by mitochondria. Here, we describe the use of two ratiometric, genetically encoded biosensors that can detect mitochondrial redox state and ATP levels at subcellular resolution in living yeast cells. Mitochondrial redox state is measured using redox-sensitive Green Fluorescent Protein (roGFP) that is targeted to the mitochondrial matrix. Mito-roGFP contains cysteines at positions 147 and 204 of GFP, which undergo reversible and environment-dependent oxidation and reduction, which in turn alter the excitation spectrum of the protein. MitGO-ATeam is a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) probe in which the ε subunit of the FoF1-ATP synthase is sandwiched between FRET donor and acceptor fluorescent proteins. Binding of ATP to the ε subunit results in conformation changes in the protein that bring the FRET donor and acceptor in close proximity and allow for fluorescence resonance energy transfer from the donor to acceptor.
Bioengineering, Issue 77, Microbiology, Cellular Biology, Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, life sciences, roGFP, redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein, GO-ATeam, ATP, FRET, ROS, mitochondria, biosensors, GFP, ImageJ, microscopy, confocal microscopy, cell, imaging
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Simultaneous Multicolor Imaging of Biological Structures with Fluorescence Photoactivation Localization Microscopy
Authors: Nikki M. Curthoys, Michael J. Mlodzianoski, Dahan Kim, Samuel T. Hess.
Institutions: University of Maine.
Localization-based super resolution microscopy can be applied to obtain a spatial map (image) of the distribution of individual fluorescently labeled single molecules within a sample with a spatial resolution of tens of nanometers. Using either photoactivatable (PAFP) or photoswitchable (PSFP) fluorescent proteins fused to proteins of interest, or organic dyes conjugated to antibodies or other molecules of interest, fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy (FPALM) can simultaneously image multiple species of molecules within single cells. By using the following approach, populations of large numbers (thousands to hundreds of thousands) of individual molecules are imaged in single cells and localized with a precision of ~10-30 nm. Data obtained can be applied to understanding the nanoscale spatial distributions of multiple protein types within a cell. One primary advantage of this technique is the dramatic increase in spatial resolution: while diffraction limits resolution to ~200-250 nm in conventional light microscopy, FPALM can image length scales more than an order of magnitude smaller. As many biological hypotheses concern the spatial relationships among different biomolecules, the improved resolution of FPALM can provide insight into questions of cellular organization which have previously been inaccessible to conventional fluorescence microscopy. In addition to detailing the methods for sample preparation and data acquisition, we here describe the optical setup for FPALM. One additional consideration for researchers wishing to do super-resolution microscopy is cost: in-house setups are significantly cheaper than most commercially available imaging machines. Limitations of this technique include the need for optimizing the labeling of molecules of interest within cell samples, and the need for post-processing software to visualize results. We here describe the use of PAFP and PSFP expression to image two protein species in fixed cells. Extension of the technique to living cells is also described.
Basic Protocol, Issue 82, Microscopy, Super-resolution imaging, Multicolor, single molecule, FPALM, Localization microscopy, fluorescent proteins
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Monitoring Intraspecies Competition in a Bacterial Cell Population by Cocultivation of Fluorescently Labelled Strains
Authors: Lorena Stannek, Richard Egelkamp, Katrin Gunka, Fabian M. Commichau.
Institutions: Georg-August University.
Many microorganisms such as bacteria proliferate extremely fast and the populations may reach high cell densities. Small fractions of cells in a population always have accumulated mutations that are either detrimental or beneficial for the cell. If the fitness effect of a mutation provides the subpopulation with a strong selective growth advantage, the individuals of this subpopulation may rapidly outcompete and even completely eliminate their immediate fellows. Thus, small genetic changes and selection-driven accumulation of cells that have acquired beneficial mutations may lead to a complete shift of the genotype of a cell population. Here we present a procedure to monitor the rapid clonal expansion and elimination of beneficial and detrimental mutations, respectively, in a bacterial cell population over time by cocultivation of fluorescently labeled individuals of the Gram-positive model bacterium Bacillus subtilis. The method is easy to perform and very illustrative to display intraspecies competition among the individuals in a bacterial cell population.
Cellular Biology, Issue 83, Bacillus subtilis, evolution, adaptation, selective pressure, beneficial mutation, intraspecies competition, fluorophore-labelling, Fluorescence Microscopy
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Characterization of Complex Systems Using the Design of Experiments Approach: Transient Protein Expression in Tobacco as a Case Study
Authors: Johannes Felix Buyel, Rainer Fischer.
Institutions: RWTH Aachen University, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft.
Plants provide multiple benefits for the production of biopharmaceuticals including low costs, scalability, and safety. Transient expression offers the additional advantage of short development and production times, but expression levels can vary significantly between batches thus giving rise to regulatory concerns in the context of good manufacturing practice. We used a design of experiments (DoE) approach to determine the impact of major factors such as regulatory elements in the expression construct, plant growth and development parameters, and the incubation conditions during expression, on the variability of expression between batches. We tested plants expressing a model anti-HIV monoclonal antibody (2G12) and a fluorescent marker protein (DsRed). We discuss the rationale for selecting certain properties of the model and identify its potential limitations. The general approach can easily be transferred to other problems because the principles of the model are broadly applicable: knowledge-based parameter selection, complexity reduction by splitting the initial problem into smaller modules, software-guided setup of optimal experiment combinations and step-wise design augmentation. Therefore, the methodology is not only useful for characterizing protein expression in plants but also for the investigation of other complex systems lacking a mechanistic description. The predictive equations describing the interconnectivity between parameters can be used to establish mechanistic models for other complex systems.
Bioengineering, Issue 83, design of experiments (DoE), transient protein expression, plant-derived biopharmaceuticals, promoter, 5'UTR, fluorescent reporter protein, model building, incubation conditions, monoclonal antibody
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Magnetic Tweezers for the Measurement of Twist and Torque
Authors: Jan Lipfert, Mina Lee, Orkide Ordu, Jacob W. J. Kerssemakers, Nynke H. Dekker.
Institutions: Delft University of Technology.
Single-molecule techniques make it possible to investigate the behavior of individual biological molecules in solution in real time. These techniques include so-called force spectroscopy approaches such as atomic force microscopy, optical tweezers, flow stretching, and magnetic tweezers. Amongst these approaches, magnetic tweezers have distinguished themselves by their ability to apply torque while maintaining a constant stretching force. Here, it is illustrated how such a “conventional” magnetic tweezers experimental configuration can, through a straightforward modification of its field configuration to minimize the magnitude of the transverse field, be adapted to measure the degree of twist in a biological molecule. The resulting configuration is termed the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers. Additionally, it is shown how further modification of the field configuration can yield a transverse field with a magnitude intermediate between that of the “conventional” magnetic tweezers and the freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers, which makes it possible to directly measure the torque stored in a biological molecule. This configuration is termed the magnetic torque tweezers. The accompanying video explains in detail how the conversion of conventional magnetic tweezers into freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers and magnetic torque tweezers can be accomplished, and demonstrates the use of these techniques. These adaptations maintain all the strengths of conventional magnetic tweezers while greatly expanding the versatility of this powerful instrument.
Bioengineering, Issue 87, magnetic tweezers, magnetic torque tweezers, freely-orbiting magnetic tweezers, twist, torque, DNA, single-molecule techniques
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A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses
Authors: Daniel T. Claiborne, Jessica L. Prince, Eric Hunter.
Institutions: Emory University, Emory University.
The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target conserved portions of the HIV-1 genome that escape with difficulty. Sequence changes attributed to cellular immune pressure arise across the genome during infection, and if found within conserved regions of the genome such as Gag, can affect the ability of the virus to replicate in vitro. Transmission of HLA-linked polymorphisms in Gag to HLA-mismatched recipients has been associated with reduced set point viral loads. We hypothesized this may be due to a reduced replication capacity of the virus. Here we present a novel method for assessing the in vitro replication of HIV-1 as influenced by the gag gene isolated from acute time points from subtype C infected Zambians. This method uses restriction enzyme based cloning to insert the gag gene into a common subtype C HIV-1 proviral backbone, MJ4. This makes it more appropriate to the study of subtype C sequences than previous recombination based methods that have assessed the in vitro replication of chronically derived gag-pro sequences. Nevertheless, the protocol could be readily modified for studies of viruses from other subtypes. Moreover, this protocol details a robust and reproducible method for assessing the replication capacity of the Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses on a CEM-based T cell line. This method was utilized for the study of Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses derived from 149 subtype C acutely infected Zambians, and has allowed for the identification of residues in Gag that affect replication. More importantly, the implementation of this technique has facilitated a deeper understanding of how viral replication defines parameters of early HIV-1 pathogenesis such as set point viral load and longitudinal CD4+ T cell decline.
Infectious Diseases, Issue 90, HIV-1, Gag, viral replication, replication capacity, viral fitness, MJ4, CEM, GXR25
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Combining Magnetic Sorting of Mother Cells and Fluctuation Tests to Analyze Genome Instability During Mitotic Cell Aging in Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Authors: Melissa N. Patterson, Patrick H. Maxwell.
Institutions: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been an excellent model system for examining mechanisms and consequences of genome instability. Information gained from this yeast model is relevant to many organisms, including humans, since DNA repair and DNA damage response factors are well conserved across diverse species. However, S. cerevisiae has not yet been used to fully address whether the rate of accumulating mutations changes with increasing replicative (mitotic) age due to technical constraints. For instance, measurements of yeast replicative lifespan through micromanipulation involve very small populations of cells, which prohibit detection of rare mutations. Genetic methods to enrich for mother cells in populations by inducing death of daughter cells have been developed, but population sizes are still limited by the frequency with which random mutations that compromise the selection systems occur. The current protocol takes advantage of magnetic sorting of surface-labeled yeast mother cells to obtain large enough populations of aging mother cells to quantify rare mutations through phenotypic selections. Mutation rates, measured through fluctuation tests, and mutation frequencies are first established for young cells and used to predict the frequency of mutations in mother cells of various replicative ages. Mutation frequencies are then determined for sorted mother cells, and the age of the mother cells is determined using flow cytometry by staining with a fluorescent reagent that detects bud scars formed on their cell surfaces during cell division. Comparison of predicted mutation frequencies based on the number of cell divisions to the frequencies experimentally observed for mother cells of a given replicative age can then identify whether there are age-related changes in the rate of accumulating mutations. Variations of this basic protocol provide the means to investigate the influence of alterations in specific gene functions or specific environmental conditions on mutation accumulation to address mechanisms underlying genome instability during replicative aging.
Microbiology, Issue 92, Aging, mutations, genome instability, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, fluctuation test, magnetic sorting, mother cell, replicative aging
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High Efficiency Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells to Cardiomyocytes and Characterization by Flow Cytometry
Authors: Subarna Bhattacharya, Paul W. Burridge, Erin M. Kropp, Sandra L. Chuppa, Wai-Meng Kwok, Joseph C. Wu, Kenneth R. Boheler, Rebekah L. Gundry.
Institutions: Medical College of Wisconsin, Stanford University School of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Hong Kong University, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin.
There is an urgent need to develop approaches for repairing the damaged heart, discovering new therapeutic drugs that do not have toxic effects on the heart, and improving strategies to accurately model heart disease. The potential of exploiting human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology to generate cardiac muscle “in a dish” for these applications continues to generate high enthusiasm. In recent years, the ability to efficiently generate cardiomyogenic cells from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) has greatly improved, offering us new opportunities to model very early stages of human cardiac development not otherwise accessible. In contrast to many previous methods, the cardiomyocyte differentiation protocol described here does not require cell aggregation or the addition of Activin A or BMP4 and robustly generates cultures of cells that are highly positive for cardiac troponin I and T (TNNI3, TNNT2), iroquois-class homeodomain protein IRX-4 (IRX4), myosin regulatory light chain 2, ventricular/cardiac muscle isoform (MLC2v) and myosin regulatory light chain 2, atrial isoform (MLC2a) by day 10 across all human embryonic stem cell (hESC) and hiPSC lines tested to date. Cells can be passaged and maintained for more than 90 days in culture. The strategy is technically simple to implement and cost-effective. Characterization of cardiomyocytes derived from pluripotent cells often includes the analysis of reference markers, both at the mRNA and protein level. For protein analysis, flow cytometry is a powerful analytical tool for assessing quality of cells in culture and determining subpopulation homogeneity. However, technical variation in sample preparation can significantly affect quality of flow cytometry data. Thus, standardization of staining protocols should facilitate comparisons among various differentiation strategies. Accordingly, optimized staining protocols for the analysis of IRX4, MLC2v, MLC2a, TNNI3, and TNNT2 by flow cytometry are described.
Cellular Biology, Issue 91, human induced pluripotent stem cell, flow cytometry, directed differentiation, cardiomyocyte, IRX4, TNNI3, TNNT2, MCL2v, MLC2a
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Sequence-specific Labeling of Nucleic Acids and Proteins with Methyltransferases and Cofactor Analogues
Authors: Gisela Maria Hanz, Britta Jung, Anna Giesbertz, Matyas Juhasz, Elmar Weinhold.
Institutions: RWTH Aachen University.
S-Adenosyl-l-methionine (AdoMet or SAM)-dependent methyltransferases (MTase) catalyze the transfer of the activated methyl group from AdoMet to specific positions in DNA, RNA, proteins and small biomolecules. This natural methylation reaction can be expanded to a wide variety of alkylation reactions using synthetic cofactor analogues. Replacement of the reactive sulfonium center of AdoMet with an aziridine ring leads to cofactors which can be coupled with DNA by various DNA MTases. These aziridine cofactors can be equipped with reporter groups at different positions of the adenine moiety and used for Sequence-specific Methyltransferase-Induced Labeling of DNA (SMILing DNA). As a typical example we give a protocol for biotinylation of pBR322 plasmid DNA at the 5’-ATCGAT-3’ sequence with the DNA MTase M.BseCI and the aziridine cofactor 6BAz in one step. Extension of the activated methyl group with unsaturated alkyl groups results in another class of AdoMet analogues which are used for methyltransferase-directed Transfer of Activated Groups (mTAG). Since the extended side chains are activated by the sulfonium center and the unsaturated bond, these cofactors are called double-activated AdoMet analogues. These analogues not only function as cofactors for DNA MTases, like the aziridine cofactors, but also for RNA, protein and small molecule MTases. They are typically used for enzymatic modification of MTase substrates with unique functional groups which are labeled with reporter groups in a second chemical step. This is exemplified in a protocol for fluorescence labeling of histone H3 protein. A small propargyl group is transferred from the cofactor analogue SeAdoYn to the protein by the histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) MTase Set7/9 followed by click labeling of the alkynylated histone H3 with TAMRA azide. MTase-mediated labeling with cofactor analogues is an enabling technology for many exciting applications including identification and functional study of MTase substrates as well as DNA genotyping and methylation detection.
Biochemistry, Issue 93, S-adenosyl-l-methionine, AdoMet, SAM, aziridine cofactor, double activated cofactor, methyltransferase, DNA methylation, protein methylation, biotin labeling, fluorescence labeling, SMILing, mTAG
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Preparation of the Mgm101 Recombination Protein by MBP-based Tagging Strategy
Authors: Xiaowen Wang, MacMillan Mbantenkhu, Sara Wierzbicki, Xin Jie Chen.
Institutions: State University of New York Upstate Medical University.
The MGM101 gene was identified 20 years ago for its role in the maintenance of mitochondrial DNA. Studies from several groups have suggested that the Mgm101 protein is involved in the recombinational repair of mitochondrial DNA. Recent investigations have indicated that Mgm101 is related to the Rad52-type recombination protein family. These proteins form large oligomeric rings and promote the annealing of homologous single stranded DNA molecules. However, the characterization of Mgm101 has been hindered by the difficulty in producing the recombinant protein. Here, a reliable procedure for the preparation of recombinant Mgm101 is described. Maltose Binding Protein (MBP)-tagged Mgm101 is first expressed in Escherichia coli. The fusion protein is initially purified by amylose affinity chromatography. After being released by proteolytic cleavage, Mgm101 is separated from MBP by cationic exchange chromatography. Monodispersed Mgm101 is then obtained by size exclusion chromatography. A yield of ~0.87 mg of Mgm101 per liter of bacterial culture can be routinely obtained. The recombinant Mgm101 has minimal contamination of DNA. The prepared samples are successfully used for biochemical, structural and single particle image analyses of Mgm101. This protocol may also be used for the preparation of other large oligomeric DNA-binding proteins that may be misfolded and toxic to bacterial cells.
Biochemistry, Issue 76, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Microbiology, Bacteria, Proteins, Mgm101, Rad52, mitochondria, recombination, mtDNA, maltose-binding protein, MBP, E. coli., yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, chromatography, electron microscopy, cell culture
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Polymerase Chain Reaction: Basic Protocol Plus Troubleshooting and Optimization Strategies
Authors: Todd C. Lorenz.
Institutions: University of California, Los Angeles .
In the biological sciences there have been technological advances that catapult the discipline into golden ages of discovery. For example, the field of microbiology was transformed with the advent of Anton van Leeuwenhoek's microscope, which allowed scientists to visualize prokaryotes for the first time. The development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is one of those innovations that changed the course of molecular science with its impact spanning countless subdisciplines in biology. The theoretical process was outlined by Keppe and coworkers in 1971; however, it was another 14 years until the complete PCR procedure was described and experimentally applied by Kary Mullis while at Cetus Corporation in 1985. Automation and refinement of this technique progressed with the introduction of a thermal stable DNA polymerase from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus, consequently the name Taq DNA polymerase. PCR is a powerful amplification technique that can generate an ample supply of a specific segment of DNA (i.e., an amplicon) from only a small amount of starting material (i.e., DNA template or target sequence). While straightforward and generally trouble-free, there are pitfalls that complicate the reaction producing spurious results. When PCR fails it can lead to many non-specific DNA products of varying sizes that appear as a ladder or smear of bands on agarose gels. Sometimes no products form at all. Another potential problem occurs when mutations are unintentionally introduced in the amplicons, resulting in a heterogeneous population of PCR products. PCR failures can become frustrating unless patience and careful troubleshooting are employed to sort out and solve the problem(s). This protocol outlines the basic principles of PCR, provides a methodology that will result in amplification of most target sequences, and presents strategies for optimizing a reaction. By following this PCR guide, students should be able to: ● Set up reactions and thermal cycling conditions for a conventional PCR experiment ● Understand the function of various reaction components and their overall effect on a PCR experiment ● Design and optimize a PCR experiment for any DNA template ● Troubleshoot failed PCR experiments
Basic Protocols, Issue 63, PCR, optimization, primer design, melting temperature, Tm, troubleshooting, additives, enhancers, template DNA quantification, thermal cycler, molecular biology, genetics
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A Faster, High Resolution, mtPA-GFP-based Mitochondrial Fusion Assay Acquiring Kinetic Data of Multiple Cells in Parallel Using Confocal Microscopy
Authors: Alenka Lovy, Anthony J.A. Molina, Fernanda M. Cerqueira, Kyle Trudeau, Orian S. Shirihai.
Institutions: Tufts School of Medicine, Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Boston University Medical Center.
Mitochondrial fusion plays an essential role in mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, bioenergetics, autophagy and quality control. Fusion is quantified in living cells by photo-conversion of matrix targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP) in a subset of mitochondria. The rate at which the photoconverted molecules equilibrate across the entire mitochondrial population is used as a measure of fusion activity. Thus far measurements were performed using a single cell time lapse approach, quantifying the equilibration in one cell over an hour. Here, we scale up and automate a previously published live cell method based on using mtPAGFP and a low concentration of TMRE (15 nm). This method involves photoactivating a small portion of the mitochondrial network, collecting highly resolved stacks of confocal sections every 15 min for 1 hour, and quantifying the change in signal intensity. Depending on several factors such as ease of finding PAGFP expressing cells, and the signal of the photoactivated regions, it is possible to collect around 10 cells within the 15 min intervals. This provides a significant improvement in the time efficiency of this assay while maintaining the highly resolved subcellular quantification as well as the kinetic parameters necessary to capture the detail of mitochondrial behavior in its native cytoarchitectural environment. Mitochondrial dynamics play a role in many cellular processes including respiration, calcium regulation, and apoptosis1,2,3,13. The structure of the mitochondrial network affects the function of mitochondria, and the way they interact with the rest of the cell. Undergoing constant division and fusion, mitochondrial networks attain various shapes ranging from highly fused networks, to being more fragmented. Interestingly, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Charcot Marie Tooth 2A, and dominant optic atrophy have been correlated with altered mitochondrial morphology, namely fragmented networks4,10,13. Often times, upon fragmentation, mitochondria become depolarized, and upon accumulation this leads to impaired cell function18. Mitochondrial fission has been shown to signal a cell to progress toward apoptosis. It can also provide a mechanism by which to separate depolarized and inactive mitochondria to keep the bulk of the network robust14. Fusion of mitochondria, on the other hand, leads to sharing of matrix proteins, solutes, mtDNA and the electrochemical gradient, and also seems to prevent progression to apoptosis9. How fission and fusion of mitochondria affects cell homeostasis and ultimately the functioning of the organism needs further understanding, and therefore the continuous development and optimization of how to gather information on these phenomena is necessary. Existing mitochondrial fusion assays have revealed various insights into mitochondrial physiology, each having its own advantages. The hybrid PEG fusion assay7, mixes two populations of differently labeled cells (mtRFP and mtYFP), and analyzes the amount of mixing and colocalization of fluorophores in fused, multinucleated, cells. Although this method has yielded valuable information, not all cell types can fuse, and the conditions under which fusion is stimulated involves the use of toxic drugs that likely affect the normal fusion process. More recently, a cell free technique has been devised, using isolated mitochondria to observe fusion events based on a luciferase assay1,5. Two human cell lines are targeted with either the amino or a carboxy terminal part of Renilla luciferase along with a leucine zipper to ensure dimerization upon mixing. Mitochondria are isolated from each cell line, and fused. The fusion reaction can occur without the cytosol under physiological conditions in the presence of energy, appropriate temperature and inner mitochondrial membrane potential. Interestingly, the cytosol was found to modulate the extent of fusion, demonstrating that cell signaling regulates the fusion process 4,5. This assay will be very useful for high throughput screening to identify components of the fusion machinery and also pharmacological compounds that may affect mitochondrial dynamics. However, more detailed whole cell mitochondrial assays will be needed to complement this in vitro assay to observe these events within a cellular environment. A technique for monitoring whole-cell mitochondrial dynamics has been in use for some time and is based on a mitochondrially-targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP)6,11. Upon expression of the mtPAGFP, a small portion of the mitochondrial network is photoactivated (10-20%), and the spread of the signal to the rest of the mitochondrial network is recorded every 15 minutes for 1 hour using time lapse confocal imaging. Each fusion event leads to a dilution of signal intensity, enabling quantification of the fusion rate. Although fusion and fission are continuously occurring in cells, this technique only monitors fusion as fission does not lead to a dilution of the PAGFP signal6. Co-labeling with low levels of TMRE (7-15 nM in INS1 cells) allows quantification of the membrane potential of mitochondria. When mitochondria are hyperpolarized they uptake more TMRE, and when they depolarize they lose the TMRE dye. Mitochondria that depolarize no longer have a sufficient membrane potential and tend not to fuse as efficiently if at all. Therefore, active fusing mitochondria can be tracked with these low levels of TMRE9,15. Accumulation of depolarized mitochondria that lack a TMRE signal may be a sign of phototoxicity or cell death. Higher concentrations of TMRE render mitochondria very sensitive to laser light, and therefore great care must be taken to avoid overlabeling with TMRE. If the effect of depolarization of mitochondria is the topic of interest, a technique using slightly higher levels of TMRE and more intense laser light can be used to depolarize mitochondria in a controlled fashion (Mitra and Lippincott-Schwartz, 2010). To ensure that toxicity due to TMRE is not an issue, we suggest exposing loaded cells (3-15 nM TMRE) to the imaging parameters that will be used in the assay (perhaps 7 stacks of 6 optical sections in a row), and assessing cell health after 2 hours. If the mitochondria appear too fragmented and cells are dying, other mitochondrial markers, such as dsRED or Mitotracker red could be used instead of TMRE. The mtPAGFP method has revealed details about mitochondrial network behavior that could not be visualized using other methods. For example, we now know that mitochondrial fusion can be full or transient, where matrix content can mix without changing the overall network morphology. Additionally, we know that the probability of fusion is independent of contact duration and organelle dimension, is influenced by organelle motility, membrane potential and history of previous fusion activity8,15,16,17. In this manuscript, we describe a methodology for scaling up the previously published protocol using mtPAGFP and 15nM TMRE8 in order to examine multiple cells at a time and improve the time efficiency of data collection without sacrificing the subcellular resolution. This has been made possible by the use of an automated microscope stage, and programmable image acquisition software. Zen software from Zeiss allows the user to mark and track several designated cells expressing mtPAGFP. Each of these cells can be photoactivated in a particular region of interest, and stacks of confocal slices can be monitored for mtPAGFP signal as well as TMRE at specified intervals. Other confocal systems could be used to perform this protocol provided there is an automated stage that is programmable, an incubator with CO2, and a means by which to photoactivate the PAGFP; either a multiphoton laser, or a 405 nm diode laser.
Molecular Biology, Issue 65, Genetics, Cellular Biology, Physics, confocal microscopy, mitochondria, fusion, TMRE, mtPAGFP, INS1, mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial morphology, mitochondrial network
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Primer Extension Capture: Targeted Sequence Retrieval from Heavily Degraded DNA Sources
Authors: Adrian W. Briggs, Jeffrey M. Good, Richard E. Green, Johannes Krause, Tomislav Maricic, Udo Stenzel, Svante Pääbo.
Institutions: Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig.
We present a method of targeted DNA sequence retrieval from DNA sources which are heavily degraded and contaminated with microbial DNA, as is typical of ancient bones. The method greatly reduces sample destruction and sequencing demands relative to direct PCR or shotgun sequencing approaches. We used this method to reconstruct the complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genomes of five Neandertals from across their geographic range. The mtDNA genetic diversity of the late Neandertals was approximately three times lower than that of contemporary modern humans. Together with analyses of mtDNA protein evolution, these data suggest that the long-term effective population size of Neandertals was smaller than that of modern humans and extant great apes.
Cellular Biology, Issue 31, Neandertal, anthropology, evolution, ancient DNA, DNA sequencing, targeted sequencing, capture
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Visualization of Mitochondrial DNA Replication in Individual Cells by EdU Signal Amplification
Authors: Kristine M. Haines, Eva L. Feldman, Stephen I. Lentz.
Institutions: University of Michigan, University of Michigan, University of Michigan.
Mitochondria are key regulators of cellular energy and mitochondrial biogenesis is an essential component of regulating mitochondria numbers in healthy cells1-3. One approach for monitoring mitochondrial biogenesis is to measure the rate of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) replication4. We developed a sensitive technique to label newly synthesized mtDNA in individual cells in order to study mtDNA biogenesis. The technique combines the incorporation of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU)5-7 with a tyramide signal amplification (TSA)8 protocol to visualize mtDNA replication within subcellular compartments of neurons. EdU is superior to other thymidine analogs, such as 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), because the initial click reaction to label EdU5-7 does not require the harsh acid treatments or enzyme digests that are required for exposing the BrdU epitope. The milder labeling of EdU allows for direct comparison of its incorporation with other cellular markers9-10. The ability to visualize and quantify mtDNA biogenesis provides an essential tool for investigating the mechanisms used to regulate mitochondrial biogenesis and would provide insight into the pathogenesis associated with drug toxicity, aging, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Our technique is applicable to sensory neurons as well as other cell types. The use of this technique to measure mtDNA biogenesis has significant implications in furthering the understanding of both normal cellular physiology as well as impaired disease states.
Neuroscience, Issue 45, mitochondria, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU), labeling, tyramide signal amplification, mtDNA biogenesis, dorsal root ganglion neurons
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An Allele-specific Gene Expression Assay to Test the Functional Basis of Genetic Associations
Authors: Silvia Paracchini, Anthony P. Monaco, Julian C. Knight.
Institutions: University of Oxford.
The number of significant genetic associations with common complex traits is constantly increasing. However, most of these associations have not been understood at molecular level. One of the mechanisms mediating the effect of DNA variants on phenotypes is gene expression, which has been shown to be particularly relevant for complex traits1. This method tests in a cellular context the effect of specific DNA sequences on gene expression. The principle is to measure the relative abundance of transcripts arising from the two alleles of a gene, analysing cells which carry one copy of the DNA sequences associated with disease (the risk variants)2,3. Therefore, the cells used for this method should meet two fundamental genotypic requirements: they have to be heterozygous both for DNA risk variants and for DNA markers, typically coding polymorphisms, which can distinguish transcripts based on their chromosomal origin (Figure 1). DNA risk variants and DNA markers do not need to have the same allele frequency but the phase (haplotypic) relationship of the genetic markers needs to be understood. It is also important to choose cell types which express the gene of interest. This protocol refers specifically to the procedure adopted to extract nucleic acids from fibroblasts but the method is equally applicable to other cells types including primary cells. DNA and RNA are extracted from the selected cell lines and cDNA is generated. DNA and cDNA are analysed with a primer extension assay, designed to target the coding DNA markers4. The primer extension assay is carried out using the MassARRAY (Sequenom)5 platform according to the manufacturer's specifications. Primer extension products are then analysed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS). Because the selected markers are heterozygous they will generate two peaks on the MS profiles. The area of each peak is proportional to the transcript abundance and can be measured with a function of the MassARRAY Typer software to generate an allelic ratio (allele 1: allele 2) calculation. The allelic ratio obtained for cDNA is normalized using that measured from genomic DNA, where the allelic ratio is expected to be 1:1 to correct for technical artifacts. Markers with a normalised allelic ratio significantly different to 1 indicate that the amount of transcript generated from the two chromosomes in the same cell is different, suggesting that the DNA variants associated with the phenotype have an effect on gene expression. Experimental controls should be used to confirm the results.
Cellular Biology, Issue 45, Gene expression, regulatory variant, haplotype, association study, primer extension, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, single nucleotide polymorphism, allele-specific
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Respirometric Oxidative Phosphorylation Assessment in Saponin-permeabilized Cardiac Fibers
Authors: Curtis C. Hughey, Dustin S. Hittel, Virginia L. Johnsen, Jane Shearer.
Institutions: University of Calgary, University of Calgary.
Investigation of mitochondrial function represents an important parameter of cardiac physiology as mitochondria are involved in energy metabolism, oxidative stress, apoptosis, aging, mitochondrial encephalomyopathies and drug toxicity. Given this, technologies to measure cardiac mitochondrial function are in demand. One technique that employs an integrative approach to measure mitochondrial function is respirometric oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) analysis. The principle of respirometric OXPHOS assessment is centered around measuring oxygen concentration utilizing a Clark electrode. As the permeabilized fiber bundle consumes oxygen, oxygen concentration in the closed chamber declines. Using selected substrate-inhibitor-uncoupler titration protocols, electrons are provided to specific sites of the electron transport chain, allowing evaluation of mitochondrial function. Prior to respirometric analysis of mitochondrial function, mechanical and chemical preparatory techniques are utilized to permeabilize the sarcolemma of muscle fibers. Chemical permeabilization employs saponin to selectively perforate the cell membrane while maintaining cellular architecture. This paper thoroughly describes the steps involved in preparing saponin-skinned cardiac fibers for oxygen consumption measurements to evaluate mitochondrial OXPHOS. Additionally, troubleshooting advice as well as specific substrates, inhibitors and uncouplers that may be used to determine mitochondria function at specific sites of the electron transport chain are provided. Importantly, the described protocol may be easily applied to cardiac and skeletal tissue of various animal models and human samples.
Physiology, Issue 48, cardiac fibers, mitochondria, oxygen consumption, mouse, methodology
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Isolation of Fidelity Variants of RNA Viruses and Characterization of Virus Mutation Frequency
Authors: Stéphanie Beaucourt, Antonio V. Bordería, Lark L. Coffey, Nina F. Gnädig, Marta Sanz-Ramos, Yasnee Beeharry, Marco Vignuzzi.
Institutions: Institut Pasteur .
RNA viruses use RNA dependent RNA polymerases to replicate their genomes. The intrinsically high error rate of these enzymes is a large contributor to the generation of extreme population diversity that facilitates virus adaptation and evolution. Increasing evidence shows that the intrinsic error rates, and the resulting mutation frequencies, of RNA viruses can be modulated by subtle amino acid changes to the viral polymerase. Although biochemical assays exist for some viral RNA polymerases that permit quantitative measure of incorporation fidelity, here we describe a simple method of measuring mutation frequencies of RNA viruses that has proven to be as accurate as biochemical approaches in identifying fidelity altering mutations. The approach uses conventional virological and sequencing techniques that can be performed in most biology laboratories. Based on our experience with a number of different viruses, we have identified the key steps that must be optimized to increase the likelihood of isolating fidelity variants and generating data of statistical significance. The isolation and characterization of fidelity altering mutations can provide new insights into polymerase structure and function1-3. Furthermore, these fidelity variants can be useful tools in characterizing mechanisms of virus adaptation and evolution4-7.
Immunology, Issue 52, Polymerase fidelity, RNA virus, mutation frequency, mutagen, RNA polymerase, viral evolution
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Visualization of Mitochondrial Respiratory Function using Cytochrome C Oxidase / Succinate Dehydrogenase (COX/SDH) Double-labeling Histochemistry
Authors: Jaime M. Ross.
Institutions: Karolinska Institutet, National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA).
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) defects are an important cause of disease and may underlie aging and aging-related alterations 1,2. The mitochondrial theory of aging suggests a role for mtDNA mutations, which can alter bioenergetics homeostasis and cellular function, in the aging process 3. A wealth of evidence has been compiled in support of this theory 1,4, an example being the mtDNA mutator mouse 5; however, the precise role of mtDNA damage in aging is not entirely understood 6,7. Observing the activity of respiratory enzymes is a straightforward approach for investigating mitochondrial dysfunction. Complex IV, or cytochrome c oxidase (COX), is essential for mitochondrial function. The catalytic subunits of COX are encoded by mtDNA and are essential for assembly of the complex (Figure 1). Thus, proper synthesis and function are largely based on mtDNA integrity 2. Although other respiratory complexes could be investigated, Complexes IV and II are the most amenable to histochemical examination 8,9. Complex II, or succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), is entirely encoded by nuclear DNA (Figure 1), and its activity is typically not affected by impaired mtDNA, although an increase might indicate mitochondrial biogenesis 10-12. The impaired mtDNA observed in mitochondrial diseases, aging, and age-related diseases often leads to the presence of cells with low or absent COX activity 2,12-14. Although COX and SDH activities can be investigated individually, the sequential double-labeling method 15,16 has proved to be advantageous in locating cells with mitochondrial dysfunction 12,17-21. Many of the optimal constitutions of the assay have been determined, such as substrate concentration, electron acceptors/donors, intermediate electron carriers, influence of pH, and reaction time 9,22,23. 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) is an effective and reliable electron donor 22. In cells with functioning COX, the brown indamine polymer product will localize in mitochondrial cristae and saturate cells 22. Those cells with dysfunctional COX will therefore not be saturated by the DAB product, allowing for the visualization of SDH activity by reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT), an electron acceptor, to a blue formazan end product 9,24. Cytochrome c and sodium succinate substrates are added to normalize endogenous levels between control and diseased/mutant tissues 9. Catalase is added as a precaution to avoid possible contaminating reactions from peroxidase activity 9,22. Phenazine methosulfate (PMS), an intermediate electron carrier, is used in conjunction with sodium azide, a respiratory chain inhibitor, to increase the formation of the final reaction products 9,25. Despite this information, some critical details affecting the result of this seemly straightforward assay, in addition to specificity controls and advances in the technique, have not yet been presented.
Cellular Biology, Issue 57, aging, brain, COX/SDH, histochemistry, mitochondria, mitochondrial disease, mitochondrial dysfunction, mtDNA, mtDNA mutations, respiratory chain
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Enhancement of Apoptotic and Autophagic Induction by a Novel Synthetic C-1 Analogue of 7-deoxypancratistatin in Human Breast Adenocarcinoma and Neuroblastoma Cells with Tamoxifen
Authors: Dennis Ma, Jonathan Collins, Tomas Hudlicky, Siyaram Pandey.
Institutions: University of Windsor, Brock University.
Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers amongst women in North America. Many current anti-cancer treatments, including ionizing radiation, induce apoptosis via DNA damage. Unfortunately, such treatments are non-selective to cancer cells and produce similar toxicity in normal cells. We have reported selective induction of apoptosis in cancer cells by the natural compound pancratistatin (PST). Recently, a novel PST analogue, a C-1 acetoxymethyl derivative of 7-deoxypancratistatin (JCTH-4), was produced by de novo synthesis and it exhibits comparable selective apoptosis inducing activity in several cancer cell lines. Recently, autophagy has been implicated in malignancies as both pro-survival and pro-death mechanisms in response to chemotherapy. Tamoxifen (TAM) has invariably demonstrated induction of pro-survival autophagy in numerous cancers. In this study, the efficacy of JCTH-4 alone and in combination with TAM to induce cell death in human breast cancer (MCF7) and neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells was evaluated. TAM alone induced autophagy, but insignificant cell death whereas JCTH-4 alone caused significant induction of apoptosis with some induction of autophagy. Interestingly, the combinatory treatment yielded a drastic increase in apoptotic and autophagic induction. We monitored time-dependent morphological changes in MCF7 cells undergoing TAM-induced autophagy, JCTH-4-induced apoptosis and autophagy, and accelerated cell death with combinatorial treatment using time-lapse microscopy. We have demonstrated these compounds to induce apoptosis/autophagy by mitochondrial targeting in these cancer cells. Importantly, these treatments did not affect the survival of noncancerous human fibroblasts. Thus, these results indicate that JCTH-4 in combination with TAM could be used as a safe and very potent anti-cancer therapy against breast cancer and neuroblastoma cells.
Cancer Biology, Issue 63, Medicine, Biochemistry, Breast adenocarcinoma, neuroblastoma, tamoxifen, combination therapy, apoptosis, autophagy
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A Strategy to Identify de Novo Mutations in Common Disorders such as Autism and Schizophrenia
Authors: Gauthier Julie, Fadi F. Hamdan, Guy A. Rouleau.
Institutions: Universite de Montreal, Universite de Montreal, Universite de Montreal.
There are several lines of evidence supporting the role of de novo mutations as a mechanism for common disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia. First, the de novo mutation rate in humans is relatively high, so new mutations are generated at a high frequency in the population. However, de novo mutations have not been reported in most common diseases. Mutations in genes leading to severe diseases where there is a strong negative selection against the phenotype, such as lethality in embryonic stages or reduced reproductive fitness, will not be transmitted to multiple family members, and therefore will not be detected by linkage gene mapping or association studies. The observation of very high concordance in monozygotic twins and very low concordance in dizygotic twins also strongly supports the hypothesis that a significant fraction of cases may result from new mutations. Such is the case for diseases such as autism and schizophrenia. Second, despite reduced reproductive fitness1 and extremely variable environmental factors, the incidence of some diseases is maintained worldwide at a relatively high and constant rate. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia, with an incidence of approximately 1% worldwide. Mutational load can be thought of as a balance between selection for or against a deleterious mutation and its production by de novo mutation. Lower rates of reproduction constitute a negative selection factor that should reduce the number of mutant alleles in the population, ultimately leading to decreased disease prevalence. These selective pressures tend to be of different intensity in different environments. Nonetheless, these severe mental disorders have been maintained at a constant relatively high prevalence in the worldwide population across a wide range of cultures and countries despite a strong negative selection against them2. This is not what one would predict in diseases with reduced reproductive fitness, unless there was a high new mutation rate. Finally, the effects of paternal age: there is a significantly increased risk of the disease with increasing paternal age, which could result from the age related increase in paternal de novo mutations. This is the case for autism and schizophrenia3. The male-to-female ratio of mutation rate is estimated at about 4–6:1, presumably due to a higher number of germ-cell divisions with age in males. Therefore, one would predict that de novo mutations would more frequently come from males, particularly older males4. A high rate of new mutations may in part explain why genetic studies have so far failed to identify many genes predisposing to complexes diseases genes, such as autism and schizophrenia, and why diseases have been identified for a mere 3% of genes in the human genome. Identification for de novo mutations as a cause of a disease requires a targeted molecular approach, which includes studying parents and affected subjects. The process for determining if the genetic basis of a disease may result in part from de novo mutations and the molecular approach to establish this link will be illustrated, using autism and schizophrenia as examples.
Medicine, Issue 52, de novo mutation, complex diseases, schizophrenia, autism, rare variations, DNA sequencing
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Determining Cell Number During Cell Culture using the Scepter Cell Counter
Authors: Kathleen Ongena, Chandreyee Das, Janet L. Smith, Sónia Gil, Grace Johnston.
Institutions: Millipore Inc.
Counting cells is often a necessary but tedious step for in vitro cell culture. Consistent cell concentrations ensure experimental reproducibility and accuracy. Cell counts are important for monitoring cell health and proliferation rate, assessing immortalization or transformation, seeding cells for subsequent experiments, transfection or infection, and preparing for cell-based assays. It is important that cell counts be accurate, consistent, and fast, particularly for quantitative measurements of cellular responses. Despite this need for speed and accuracy in cell counting, 71% of 400 researchers surveyed1 who count cells using a hemocytometer. While hemocytometry is inexpensive, it is laborious and subject to user bias and misuse, which results in inaccurate counts. Hemocytometers are made of special optical glass on which cell suspensions are loaded in specified volumes and counted under a microscope. Sources of errors in hemocytometry include: uneven cell distribution in the sample, too many or too few cells in the sample, subjective decisions as to whether a given cell falls within the defined counting area, contamination of the hemocytometer, user-to-user variation, and variation of hemocytometer filling rate2. To alleviate the tedium associated with manual counting, 29% of researchers count cells using automated cell counting devices; these include vision-based counters, systems that detect cells using the Coulter principle, or flow cytometry1. For most researchers, the main barrier to using an automated system is the price associated with these large benchtop instruments1. The Scepter cell counter is an automated handheld device that offers the automation and accuracy of Coulter counting at a relatively low cost. The system employs the Coulter principle of impedance-based particle detection3 in a miniaturized format using a combination of analog and digital hardware for sensing, signal processing, data storage, and graphical display. The disposable tip is engineered with a microfabricated, cell- sensing zone that enables discrimination by cell size and cell volume at sub-micron and sub-picoliter resolution. Enhanced with precision liquid-handling channels and electronics, the Scepter cell counter reports cell population statistics graphically displayed as a histogram.
Cellular Biology, Issue 45, Scepter, cell counting, cell culture, hemocytometer, Coulter, Impedance-based particle detection
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Pyrosequencing: A Simple Method for Accurate Genotyping
Authors: Cristi King, Tiffany Scott-Horton.
Institutions: Washington University in St. Louis.
Pharmacogenetic research benefits first-hand from the abundance of information provided by the completion of the Human Genome Project. With such a tremendous amount of data available comes an explosion of genotyping methods. Pyrosequencing(R) is one of the most thorough yet simple methods to date used to analyze polymorphisms. It also has the ability to identify tri-allelic, indels, short-repeat polymorphisms, along with determining allele percentages for methylation or pooled sample assessment. In addition, there is a standardized control sequence that provides internal quality control. This method has led to rapid and efficient single-nucleotide polymorphism evaluation including many clinically relevant polymorphisms. The technique and methodology of Pyrosequencing is explained.
Cellular Biology, Issue 11, Springer Protocols, Pyrosequencing, genotype, polymorphism, SNP, pharmacogenetics, pharmacogenomics, PCR
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Population Replacement Strategies for Controlling Vector Populations and the Use of Wolbachia pipientis for Genetic Drive
Authors: Jason Rasgon.
Institutions: Johns Hopkins University.
In this video, Jason Rasgon discusses population replacement strategies to control vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue. "Population replacement" is the replacement of wild vector populations (that are competent to transmit pathogens) with those that are not competent to transmit pathogens. There are several theoretical strategies to accomplish this. One is to exploit the maternally-inherited symbiotic bacteria Wolbachia pipientis. Wolbachia is a widespread reproductive parasite that spreads in a selfish manner at the extent of its host's fitness. Jason Rasgon discusses, in detail, the basic biology of this bacterial symbiont and various ways to use it for control of vector-borne diseases.
Cellular Biology, Issue 5, mosquito, malaria, genetics, infectious disease, Wolbachia
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European Street Cafe - 6 Reviews - 1704 San Marco Boulevard, Jacksonville, FL - Food & Dining Reviews - Phone (904) 398-9500

European Street Cafe

1704 San Marco Boulevard
Jacksonville, FL 32207
(904) 398-9500
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European Street Cafe - Jacksonville, FL

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Great menu with VERY reasonable prices on all the meals 90% of them are less than $8. Great place to take company and if you go from 5pm to 7pm it's 2 for 1 draft beers! We go to ...

All reviews seem positive

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Good Beer 4/14/2006

While the food leaves something to be desired, European Street does offer quite an array of beer. There's many different kinds from all over the world. The sandwiches, however, are nothing special. But, what they lack in the sandwich department they definitely make up in the desserts. European Street offers several different rich cakes and cheesecakes, giant cookies, and they have a large selection of imported, hard to find candies and treats. If you're looking for a place to try a new brew or grab a dessert, this is it for you. But I would not suggest making a night out for dinner here. more

uninspiring 3/19/2006

I have to agree with Nancy, the food is just not very impressive. The menu will get you excited about them... but lets face it. its just sandwiches and potato chips. They do have a drink around the world club, and like, a zillion different kinds of beers. I like to go for desserts, they have tasty looking cookies that look like a big scoop of ice cream... but they aren't great. good to give as a gift though. what you really want to go for is a slice of cake. Also, they have an adorable market with a surprisingly lot of stuff in it. from well priced wine (almost all are 2 bottles for 10$s) to candy, to hot sauce, its a great place to find a gift. more

A little taste of Europe in the neighborhood.... 9/14/2005

Definitely a lunch sort of place. The atmosphere is distinctly European (It reminds me of Germany or Barvaria). The menu is large and while the food is fun, it's not anything all that unique. The descriptions of the entrees (mostly sandwichs and soups) are far more european than the actual items. The prices aren't bad, but there can be an enormous lunchtime crunch. Thus.....slow service. I've been twice and not tempted to fight the crowd although the bakery case does look tempting. They seem to have an extensive menu of European wine and beer that goes over well with the crowd. more
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Menu for European Street Cafe

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Additional information

  • Hours:

    Monday To Sunday From 10:00 AM To 10:00 PM
  • Payments:

    Visa, American Express, Master Card, Discover
  • Neighborhoods:

    Urban Core, Southside