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Cross-site scripting

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Cross-site scripting (XSS) is a type of computer security vulnerability typically found in web applications. XSS enables attackers to inject client-side scripts into web pages viewed by other users. A cross-site scripting vulnerability may be used by attackers to bypass access controls such as the same-origin policy. Cross-site scripting carried out on websites accounted for roughly 84% of all security vulnerabilities documented by Symantec as of 2007.[1] Their effect may range from a petty nuisance to a significant security risk, depending on the sensitivity of the data handled by the vulnerable site and the nature of any security mitigation implemented by the site's owner.

Security on the web depends on a variety of mechanisms, including an underlying concept of trust known as the same-origin policy. This essentially states that if content from one site (such as is granted permission to access resources on a system, then any content from that site will share these permissions, while content from another site ( will have to be granted permissions separately.[2]

Cross-site scripting attacks use known vulnerabilities in web-based applications, their servers, or the plug-in systems on which they rely. Exploiting one of these, attackers fold malicious content into the content being delivered from the compromised site. When the resulting combined content arrives at the client-side web browser, it has all been delivered from the trusted source, and thus operates under the permissions granted to that system. By finding ways of injecting malicious scripts into web pages, an attacker can gain elevated access-privileges to sensitive page content, to session cookies, and to a variety of other information maintained by the browser on behalf of the user. Cross-site scripting attacks are a case of code injection.[citation needed]

Microsoft security-engineers introduced the term "cross-site scripting" in January 2000.[3] The expression "cross-site scripting" originally referred to the act of loading the attacked, third-party web application from an unrelated attack-site, in a manner that executes a fragment of JavaScript prepared by the attacker in the security context of the targeted domain (taking advantage of a reflected or non-persistent XSS vulnerability). The definition gradually expanded to encompass other modes of code injection, including persistent and non-JavaScript vectors (including ActiveX, Java, VBScript, Flash, or even HTML scripts), causing some confusion to newcomers to the field of information security.[4]

XSS vulnerabilities have been reported and exploited since the 1990s. Prominent sites affected in the past include the social-networking sites Twitter,[5] Facebook,[6] MySpace, YouTube and Orkut.[7][8] Cross-site scripting flaws have since surpassed buffer overflows to become the most common publicly reported security vulnerability,[9] with some researchers in 2007 estimating as many as 68% of websites as likely open to XSS attacks.[10]

There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: non-persistent and persistent. Some sources further divide these two groups into traditional (caused by server-side code flaws) and DOM-based (in client-side code).

Reflected (non-persistent)[edit]

Example of a non-persistent XSS flaw

Non-persistent XSS vulnerabilities in Google could allow malicious sites to attack Google users who visit them while logged in.[11]

The non-persistent (or reflected) cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most common type of web vulnerability.[12] These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly sanitizing the request.[13]

Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection.[12][13] A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly escape or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue.[14]

A reflected attack is typically delivered via email or a neutral web site. The bait is an innocent-looking URL, pointing to a trusted site but containing the XSS vector. If the trusted site is vulnerable to the vector, clicking the link can cause the victim's browser to execute the injected script.

Example of a persistent XSS flaw

A persistent cross-zone scripting vulnerability coupled with a computer worm allowed execution of arbitrary code and listing of filesystem contents via a QuickTime movie on MySpace.[15]

The persistent (or stored) XSS vulnerability is a more devastating variant of a cross-site scripting flaw: it occurs when the data provided by the attacker is saved by the server, and then permanently displayed on "normal" pages returned to other users in the course of regular browsing, without proper HTML escaping. A classic example of this is with online message boards where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read.[13]

For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.

Suppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from other people's browsers when they visit her profile. The script then sends a quick message to her own server, which collects this information.

To do this, for the question "Describe your Ideal First Date", Mallory gives a short answer (to appear normal) but the text at the end of her answer is her script to steal names and emails. If the script is enclosed inside a ",
      1. An alert box appears (that says "xss").
      2. The page displays " not found," along with an error message with the text 'xss'.
      3. The url is " - which is exploitable behavior.
  3. Mallory crafts a URL to exploit the vulnerability:
    1. She makes the URL. She could choose to convert the ASCII characters into hexadecimal format, such as, so that human readers cannot immediately decipher the malicious URL.[23]
    2. She sends an e-mail to some unsuspecting members of Bob's site, saying "Check out some cute puppies!"
  4. Alice gets the e-mail. She loves puppies and clicks on the link. It goes to Bob's website to search, doesn't find anything, and displays "puppies not found" but right in the middle, the script tag runs (it is invisible on the screen) and loads and runs Mallory's program authstealer.js (triggering the XSS attack). Alice forgets about it.
  5. The authstealer.js program runs in Alice's browser, as if it originated from Bob's website. It grabs a copy of Alice's Authorization Cookie and sends it to Mallory's server, where Mallory retrieves it.
  6. Mallory now puts Alice's Authorization Cookie into her browser as if it were her own. She then goes to Bob's site and is now logged in as Alice.
  7. Now that she's in, Mallory goes to the Billing section of the website and looks up Alice's credit card number and grabs a copy. Then she goes and changes her password so Alice can't even log in anymore.
  8. She decides to take it a step further and sends a similarly crafted link to Bob himself, thus gaining administrator privileges to Bob's website.

Several things could have been done to mitigate this attack:

  1. The search input could have been sanitized which would include proper encoding checking.
  2. The web server could be set to redirect invalid requests.
  3. The web server could detect a simultaneous login and invalidate the sessions.
  4. The web server could detect a simultaneous login from two different IP addresses and invalidate the sessions.
  5. The website could display only the last few digits of a previously used credit card.
  6. The website could require users to enter their passwords again before changing their registration information.
  7. The website could enact various aspects of the Content Security Policy.
  8. Users could be educated to not click "benign-looking", but malicious, links.
  9. Set cookie with HttpOnly flag to prevent access from JavaScript.

Persistent attack[edit]

  1. Mallory gets an account on Bob's website.
  2. Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a stored XSS vulnerability. If you go to the News section, and post a comment, it will display whatever he types in for the comment. But, if the comment text contains HTML tags in it, the tags will be displayed as it is, and any script tags get run.
  3. Mallory reads an article in the News section and writes in a comment at the bottom in the Comments section. In the comment, she inserts this text: I love the puppies in this story! They're so cute!


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DAFIF or the Digital Aeronautical Flight Information File is a comprehensive database of up-to-date aeronautical data, including information on airports, airways, airspaces, navigation data and other facts relevant to flying in the entire world, managed by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA).

Withdrawal of public access[edit]

DAFIF was publicly available until October 2006 through the Internet, however it was closed to public access because 'increased numbers of foreign source providers are claiming intellectual property rights or are forewarning NGA that they intend to copyright their source'.[1] Currently only Federal and State government agencies, authorized government contractors and Department of Defense customers are able to access the DAFIF data.

At the time of the announcement, the NGA did not say who the 'foreign source providers' were. It was subsequently revealed that the Australian Government was behind the move. The Australian Government Corporation Air Services Australia in September 2003 started charging for access to Australian data. Rather than exclude the Australian data, the NGA opted to stop making the data available to the public.[2]

A product called USFIF or the United States Flight Information File which contains only data related to the United States was available on the NGA website until October 2007. NGA no longer hosts any aeronautical information on the publicly available website.

Replacement for Google Earth Data[edit]

Since the DAFIF data has ceased to be available to the public, new sources of the data have arrived, though none is (yet) a complete replacement:

  1. ^ "NGA Invites Public Comment on Proposal to Remove Aeronautical Information from Public Sale and Distribution" (PDF). Media Release. National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). 2004-12-03. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-21.
  2. ^ Tiboni, Frank (2005-12-12). "NGA bans flight data from public view: Agency cites intellectual property rights as reason for policy shift". Federal Computer Week (fcw.com). FCW Media Group. Archived from the original on 2006-06-22.

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Job satisfaction

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Job satisfaction or employee satisfaction has been defined in many different ways. Some believe it is simply how content an individual is with his or her job, in other words, whether or not they like the job or individual aspects or facets of jobs, such as nature of work or supervision.[1] Others believe it is not as simplistic as this definition suggests and instead that multidimensional psychological responses to one's job are involved.[2] Researchers have also noted that job satisfaction measures vary in the extent to which they measure feelings about the job (affective job satisfaction).[3] or cognitions about the job (cognitive job satisfaction).[4]

Definitional issues[edit]

The concept of job satisfaction has been developed in many ways by many different researchers and practitioners. One of the most widely used definitions in organizational research is that of Locke (1976), who defines job satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (p. 1304).[5] Others have defined it as simply how content an individual is with his or her job; whether he or she likes the job or not.[6] It is assessed at both the global level (whether or not the individual is satisfied with the job overall), or at the facet level (whether or not the individual is satisfied with different aspects of the job).[1] Spector (1997)[1] lists 14 common facets: Appreciation, Communication, Coworkers, Fringe benefits, Job conditions, Nature of the work, Organization, Personal growth, Policies and procedures, Promotion opportunities, Recognition, Security, and Supervision.

A more recent definition of the concept of job satisfaction is from Hulin and Judge (2003), who have noted that job satisfaction includes multidimensional psychological responses to an individual's job, and that these personal responses have cognitive (evaluative), affective (or emotional), and behavioral components.[2] Job satisfaction scales vary in the extent to which they assess the affective feelings about the job or the cognitive assessment of the job. Affective job satisfaction is a subjective construct representing an emotional feeling individuals have about their job.[1][3][4][7] Hence, affective job satisfaction for individuals reflects the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in general induces. Cognitive job satisfaction is a more objective and logical evaluation of various facets of a job. Cognitive job satisfaction can be unidimensional if it comprises evaluation of just one facet of a job, such as pay or maternity leave, or multidimensional if two or more facets of a job are simultaneously evaluated. Cognitive job satisfaction does not assess the degree of pleasure or happiness that arises from specific job facets, but rather gauges the extent to which those job facets are judged by the job holder to be satisfactory in comparison with objectives they themselves set or with other jobs. While cognitive job satisfaction might help to bring about affective job satisfaction, the two constructs are distinct, not necessarily directly related, and have different antecedents and consequences.[4]

Job satisfaction can also be seen within the broader context of the range of issues which affect an individual's experience of work, or their quality of working life. Job satisfaction can be understood in terms of its relationships with other key factors, such as general well-being, stress at work, control at work, home-work interface, and working conditions.[8]

A study title "Analysis of Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction of the Employees in Public and Private Sector", in India concluded that in India Employees tend to love their job if they get what they believe is an important attribute of a good job. Weightage factor of each such attribute based on exhaustive survey has been calculated. Region, sector and gender wise study of job satisfaction has provided consistent picture with respect to distribution of data set analyzed showed that most of the employees in Indian industry are not satisfied with their job except for a few like male in commerce sector and female in education sector. Total job satisfaction level of males is found to be higher than that of woman. Total job satisfaction level in manufacturing sector is found to be very low.[9]

The assessment of job satisfaction through employee anonymous surveys became commonplace in the 1930s.[10] Although prior to that time there was the beginning of interest in employee attitudes, there were only a handful of studies published.[11] Latham and Budworth[10] note that Uhrbrock[12] in 1934 was one of the first psychologists to use the newly developed attitude measurement techniques to assess factory worker attitudes. They also note that in 1935 Hoppock[13] conducted a study that focused explicitly on job satisfaction that is affected by both the nature of the job and relationships with coworkers and supervisors.

Models (methods)[edit]

Affect theory[edit]

Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory (1976) is arguably the most famous job satisfaction model. The main premise of this theory is that satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between what one wants in a job and what one has in a job. Further, the theory states that how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations are/aren’t met. When a person values a particular facet of a job, his satisfaction is more greatly impacted both positively (when expectations are met) and negatively (when expectations are not met), compared to one who doesn’t value that facet. To illustrate, if Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a position with little or no autonomy compared to Employee B. This theory also states that too much of a particular facet will produce stronger feelings of dissatisfaction the more a worker values that facet.

Dispositional approach[edit]

The dispositional approach suggests that individuals vary in their tendency to be satisfied with their jobs, in other words, job satisfaction is to some extent an individual trait.[14] This approach became a notable explanation of job satisfaction in light of evidence that job satisfaction tends to be stable over time and across careers and jobs.[15] Research also indicates that identical twins raised apart have similar levels of job satisfaction.[16]

A significant model that narrowed the scope of the dispositional approach was the Core Self-evaluations Model, proposed by Timothy A. Judge, Edwin A. Locke, and Cathy C. Durham in 1997.[17] Judge et al. argued that there are four Core Self-evaluations that determine one’s disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism. This model states that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on his/her self) and general self-efficacy (the belief in one’s own competence) lead to higher work satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing one has control over her\his own life, as opposed to outside forces having control) leads to higher job satisfaction. Finally, lower levels of neuroticism lead to higher job satisfaction.[17]

Equity theory[edit]

Equity Theory shows how a person views fairness in regard to social relationships such as with an employer. A person identifies the amount of input (things gained) from a relationship compared to the output (things given) to produce an input/output ratio. They then compare this ratio to the ratio of other people in deciding whether or not they have an equitable relationship.[18][19] Equity Theory suggests that if an individual thinks there is an inequality between two social groups or individuals, the person is likely to be distressed because the ratio between the input and the output are not equal.[20]

For example, consider two employees who work the same job and receive the same pay and benefits. If one individual gets a pay raise for doing the same work as the other, then the less benefited individual will become distressed in his workplace. If, on the other hand, both individuals get pay raises and new responsibilities, then the feeling of equity will be maintained.[20]

Other psychologists have extended the equity theory, suggesting three behavioral response patterns to situations of perceived equity or inequity (Huseman, Hatfield, & Mile, 1987; O'Neil & Mone 1998). These three types are benevolent, equity sensitive, and entitled. The level by each type affects motivation, job satisfaction, and job performance.

  1. Benevolent-Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with co-workers
  2. Equity sensitive-Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded
  3. Entitled-People believe that everything they receive is their just due[21]

Discrepancy theory[edit]

The concept of discrepancy theory is to explain the ultimate source of anxiety and dejection.[22] An individual who has not fulfilled his responsibility feels the sense of anxiety and regret for not performing well. They will also feel dejection due to not being able to achieve their hopes and aspirations. According to this theory, all individuals will learn what their obligations and responsibilities are for a particular function, and if they fail to fulfill those obligations then they are punished. Over time, these duties and obligations consolidate to form an abstracted set of principles, designated as a self-guide.[23] Agitation and anxiety are the main responses when an individual fails to achieve the obligation or responsibility.[24] This theory also explains that if achievement of the obligations is obtained then the reward can be praise, approval, or love. These achievements and aspirations also form an abstracted set of principles, referred to as the ideal self guide.[23] When the individual fails to obtain these rewards, they begin to have feelings of dejection, disappointment, or even depression.[24]

Two-factor theory (motivator-hygiene theory)[edit]

Main article: Two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory (also known as motivator-hygiene theory) attempts to explain satisfaction and motivation in the workplace.[25] This theory states that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are driven by different factors – motivation and hygiene factors, respectively. An employee’s motivation to work is continually related to job satisfaction of a subordinate. Motivation can be seen as an inner force that drives individuals to attain personal and organizational goals (Hoskinson, Porter, & Wrench, p. 133). Motivating factors are those aspects of the job that make people want to perform, and provide people with satisfaction, for example achievement in work, recognition, promotion opportunities.[26] These motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out.[25] Hygiene factors include aspects of the working environment such as pay, company policies, supervisory practices, and other working conditions.[25]

While Herzberg's model has stimulated much research, researchers have been unable to reliably empirically prove the model, with Hackman & Oldham suggesting that Herzberg's original formulation of the model may have been a methodological artifact.[25] Furthermore, the theory does not consider individual differences, conversely predicting all employees will react in an identical manner to changes in motivating/hygiene factors.[25] Finally, the model has been criticised in that it does not specify how motivating/hygiene factors are to be measured.[25]

Job characteristics model[edit]

Hackman & Oldham proposed the job characteristics model, which is widely used as a framework to study how particular job characteristics impact job outcomes, including job satisfaction. The five core job characteristics can be combined to form a motivating potential score (MPS) for a job, which can be used as an index of how likely a job is to affect an employee's attitudes and behaviors. Not everyone is equally affected by the MPS of a job. People who are high in growth need strength (the desire for autonomy, challenge and development of new skills on the job) are particularly affected by job characteristics.[27] A meta-analysis of studies that assess the framework of the model provides some support for the validity of the JCM.[28]

Influencing factors[edit]

Environmental factors[edit]

Communication overload and underload[edit]

One of the most important aspects of an individual’s work in a modern organization concerns the management of communication demands that he or she encounters on the job.[29] Demands can be characterized as a communication load, which refers to “the rate and complexity of communication inputs an individual must process in a particular time frame.”[30] Individuals in an organization can experience communication over-load and communication under- load which can affect their level of job satisfaction. Communication overload can occur when “an individual receives too many messages in a short period of time which can result in unprocessed information or when an individual faces more complex messages that are more difficult to process.[30]” Due to this process, “given an individual’s style of work and motivation to complete a task, when more inputs exist than outputs, the individual perceives a condition of overload[29] which can be positively or negatively related to job satisfaction. In comparison, communication under load can occur when messages or inputs are sent below the individual’s ability to process them.”[30] According to the ideas of communication over-load and under-load, if an individual does not receive enough input on the job or is unsuccessful in processing these inputs, the individual is more likely to become dissatisfied, aggravated, and unhappy with their work which leads to a low level of job satisfaction.

Superior-subordinate communication[edit]

Superior-subordinate communication is an important influence on job satisfaction in the workplace. The way in which subordinates perceive a supervisor's behavior can positively or negatively influence job satisfaction. Communication behavior such as facial expression, eye contact, vocal expression, and body movement is crucial to the superior-subordinate relationship (Teven, p. 156). Nonverbal messages play a central role in interpersonal interactions with respect to impression formation, deception, attraction, social influence, and emotional.[31] Nonverbal immediacy from the supervisor helps to increase interpersonal involvement with their subordinates impacting job satisfaction. The manner in which supervisors communicate with their subordinates non-verbally may be more important than the verbal content (Teven, p. 156). Individuals who dislike and think negatively about their supervisor are less willing to communicate or have motivation to work whereas individuals who like and think positively of their supervisor are more likely to communicate and are satisfied with their job and work environment. A supervisor who uses nonverbal immediacy, friendliness, and open communication lines is more likely to receive positive feedback and high job satisfaction from a subordinate. Conversely, a supervisor who is antisocial, unfriendly, and unwilling to communicate will naturally receive negative feedback and create low job satisfaction in their subordinates in the workplace.

Strategic employee recognition[edit]

A Watson Wyatt Worldwide study identified a positive outcome between a collegical and flexible work environment and an increase in shareholder value. Suggesting that employee satisfaction is directly related to financial gain. Over 40 percent of the companies listed in the top 100 of Fortune magazine’s, “America’s Best Companies to Work For” also appear on the Fortune 500. It is possible that successful workers enjoy working at successful companies, however, the Watson Wyatt Worldwide Human Capital Index study claims that effective human resources practices, such as employee recognition programs, lead to positive financial outcomes more often than positive financial outcomes lead to good practices.[32]

Employee recognition is not only about gifts and points. It's about changing the corporate culture in order to meet goals and initiatives and most importantly to connect employees to the company's core values and beliefs. Strategic employee recognition is seen as the most important program not only to improve employee retention and motivation but also to positively influence the financial situation.[33] The difference between the traditional approach (gifts and points) and strategic recognition is the ability to serve as a serious business influencer that can advance a company’s strategic objectives in a measurable way. "The vast majority of companies want to be innovative, coming up with new products, business models and better ways of doing things. However, innovation is not so easy to achieve. A CEO cannot just order it, and so it will be. You have to carefully manage an organization so that, over time, innovations will emerge."[34]

Individual factors[edit]

Mood and emotions at work are related to job satisfaction. Moods tend to be longer lasting but often weaker states of uncertain origin, while emotions are often more intense, short-lived and have a clear object or cause.[35]

Some research suggests moods are related to overall job satisfaction.[36][37] Positive and negative emotions were also found to be significantly related to overall job satisfaction.[38]

Frequency of experiencing net positive emotion will be a better predictor of overall job satisfaction than will intensity of positive emotion when it is experienced.[38]

Emotion work (or emotion management) refers to various types of efforts to manage emotional states and displays. Emotion management includes all of the conscious and unconscious efforts to increase, maintain, or decrease one or more components of an emotion. Although early studies of the consequences of emotional work emphasized its harmful effects on workers, studies of workers in a variety of occupations suggest that the consequences of emotional work are not uniformly negative.[39]

It was found that suppression of unpleasant emotions decreases job satisfaction and the amplification of pleasant emotions increases job satisfaction.[40]

The understanding of how emotion regulation relates to job satisfaction concerns two models:

  1. Emotional dissonance. Emotional dissonance is a state of discrepancy between public displays of emotions and internal experiences of emotions,[41][42] that often follows the process of emotion regulation. Emotional dissonance is associated with high emotional exhaustion, low organizational commitment, and low job satisfaction.[43][44]
  2. Social interaction model. Taking the social interaction perspective, workers’ emotion regulation might beget responses from others during interpersonal encounters that subsequently impact their own job satisfaction. For example: The accumulation of favorable responses to displays of pleasant emotions might positively affect job satisfaction.[40]

It has been well documented that genetics influence a variety of individual differences.[45] Some research suggests genetics also play a role in the intrinsic, direct experiences of job satisfaction like challenge or achievement (as opposed to extrinsic, environmental factors like working conditions). One experiment used sets of monozygotic twins, reared apart, to test for the existence of genetic influence on job satisfaction. While the results indicate the majority of the variance in job satisfaction was due to environmental factors (70%), genetic influence is still a minor factor. Genetic heritability was also suggested for several of the job characteristics measured in the experiment, such as complexity level, motor skill requirements, and physical demands.[46]

Some research suggests an association between personality and job satisfaction.[47] Specifically, this research describes the role of negative affectivity and positive affectivity. Negative affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of neuroticism. Individuals high in negative affectivity are more prone to experience less job satisfaction. Positive affectivity is related strongly to the personality trait of extraversion. Those high in positive affectivity are more prone to be satisfied in most dimensions of their life, including their job. Differences in affectivity likely impact how individuals will perceive objective job circumstances like pay and working conditions, thus affecting their satisfaction in that job.[48]

There are two personality factors related to job satisfaction, alienation and locus of control. Employees who have an internal locus of control and feel less alienated are more likely to experience job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. A meta-analysis of 187 studies of job satisfaction concluded that high satisfaction was positively associated with internal locus of control. The study also showed characteristics like high machiavellianism, narcissism, trait anger, type A personality dimensions of achievement striving and impatience/irritability, are also related to job satisfaction.[49]

Psychological well-being[edit]

Psychological well-being (PWB) is defined as “the overall effectiveness of an individual’s psychological functioning” as related to primary facets of one’s life: work, family, community, etc.[50] There are three defining characteristics of PWB. First, it is a phenomenological event, meaning that people are happy when they subjectively believe themselves to be so. Second, well-being involves some emotional conditions. Particularly, psychologically well people are more prone to experience positive emotions and less prone to experience negative emotions. Third, well-being refers to one's life as a whole. It is a global evaluation.[50] PWB is primarily measured using the eight-item Index of Psychological Well-Being developed by Berkman (IPWB). IPWB asks respondents to reply to a series a questions on how often they felt “pleased about accomplishing something,” “bored,” “depressed or unhappy,” etc.[50]

PWB in the workplace plays an important role in determining job satisfaction and has attracted much research attention in recent years.[51] These studies have focused on the effects of PWB on job satisfaction as well as job performance.[52] One study noted that because job satisfaction is specific to one’s job, the research that examined job satisfaction had not taken into account aspects of one’s life external to the job.[53] Prior studies had focused only on the work environment as the main determinant of job satisfaction. Ultimately, to better understand job satisfaction (and its close relative, job performance), it is important to take into account an individual’s PWB. Research published in 2000 showed a significant correlation between PWB and job satisfaction (r = .35, p < .01).[50] A follow-up study by the same authors in 2007 revealed similar results (r = .30, p < .01).[53] In addition, these studies show that PWB is a better predictor of job performance than job satisfaction alone.

The majority of job satisfaction measures are self-reports and based on multi-item scales. Several measures have been developed over the years, although they vary in terms of how carefully and distinctively they are conceptualized with respect to affective or cognitive job satisfaction. They also vary in terms of the extent and rigour of their psychometric validation.

The Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction (BIAJS) is a 4-item, overtly affective as opposed to cognitive, measure of overall affective job satisfaction. The BIAJS differs from other job satisfaction measures in being comprehensively validated not just for internal consistency reliability, temporal stability, convergent and criterion-related validities, but also for cross-population invariance by nationality, job level, and job type. Reported internal consistency reliabilities range between .81 and .87.[3]

The Job Descriptive Index (JDI),[54] is a specifically cognitive job satisfaction measure. It measures one’s satisfaction in five facets: pay, promotions and promotion opportunities, coworkers, supervision, and the work itself. The scale is simple, participants answer either yes, no, or can’t decide (indicated by ‘?’) in response to whether given statements accurately describe one’s job.

Other job satisfaction questionnaires include: the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ), the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and the Faces Scale.[1] The MSQ measures job satisfaction in 20 facets and has a long form with 100 questions (five items from each facet) and a short form with 20 questions (one item from each facet). The JSS is a 36 item questionnaire that measures nine facets of job satisfaction. Finally, the Faces Scale of job satisfaction, one of the first scales used widely, measured overall job satisfaction with just one item which participants respond to by choosing a face.

Relationships and practical implications[edit]

Job satisfaction can be indicative of work behaviors such as organizational citizenship,[55] and withdrawal behaviors such as absenteeism,[56] and turnover.[57] Further, job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behaviors.[58]

One common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life satisfaction.[59] This correlation is reciprocal, meaning people who are satisfied with life tend to be satisfied with their job and people who are satisfied with their job tend to be satisfied with life. In fact, a 2016 FlexJobs survey revealed 97% of respondents believe a job that offered flexibility would positively impact their lives, 87% think it would help lower stress and 79% think the flexibility would help them live healthier.[60] Additionally, a second survey of 650 working parents revealed that flexible work arrangements can positively affect people’s personal health, as well as improve their romantic relationships and 99% of respondents believe a flexible job would make them a happier person in general.[61] However, some research has found that job satisfaction is not significantly related to life satisfaction when other variables such as nonwork satisfaction and core self-evaluations are taken into account.[62]

An important finding for organizations to note is that job satisfaction has a rather tenuous correlation to productivity on the job. This is a vital piece of information to researchers and businesses, as the idea that satisfaction and job performance are directly related to one another is often cited in the media and in some non-academic management literature. A recent meta-analysis found surprisingly low correlations between job satisfaction and performance.[63] Further, the meta-analysis found that the relationship between satisfaction and performance can be moderated by job complexity, such that for high-complexity jobs the correlation between satisfaction and performance is higher than for jobs of low to moderate complexity. Additionally, one longitudinal study indicated that among work attitudes, job satisfaction is a strong predictor of absenteeism, suggesting that increasing job satisfaction and organizational commitment are potentially good strategies for reducing absenteeism and turnover intentions.[64] Recent research has also shown that intention to quit alone can have negative effects on performance, organizational deviance, and organizational citizenship behaviours.[65] In short, the relationship of satisfaction to productivity is not as straightforward as often assumed and can be influenced by a number of different work-related constructs, and the notion that "a happy worker is a productive worker" should not be the foundation of organizational decision-making. For example, employee personality may even be more important than job satisfaction in regards to performance.[66]

Main article: Absenteeism

Numerous studies have been done to show the correlation of job satisfaction and absenteeism.[67] For example, Goldberg and Waldman looked at absenteeism in two dimensions as total time lost (number of missed days) and the frequency of time lost. Self-reported data and records-based data were collected and compared. Following absenteeism measures were evaluated according to absenteeism predictors.

  1. Self-report time lost
  2. self-reported frequency
  3. records-based time lost

Only three categories of predictors had a significant relationship ratio and were taken in account further:

This research results revealed that absenteeism cannot be predicted by job satisfaction, although other studies have found significant relationships.

See also[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
  2. ^ a b Hulin, C. L., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Job attitUdes. In W. C. Borman, D. R. ligen, & R. J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 255-276). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
  3. ^ a b c Thompson, E.R.; Phua F.T.T. (2012). "A Brief Index of Affective Job Satisfaction". Group & Organization Management. 37 (3): 275–307. doi:10.1177/1059601111434201.
  4. ^ a b c Moorman, R.H. (1993). "The influence of cognitive and affective based job satisfaction measures on the relationship between satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior". Human Relations. 6 (6): 759–776. doi:10.1177/001872679304600604.
  5. ^ Locke,E.A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp.1297-1349). Chicago: Rand McNally.
  6. ^ Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.  line feed character in |title= at position 54 (help)
  7. ^ Kalleberg, A.L. (1977). "Work values and job rewards—Theory of job satisfaction". American Sociological Review. 42: 124–143. doi:10.2307/2117735. JSTOR 2117735.
  8. ^ Tomaževič, N.; Seljak, J.; Aristovnik, A. (2014). "Factors Influencing Employee Satisfaction in the Police Service: The Case of Slovenia". Personnel Review. 43 (2): 209–227. doi:10.1108/pr-10-2012-0176.
  9. ^ Kumari, G., Joshi, G., and Pandey, K.M., "Analysis of Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction of the Employees in Public and Private Sector", International Journal of Trends in Economics Management and Technology (IJTEMT), ISSN 2321-5518, Vol. 3 Issue 1, February 2014.
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  30. ^ a b c Farace, R. V., Monge, P. R., & Russell, H. M. (1977). Communicating and organizing. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  31. ^ Burgoon, J.K. Buller, D.B. and Woodall, W.G. (1996) Nonverbal Communication, New York: McGraw-Hill
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  33. ^ How Employee Recognition Programmes Improve Retention CFO Insight Magazine, January 2013
  34. ^ Five mistaken beliefs business leaders have about innovation from Freek Vermeulen in Forbes, May 2011
  35. ^ Weiss HM, Cropanzano R. (1996). Affective events theory: a theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Research in Organizational Behavior 8: 1±74
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  38. ^ a b Fisher D. (2000). Mood and emotions while working: missing pieces of job satisfaction? Journal of Organizational Behavior 21, 185±202
  39. ^ Pugliesi K. (1999). The Consequences of Emotional Labor: Effects on Work Stress, Job Satisfaction, and Weil-BeinMotivation and Emotion, Vol. 23/2
  40. ^ a b Cote S.,Morgan LM (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation, job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior vol 23, 947–962
  41. ^ Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: the influence of identity. Academy of Management Review, 18, 88–115
  42. ^ Rafaeli, A.; Sutton, R. I. (1989). "The expression of emotion in organizational life". Research in Organizational Behavior. 11: 1–42.
  43. ^ Abraham, R (1999). "The impact of emotional dissonance on organizational commitment and intention to turnover". Journal of Psychology. 133 (4): 441–455. doi:10.1080/00223989909599754. PMID 10412221.
  44. ^ Morris, J. A.; Feldman, D. C. (1997). "Managing emotions in the workplace". Journal of Managerial Issues. 9: 257–274.
  45. ^ Rowe, D. C. (1987). "Resolving the person–situation debate: Invitation to an interdisciplinary dialogue". American Psychologist. 42: 218–227. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.42.3.218.
  46. ^ Arvey, R. D.; Bouchard, T. J.; Segal, N. L.; Abraham, L. M. (1989). "Job satisfaction: Environmental and genetic components". Journal of Applied Psychology. 74 (2): 187–192. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.2.187.
  47. ^ Judge, T. A.; Heller, D.; Mount, M. K. (2002). "Five-factor model of personality and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis". Journal of Applied Psychology. 87 (3): 530–541. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.3.530. PMID 12090610.
  48. ^ Brief, A. P.; Weiss, H. M. (2002). "Organizational behavior: Affect in the workplace". Annual Review of Psychology. 53: 279–307. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135156. PMID 11752487.
  49. ^ Bruk-Lee, V.; Khoury, H. A.; Nixon, A. E.; Goh, A.; Spector, P. E. (2009). "Replicating and extending past personality/job satisfaction meta-analyses". Human Performance. 22 (2): 156–189. doi:10.1080/08959280902743709.
  50. ^ a b c d Wright, T. A.; Cropanzano, R. (2000). "Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance". Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 5 (1): 84–94. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.5.1.84. PMID 10658888.
  51. ^ Baptiste, N. R. (2008). "Tightening the link between employee wellbeing at work and performance: A new dimension for HRM". Management Decision. 46 (2): 284–309. doi:10.1108/00251740810854168.
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text:
John Tate

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other people with similar names, see John Tate (disambiguation).
John Tate
John Tate.jpg
Born John Torrence Tate, Jr.
(1925-03-13) March 13, 1925 (age 91)
Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.
Nationality American
Fields Mathematics
Institutions Princeton University (1950–1953)
Columbia University (1953–1954)
Harvard University (1954–1990)
University of Texas at Austin (1990–2009)
Alma mater Harvard University (A.B., 1946)
Princeton University (Ph.D., 1950)
Doctoral advisor Emil Artin
Doctoral students Ki-Seng Tan
V. Kumar Murty
Edward Assmus
Theodore Chinburg
William C. Waterhouse
Benedict Gross
Jonathan Lubin
Stephen Lichtenbaum
Kenneth Alan Ribet
Joseph H. Silverman
Dinesh Thakur
Jerrold Tunnell
Robert Warfield
Carl Pomerance
George Bergman
Known for Tate conjecture
Tate module
Influenced John H. Coates
Notable awards Abel Prize (2010)
Wolf Prize (2002/03)
Steele Prize (1995)
Cole Prize in Number Theory (1956)

John Torrence Tate, Jr. (born March 13, 1925) is an American mathematician, distinguished for many fundamental contributions in algebraic number theory, arithmetic geometry and related areas in algebraic geometry. He is professor emeritus at Harvard University. He was awarded the Abel Prize in 2010.

Tate was born in Minneapolis. His father, John Tate Sr., was a professor of physics at the University of Minnesota, and a longtime editor of Physical Review. His mother, Lois Beatrice Fossler, was a high school English teacher. Tate Jr. received his bachelor's degree in mathematics from Harvard University, and entered the doctoral program in physics at Princeton University. He later transferred to the mathematics department and received his PhD in 1950 as a student of Emil Artin. Tate taught at Harvard for 36 years before joining the University of Texas in 1990. He retired from the Texas mathematics department in 2009, and returned to Harvard as a professor emeritus. He currently resides in Cambridge, Massachusetts with his wife Carol. He has three daughters with his first wife Karin Tate.[1]

Mathematical work[edit]

Tate's thesis (1950) on Fourier analysis in number fields has become one of the ingredients for the modern theory of automorphic forms and their L-functions, notably by its use of the adele ring, its self-duality and harmonic analysis on it; independently and a little earlier, Kenkichi Iwasawa obtained a similar theory. Together with his teacher Emil Artin, Tate gave a cohomological treatment of global class field theory, using techniques of group cohomology applied to the idele class group and Galois cohomology.[2] This treatment made more transparent some of the algebraic structures in the previous approaches to class field theory which used central division algebras to compute the Brauer group of a global field.

Subsequently, Tate introduced what are now known as Tate cohomology groups. In the decades following that discovery he extended the reach of Galois cohomology with the Poitou–Tate duality, the Tate–Shafarevich group, and relations with algebraic K-theory. With Jonathan Lubin, he recast local class field theory by the use of formal groups, creating the Lubin–Tate local theory of complex multiplication.

He has also made a number of individual and important contributions to p-adic theory; for example, Tate's invention of rigid analytic spaces can be said to have spawned the entire field of rigid analytic geometry. He found a p-adic analogue of Hodge theory, now called Hodge–Tate theory, which has blossomed into another central technique of modern algebraic number theory.[2] Other innovations of his include the 'Tate curve' parametrization for certain p-adic elliptic curves and the p-divisible (Tate–Barsotti) groups.

Many of his results were not immediately published and some of them were written up by Serge Lang, Jean-Pierre Serre, Joseph H. Silverman and others. Tate and Serre collaborated on a paper on good reduction of abelian varieties. The classification of abelian varieties over finite fields was carried out by Taira Honda and Tate (the Honda–Tate theorem).[3]

The Tate conjectures are the equivalent for étale cohomology of the Hodge conjecture. They relate to the Galois action on the l-adic cohomology of an algebraic variety, identifying a space of 'Tate cycles' (the fixed cycles for a suitably Tate-twisted action) that conjecturally picks out the algebraic cycles. A special case of the conjectures, which are open in the general case, was involved in the proof of the Mordell conjecture by Gerd Faltings.

Tate has also had a major influence on the development of number theory through his role as a Ph.D. advisor. His students include Benedict Gross, Robert Kottwitz, Jonathan Lubin, Stephen Lichtenbaum, James Milne, V. Kumar Murty, Carl Pomerance, Ken Ribet, Joseph H. Silverman, Dinesh Thakur.

Awards and honors[edit]

In 1956 Tate was awarded the American Mathematical Society's Cole Prize for outstanding contributions to number theory. In 1995 he received the Leroy P. Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement from the American Mathematical Society. He was awarded a Wolf Prize in Mathematics in 2002/03 for his creation of fundamental concepts in algebraic number theory.[4] In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.[5]

In 2010, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, of which he is a member,[6] awarded him the Abel Prize, citing "his vast and lasting impact on the theory of numbers". According to a release by the Abel Prize committee "Many of the major lines of research in algebraic number theory and arithmetic geometry are only possible because of the incisive contributions and illuminating insights of John Tate. He has truly left a conspicuous imprint on modern mathematics."[7]

Tate has been described as "one of the seminal mathematicians for the past half-century" by William Beckner, Chairman of the Department of Mathematics at the University of Texas.[1]

Selected publications[edit]

See also[edit]

  1. ^ a b c Ralph K.M. Haurwitz (March 24, 2010). "Retired UT mathematician wins prestigious Abel Prize".
  2. ^ a b "American mathematician John Tate wins 2010 Abel Prize". 2010-03-25.
  3. ^ J.T. Tate, "Classes d'isogénie des variétés abéliennes sur un corps fini (d' après T. Honda)" , Sem. Bourbaki Exp. 352 , Lect. notes in math. , 179 , Springer (1971)
  4. ^ The 2002/3 Wolf Foundation Prize in Mathematics. Wolf Foundation. Accessed March 24, 2010.
  5. ^ List of Fellows of the American Mathematical Society, retrieved 2013-08-25.
  6. ^ "Gruppe 1: Matematiske fag" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
  7. ^ Anne Marie Astad (ed.). "The Abel Prize". The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

External links[edit]


text:
Rural Municipality of Kingsley No. 124

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Kingsley No. 124, Saskatchewan)
Jump to: navigation, search

Kingsley No. 124 (2006 Population 439) is a rural municipality in south-eastern Saskatchewan, Canada encompassing 844.61 square kilometers in area. The rural municipality maintains its office in Kipling, Saskatchewan.[1] The rural municipality in conjunction with the provincial government is in charge of maintenance of highways in its area. As well, the municipality provides policing, fire protection and municipal governance for the rural district, with a reeve as its administrator.[2]

Canada census – Rural Municipality of Kingsley No. 124 community profile
Population: 439 (-10.6% from 2001)
Land area: 844.61 km2 (326.11 sq mi)
Population density: 0.5/km2 (1.3/sq mi)
Median age: 45.4 (M: 47.3, F: 44.2)
Total private dwellings: 195
Median household income: $43,499
References: 2006[3]

Heritage properties[edit]

There are three historical building located within the rural municipality:

  • Coronation Community Cairn - This Commemorative Monument built in 1978 recognizes the early pioneers in the region that help build the one room Coronation School in 1913. The monument is located nine kilometers northeast of Windthorst.[4]
  • Highland Baptist Church (previously called the Swedish Baptist Church) - The church was constructed in 1924 by early Swedish immigrants. Regular services were held from 1924 until 1970. The church still holds the occasional special service or event. The church also has a cemetery on the property. The building is located twelve kilometers north of the Town of Kipling.[5]
  • Poplar Grove United Church - The church was constructed in 1902, and located ten kilometers southeast of the Town of Broadview. The church is constructed of field stone and has nine stain glass windows. Regular service was held from 1902 until 1970. The cemetery dates back to 1887. Today the site is used for public events and the occasional special service.[6]
  • Zion Lutheran Church - The country church was constructed in 1926, and is located eight kilometers north of Windthorst.[7]

Kipling Airport is located within the rural municipality.

Coordinates: 50°13′00″N 102°33′00″W / 50.21667°N 102.55000°W / 50.21667; -102.55000