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Border states (American Civil War)

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Historical military map of the border and southern states. Phelps & Watson, 1866
Map of the division of the states during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states, including those admitted during the war; light blue represents border states; red represents Confederate states. Unshaded areas were not states before or during the Civil War.

In the context of the American Civil War (1861–1865), the border states were slave states that did not declare a secession from the Union and did not join the Confederacy. To their north they bordered free states of the Union and to their south they bordered Confederate slave states. Of the 34 U.S. states in 1861, 19 were free states and 15 were slave states. Four slave states never declared a secession: Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri. Four others did not declare secession until after the Battle of Fort Sumter and were briefly considered to be border states: Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia—after this, they were less frequently called "border states". Also included as a border state during the war is West Virginia, which was formed from 50 counties of Virginia and became a new state in the Union in 1863.[1][2]

In the border states there was widespread concern with military coercion of the Confederacy[citation needed]. Many if not a majority were definitely opposed to it. When Abraham Lincoln called for troops to march south to recapture Fort Sumter and other national possessions, southern Unionists were dismayed. Secessionists in Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia were successful in getting those states to declare their secession from the U.S. and to join the Confederate States of America.[3][page needed]

In Virginia, Kentucky and Missouri, there were both pro-Confederate and pro-Union governments. West Virginia was formed in 1862-63 after unionists from the northwestern counties of Virginia then occupied by the Union Army had set up a loyalist ("restored") state government of Virginia. Lincoln recognized this government and allowed them to divide the state. Though every slave state except South Carolina contributed white battalions to both the Union and Confederate armies (South Carolina Unionists fought in units from other Union states),[4] the split was most severe in these border states. Sometimes men from the same family fought on opposite sides. About 170,000 border state men (including African Americans) fought in the Union Army and 86,000 in the Confederate Army.[5]

Besides formal combat between regular armies, the border region saw large-scale guerrilla warfare and numerous violent raids, feuds, and assassinations.[6][page needed] Violence was especially severe in eastern Kentucky and western Missouri. The single bloodiest episode was the 1863 Lawrence Massacre in Kansas, in which at least 150 civilian men and boys were killed. It was launched in retaliation for an earlier, smaller raid into Missouri by Union men from Kansas.[7][8][page needed][9]

With geographic, social, political, and economic connections to both the North and the South, the border states were critical to the outcome of the war. They are considered still to delineate the cultural border that separates the North from the South. Reconstruction, as directed by Congress, did not apply to the border states because they never seceded from the Union. They did undergo their own process of readjustment and political realignment after passage of amendments abolishing slavery and granting citizenship and the right to vote to freedmen. After 1880 most of these jurisdictions were dominated by white Democrats, who passed laws to impose the Jim Crow system of legal segregation and second-class citizenship for blacks, although the freedmen and other blacks were allowed to continue to vote.[10][page needed]

Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the border states. Of the states that were exempted from the Proclamation, Maryland (1864),[11] Missouri (1865),[12][13] Tennessee (1865),[13] and West Virginia (1865)[14] abolished slavery before the war ended. However, Delaware[15] and Kentucky did not abolish slavery until December 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified.[16]

In the border states, slavery was already dying out in urban areas and the regions without cotton, especially in cities that were rapidly industrializing, such as Baltimore, Louisville, and St. Louis. By 1860, more than half of the African Americans in Delaware were free, as were a high proportion in Maryland.[17]

Some slaveholders made a profit by selling surplus slaves to traders for transport to the markets of the Deep South, where the demand was still high for field hands on cotton plantations.[18] In contrast to the near-unanimity of voters in the seven cotton states in the lower South, which held the highest number of slaves, the border slave states were bitterly divided about secession and were not eager to leave the Union. Border Unionists hoped that a compromise would be reached, and they assumed that Lincoln would not send troops to attack the South. Border secessionists paid less attention to the slavery issue in 1861, since their states' economies were based more on trade with the North than on cotton. Their main concern in 1861 was federal coercion; some residents viewed Lincoln's call to arms as a repudiation of the American traditions of states' rights, democracy, liberty, and a republican form of government. Secessionists insisted that Washington had usurped illegitimate powers in defiance of the Constitution, and thereby had lost its legitimacy.[3] After Lincoln issued a call for troops, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina promptly seceded and joined the Confederacy. A secession movement began in western Virginia, where most farmers were yeomen and not slaveholders, to break away and remain in the Union.[19]

Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, which had many areas with much stronger cultural and economic ties to the South than the North, were deeply divided;[20] Kentucky tried to maintain neutrality. Union military forces were used to guarantee that these states remained in the Union. The western counties of Virginia rejected secession, set up a loyal government of Virginia (with representation in the U.S. Congress), and created the new state of West Virginia (although it included many counties which had voted for secession).[19]

The five border states[edit]

Each of these five states shared a border with the free states and were aligned with the Union. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederacy.

Main article: History of Delaware

By 1860 Delaware was integrated into the Northern economy, and slavery was rare except in the southern districts of the state; less than 2 percent of the population was enslaved.[21][22] Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession overwhelmingly; the House of Representatives was unanimous. There was quiet sympathy for the Confederacy by some state leaders, but it was tempered by distance; Delaware was bordered by Union territory. Historian John Munroe concluded that the average citizen of Delaware opposed secession and was "strongly Unionist" but hoped for a peaceful solution even if it meant Confederate independence.[23]

Union troops had to go through Maryland to reach the national capital at Washington, D.C. Had Maryland also joined the Confederacy, Washington would have been surrounded. There was popular support for the Confederacy in Baltimore, Southern Maryland, and the Eastern Shore, the latter two areas with numerous slaveholders and slaves. Baltimore was strongly tied to the cotton trade and related businesses of the South. The Maryland Legislature rejected secession in the spring of 1861, though it refused to reopen rail links with the North. It requested that Union troops be removed from Maryland.[24] The state legislature did not want to secede, but it also did not want to aid in killing southern neighbors in order to force them back into the Union.[24] Maryland's wish for neutrality within the Union was a major obstacle given Lincoln's desire to force the South back into the Union militarily.

To protect the national capital, Lincoln suspended habeas corpus and imprisoned without charges or trials one sitting U.S. congressman as well the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of Baltimore.[25] Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in Ex parte Merryman that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly).[24][26] They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies.

During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery, thus emancipating all remaining slaves in the state.

Kentucky was strategic to Union victory in the Civil War. Lincoln once said,

"I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland]."[27]

Lincoln reportedly also declared, "I hope to have God on my side, but I must have Kentucky."[28]

Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin proposed that slave states such as Kentucky should conform to the US Constitution, and remain in the Union. When Lincoln requested 1,000,000 men to serve in the Union army, however, Magoffin, a Southern sympathizer, countered that Kentucky would "furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states."[citation needed]

The Kentucky legislature did not vote on any bill to secede, but passed two resolutions of neutrality, issuing a neutrality proclamation May 20, 1861, asking both sides to keep out. In elections on June 20 and August 5, 1861, Unionists won enough additional seats in the legislature to overcome any veto by the governor. After the elections, the strongest supporters of neutrality were the Southern sympathizers. While both sides had already been openly enlisting troops from the state, after the elections the Union army established recruitment camps within Kentucky.

Neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. In response, the Kentucky legislature passed a resolution on September 7 directing the governor to demand the evacuation of the Confederate forces from Kentucky soil. Magoffin vetoed the proclamation, but the legislature overrode his veto, and Magoffin issued the proclamation. The legislature decided to back General Ulysses S. Grant and his Union troops stationed in Paducah, Kentucky, on the grounds that the Confederacy voided the original pledge by entering Kentucky first. The General Assembly soon ordered the Union flag be raised over the state capitol in Frankfort, declaring its allegiance with the Union.

Southern sympathizers were outraged at the legislature's decisions, citing that Polk's troops in Kentucky were only en route to counter Grant's forces. Later legislative resolutions passed by Unionists—such as inviting Union General Robert Anderson to enroll volunteers to expel the Confederate forces, requesting the governor to call out the militia, and appointing Union General Thomas L. Crittenden in command of Kentucky forces—incensed the Southerners. (Magoffin vetoed the resolutions but was overridden each time.) In 1862, the legislature passed an act to disenfranchise citizens who enlisted in the Confederate States Army. Thus Kentucky's neutral status evolved into backing the Union. Most of those who originally sought neutrality turned to the Union cause.

During the war, a faction known as the Russellville Convention formed a Confederate government of Kentucky, which was recognized by the Confederate States of America as a member state. Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag.[29]

When Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston occupied Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861, the pro-Confederates in western and central Kentucky moved to establish a Confederate state government in that area. The Russellville Convention met in Logan County on November 18, 1861. One hundred and sixteen delegates from sixty-eight counties elected to depose the current government, and create a provisional government loyal to Kentucky's new unofficial Confederate Governor George W. Johnson. On December 10, 1861, Kentucky became the 13th state admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky, along with Missouri, was a state with representatives in both Congresses, and with regiments in both Union and Confederate armies.

Magoffin, still functioning as official governor in Frankfort, would not recognize the Kentucky Confederates, nor their attempts to establish a government in his state. He continued to declare Kentucky's official status in the war as a neutral state—even though the legislature backed the Union. Fed up with the party divisions within the population and legislature, Magoffin announced a special session of the legislature, and resigned his office in 1862.

Bowling Green was occupied by the Confederates until February 1862, when General Grant moved from Missouri, through Kentucky, along the Tennessee line. Confederate Governor Johnson fled Bowling Green with the Confederate state records, headed south, and joined Confederate forces in Tennessee. After Johnson was killed fighting in the Battle of Shiloh, Richard Hawes was named Confederate governor of Kentucky. Shortly afterwards, the Provisional Confederate States Congress was adjourned on February 17, 1862, on the eve of inauguration of a permanent Congress. However, as Union occupation henceforth dominated the state, the Kentucky Confederate government, as of 1863, existed only on paper. Its representation in the permanent Confederate Congress was minimal. It was dissolved when the Civil War ended in the spring of 1865.

After the secession of Southern states began, the newly elected governor of Missouri Claiborne F. Jackson called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union, but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States.

Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp, and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair).

These events resulted in greater Confederate support within the state among some factions. The already pro-Southern legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair, Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital.

Jackson, Price, and the pro-Confederate portions of the state legislature were forced to flee the state capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861, in the face of Lyon's rapid advance against the state government. In the absence of most of the now exiled state government, the Missouri Constitutional Convention reconvened in late July. On July 30, the convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a new provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as governor. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized the legitimacy of Gamble's government, which provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state, and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.[30][page needed]

Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCulloch. After winning victories at the Battle of Wilson's Creek in August and the siege of Lexington in September, the secessionist forces retreated to southwestern Missouri, as they were under pressure from Union reinforcements. On October 30, 1861, in the town of Neosho, Jackson called the supporting parts of the exiled state legislature into session, where they enacted a secession ordinance. It was recognized by the Confederate Congress, and Missouri was admitted into the Confederacy on November 28.

The exiled state government was forced to withdraw into Arkansas. For the rest of the war, it consisted of several wagon loads of civilian politicians attached to various Confederate armies. In 1865, it vanished.

Missouri abolished slavery during the war in January 1865.

Guerrilla warfare[edit]

Regular Confederate troops staged several large-scale raids into Missouri, but most of the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted of guerrilla warfare. The guerrillas were primarily Southern partisans, including William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson, and many personal feuds were played out in the violence.[31] Small-unit tactics pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers were used in occupied portions of the Confederacy during the Civil War.[32][page needed]

The James' brothers outlawry after the war has been seen as a continuation of guerrilla warfare. Stiles (2002) argues that Jesse James was an intensely political, postwar neo-Confederate terrorist, rather than a social bandit or a plain bank robber with a hair-trigger temper.[33]

The Union response was to suppress the guerrillas.[32]:81–96 It achieved that in western Missouri, as Brigadier General Thomas Ewing issued General Order No. 11 on 25 August 1863 in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas. The order forced the total evacuation of four counties that fall within the area of modern-day Kansas City, Missouri. These had been centers of local support for the guerrillas. Lincoln approved Ewing's plan beforehand. About 20,000 civilians (chiefly women, children and old men) had to leave their homes. Many never returned, and the counties were economically devastated for years.

According to Glatthaar (2001), Union forces established "free-fire zones". Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants, who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases.[34] To gain recruits, and to threaten St. Louis, Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September/October 1864. Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas, but was nearly trapped, escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport. The battle, which took place in the modern-day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City, is identified as the "Gettysburg of the West"; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri's borders. The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness.[35] Quantrill's Raiders, after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863, killing 150 civilians, broke up in confusion. Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed.

West Virginia[edit]

The serious divisions between the western and eastern sections of Virginia had been simmering for decades, related to class and social differences. The western areas were growing and were based on subsistence farms by yeomen; its residents held few slaves. The planters of the eastern section were wealthy slaveholders who dominated state government.[36] By December 1860 secession was being publicly debated throughout Virginia. Leading eastern spokesmen called for secession, while westerners warned they would not be legislated into treason. A statewide convention first met on February 13; after the attack on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms, it voted for secession on April 17, 1861. The decision was dependent on ratification by a statewide referendum. Western leaders held mass rallies and prepared to separate, so that this area could remain in the Union. Unionists met at the Wheeling Convention with four hundred delegates from twenty-seven counties. The statewide vote in favor of secession was 132,201 to 37,451. An estimated vote on Virginia's ordinance of secession for the 50 counties that became West Virginia is 34,677 to 19,121 against secession, with 24 of the 50 counties favoring secession and 26 favoring the Union.[37]

The Second Wheeling Convention opened on June 11 with more than 100 delegates from 32 western counties; they represented nearly one-third of Virginia's total voting population.[38] It announced that state offices were vacant and chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia (not West Virginia) on June 20. Pierpont headed the Restored Government of Virginia, which granted permission for the formation of a new state on August 20, 1861. The new West Virginia state constitution was passed by the Unionist counties in the spring of 1862, and this was approved by the restored Virginia government in May 1862. The statehood bill for West Virginia was passed by the United States Congress in December and signed by President Lincoln on December 31, 1862.[39]

The ultimate decision about West Virginia was made by the armies in the field. The Confederates were defeated, the Union was triumphant, so West Virginia was born. In late spring 1861 Union troops from Ohio moved into western Virginia with the primary strategic goal of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. General George B. McClellan destroyed Confederate defenses in western Virginia. Raids and recruitment by the Confederacy took place throughout the war.[40] Current estimates of soldiers from West Virginia are 20,000-22,000 men each to the Union and the Confederacy.[41]

The unique conditions attendant to the creation of the state led the Federal government to sometimes regard West Virginia as differing from the other border states in the post-war and Reconstruction Era. The terms of surrender granted to the Confederate army at Appomattox applied to the soldiers of the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia only. Returning Confederate soldiers from the other border states were required to obtain special permits from the War Department.[42] Similarly, the Southern Claims Commission was originally designed to apply only to the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia, though claims from other states were sometimes honored.

Other border areas[edit]

Though Tennessee had officially seceded, East Tennessee was pro-Union and had mostly voted against secession. Its attempts to secede from Tennessee were suppressed by the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union and held them without trial.[43] Tennessee came under control of Union forces in 1862 and was occupied to the end of the war. For this reason, it was omitted from the Emancipation Proclamation. After the war, Tennessee was the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to the US Congress.

Indian Territory[edit]

In the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most Indian tribes owned black slaves, and they sided with the Confederacy. It had promised them an Indian state if victorious in the war. But some tribes and bands sided with the Union. A bloody civil war resulted in the territory, with severe hardships for all residents.[44][45]

After years of small-scale civil war, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state under the "Wyandotte Constitution" on January 29, 1861. Most people gave strong support to the Union cause. However, guerrilla warfare and raids from pro-slavery forces, many spilling over from Missouri, occurred during the Civil War.[46] Although only one battle of official forces occurred in Kansas, there were 29 Confederate raids into the state during the war and numerous deaths caused by the guerrillas.[47] Lawrence came under attack on August 21, 1863, by guerrillas led by William Clarke Quantrill. He was retaliating for "Jayhawker" raids against pro-Confederate settlements in Missouri.[6][48][49] His forces left more than 150 people dead in Lawrence.

See also[edit]

  1. ^ Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (Knopf, 1997) p 22.
  2. ^ In 1861, "From February into the late spring, North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas were considered border states," says David Stephen Heidler et al., eds. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War (2002) p. 252.
  3. ^ a b Daniel W. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis (1989)
  4. ^ Current, Richard Nelson (1992). Lincoln's Loyalists: Union Soldiers from the Confederacy. p. 5.
  5. ^ James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1982), pp 156–62.
  6. ^ a b Daniel E. Sutherland, A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (2009)
  7. ^ Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri in the American Civil War. (1989) ISBN 0-19-506471-2, p. 25
  8. ^ Thomas Goodrich, Bloody Dawn: The Story of the Lawrence Massacre (1992)
  9. ^ "The Lawrence Massacre by a Band of Missouri Ruffians Under Quantrell". J. S. Broughton. Retrieved 2015-02-19.
  10. ^ Mary L. Hart, Charles Reagan Wilson, William Ferris and Ann J. Adadie, eds. Encyclopedia of Southern Culture, (1989). ISBN 0-8078-1823-2
  11. ^ "Archives of Maryland Historical List: Constitutional Convention, 1864". November 1, 1864.
  12. ^ "Missouri abolishes slavery". January 11, 1865.
  13. ^ a b "TENNESSEE STATE CONVENTION: Slavery Declared Forever Abolished; Emancipation Rejoicings in St. Louis.". NY Times. January 14, 1865.
  14. ^ "On this day: 1865-FEB-03".
  15. ^ "Slavery in Delaware".
  16. ^ Lowell Hayes Harrison & James C. Klotter (1997). A new history of Kentucky. p. 180.  In 1866, Kentucky refused to ratify the 13th Amendment. It did ratify it in 1976.
  17. ^ In nine of the ten chief southern cities, the proportion of slaves steadily declined before the war. The exception was Richmond, Virginia. Midori Takagi, "Rearing Wolves to Our Own Destruction": Slavery in Richmond, Virginia, 1782-1865 (University Press of Virginia, 1999) p 78.
  18. ^ Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861 (1950) pages 149–55
  19. ^ a b Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Lincoln: Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861 (1950), pp. 119–47
  20. ^ Brugger, J. Robert (1996). Maryland, A Middle Temperament. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 248. ISBN 0801854652.
  21. ^ Kolchin, Peter. American Slavery: 1619-1877. Hill & Wang, 1993
  22. ^ "Slavery, the Civil War, and Reconstruction". 2014-01-22. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
  23. ^ John A. Munroe (2006). History of Delaware. U. of Delaware Press. pp. 132–34.
  24. ^ a b c "Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861". Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from the original on January 11, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2008.
  25. ^ "Fort McHenry, Lincoln Suspension of Habeas Corpus", Baltimore Sun, 27 November 2001
  26. ^ William C. Harris, Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas, 2011) p. 71
  27. ^ Roy P. Basler; Marion Dolores Pratt; Lloyd A. Dunlap, assistant, eds. (2001). "Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 4". University of Michigan Digital Library Production Services. p. 533. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
  28. ^ Encyclopedia of Kentucky, p.43.
  29. ^ Irby, Jr., Richard E. "A Concise History of the Flags of the Confederate States of America and the Sovereign State of Georgia". About North Georgia. Golden Ink. Retrieved 2006-11-29.
  30. ^ William E. Parrish, Turbulent Partnership: Missouri and the Union, 1861-1865 (1963)
  31. ^ Larry Wood, "The Other Anderson: Bloody Bill's Brother Jim," Missouri Historical Review, Jan 2003, Vol. 97 Issue 2, pp 93-108
  32. ^ a b Michael Fellman, Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri During the American Civil War (1989)
  33. ^ T. J. Stiles, Jesse James: Last Rebel of the Civil War (2002)
  34. ^ Joseph T. Glatthaar, The American Civil War: The War in the West, 1863–1865 (2001) p. 27–28
  35. ^ Parrish, History of Missouri, pp. 111–15
  36. ^ Charles H. Ambler and Festus P. Summers, West Virginia, the Mountain State (1958) ch. 16-21
  37. ^ Curry, Richard O., A House Divided, A Study of Statehood Politics and the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, Univ. of Pittsburgh, 1964, pgs 142-147
  38. ^ Ambler, The History of West Virginia, p. 318
  39. ^ Curry "A Reappraisal of Statehood Politics in West Virginia" p. 407
  40. ^ Richard O. Curry, A House Divided (1964)
  41. ^ Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC (2011), pg. 28
  42. ^ "General Orders No. 57, Brevet Major General Emory". Retrieved 2014-03-31.
  43. ^ Mark Neely, Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties (1993), pp. 10–11
  44. ^ Annie Heloise Abel, "The Indians in the Civil War", American Historical Review Vol. 15, No. 2 (Jan. 1910), pp. 281-296 in JSTOR
  45. ^ John Spencer and Adam Hook, The American Civil War in Indian Territory (2006)
  46. ^ Gary L. Cheatham, "'Slavery All the Time or Not At All': The Wyandotte Constitution Debate, 1859–1861," Kansas History 21 (Autumn 1998): 168–187 online
  47. ^ Gary L. Cheatham, "'Desperate Characters': The Development and Impact of the Confederate Guerrillas In Kansas," Kansas History, Sept 1991, Vol. 14 Issue 3, pp 144-161
  48. ^ Albert Castel, "The Jayhawkers and Copperheads of Kansas", Civil War History, Sept 1959, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp 283-293
  49. ^ Donald Gilmore, "Revenge in Kansas, 1863", History Today, March 1993, Vol. 43 Issue 3, pp 47-53

Further reading[edit]

  • Encyclopedia of Kentucky. New York City, New York: Somerset Publishers. 1987. ISBN 0-403-09981-1.
  • Ambler, Charles H. "The Cleavage between Eastern and Western Virginia". The American Historical Review Vol. 15, No. 4, (July 1910) pp. 762–780 in JSTOR
  • Ash. Steven V. Middle Tennessee Transformed, 1860–1870. Louisiana State University Press, 1988.
  • Baker, Jean H. The Politics of Continuity: Maryland Political Parties from 1858 to 1870 Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
  • Brownlee, Richard S. Gray Ghosts of the Confederacy: Guerrilla Warfare in the West, 1861-1865 (1958).
  • Coulter, E. Merton. The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky University of North Carolina Press, 1926.
  • Crofts, Daniel W. Reluctant Confederates: Upper South Unionists in the Secession Crisis. (1989).
  • Curry, Richard O. "A Reappraisal of Statehood Politics in West Virginia". The Journal of Southern History Vol. 28, No. 4. (November, 1962) pp. 403–421. in JSTOR
  • Fellman, Michael. Inside War. The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War (1989).
  • Fields, Barbara. Slavery and Freedom on the Middle Ground: Maryland During the Nineteenth Century (1987).
  • Gilmore, Donald L. Civil War on the Missouri-Kansas Border (2005)
  • Hancock Harold. Delaware during the Civil War. Historical Society of Delaware, 1961.
  • Harris, William C. Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 416 pages
  • Harrison, Lowell. The Civil War in Kentucky University Press of Kentucky, 1975.
  • Josephy, Alvin M. Jr., The Civil War in the American West. 1991.
  • Kerby, Robert L. Kirby Smith's Confederacy: The Trans-Mississippi South, 1863-1865 Columbia University Press, 1972.
  • Maslowski Peter. Treason Must Be Made Odious: Military Occupation and Wartime Reconstruction in Nashville, Tennessee, 1862-65 1978.
  • Monaghan, Jay. Civil War on the Western Border, 1854-1865 (1955)
  • Nevins, Allan. The War for the Union: The Improvised War 1861-1862. (1959).
  • Parrish, William E. Turbulent Partnership: Missouri and the Union, 1861-1865 University of Missouri Press, 1963.
  • Patton, James W. Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860-1867 University of North Carolina Press, 1934.
  • Rampp, Lary C., and Donald L. Rampp. The Civil War in the Indian Territory. Austin: Presidial Press, 1975.
  • Sheeler, J. Reuben. "Secession and The Unionist Revolt," Journal of Negro History, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Apr., 1944), pp. 175–185 in JSTOR, covers east Tennessee
  • Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2009) 456 pp

External links[edit]


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Chris Frith

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Chris Frith
FRS[1] FBA[2]
CDF FIL 2007.jpg
Born Christopher Donald Frith
(1942-03-16) 16 March 1942 (age 74)
Alma mater Christ's College, Cambridge (1960–1963)
University of London (Institute of Psychiatry (1964–1969)
Thesis Individual differences in pursuit rotor and tapping skills (1969)
Doctoral advisor Hans Eysenck
Doctoral students Geraint Rees
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore[3]
Spouse Uta Frith
Children 2

Christopher Donald Frith, FRS, FBA (born 16 March 1942) is a psychologist and professor emeritus at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging at University College London,[4] Visiting Professor at the Interacting Minds Centre[5] at Aarhus University, Research Fellow at the Institute of Philosophy [6] and Quondam Fellow of All Souls College.

Chris Frith was born in 1942 in Cross In Hand, Sussex and educated at The Leys School, Cambridge, and Christ's College, Cambridge. After reading Natural Sciences, he studied for a Diploma in Abnormal Psychology at the Institute of Psychiatry in London, Frith completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1969 at the Institute of Psychiatry under the supervision of Hans Eysenck.[7]

His primary research interest is in the applications of functional brain imaging to the study of social cognition, although he is also well known for his earlier seminal work characterising the cognitive basis of schizophrenia.

He has published over 500 papers[8] in peer reviewed journals and has an h-index of 194. He is the author of a number of important neuroscience books, including the classic The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia (1992/2015)[9] and the popular science book Making up the Mind (2007),[10] which was on the long list for the Royal Society Science Book Award in 2008. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, the British Academy, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In September 2008, a festschrift was organized in his honour by The Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging and the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience.[11] In 2009 he was awarded the Fyssen Foundation Prize for his work on neuropsychology[12] and he and Uta Frith were awarded the European Latsis Prize for their work linking the human mind and the human brain.[13] In 2014 he and Uta Frith were awarded the Jean Nicod Prize[14] for their work on social cognition.

Personal life[edit]

Chris Frith is the brother of Fred Frith, the guitarist, Simon Frith, the musicologist, and Barney Frith, the property lawyer.[15] He is the husband of Uta Frith, the developmental psychologist. In 2008 they were the subject of a double portrait by Emma Wesley.[16] Their children are computational biologist Martin Frith[17] and children's book editor Alex Frith[18]

  1. ^ "Chris Frith FRS". Royal Society. Retrieved 18 July 2015.
  2. ^ "Chris Frith FBA". British Academy. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
  3. ^ Blakemore, Sarah-Jayne (2000). Recognising the sensory consequences of one's own actions (PhD thesis). University College London.
  4. ^ "Professor Chris Frith". Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging. Retrieved 2010-12-24.
  5. ^ "Interacting MInds Centre". Aarhus University.
  6. ^ "Institute of Philosophy". School of Advance Studies, University of London.
  7. ^ Frith, Christopher Donald (1969). Individual differences in pursuit rotor and tapping skills (PhD thesis). Institute of Psychiatry, London.
  8. ^ "Chris Frith publications". Google Scholar.
  9. ^ "The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia". Google Books.
  10. ^ "Making up the Mind - Chris Frith". Google Books.
  11. ^ "Festschrift in honour of Chris Frith". John Law.
  12. ^ "Chris Frith awarded the 2009 Fyssen International Prize". UCL.
  13. ^ "Professors Chris and Uta Frith win the European Latsis Prize 2009". UCL.
  14. ^ "2014 Jean Nicod Prize". Institut Nicod.
  15. ^ "Barney Frith @ Square One law".
  16. ^ "Chris & Uta Frith by Emma Wesley 2008".
  17. ^ "Martin Frith's home page".
  18. ^ ."Alex Frith @ Usborne".

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Don Chambers

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the writer. For the founder of the Bandidos, see Donald Eugene Chambers.

Don Chambers is author and artist for the Golden Pencil award-winning newspaper comic strip Mannequins.[1] Mannequins was first published in the Arthur Graphic-Clarion, Arthur, Illinois, in 1996. Mannequins was the first newspaper comic strip to feature computer-generated and physical 3D characters along with actual photographic images in the background of the comic panels. Chambers' artwork and comics have been featured in dozens of magazines, including Farm Journal, Street Rodder and Car Craft.[2] His animations and graphics have been used in four regional Emmy Award winning documentaries for PBS.

  • Mannequins at Home in Illinois and Western Indiana
  • Recipes from the Soybean Farm
  • Mannequins Rocks Southern England and the Midwestern United States
  • A Pig Named Wedge
  • Mannequins: A Tenth-Anniversary Collection


text:
Gayla Earlene

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Gayla Earlene
Gayla Earlene at the Agape' Fest Awards 2007
Background information
Born (1954-01-31) January 31, 1954 (age 62)
Origin Oklahoma, United States
Genres Gospel music, Country, Christian music
Occupation(s) Christian music singer, songwriter
Instruments Guitar
Years active 1972 – present
Labels 3G Records

Gayla Earlene (born January 31, 1954 in Inola, Oklahoma), is a Christian country music recording artist and musician.

Earlene began her professional career at the age of 16 as a singer/songwriter.[1] In 1971, she met and married fellow artist and steel guitarist, Gene Crain. Together they formed the group Pure Country and began touring across the country. Earlene has performed on the Grand Ole Opry with other artist such as, Roy Clark, Freddy Fender, Minnie Pearl, Johnny Russell and Mel Tillis. Through the years Earlene has had major success in the Christian country market. She has amassed over fourteen number one songs and has been awarded the industries highest honors of Female Vocalist and Entertainer of the Year on several occasions.[2] When Earlene and her husband are not touring, the couple run a feed store called Crain Feed and Farm Supply in Skiatook, Oklahoma. They formed the company in 1975.[3]

Gayla has recorded many albums through the years that has contained many of the number one songs she has been noted for.[4]

Selected albums[edit]

Sweet Life
We're Following the Footsteps of Jesus
Ghost Story
Christmas All Through the Year
City Girl
Broken Pieces
Back to Basics
Poor Little Rich Girl

Number ones[edit]

Year Song
1998 "Broken By the Blood"
1999 "The Door", "City Girl"
2000 "When Grandma Prayed", "Who Moved"
2001 "Broken Pieces", "7/24/365"
2003 "I Didn't Know I Ever Knew"
2004 "Thank You Lord"
2005 "Catch it in a Bucket"
2006 "Poor Little Rich Girl"
2007 "Bible Billy", "Your Love"
2008 "Rebel With A Cause"

Honors and awards[edit]

Earlene received the Video of the Year award with the Artists Music Guild's 2012 AMG Heritage Awards for her work on the Hands of Hope project.[5]

External links[edit]


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text:
Jim Donnan

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Jim Donnan
Sport(s) Football
Biographical details
Born (1945-01-29) January 29, 1945 (age 71)
Laurens, South Carolina
Playing career
1965–1967 NC State
Position(s) Quarterback, kicker
Coaching career (HC unless noted)
1969–1971 NC State (assistant)
1972–1973 Florida State (assistant)
1974–1977 North Carolina (assistant)
1978–1980 Kansas State (assistant)
1981–1984 Missouri (assistant)
1985–1989 Oklahoma (OC)
1990–1995 Marshall
1996–2000 Georgia
Head coaching record
Overall 104–40
Bowls 4–0
Tournaments 15–4 (NCAA D-I-AA playoffs)
Accomplishments and honors
1 NCAA Division I-AA (1992)
1 SoCon (1994)
SEC Coach of the Year (1997)
College Football Hall of Fame
Inducted in 2009 (profile)

Jim Donnan (born January 29, 1945) is a former American football player and coach and now a television analyst for college football and a motivational speaker. He attended High School in Burlington, North Carolina at Walter M. Williams High School. He served as the head football coach at Marshall University (1990–1995) and the University of Georgia (1996–2000), compiling a career record of 104–40. His 1992 Marshall team won an NCAA Division I-AA national title. Donnan was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 2009.

Playing career[edit]

During his playing days as a quarterback at North Carolina State University, Donnan defeated his future team, Georgia, 14–7, in the 1967 Liberty Bowl. He was the ACC Player of the Year in 1967.

Coaching career[edit]

Prior to working as a head coach, Donnan served as an assistant coach at several schools, including Kansas State University, University of Missouri, Florida State University, and the University of Oklahoma. Donnan was the offensive coordinator at Oklahoma from 1985 to 1989. From 1985 to 1988, he coached under Barry Switzer, a member of the College Football Hall of Fame and a Super Bowl winning coach. Donnan coached the legendary Oklahoma Sooner wishbone offense that helped the Sooners to three consecutive 11–1 seasons from 1985–1987, and a national championship in 1985. In 1986, the Sooners scored 508 points, which at the time was the second highest point total in the school's storied history, trailing only the Sooners 1971 NCAA record setting rushing offense that scored 534 points.[1]

Donnan was head football coach at Marshall University, where he led the Thundering Herd to a 64–21 record from 1990 to 1995, including five consecutive 11-plus win seasons, four championship games, and the 1992 NCAA Division I-AA national football championship. He was named the Division I-AA Coach of the Year twice.

Donnan was then the head football coach at the University of Georgia from 1996 to 2000. He compiled a 40–19 record during his tenure. He was the first football coach in school history to lead Bulldog teams to four consecutive bowl victories. Under Donnan, the Bulldogs won the 1998 Outback Bowl, the 1998 Peach Bowl, the 2000 Outback Bowl, and the 2000 Oahu Bowl. Before the 1997 game against Mississippi State, Donnan drove a steamroller into practice and told his players they "were either going to be the steamroller or the pavement"; Georgia won the game, 47–0.[2]

Donnan was fired by University President Michael F. Adams, against the wishes of athletic director Vince Dooley, in 2000 after the Bulldogs struggled to two consecutive eight-win seasons, and three consecutive losses against Georgia Tech. Donnan's inability to return the program to the national prominence of Dooley's era and to compete with longtime SEC Eastern Division rivals such as Tennessee and Florida, combined with certain off-the-field problems for players, are believed to be the reasons for his dismissal.

In May 2009, Donnan was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame for his coaching successes, primarily at Marshall.[3]

Post-coaching career[edit]

After coaching, Donnan worked as a college football analyst for ESPN.

In August 2014, Donnan was hired as an analyst for the American Sports Network.[4]

Head coaching record[edit]

Year Team Overall Conference Standing Bowl/playoffs Coaches# AP°
Marshall Thundering Herd (Southern Conference) (1990–1995)
1990 Marshall 6–5 4–3 T–5th
1991 Marshall 11–4 5–2 T–2nd L NCAA Division I-AA Championship
1992 Marshall 12–3 5–2 T–2nd W NCAA Division I-AA Championship
1993 Marshall 11–4 6–2 2nd L NCAA Division I-AA Championship
1994 Marshall 12–2 7–1 1st L NCAA Division I-AA Semifinal
1995 Marshall 12–3 7–1 2nd L NCAA Division I-AA Championship
Marshall: 64–21 34–11
Georgia Bulldogs (Southeastern Conference) (1996–2000)
1996 Georgia 5–6 3–5 T–4th (Eastern)
1997 Georgia 10–2 6–2 T–2nd (Eastern) W Outback 10 10
1998 Georgia 9–3 6–2 3rd (Eastern) W Peach 14 14
1999 Georgia 8–4 5–3 3rd (Eastern) W Outback 16 16
2000 Georgia 8–4 5–3 T–2nd (Eastern) W Oahu 17 20
Georgia: 40–19 25–15
Total: 104–40
      National championship         Conference title         Conference division title
#Rankings from final Coaches Poll.
°Rankings from final AP Poll.

Coaching tree[edit]

Assistant coaches under Jim Donnan who became NCAA head coaches:

  1. ^ "Oklahoma Yearly Totals". College Football Data Warehouse. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
  2. ^ Schlabach, Mark (2007-10-29). "Richt's motivational gamble pays off for Georgia". Retrieved 2010-05-10.
  3. ^ Tucker, Tim (2009-05-13). "Donnan lands in Hall for Marshall success". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
  4. ^ http://www.conferenceusa.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/080714aad.html

External links[edit]


text:
Midland, Texas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Midland, Texas
City of Midland
Downtown Midland in 2007
Downtown Midland in 2007
Official seal of Midland, Texas
Nickname(s): "The Tall City"
Motto: "Feel the Energy!"
Location in the state of Texas
Location in the state of Texas
Coordinates: 32°0′N 102°6′W / 32.000°N 102.100°W / 32.000; -102.100Coordinates: 32°0′N 102°6′W / 32.000°N 102.100°W / 32.000; -102.100
Country  United States of America
State  Texas
Counties Midland, Martin
 • Type Council-Manager
 • City Council Mayor Jerry Morales
Councilman Spencer Robnett
Councilman J.Ross Lacy
Councilwoman Sharla Hotchkiss
Councilman Scott Dufford
Councilman Jeff Sparks
Councilman John Love III
 • City Manager Courtney Sharp
 • City 71.5 sq mi (185.2 km2)
 • Land 71.3 sq mi (184.7 km2)
 • Water 0.2 sq mi (0.5 km2)
Elevation 2,782 ft (848 m)
Population (2013)[1]
 • City 123,933
 • Density 1,558.9/sq mi (601.8/km2)
 • Metro 295,987
Time zone CST (UTC-6)
 • Summer (DST) CDT (UTC-5)
ZIP codes 79701-12
Area code(s) 432
FIPS code 48-48072[2]
GNIS feature ID 1341547[3]
Demonym Midlander
Website midlandtexas.gov

Midland is a city in and the county seat of Midland County, Texas, United States,[4] on the Southern Plains of the state's western area. A small portion of the city extends into Martin County.

At the 2010 census, the population of Midland was 111,147, and a 2015 estimate of 132,950, making it the twenty-fourth most populous city in the state of Texas. Due to the oil boom in Midland, certain officials have given population estimates above 155,000.[5] It is the principal city of the Midland, Texas Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes all of Midland County. The population of which grew 4.6 percent, between July 1, 2011 and July 1, 2012, to 151,662, respectively, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.[6] The metropolitan area is also a component of the larger Midland−Odessa, Texas Combined Statistical Area, which had an estimated population of 295,987 on July 1, 2012.[1] People in Midland are called Midlanders.

Midland was founded as the midway point between Fort Worth and El Paso on the Texas and Pacific Railroad in 1881. It is the hometown of former First Lady Laura Bush, and the onetime home of former Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush, and former First Lady Barbara Bush.

A sandstorm passes over Midland on February 20, 1894, at 6:00 p.m. Windmills and houses are visible just below the whirling sand.
The Bank of America Building is Midland's tallest building.

Midland was established in June 1881 as Midway Station, on the Texas and Pacific Railway. It earned its name because of its central location between Fort Worth and El Paso, but because there were already other towns in Texas by the name of Midway, the city changed its name to Midland in January 1884 when it was granted its first Post Office.

Midland became the county seat of Midland county in March 1885 when that county was first organized and separated from Tom Green County.

By 1890 it had become one of the most important cattle shipping centers in the state. The city was incorporated in 1906, and by 1910 the city established its first fire department along with a new water system.[7]

Midland was changed significantly by the discovery of oil in the Permian Basin in 1923 when the Santa Rita No. 1 well began producing in Reagan County, followed shortly by the Yates Oil Field in Iraan, Texas. Soon, Midland was transformed into the administrative center of the West Texas oil fields. During the Second World War Midland was the largest bombardier training base in the country. A second boom period began after the Second World War, with the discovery and development of the Spraberry Trend, still ranked as the third-largest oil field in the United States by total reserves.[8] Yet another boom period occurred during the 1970s, with the high oil prices associated with the oil and energy crises of that decade. Today, the Permian Basin produces one fifth of the nation's total petroleum and natural gas output.

Midland's economy still relies heavily on petroleum; however, the city has also diversified to become a regional telecommunications and distribution center. By August 2006, a busy period of crude oil production had caused a significant workforce deficit. According to the Midland Chamber of Commerce, at that time there were almost 2,000 more jobs available in the Permian Basin than there were workers to fill them.

John Howard Griffin wrote a history of Midland in 1959, Land of the High Sky.

Avery v. Midland County[edit]

In 1967 the U.S. Supreme Court heard the case of Avery v. Midland County. Midland mayor Hank Avery had sued Midland County challenging the electoral-districting scheme in effect for elections to the County Commissioner's Court. The county districts geographically quartered the county, but the city of Midland, in the northwestern quarter, accounted for 97% of the county's population. A judge, elected on an at-large basis, provided a fifth vote, but the result was that the three rural commissioners, representing only three percent of the county's population, held a majority of the votes.

The majority of the U.S. Supreme Court held that the districting inequality violated the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection clause. The dissenting minority held that this example of the Warren Court's policy of incorporation at the local-government level exceeded the Court's constitutional authority.

Midland is located at 32°0′N 102°6′W / 32.000°N 102.100°W / 32.000; -102.100 (32.005, −102.099),[9] in the Permian Basin in the plains of West Texas.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 71.5 square miles (185.2 km²), of which 71.3 square miles (184.7 km²) is land and 0.2 square mile (0.5 km²) (0.28%) is water.

Midland features a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSh or BSk) with long, hot summers and short, moderate winters. The city is occasionally subject to cold waves during the winter, but it rarely sees extended periods of below-freezing cold. Midland receives approximately 14.6 inches (370 mm) of precipitation per year, much of which falls in the summer. Highs exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on 101 days per year, and 100 °F (38 °C) on 16 days.[10]

Climate data for Midland, Texas
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °F (°C) 84
Average high °F (°C) 57.4
Average low °F (°C) 30.3
Record low °F (°C) −8
Average precipitation inches (mm) .56
Average snowfall inches (cm) 2.1
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) 3.9 3.4 2.6 3.2 6.2 4.9 5.0 5.8 6.0 4.7 3.1 3.6 52.4
Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) 1.6 .7 .2 .1 0 0 0 0 0 .1 .3 .9 3.9
Source: National Weather Service[10]

Historical population
Census Pop.
1910 2,192
1920 1,795 −18.1%
1930 5,484 205.5%
1940 9,352 70.5%
1950 21,713 132.2%
1960 62,625 188.4%
1970 59,463 −5.0%
1980 70,525 18.6%
1990 89,443 26.8%
2000 94,996 6.2%
2010 111,147 17.0%
Est. 2015 132,950 [11] 19.6%
U.S. Census Bureau[12] Texas Almanac[13]

At the 2010 census,[2] 111,149 people, 41,268 households, and 32,607 families resided in Midland. The population density was 1,558.9 people per square mile (550.6/km²). There were 47,562 housing units at an average density of 667.1 per square mile (231.0/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 75.51% White, 8.37% African American, 0.63% Native American, 1.01% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 12.49% from other races, and 1.96% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 28.99% of the population.

Of the 41,268 households, 37.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.4% were opposite-sex married couples living together, 11.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.3% were made up of same-sex relationships, non-family habitations, or other habitation arrangements . About 25.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.19.

In the city, the population was distributed as 29.9% under the age of 18, 9.0% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males.

In 2000, the median income for a household in the city was $39,320, and for a family was $48,290. Males had a median income of $37,566 versus $24,794 for females. The per capita income for the city in 2007 was $52,294.[14] In 2000, about 10.1% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.4% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over.

In 2014, Forbes magazine ranked Midland as the second fastest-growing small city in the United States.[15]

As of 2014, Midland has the lowest unemployment rate in the United States at 2.3%.[16] According to the city's 2013 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report,[17] the top ten employers in the city are:

# Employer # of Employees
1 Midland Independent School District 2,919
2 Dawson Geophysical 1,244
3 Midland Memorial Hospital and Medical Center 1,670
4 Walmart 950
5 City of Midland 880
6 Midland College 735
7 Baker Hughes 600
8 Warren Equipment Companies 597
9 Midland County 541
10 Concho Resources 509

Nicknamed "The Tall City", Midland has long been known for its downtown skyline. Most of downtown Midland's major office buildings were built during a time of major Permian Basin oil and gas discoveries. The surge in energy prices in the mid-1980s set about a building boom for downtown Midland. For many years, the 22-story Wilco Building in downtown Midland was the tallest building between Fort Worth and Phoenix. Today, the tallest one is the 24-story Bank of America Building which stands at a height of 332 feet (101 m). Four buildings over 500 feet (150 m) tall were planned in the 1980s, including one designed by architect I.M. Pei.[18] The great Oil Bust of the mid-1980s killed any plans for future skyscrapers. A private development group was planning to build Energy Tower at City Center, which was proposed to stand at 870 feet tall with 59 floors (6 floors underground and 53 above). If it had been built, it would have been Texas' 6th tallest building.[19]

Midland College is home to the McCormick Gallery, located inside the Allison Fine Arts Building, on the college's main campus. Throughout the year, changing exhibits at the McCormick feature works of MC students and faculty, visiting artists, and juried exhibits. The Arts Council of Midland[20] serves as the promotional and public relations vehicle to promote the arts and stimulate community participation and support. The McCormick is also home to the Studio 3600 Series,[21] established in 2006 to "spotlight selected art students and provide them the opportunity to exhibit key works that identify the style they have crafted over a period of time."

Performing arts[edit]

The Midland-Odessa Symphony and Chorale (MOSC) has performed in the Permian Basin for over 45 years, and is the region's largest orchestral organization, presenting both Pops and Masterworks concerts throughout the year. Composed of professional musicians from the area as well as Lubbock, San Angelo and other surrounding cities, the MOSC also is home to three resident chamber ensembles, the Lone Star Brass, Permian Basin String Quartet and West Texas Winds. These ensembles are made up of principal musicians in the orchestra, who come to the area from across the United States.

Bush Home (2014)

The Chateau Club on Wall Street hosted some musical greats in the early 1970s. Managed by D.M. Williams, Club Chateau's house band consisted of a line up of some of the nation's best known R&B artists from such well known singing groups as The Coasters, The Drifters, and The Shirelles. The band was led by blues great Johnny Heartsman. Heartsman was a master of the Hammond B3 organ, guitar, and flute. Local talent consisted of drummer Jeff Colvin and guitarist Larry Grubb. Heartsman hosted a Sunday afternoon jam session. It was one Sunday that young West Texan, Jay Boy Adams wandered in to the Sunday afternoon jam. Williams and Heartsman hired him on the spot. Adams was not yet twenty one. He remained as the regular guitar player and singer for the next two years. Adams will regularly credit his time with The Heartsman Trio as his learning ground and credit Heartsman as a major influence in his musical development.

The Midland Community Theatre (MCT) has been entertaining the Permian Basin since 1946 with musicals, comedies, dramas, mysteries, children's theatre and melodramas. MCT produces 15 shows each year in three performance spaces - Davis Theatre I (485 seats) and Mabee Theatre II (155 seats), located in the Cole Theatre, and the annual fundraiser Summer Mummers in the historic Yucca Theatre. MCT has an extensive education program, including the Pickwick Players (teen performance troupe), Theatre School programs and OutReach classes. MCT operates with a professional staff of 20 and depends upon the hard work and dedication of hundreds of volunteers in the Permian Basin to produce shows throughout the year. MCT is a member of the American Association of Community Theatre, and hosted the 2006 AACT International Theatrefest.

Twice each year, the Phyllis and Bob Cowan Performing Arts Series at Midland College presents free cultural and artistic performances of "international interest and scope to stimulate and inspire the Midland arts community,"[22] and entertain the community at-large. The series was endowed in 1999, and has since brought a diverse selection of entertainers to Midland, including Andre Watts, the Eroica Trio, the Moscow Boys Choir, the Flying Karamazov Brothers, the Preservation Hall Jazz Band, 3 Mo' Divas, Ballet Folklorico de Mexico de Amalia Hernandez and the Golden Dragon Acrobats of China.

Entrance to the Permian Basin Petroleum Museum, scheduled for renovation in 2014

Sitting on the southern edge of the Llano Estacado and located near the center of the Permian Basin oil fields, Midland's economy has long been focused on petroleum exploration and extraction. Providing more information about this industry is the Permian Basin Petroleum Museum, located on the outskirts of town near Interstate 20. The museum houses numerous displays on the history, science, and technology of oil and gas development. The Permian Basin Petroleum Museum houses a collection of race cars designed by Jim Hall, a long time Midland resident who pioneered the use of aerodynamic downforce in the design of Formula One cars.

Main Street of Midland, Texas during the town's frontier days.

Midland is also home to The Museum of the Southwest. The museum features a collection of paintings by various members of the Taos Society of Artists and Karl Bodmer as well as engravings by John J. and John W. Audubon. Located within the same museum complex are the separate Children's Museum and the Marian W. Blakemore Planetarium. The Museum of the Southwest is housed in the Turner Mansion, the historic 1934 home of Fred and Juliette Turner.

On display at the Midland County Historical Museum are reproductions of the "Midland Man," the skeleton of a Clovis female found near the city in 1953.[23] Analysis of the remains by Dr. Curtis R. McKinney using uranium-thorium analysis showed that the bones are 11,600 ± 800 years old. Presenting his findings at the annual meeting of the Geological Society of America in 1992, Dr. McKinney said, "[T]he Midland Woman was related to the earliest ancestors of every Indian who lives today, and she is very likely the only representative of those who created the Clovis cultures."

Midland is home to the Midland RockHounds, a Texas League minor league baseball team. It is the Double-A affiliate of the Oakland Athletics. The Rockhounds have played their home games in Security Bank Ballpark since 2002.

West Texas United Sockers is an American soccer team founded in 2008. The team is a member of the United Soccer Leagues Premier Development League (PDL), the fourth tier of the American Soccer Pyramid, in the Mid South Division of the Southern Conference. The team plays its home games at the Grande Communications Stadium.

Midland is home to the West Texas Drillers (Adult Tackle Football) of the Minor Professional Football League. They were established in 2009. They play their home games at Grande Communications Stadium.

Midland College is a member of the Western Junior College Athletic Conference, and fields teams in baseball, men's basketball, women's basketball, men's golf, softball and volleyball. Midland College has won 20 national championships in sports since 1975, as well as produced 192 All-Americans.

Plans have been made to develop a 35 court tennis facility named the Bush Tennis Center.

Midland is also home to the Midland Mad Dog Rugby Club, which competes in the Texas Rugby Union as a division III team.

Visiting lectures[edit]

Twice each year, the Davidson Distinguished Lectures Series at Midland College presents free public lectures by "nationally-known speakers whose academic accomplishments, civic leadership, and/or public achievements interest, enrich, and enlighten Midland students and citizens."[24] The series was endowed in 1996, and has since brought a diverse selection of speakers to Midland, including Ken Burns, Richard Leakey, Bill Moyers, Mark Russell, Sandra Day O'Connor, Richard Rodriguez, Shelby Foote, Anna Deavere Smith, Bill Nye, John Updike and Neil deGrasse Tyson.

Local government[edit]

The former Midland County Courthouse on Wall Street looking north from the Midland Doubletree towers

According to the city's 2008 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city's various funds had $57.3 million in revenues, $53.0 million in expenditures, $363.4 million in total assets, $133.9 million in total liabilities, and $75.0 million in cash and investments.[25]

State and federal representation[edit]

On the federal level, Midland residents are represented in the US Senate by John Cornyn and Ted Cruz, and in the US House of Representatives by Mike Conaway. Midland residents are represented in the Texas Senate by Republican Kel Seliger, District 31. Midland is represented in the Texas House of Representatives by Republican Tom Craddick, the former Speaker from District 82.

The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the headquarters of Parole Division Region V in Midland; the Midland District Parole Office is in the Region V headquarters.[26]

The United States Postal Service operates the Midland Main Post Office on the grounds of Midland International Air and Space Port.[27] The other four post offices are Claydesta,[28] Downtown Midland,[29] Graves,[30] and Village.[31]

Colleges and universities[edit]

Midland is the home of Midland College (MC), which offers a variety of over 50 programs of study for associate degrees and certificates to more than 6,000 students who enroll each semester. MC offers programs in health sciences, information technology, and aviation, including a professional pilot training program. MC is one of only three community colleges in Texas approved to offer a bachelor's degree in applied technology. Dr. Steve Thomas is MC's current president.

Midland is also the home for the physician assistant program offered by the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center Permian Basin Campus located on the campus of Midland College. The entry-level graduate program awards a master of physician assistant studies following 27 months of intensive academic and clinical training.

Midland is the home to three local public high schools: Midland High School, Robert E. Lee High School and Early College High School (ECHS) at Midland College, all three of which are part of the Midland Independent School District. Another school district is located just outside of Midland, Greenwood Independent School District, containing Greenwood High and a middle and elementary school.

ECHS welcomed its first freshman class on August 24, 2009. The goal for ECHS is to award students their associate degrees from Midland College by the time they receive their high school diplomas.[32]

Also, there are many private schools in Midland, including Hillcrest School, Hillander, Midland Classical Academy, Midland Christian School, Midland Montessori, St. Ann's School, and Trinity School of Midland, among others. Midland is also home to three charter schools: Richard Milburn Academy, Premier High School, and Midland Academy Charter School.

Midland is served by the Midland Reporter-Telegram.

  • KLFB 88.1 FM (Religious)
  • KFRI 88.7 FM (Christian Contemporary)
  • KBMM 89.5 FM (Religious)
  • KLVW 90.5 FM (Christian Contemporary)
  • KVDG 90.9 FM (Spanish)
  • KXWT 91.3 FM (Public Radio)
  • WJFM 91.7 FM (Gospel Music)
  • KNFM 92.3 FM (Country)
  • KZBT 93.3 FM (Hip-Hop)
  • KACD 94.1 FM (Spanish)
  • KTXO 94.7 FM (Country)
  • KQRX 95.1 FM (Rock)
  • KMRK-FM 96.1 FM (Country)
  • KMCM 96.9 FM (Oldies)
  • KODM 97.9 FM (Adult Contemporary)
  • KHKX 99.1 FM (Country)
  • KMTH 99.5 FM (Public Radio)
  • KBAT 99.9 FM (Rock)
  • KMMZ 101.3 FM (Regional Mexican)
  • KFZX 102.1 FM (Classic Rock)
  • KCRS 103.3 FM (Top-40)
  • KTXC 104.7 FM (Regional Mexican)
  • KCHX 106.7 FM (Adult Contemporary)
  • KWEL 107.1 FM (Talk)
  • KQLM 107.9 FM (Spanish)
  • KCRS 550 AM (News/Talk)
  • KXOI 810 AM (Spanish)
  • KFLB 920 AM (Religious)
  • KWEL 1070 AM (Talk)
  • KLPF 1180 AM (Religious)
  • KMND 1510 AM (Sports)

Midland is served by nine local television stations: KMID, an ABC affiliate; KWES-TV, an NBC affiliate; KOSA, a CBS affiliate and a MyNetwork TV affiliate on their digital cable TV station; KPEJ-TV, a Fox affiliate; KPBT, a PBS affiliate; KWWT, The CW Television Network affiliate; KUPB, a Univision affiliate; and KTLE-LP, a Telemundo affiliate. It also has one local religious television station: KMLM-DT, a God's Learning Channel affiliate, which is a worldwide institution offering pro-Israel programming.

Many major motion pictures have been filmed in and around Midland, including Hangar 18, Waltz Across Texas, Fandango, Blood Simple, Hard Country, Friday Night Lights, The Rookie, The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada, Everybody's Baby: The Rescue of Jessica McClure (which featured, as extras, many participants in the actual rescue and its coverage), and others.

In the Heroes television series, the Midland-Odessa area is a focal point for many of the first season's episodes, serving as the home for the Bennet family, and as the location of a recurring restaurant, the Burnt Toast Diner.

Midland was the site of the 2012 Midland train crash, in which a train collided with a parade float carrying wounded military veterans, killing four.

Midland also has city-wide public bus services provided for the Midland-Odessa Urban Transit District by Midland-Odessa Transit Management, otherwise known as E-Z Rider.

Notable people[edit]

Sister cities[edit]

Midland has four sister cities around the world.[34]

  1. ^ a b "Table 2. Annual Estimates of the Population of Combined Statistical Areas: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 (CBSA-EST2007-02)" (CSV). 2007 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. 2008-03-27. Retrieved 2008-07-21. [dead link]
  2. ^ a b "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 2013-09-11. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
  3. ^ "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
  4. ^ "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Archived from the original on 2011-05-31. Retrieved 2011-06-07.
  5. ^ "Race, Hispanic or Latino, Age, and Housing Occupancy: 2010". US Census Bureau. 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-05-20. Retrieved 2012-11-16. [not in citation given]
  6. ^ "Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Totals: Vintage 2012 - U.S Census Bureau". Census.gov. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  7. ^ "MIDLAND, TX | The Handbook of Texas Online| Texas State Historical Association (TSHA)". Tshaonline.org. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  8. ^ Top 100 Oil and Gas Fields (Department of Energy)
  9. ^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
  10. ^ a b "National Weather Service Midland". Srh.noaa.gov. 2012-03-07. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  11. ^ "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for Incorporated Places: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015". Retrieved July 2, 2016.
  12. ^ "American FactFinder". Factfinder.census.gov. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  13. ^ [1] Archived August 21, 2010, at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ^ "??". Bea.gov. Retrieved 2014-05-29.
  15. ^ Kotkin, Joel (2014-09-03). "America's Fastest-Growing Small Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 2014-09-03.
  16. ^ [2]
  17. ^ City of Midland CAFR p. 138 Retrieved 2009-06-24
  18. ^ "List of Architectural designs, including MGF Building by I. M. Pei". Uwm.edu. 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  19. ^ "Architect: 'Energy Tower starts ripple effect of downtown activity'".
  20. ^ http://www.acmidland.org
  21. ^ [3] Archived July 16, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  22. ^ Phyllis & Bob Cowan Performing Arts Series
  23. ^ "Historic plaque - Midland Man : The Portal to Texas History". Texashistory.unt.edu. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  24. ^ Davidson Distinguished Lectures Series
  25. ^ City of Midland CAFR Retrieved 2009-06-24
  26. ^ "Parole Division Region V." Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved on May 21, 2010.
  27. ^ "Post Office Location - MIDLAND." United States Postal Service. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  28. ^ "Post Office Location - CLAYDESTA." United States Postal Service. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  29. ^ "Post Office Location - DOWNTOWN MIDLAND." United States Postal Service. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  30. ^ "Post Office Location - GRAVES." United States Postal Service. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  31. ^ "Post Office Location - VILLAGE." United States Postal Service. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  32. ^ "Early College High School a 'once-in-a-lifetime' chance for students". Mywesttexas.com. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  33. ^ "KMDD - Midland Airpark". AirNav. Retrieved 2012-11-16.
  34. ^ Miller, Lyn (2008). "Did You Know: Midland's History". City of Midland. Archived from the original on 19 Jan 2012. Retrieved 24 January 2015.

External links[edit]


text:
Papaver somniferum

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Papaver somniferum
Illustration Papaver somniferum0.jpg
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
Order: Ranunculales
Family: Papaveraceae
Genus: Papaver
Species: P. somniferum
Binomial name
Papaver somniferum

Papaver somniferum, the opium poppy,[2] is a species of flowering plant in the family Papaveraceae. It is the species of plant from which opium and poppy seeds are derived and is a valuable ornamental plant, grown in gardens. Its native range is probably the eastern Mediterranean, but is now obscured by ancient introductions and cultivation.

The opium poppy is the only species of Papaveraceae that is grown as an agricultural crop on a large scale. Other poppy species, such as Papaver rhoeas and Papaver argemone, are important agricultural weeds, and may be mistaken for the crop.

Papaver somniferum flower
Papaver somniferum plant showing the typical glaucous appearance

Papaver somniferum is an annual herb growing to about 100 cm. All parts of the plant are strongly glaucous, giving a greyish-green appearance, and the stem and leaves are sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The leaves are lobed and clasp the stem at the base. The flowers are up to 120mm diameter, normally with four white, mauve or red petals, sometimes with dark markings at the base. The fruit is a hairless, rounded capsule topped with 12–18 radiating stigmatic rays. All parts of the plant exude white latex when wounded. The annual habit in combination with stem-clasping, glaucous, glabrous (or almost so) leaves are diagnostic for the species.[3]:87[4]:32

Varieties and cultivars[edit]

Papaver somniferum has many subspecies or varieties and cultivars. Colors of the flower vary widely, as do other physical characteristics, such as number and shape of petals, number of flowers and fruits, number of seeds, color of seeds, production of opium, etc.[citation needed]

Papaver somniferum Paeoniflorum Group (sometimes called Papaver paeoniflorum) is a subtype of opium poppy whose flowers are highly double, and are grown in many colors. P. somniferum Laciniatum Group (sometimes called Papaver laciniatum) is a subtype of opium poppy whose flowers are highly double and deeply lobed, to the point of looking like a ruffly pom-pom.

A few of the varieties and cultivars, notably the cultivars "Norman" and "Przemko",[5] have low morphine content (less than 1%), and much higher concentrations of other alkaloids. Most varieties, however, including those most popular for ornamental use or seed production, have a higher morphine content, with the average content being 10%.[6]

The native range of opium poppy is probably the Eastern Mediterranean, but extensive cultivation and introduction of the species throughout Europe since ancient times have obscured its origin. It has escaped from cultivation, or has been introduced and become naturalized extensively in all regions of the British Isles, particularly in the south and east[7] and in almost all other countries of the world with suitable, temperate climates.[8]

Dried poppy seed pods and stems (plate), and seeds (bowl)
Capsule of Papaver somniferum showing latex (opium) exuding from incision

The opium poppy, as its name indicates, is the principal source of opium, the dried latex produced by the seed pods. Opium contains a class of naturally occurring alkaloids known as opiates, that include morphine, thebaine, codeine, papaverine, noscapine and oripavine. The Latin epithet somniferum means "sleep-bringing", referring to the sedative properties of some of these opiates.

The opiate drugs are extracted from opium. The latex oozes from incisions made on the green seed pods and is collected once dry. Tincture of opium or laudanum, consisting of opium dissolved in alcohol or a mixture of alcohol and water, is one of many unapproved drugs regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Its marketing and distribution persists because its historical use preceded the Federal Food, Drug & Cosmetic Act of 1938.[9] Tincture of opium B.P., containing 1% w/v of anhydrous morphine, also remains in the British Pharmacopoeia,[10] listed as a Class A substance under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971.

Morphine is the predominant alkaloid found in the cultivated varieties of opium poppy.[11] Raw opium contains about 8–14% morphine by dry weight, or more in high-yield cultivars.[12] It may be used directly or chemically modified to produce synthetic opioids such as heroin.

Poppy seeds and oil[edit]

Main article: Poppy seed
Polish makowiec, a nut roll filled with poppy seed paste, used commonly in Poland, Germany, Austria, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary

Poppy seeds from Papaver somniferum are an important food item and the source of poppyseed oil, an edible oil that has many uses. The seeds contain very low levels of opiates and the oil extracted from them contains even less.[13] Both the oil and the seed residue also have commercial uses.

Poppy seeds are used as a food in many cultures. They may be used entire by bakers to decorate their products or milled and mixed with sugar as a sweet filling.[14] They have a creamy and nut-like flavor, and when used with ground coconut, the seeds provide a unique and flavour-rich curry base. They can be dry roasted and ground to be used in wet curry (curry paste) or dry curry.[15]

Use of the opium poppy predates written history. Images of opium poppies have been found in ancient Sumerian artifacts (circa 4000 BC). The making and use of opium was known to the ancient Minoans.[16] Its sap was later named opion by the ancient Greeks, from whence it gained its modern name of opium.

Opium was used for treating asthma, stomach illnesses, and bad eyesight.

The First and Second Opium Wars among China, the British Empire and France took place in the late 1830s through the early 1860s, when the Chinese attempted to stop western traders from selling and later smuggling opium into their country from the large crops grown in India. The British in particular had a deep trade deficit with China, and the sale of British-owned Indian opium helped balance it.

Many modern writers, particularly in the 19th century, have written on the opium poppy and its effects, notably Thomas de Quincey in Confessions of an English Opium Eater.

The French Romantic composer Hector Berlioz used opium for inspiration, subsequently producing his Symphonie Fantastique. In this work, a young artist overdoses on opium and experiences a series of visions of his unrequited love.

Opium poppies (flower and fruit) appear on the coat of arms of the Royal College of Anaesthetists.

Poppy seed is commonly grown and available across Europe in food stores and on the Internet.[14]

Opium poppy fields near Metheringham, Lincolnshire, England
Dried poppy seed pods next to glass jars of blue, gray, and white poppy seeds used for pastries in Germany.
White poppy seeds, close up.
Poppy seed production in metric tons (2012)
Source: FAOSTAT[17]
 Czech Republic 12,814
 Spain 7,000
 Hungary 4,698
 Turkey 3,844
 Germany 3,200
 France 3,000
 Palestine 2,600
 Romania 2,350
 Croatia 1,509
 Austria 1,098
 Serbia 1,000
 Netherlands 400
 Slovakia 296
 Macedonia 91
  • In most of Central Europe (Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland) poppy seed is commonly used for traditional pastries and cakes. It is legal to grow poppies in all of these countries, though Germany requires a licence.
  • The United Kingdom does not require a licence for opium poppy cultivation, but does for extracting opium for medicinal products.[18]
  • Canada forbids possessing, seeking or obtaining opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids and salts, although an exception is made for poppy seeds.[19]
  • Italy forbids cultivation of P. somniferum to extract the alkaloids, but small numbers of specimens can be grown without special permits for purely ornamental purposes.[citation needed]
  • In Australia P. somniferum is illegal to cultivate. 100 plants are required for determining a court of trial and 25 plants is considered intent to sell and supply.[20]
  • United Arab Emirates: cultivation of the opium poppy is illegal, as is possession of poppy seeds. At least one man has been imprisoned for possessing poppy seeds obtained from a bread roll.[21]
  • In New Zealand it is legal to cultivate opium poppy as long as it is not used to produce banned drugs.[22]
  • Burma bans cultivation in certain provinces. In northern Burma bans have ended a century-old tradition of growing opium poppy. Between 20,000 and 30,000 former poppy farmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002.[23] People from the Wa region, where the ban was implemented in 2005, fled to areas where growing opium is still possible.
  • In the United States cultivation of poppies for food is illegal. However, this is not typically enforced for poppies grown or sold for food or ornamental purposes.[14][unreliable source?] In addition, "Opium poppy and poppy straw" are also prohibited.[24] As the opium poppy is legal for culinary or esthetic reasons, poppies were once grown as a cash crop by farmers in California. The law of poppy cultivation in the United States is somewhat ambiguous.[25] The reason for the ambiguity is because the Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 (now repealed)[26][27][28] stated that any opium poppy should be declared illegal, even if the farmers were issued a state permit.[29] § 3 of the Opium Poppy Control Act stated:

    It shall be unlawful for any person who is not the holder of a license authorizing him to produce the opium poppy, duly issued to him by the Secretary of the Treasury in accordance with the provisions of this Act, to produce the opium poppy, or to permit the production of the opium poppy in or upon any place owned, occupied, used, or controlled by him.

    This led to the Poppy Rebellion, and to the Narcotics Bureau arresting anyone planting opium poppies and forcing the destruction of poppy fields of anyone who defied the prohibition of poppy cultivation.[30][31] Though the press of those days favored the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, the state of California supported the farmers who grew opium poppies for their seeds for uses in foods such as poppyseed muffins. Today, this area of law has remained vague and remains somewhat controversial in the United States.[32] The Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942 was repealed on 27 October 1970.[33][34]

Australia (Tasmania), Turkey and India are the major producers of poppy for medicinal purposes and poppy-based drugs, such as morphine or codeine.[35] The USA has a policy of sourcing 80% of its narcotic raw materials from the traditional producers, India and Turkey.[36]

A recent initiative to extend opium production for medicinal purposes called Poppy for Medicine was launched by The Senlis Council which proposes that Afghanistan could produce medicinal opium under a scheme similar to that operating in Turkey and India.[37] The Council proposes licensing poppy production in Afghanistan, within an integrated control system supported by the Afghan government and its international allies, to promote economic growth in the country, create vital drugs and combat poverty and the diversion of illegal opium to drug traffickers and terrorist elements. Senlis is on record advocating reintroduction of poppy into areas of Afghanistan, specifically Kunduz, which has been poppy free for some time.

The Senlis proposal is based in part on the assertion that there is an acute global shortage of opium poppy-based medicines some of which (morphine) are on the World Health Organisation's list of essential drugs as they are the most effective way of relieving severe pain. This assertion is contradicted by the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), the "independent and quasi-judicial control organ monitoring the implementation of the United Nations drug control conventions". INCB reports that the supply of opiates is greatly in excess of demand.[38]

In March 2010, researchers from the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of Calgary published an article in Nature Chemical Biology about their discovery of two enzymes and their encoding genes, thebaine 6-O-demethylase (T6ODM) and codeine O-demethylase (CODM), involved in morphine biosynthesis derived from the opium poppy.[39] The enzymes were identified as non-heme dioxygenases, and were isolated using functional genomics.[39] Codeine O-demethylase produces the enzyme that converts codeine into morphine.[40]

In late 2007, the British government permitted the pharmaceutical company Macfarlan Smith (a Johnson Matthey company, FTSE 100) to cultivate opium poppies in England for medicinal reasons[41] after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. This move is well received by British farmers,[citation needed] with a major opium poppy field based in Didcot, England. As of 2012, they were growing in Dorset, Hampshire, Oxfordshire and Lincolnshire as a spring-sown breakcrop recognised under the single payment scheme farm subsidy.[42] The Office of Fair Trading has alerted the government to their monopoly position on growing in the UK and worldwide production of diamorphine and recommended consideration.[41] The government's response advocated the status quo, being concerned interference might cause the company to stop production.[43]

Ornamental cultivation[edit]

A red opium poppy flower used for ornamental purposes

Once known as the "common garden poppy",[citation needed] live plants and seeds of the opium poppy are widely sold by seed companies and nurseries in most of the western world, including the United States. Poppies are sought after by gardeners for the vivid coloration of the blooms, the hardiness and reliability of the poppy plants, the exotic chocolate-vegetal fragrance note of some cultivars, and the ease of growing the plants from purchased flats of seedlings or by direct sowing of the seed. Poppy seed pods are also sold for dried flower arrangements.

Since "opium poppy and poppy straw" are listed in Schedule II of the United States' Controlled Substances Act, a DEA license may be required to grow poppies in ornamental or display gardens. In fact, the legal status of strictly ornamental poppy gardens is more nuanced, and destruction of ornamental poppy installations or prosecution of gardeners (except those caught extracting opium via capsule scarification or tea extraction) are virtually unheard of.[citation needed] During the summer, opium poppies can be seen flowering in gardens throughout North America and Europe, and displays are found in many private plantings, as well as in public botanical and museum gardens such as United States Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden, and North Carolina Botanical Garden.

Many countries grow the plants, and some rely heavily on the commercial production of the drug as a major source of income. As an additional source of profit, the seeds of the same plants are sold for use in foods, so the cultivation of the plant is a significant source of income. This international trade in seeds of P. somniferum was addressed by a UN resolution "to fight the international trade in illicit opium poppy seeds" on 28 July 1998.

After the ousting of the Taliban from the town of Marja in the southern Afghan province Helmand by Operation Moshtarak, American and NATO commanders were confronted with the dilemma of, on the one hand, the need to "win the hearts and minds" of the local population and, on the other, the need to eradicate poppy fields and destroy the opium economy that allegedly financed the Taliban insurgency. It has been speculated that US Marines were initially ordered to ignore the crops to avoid trampling the local farmers' livelihood, and that this might have been because there were no significant poppy fields there before the first US forces arrived.[44][45]

  1. ^ Linnaeus, Carl von (1753). Species Plantarum. Laurentius Salvius. p. 508.
  2. ^ "BSBI List 2007". Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  3. ^ Stace, C.A. (2010). New flora of the British isles (Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521707725.
  4. ^ Blamey, M.; Fitter, R.; Fitter, A (2003). Wild flowers of Britain and Ireland: The Complete Guide to the British and Irish Flora. London: A & C Black. ISBN 978-1408179505.
  5. ^ US 6067749 - Papaver somniferum strain with high concentration of thebaine and oripavine
  6. ^ Ayatollah (2006-02-25). "How potent are the major culinary (spicerack) varieties such as McCormick?". Poppies. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  7. ^ "BSBI Distribution Maps, Papaver somniferum". London, U.K.: Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland.
  8. ^ . Copenhagen, Denmark: Global Biodiversity Information Facility,  Missing or empty |title= (help)
  9. ^ "Unapproved Drugs, What's the Big Deal?" (PDF). International Journal of Pharmaceutical Compounding, Winter 2006. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
  10. ^ The Extra Pharmacopeia Martindale. Vol. 1, 24th edition. London: The Pharmaceutical Press, 1958, page 924.
  11. ^ "International Narcotics Control Bureau, Technical Reports, 2008, Part IV, Statistical information on narcotic drugs" (PDF). Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  12. ^ Kapoor L (1995). Opium Poppy: Botany, Chemistry, and Pharmacology. United States: CRC Press. p. 164. ISBN 1-56024-923-4.
  13. ^
  14. ^ a b c
  15. ^ "Mahanandi » Gasagasalu ~ Bendakaaya". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  16. ^ Askitopoulou, Helen; Ramoutsaki, Ioanna A; Konsolaki, Eleni. "Archaeological evidence on the use of opium in the Minoan world". International Congress Series. ScienceDirect. 1242: 23–29. doi:10.1016/S0531-5131(02)00769-0.
  17. ^ Faostat. (2014-10-23). Retrieved on 2015-04-24.
  18. ^ Phillip, Rhodri, & Barry Wigmore (2007-07-14). "The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis". Evening Standard. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  19. ^ Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 1996
  20. ^ Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 (2015)$FILE/Misuse%20Of%20Drugs%20Act%201981%20-%20%5B06-e0-00%5D.pdf?OpenElement
  21. ^ McGrath, Ginny (2008-02-08). "Travellers who 'smuggle' poppy seeds face Dubai jail". The Times. UK. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  22. ^ Section 9(4) of the Misuse of Drugs Act states, "It shall be a defense to a charge under subsection (1) [Cultivation of prohibited plants] if the person charged proves that the prohibited plant to which the charge relates was of the species Papaver somniferum, and that it was not intended to be a source of any controlled drug or that it was not being developed as a strain from which a controlled drug could be produced.""New Zealand Legislation: Misuse of Drugs Act 1975". Retrieved 7 July 2012.
  23. ^ page 4 of the Drug Policy Briefing nr. 29 by the Transnational Institute
  24. ^ Ayatollah. "Drug Scheduling". Drug Enforcement Administration. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  25. ^ "Bulletin on Narcotics – 1950 Issue 3 – 002". UNODC. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  26. ^
  27. ^ "Controlled Substances Import and Export Act". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  28. ^ "21 U.S.C. § 188 : US Code – Section 188 TO 188N: Repealed. Pub. L. 91-513, title III, Sec. 1101(a)(7), Oct. 27, 1970, 84 Stat. 1292". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  29. ^ "Poppy Flowers". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  30. ^
  31. ^ Association, American Bar (September 1952). "ABA Journal".
  32. ^ "Poppin' Up Poppies". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  33. ^ "United States Code: Title 21,188 to 188n. Repealed. Pub. L. 91–513, title III, 1101(a)(7), Oct. 27, 1970, 84 Stat. 1292 | LII / Legal Information Institute". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  34. ^ "21 USC CHAPTER 6 – NARCOTIC DRUGS 01/03/2007". Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  35. ^ Dicker, Jason. "The Poppy Industry in Tasmania". University of Tasmania. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  36. ^ Braund, Claire (2001). "Research driving the Tasmanian poppy industry". Australian Society of Agronomy. Archived from the original on 29 July 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  37. ^ "Poppy for Medicine". Poppy for Medicine. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  38. ^ International Narcotics Control Board, 2004, Report 2004, Vienna: International Narcotics Control Board: 23.
  39. ^ a b Jillian M Hagel & Peter J Facchini (2010-03-14). "Dioxygenases catalyze the O-demethylation steps of morphine biosynthesis in opium poppy". Nature Chemical Biology. Nature Publishing Group. 6 (4): 273–5. doi:10.1038/nchembio.317. PMID 20228795. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  40. ^ "Genetic secrets of poppies' painkillers unlocked". The Canadian Press, Toronto Star. 2010-03-15. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
  41. ^ a b "Review of undertakings by Macfarlan Smith Limited". Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. March 2006. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
  42. ^ "Poppy Growing". MacFarlane Smith. October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-03.
  43. ^ "Opium derivatives - Government response to OFT review of undertakings by Macfarlan Smith Limited (MSL)" (PDF). Department for Business, Innovation and Skills. March 2006. Retrieved 2012-10-03.
  44. ^ Nordland, Rod (20 March 2010). "U.S. Turns a Blind Eye to Opium in Afghan Town". The New York Times. Afghanistan;Marja (Afghanistan). Retrieved 30 December 2011.
  45. ^ "Afghan drug cartels squeeze poppy farmers". 21 March 2010. Retrieved 30 December 2011.

External links[edit]