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This article is about the city in India. For other uses, see Kochi (disambiguation).
"Cochin" redirects here. For other uses, see Cochin (disambiguation).
Clockwise from top: Marine Drive Skyline, Chinese fishing nets Fort kochi, Kochi Marina, Marine Drive New Expansion, InfoPark
Clockwise from top: Marine Drive Skyline, Chinese fishing nets Fort kochi, Kochi Marina, Marine Drive New Expansion, InfoPark
Flag of Kochi
Official seal of Kochi
Nickname(s): Queen of the Arabian Sea[1][2] I
Kochi is located in Kerala
Coordinates: 9°58′N 76°17′E / 9.97°N 76.28°E / 9.97; 76.28Coordinates: 9°58′N 76°17′E / 9.97°N 76.28°E / 9.97; 76.28
Country India
State Kerala
District Ernakulam
Formed 1 April 1958[3]
 • Body Corporation of Cochin
 • Mayor Soumini Jain (INC)
 • City Police Commissioner M. R. Ajith Kumar IPS
 • Metropolis 742 km2 (286 sq mi)
Elevation 0 m (0 ft)
Population (2012)[5]
 • Metropolis 612,343
 • Density 6,340/km2 (16,400/sq mi)
 • Metro[6] 3,117,990
 • Official Malayalam, English
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Telephone code 91-(0)484-XXX XXXX
Vehicle registration KL-7,KL-39,KL-43
Coastline 48 kilometres (30 mi)
Sex ratio 1.028 /
Literacy 98.5%
Development Agency GCDA
Climate Am (Köppen)
Precipitation 3,228.3 millimetres (127.10 in)
Website www.corporationofcochin.net

Kochi ([koˈtʃːi ]), also known as Cochin (KO-chin), is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the mainland part of the city. With a corporation limit population of 612,343,[7] and metropolitan population of 2.1 million, it is the second largest city and the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala. Kochi city is also a part of the Greater Cochin region[8][9] and is classified as a Tier-II city by the Government of India. The civic body that governs the city is the Cochin Municipal Corporation, which was constituted in the year 1967, and the statutory bodies that oversee its development are the Greater Cochin Development Authority[10] (GCDA) and the Goshree Islands Development Authority (GIDA).

Kochi also known as the Queen of the Arabian Sea, was an important spice trading centre on the west coast of India from the 14th century onward, and maintained a trade network with Arab merchants from the pre-Islamic era. Occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the main seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was later occupied by the Dutch and the British, with the Kingdom of Cochin becoming a princely state. Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala.[11][12] Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine.[13] Kochi was one of the 28 Indian cities found to be among the emerging 440 global cities that will contribute 50% of the world GDP by the year 2025, in a 2011 study done by the McKinsey Global Institute.[14]

Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy and the state headquarters[15][16] of the Indian Coast Guard with an attached air squadron, named Air Squadron 747.[17] Commercial maritime facilities of the city include the Port of Kochi, an International Container Transshipment Terminal, the Cochin Shipyard, offshore SPM of the BPCL Kochi Refinery,[18][19] and the Kochi Marina. Kochi is also home for the Cochin Stock Exchange, International Pepper Exchange, industries like HMT, Cyber City, Kinfra Hi-Tech Park major chemical industries like the FACT, TCC, IREL, Petronet LNG, Merchem, HOCL[20] and Kochi Refineries, electrical industries like TELK[21] and industrial parks like the Cochin Special Economic Zone, Smart City and Infopark. Kochi is home for the High Court of Kerala and Lakshadweep, Naval physical and oceanographic laboratory (NPOL), Indian Maritime University, Sree sankara Sanskrit University and the Cochin University of Science and Technology. Kochi is also home for Kerala's National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies.

Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, and Kochi.[22] The Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin (קוגין), which is seen in the seal of the synagogue[23] which is still owned by the community. The origin of the name "Kochi" is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, meaning 'small lagoon'. Yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci meaning 'harbour'.[24] Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti (15th century), and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, named after the river connecting the backwaters to the sea.[citation needed] After the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi, in 1996. This change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation and officially, the city is still called "Cochin" (Corporation of Cochin).

Paradesi Synagogue Inscription
Main article: History of Kochi

Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for many centuries, and was known to the Yavanas (Greeks and Romans) as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs, and Chinese since ancient times.[25] Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur (Cranganore) was destroyed by massive flooding of Periyar in 1341.[26] The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng He's treasure fleet.[27] There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, who visited Kochi in 1440.[28]

According to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom.[24] The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family that ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular.

Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement in India at Kochi in 1500.[29][30] From 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) was ruled by Portugal. This Portuguese period was a harrowing time for the Saint Thomas Christians and the Jews, as the Inquisition was active in Portuguese India. Kochi hosted the grave of Vasco da Gama, the first European explorer to set sail for India, who was buried at St. Francis Church until his remains were returned to Portugal in 1539.[31] The Portuguese rule was followed by that of the Dutch who renamed Fort Immanuel as Fort Stormsburg. In meantime, the Royal Family of Kochi relocated the capital of Kochi Kingdom to Thrissur, leaving nominal authority over Islands of Kochi. The remaining part of Kochi were governed by governors of Kochi Kingdom. By 1773, the Mysore ruler Hyder Ali extended his conquest in the Malabar region to Kochi forcing it to become a tributary of Mysore. The hereditary Prime Ministership of Kochi held by the Paliath Achans ended during this period.

Kochi City around 1635

Meanwhile, the Dutch, fearing an outbreak of war on the United Provinces, signed the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 with the United Kingdom, under which Kochi was ceded to the United Kingdom in exchange for the island of Bangka. However, there are evidences of English habitation in the region even before the signing of the treaty.[32] In 1866, Fort Kochi became a municipality, and its first Municipal Council seating contest was conducted in 1883. The Maharaja of Cochin, in 1896 initiated local administration by forming town councils in Mattancherry and Ernakulam. In 1907, the Governor of the Madras Presidency, Sir Arthur Lawley and his brother, Beilby Lawley, 3rd Baron Wenlock, Governor of Madras, 1891 to 1896, left for an official tour of Cochin and Travancore, which lasted from 25 January to 14 February. On 26 January, they were met by His Highness the Rajah of Cochin who gave a State Dinner in their honour at Ernakulam.[33][34][35][36] By 1870s, the capital of Kochi Kingdom was relocated again to Kochi Suburb of Tripunithura. In 1910, Ernakulam became the administrative capital of Kochi Kingdom with establishment of Royal Secretariat and State Durbar. The Offices of Diwan and High court were soon moved into Ernakulam.

In 1925, Kochi legislative assembly was constituted due to public pressure on the state.

St. Francis CSI Church built in 1503, is the oldest European church in India.[37]

Towards the early 20th century, trade at the port had increased substantially, and the need to develop the port was greatly felt. Harbour engineer Robert Bristow was brought to Kochi in 1920 under the direction of Lord Willingdon, then the Governor of Madras. In a span of 21 years, he transformed Kochi as one of the safest harbours in the peninsula, where ships berthed alongside the newly reclaimed inner harbour equipped with a long array of steam cranes.[38]

In 1947, when India gained independence from the British colonial rule, Cochin was the first princely state to join the Indian Union willingly.[24] In 1949, Travancore-Cochin state came into being with the merger of Cochin and Travancore. The King of Travancore was the Rajpramukh of the Travancore-Cochin Union from 1949 to 1956. Travancore-Cochin, was in turn merged with the Malabar district of the Madras State. Finally, the Government of India's States Reorganisation Act (1956) inaugurated a new state — Kerala — incorporating Travancore-Cochin (excluding the four southern Taluks which were merged with Tamil Nadu), Malabar District, and the taluk of Kasargod, South Kanara.[39] On 9 July 1960 the Mattancherry council passed a resolution—which was forwarded to the government—requesting the formation of a municipal corporation by combining the existing municipalities of Fort Kochi, Mattancherry, and Ernakulam. The government appointed a commission to study the feasibility of the suggested merger. Based on its report, the Kerala Legislative Assembly approved the corporation's formation. On 1 November 1967, exactly eleven years since the establishment of the state of Kerala, the corporation of Cochin came into existence. The merger leading to the establishment of the corporation, was between the municipalities of Ernakulam, Mattancherry and Fort Kochi, along with that of the Willingdon Island, four panchayats (Palluruthy, Vennala, Vyttila and Edappally), and the small islands of Gundu and Ramanthuruth. Kochi and Ernakulam district formed on 1 April 1958 carving areas of erstwhile Travancore-Kochi-Malabar kingdoms. Major portion of the district is from the Kochi kingdom.[3]

The city's economic growth gathered momentum after economic reforms in India introduced by the central government in the early-1990s. Since 2000, the service sector has energised the city's economy. The establishment of several industrial parks based on IT and other port based infrastructure triggered a construction and realty boom in the city. Over the years, Kochi has witnessed rapid commercialisation, and has today grown into the commercial hub of Kerala.[40]

Geography and climate[edit]

Main article: Geography of Kochi

Kochi is located on the southwest coast of India at 9°58′N 76°13′E / 9.967°N 76.217°E / 9.967; 76.217, spanning an area of 94.88 square kilometres (36.63 square miles). The city straddles the backwaters, encompassing the northern end of a peninsula, several islands and a portion of the mainland. To the west lies the Laccadive Sea, and to the east is the urbanised region in the rest of the mainland area. Much of Kochi lies at sea level, with a coastline of 48 km.[24]

The current metropolitan limits of Kochi include the mainland Ernakulam, Fort Kochi, the suburbs of Edapally, Kalamassery and Kakkanad to the northeast; Tripunithura to the southeast; and a group of islands closely scattered in the Vembanad Lake. Most of these islands are very small, varying in area from 6 km2 to less than 1 km2 (1,500 to less than 250 acres).[citation needed] The state government and the GCDA have plans to include Mala and Kodungallur in Thrissur district, Angamaly, Perumbavoor, Piravom and Kolenchery in Ernakulam district, Thalayolaparambu and Vaikom in Kottayam and Cherthala in Alappuzha district within Kochi metropolitan limits. The newly formed metropolis would be put under the charge of a new authority called Kochi Metropolitan Regional Development Authority.[41][42] However, The Hindu reported that the state government is yet to take any concrete steps in this regard.[43]

Soil consists of sediments such as alluvium, teri's, brown sands, etc. Hydromorphic saline soils are also found in the areas surrounding the backwaters.[24]

Predominant rock types found here are Archaean-basic dykes, Charnockites and Gneisses. An ecologically sensitive area, the Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary is located in the central part of the city. It has a wide range of mangrove species and is a nesting ground for a vast variety of migratory birds.

Kochi's water needs are entirely dependent on ground water and the two rivers flowing through the district viz., Periyar and Muvattupuzha. Periyar serves the entire northern part of the city whereas Muvattupuzha river under the JnNurm project covers the West Kochi, East Kochi and parts of Cherthala taluk under the Japan Water Project Scheme.

Under the Köppen climate classification, Kochi features a tropical monsoon climate (Am). Kochi's proximity to the equator along with its coastal location results in little seasonal temperature variation, with moderate to high levels of humidity. Annual temperatures range between 23 and 31 °C (73 and 88 °F) with the record high being 36.5 °C (97.7 °F), and record low 16.3 °C (61.3 °F).[44] From June to September, the south-west monsoon brings in heavy rains as Kochi lies on the windward side of the Western Ghats. From October to December, Kochi receives lighter (yet significant) rain from the northeast monsoon, as it lies on the leeward side. Average annual rainfall is 2,978.0 mm (117.24 in), with an annual average of 125 rainy days.[45]

Climate data for Kochi (1971–2000)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 36.4
Average high °C (°F) 31.7
Average low °C (°F) 22.6
Record low °C (°F) 16.5
Average precipitation mm (inches) 23.3
Average rainy days 1.0 1.2 2.3 6.2 10.7 23.2 22.3 20.0 13.8 14.3 7.8 1.9 124.7
Source: India Meteorological Department (record high and low up to 2010)[44][45]

Civic administration[edit]

Kochi City officials
Mayor Soumini Jain
Deputy Mayor T J Vinod
Police Commissioner M.R. Ajith Kumar
Ernakulam Town Hall
The High Court of Kerala located in the city is the highest court in Kerala

The city is administered by the Kochi Corporation, headed by a mayor. For administrative purposes, the city is divided into 74 wards,[46] from which the members of the corporation council are elected for five years. Earlier; Fort Kochi, Mattancherry and Ernakulam were the three Municipalities in Cochin area, which was later merged to form the Cochin Corporation. The Corporation has its headquarters in Ernakulam, and zonal offices at Fort Kochi, Mattancherry, Palluruthy, Edappally, Vaduthala and Vyttila. The general administration of the city is handled by the Personnel Department and the Council Standing committee Section.[citation needed] Other departments include that of town planning, health, engineering, revenue and accounts.[24] The corporation is also responsible for waste disposal and sewage management. The city produces more than 600 tons of waste per day[citation needed] and a large portion of waste is decomposed at Brahmapuram Soild Waste plant into organic manure.[citation needed] The supply of potable water, sourced from the Periyar River is handled by Kerala Water Authority with support of Water works department of Kochi Corporation.[47] Electricity is provided by the Kerala State Electricity Board. The GCDA and GIDA are the government agencies initiating and monitoring the development of Greater Cochin area, mainly in developing infrastructure facilities for the city.

Law and order[edit]

Kochi is the seat of High Court of Kerala, the highest judicial body in the state of Kerala. The Kochi City Police is headed by a Police Commissioner, an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. The city is divided into five zones and each zone under a circle officer. Apart from regular law & order, the city police comprises the Traffic Police, Narcotics Cell, Riot horse, Armed Reserve Camps, District Crime Records Bureau and a Women's Police station.[48] It operates 19 police stations[citation needed] functioning under the Home Ministry of Government of Kerala. An anti-corruption branch of the Central Bureau of Investigation also operates out of the city. CISF maintains 3 squadrons for providing security to various central and state heavy industries, airport and seaport zones. Other major central agencies are NIA, DRI and Indian Customs due to the presence of major port. According to National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), Kochi reported significant increase of 193.7 per cent IPC crimes in 2010 compared to 2009, and reported a crime rate of 1,897.8 compared to the 424.1 in whole Kerala.[49] However, Kochi Police officials defended that in major crimes such as murders and kidnapping, the city registered a low crime rate[50] even behind other cities in the state.[51]

Kochi is part of the Ernakulam Lok Sabha constituency in Indian Parliament. The current elected Member of Parliament representing the constituency is Prof. K. V. Thomas of Indian National Congress.

The Ernakulam Lok Sabha constituency elects six members to the state Legislative Assembly. Out of this, five constituencies, namely Kochi, Ernakulam, Thripunithura, Thrikkakara and Kalamassery represent the city.[52]

Main article: Economy of Kochi

Kochi is widely referred to as the commercial capital of Kerala.[53] Kochi is home to Cochin Stock Exchange, the only stock exchange in Kerala. Federal Bank, the fourth-largest Private-sector bank in India is located in Aluva which is a suburb of Kochi. Being a major online trading centre in the country, Kochi has a newly opened SEBI office.[54]

The Greater Cochin Development Authority is the statutory body overseeing the development of the city
Established in 1926, the Cochin Port Trust overlooks the activities of Cochin Port
Wonderla amusement park, Kochi

Availability of electricity, fresh water, long coastline, backwaters, good banking facilities, presence of a major port, container trans-shipment terminal, harbour terminal and an international air terminal are some of the factors which accelerated the industrial growth in the city and its adjoining district.[40] In recent years the city has witnessed heavy investment, thus making it one of the fastest-growing second-tier metro cities in India.[55][56] Sales tax income generated in the Kochi metropolitan area contributes heavily to state revenue.[57][58] The district contributes the highest portion, 14.47%, of the state's GDP.[59] Construction and manufacturing combined contributes 37%, and trade, tourism and hospitality together provides another 20%. Major business sectors include construction, manufacturing, shipbuilding, transportation/shipping, seafood and spices exports, chemical industries, information technology (IT), tourism, health services, and banking. Kochi is recognised as one of the seventeen major industrial cities of India by World Bank, Doing Business Group. However, in the 2009 rankings of ease to start and operate a business, among the 17 Indian cities selected, Kochi was rated as the second most difficult city to start business and was ranked 16th, above Kolkata.[60]

The SPM facility of Kochi Refineries at offsore Kochi
Vembanad Rail Bridge is the longest railway bridge in India
The Kochi International Marina is the only marina in India
TCS centre at Infopark

As in most of Kerala, remittances from non-resident Indians (NRI)s is a major source of income.[61] Eloor, situated 17 kilometres (11 miles) north of the city-centre, is the largest industrial belt in Kerala, with more than 250 factories manufacturing a range of products including chemical and petrochemical products, pesticides, rare earth elements, rubber processing chemicals, fertilisers, zinc and chromium compounds, and leather products.[62] Fertilisers and Chemicals Travancore Limited (FACT), one of the oldest fertilizers and chemical industry in Kerala is located in Kochi.[63] Kochi Refineries of (BPCL) at Ambalamugal is one of the largest oil refining facilities in South India. Petronet India has now almost completed Kochi LNG Terminal, for importing and storing natural gas, for energy and fuelling needs.[64] Central Government establishments like the Coconut Development Board, the Coir Board and the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) have head offices located in the city.

Kalamassery which is situated around 16.5 km from the City Center is one of the major Industrial areas. Leading factories like FACT, HMT and IT/Biotechnology park like KINFRA Hi-Tech Park are located here. The headquarters of Neera Development Center is located at Kalamassery . The Cochin University of Science and Technology is located at Kalamassery. Irimpanam is another major industrial area in Kochi. The Seaport-Airport Road (SPAP Road) passes through this place and oil giants like Indian Oil Corporation, Bharat Petroleum and Hindustan Petroleum have plants here.

Like elsewhere in Kerala, tourism is one of the strongest drivers of the local economy. Ernakulam district, in which Kochi is situated, ranks first in the total number of domestic tourists visiting Kerala,[12] and thus contributes to the economy of the city. The tourist enclave at Fort Kochi and presence of several historical monuments, museums etc. as well as natural attractions like the Vembanad lake and the backwaters attract large number of tourists to the city. Presence of several leading hospitality brands have been a major source of employment for locals. The Kochi Port is one of the leading ports where international cruisers call on regularly.[65] The city has the first marina facility[66] in the country Kochi Marina which attracts large number of yacht-totters. Real Estate industry is also one industry which is contributing a lot to the economy of Kochi. Many players have entered the market and have developed residential properties. Kochi is the headquarters of the Southern Naval Command, the primary training centre of the Indian Navy.[67] The Cochin Shipyard, contributes to the economy of the city.[68][69] The fishing harbour at Thoppumpady is a minor fishing port in the state and supplies fish to local and export markets. To further tap the potential of the all-season harbour at Kochi, an international cruise terminal and several marinas are being constructed.[70][71]

Exports and allied activities are also important contributors to the city's economy. The Cochin Port currently handles export and import of container cargo at its terminal at Willingdon Island. The International Container Transshipment Terminal operating out of Vallarpadam, is India's largest transshipment terminal.[72][73][74][75] Cochin Port Trust also planning to build an Outer Harbour near Puthuvype.[76] Kochi's historical reliance on trade continues into modern times, as the city is a major exporter of spices and is home to the International Pepper Exchange, where black pepper is globally traded. The Spices Board of India and World Spice Organisation are headquartered in Kochi.

The IT and ITES related industries are growing up in Kochi. Availability of cheap bandwidth through undersea cables and lower operational costs compared to other major cities in India, has been to its advantage. Various technology and industrial campuses including the government promoted InfoPark, Cochin Special Economic Zone and KINFRA Export Promotion Industrial Park operate in the outskirts of the city. Several new industrial campuses are under construction in the suburbs of the city. SmartCity at Kakkanad is the prominent project under proposal. Cyber City at Kalamassery is another integrated IT township SEZ being planned in the private sector.

Kochi has an established electronics hardware industry with companies such as V-Guard Industries, OEN India Limited, FCI OEN Connectors and SFO Technologies. The Government of Kerala has announced a project to build an industrial park named Electronic City[77] spanning an area of 340 acres (140 ha), to cater to the electronic hardware industries. The private operator NeST[78] is building a Special Economic Zone specifically for electronics hardware spanning an area of 30 acres (12 ha).

The Cochin International Airport is in the process of setting up an aerotropolis at Nedumbassery.[79][80]

Main article: Transport in Kochi
A panoramic view of Vyttila Mobility Hub

The air gateway to Kochi is the Cochin International Airport (CIAL) located at Nedumbassery, which is about 28 km (17 mi) north of Kochi city, and handles both domestic and international flights.[81] It is the first international airport in India to be built without Central Government funds[82] and is the world's first fully solar energy powered airport.

The Cochin airport provides direct connectivity to popular international destinations in the Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore and to most major Indian cities apart from tourist destinations like Lakshadweep. Kochi is also the headquarters of the Air India Express service. With a terminal area of 840,000 sq ft (78,000 m2), and a passenger capacity of 2200 (international and domestic), it is the largest and busiest airport in the state.[83] It is also the fourth busiest airport in India in terms of international passenger traffic, and seventh busiest overall.[84][85][86][87]

The Cochin International Airport is one of the busiest airports in the country and the first fully solar powered airport in the world
KSRTC Volvo city service buses in Kochi
Map for the Phase 1 of Kochi Metro
Ernakulam Boat Jetty is one of the main boat jetties in the city
Ferry Service boat at Kochi backwaters

Kochi is well connected to neighbouring cities and states via several highways. It is a node in the North-South Corridor of the National Highway system.

National highways[edit]

Kochi is served by National Highway 544, National Highway 66, National Highway 85, National Highway 966A, National Highway 966B and NH 66[88][89][90]

State highways[edit]

Several state highways also connect Kochi with other parts of Kerala.[91] SH 15, Ettumanoor-Ernakulam Road, connects the city to Kottayam. SH 41, Palarivattom-Thekkady Road, provides a corridor to the eastern parts of the district. SH 63, Vypeen Pallipuram Road and SH 66, Alappuzha – Thoppumpady road are coastal roads that serve the narrow sliver of land between the backwaters and the sea.

City roads[edit]

The main arterial road of the city is Mahatma Gandhi Road in Ernakulam, constructed in 1925 which runs parallel to the coast. Other major roads include Chittoor Road, Banerji Road, Shanmugham Road (in Marine Drive), Kochi Bypass, Kaloor-Kadavanthra Road, Park Avenue, Seaport-Airport Road and S.A Road. A new ring road is proposed for Kochi city by the state government for which a project study is being currently undertaken by NATPAC.[92]

Public transport[edit]

The primary form of public transport within the city is largely dependent on privately owned bus networks. The state-run also operates its services in the city through the Thirukochi service. The major bus terminals in the city are Ernakulam Town, Ernakulam Jetty and the private bus terminal at Kaloor. An integrated transit terminal namely The Mobility Hub at Vytilla is under 2nd phase of construction. The terminal acts as a hub for long distance bus services away from the city centre, and also to provide access to the other public transport facilities.[93]

Kochi is one of the few cities to be granted the new generation air-conditioned low floor and non-air-conditioned semi low-floor buses under the JNNURM city transport development project.KURTC and private buses operate frequent schedules to neighbouring towns of Kakkanad, Fort Kochi, Nedumbassery, Perumbavoor, Aluva, Muvattupuzha, Kothamangalam and Cherthala. Call taxis and auto rickshaws (called autos) are available for hire throughout the day.

Development of road infrastructure not keeping pace with the increase in traffic is a major problem faced by Kochi, like most other parts of Kerala.[94]

The city has two major railway stations – Ernakulam Junction and Ernakulam Town (locally known as the South and North railway stations respectively). The main rail transport system in Kochi is operated by the Southern Railway Zone of Indian Railways, and comes under Thiruvananthapuram Railway division. The South station is one of the busiest railway stations in South India, with more than 128 scheduled train services daily.[95] The North station situated on the northern side of the city, caters mostly to long distance services that bypass the South station, and also is an additional halt station for many trains.

There is a historic station named as Ernakulam Terminus(station code:ERG) situated behind the High Court. Great personalities like Mahatma Gandhi and The British Viceroy have visited Cochin through this old railway station. Ernakulam Terminus was the first station to serve the city but had to be abandoned in the early 1960s. Now this station operates as a goods depot of Southern Railway.[96]

Kochi Metro[edit]
Main article: Kochi Metro

The Kochi Metro is an under-construction metro rapid transit system for the city of Kochi, intended to considerably ease traffic congestion in the city and its surrounding metropolitan area.[97] It is being set up at an estimated cost of 5,146 crore (US$760 million). Expected to be complete by 2016, the metro system will have 22 stations connecting the suburban towns of Aluva and Pettah while passing through downtown Kochi.[98]

Kochi ranks among India's major seaports, partly due to being one of the safest harbours in the Indian Ocean.[99] The port, administered by a statutory autonomous body known as the Cochin Port Trust, offers facilities for bunkering, handling cargo and passenger ships and storage accommodation. The port is a complex of three islands, one of which is man-made.[100]

It also operates passenger ships to Colombo and Lakshadweep. Boat services are operated by Kerala Shipping and Inland Navigation Corporation, the State Water Transport Department and private firms from various boat jetties in the city. The junkar ferry for the transshipment of vehicles and passengers between the islands are operated between Ernakulam and Vypin, and between Vypin and Fort Kochi. However, with the construction of the Goshree bridges (which links Kochi's islands), ferry transport has become less essential. The main boat jetties are Ernakulam Main Boat Jetty near Park Avenue, High Court Jetty in Banerjee Road, Embarkation Jetty in Willingdon Island and Fort Kochi Jetty.

Religions in Kochi
Religion Percentage

With a population of 601,574 As of 2011, the city of Kochi has Kerala's highest population density parameter with 6340 people per km2.

The Santa Cruz Basilica at Fort Kochi is one of the eight Basilicas in India

As of 2011, Kochi had a metropolitan area population of 2,117,990. The female-to-male ratio is 1,028:1,000, significantly higher than the all-India average of 933:1,000. Kochi's literacy rate is 97.5%. The female literacy rate lags that of males by 1.1%, amongst the lowest such gaps in India.

The Jain Temple at Mattancherry

Kochi's major religions are Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. Jainism, Judaism, Sikhism and Buddhism, with smaller followings, are also practised in Kochi. Though 47% practice Hinduism, Christianity's large following (35%) makes Kochi a city with one of the largest Christian populations in India.[101][102][103] The majority of the city's residents are Malayalis. However, there are significant ethnic minority communities including Tamils, Gujaratis, Jews, Anglo-Indians, Sikhs and Konkanis[104][105][106] Malayalam is the main language of communication and medium of instruction for primary education, although a number of schools do offer English medium education. The higher education is invariably in English medium, and it is the preferred language in business circles. Tamil and Hindi are widely understood—albeit rarely spoken.

Like other fast-growing cities in the developing world, Kochi suffers from major urbanisation problems. The city was ranked 10th among Indian cities in terms of house-cost and availability, urban household crowding and household incomes.[107]

The government has plans to make the city slum-free by 2016.[108] According to the National Crime Records Bureau, the city holds the fourth position in the number of recorded crimes in India.[109][110][111] In 2009, the city recorded an average crime rate of 646.3 against the national average of 181.4.[110] But Kochi City Police Commissioner later clarified that this anomaly was due to higher reporting rates of minor crimes in Kochi than in other Indian cities.[112] The State Crime Records Bureau (SCRB) report gives further credence to this as it finds that Kochi has the least number of crime against women in the state of Kerala.[113] According to the 2011 CII/Institute of Competitiveness report on Liveability,[114] Kochi stands first in the state, and 6th in the country. Kochi is ranked seventh in the list of the top ten most affluent cities in India by 2009 study by Nielsen Company.[115] Kochi was ranked the fourth cleanest city in India in the Swachch Bharat rankings for cities. It was selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister Narendra Modi flagship Smart Cities Mission.[116]

Main article: Culture of Kochi

As a result of successive waves of migration over the course of several centuries, the population of the city is a mix of people from all parts of Kerala and most of India. The pan-Indian nature is highlighted by the substantial presence of various ethnic communities from different parts of the country.[117] Kochi has a diverse, multicultural, and secular community consisting of Malayalis, Konkanis,[118][119] Gujaratis,[104][105] Bengalis,[120] Marathis,[121] Punjabis,[106][122] Tamilians, Biharias, Anglo Indians and a few families of Jews among other denominations, all living in peaceful co-existence. The city once had a large Jewish community, known as the Malabar Yehuden—and now increasingly as Cochin Jews—that figured prominently in Kochi's business and economic strata.[123]

Pedestrians can stroll along the Marine Drive, a waterfront promenade of Kochi
The Kettuvallom Bridge at Marine Drive

The seat of Roman catholic Cathedral of Kerala's first Archdiocese Archdiocese of Verapoly and the first diocese Diocese of Cochin are located in the city. The Syro-Malabar Church, one of the 22 sui iuris Eastern Catholic Churches and a part of the Saint Thomas Christian community, has its seat at Ernakulam. Prominent places of Christian worship include the St. Mary's Syro-Malabar Catholic Cathedral Basilica, Ernakulam, St. Francis Assisi Roman Catholic Cathedral, Ernakulam, Basilica of Our Lady of Ransom, Vallarpadam-Ernakulam, Santa Cruz Basilica Roman Catholic Cathedral, Fort Kochi, St. Antony's Shrine at Kaloor, St. George Forane Church, Edappally and . Appropriate to its multi-ethnic composition, Kochi celebrates traditional Kerala festivals like Onam and Vishu along with North Indian Hindu festivals like Holi with great fervour. Christian and Islamic festivals like Christmas, Easter, Eid ul-Fitr and Milad-e-sherif are also celebrated. A merry making fest called the Cochin Carnival is celebrated at Fort Kochi during the last ten days of December.

The residents of Kochi are known as Kochiites; they are an important part of the South Indian culture. However, the city's culture is rapidly evolving with Kochiites generally becoming more cosmopolitan in their outlook.[56] The people are also increasingly fashion-conscious, often deviating from the traditional Kerala wear to western clothing.

Kochiites generally partake of Keralite cuisine, which is generally characterised by an abundance of coconut and spices. Other South Indian cuisines, as well as Chinese and North Indian cuisines are popular. Fast food culture is also very prominent.[124] Being a tourist hotspot, Fort Kochi have a number of restaurants that offer international cuisine, like Italian, French, Mexican etc. Being close to the ocean and the backwaters, Kochi has an abundance of seafood, which reflects in the cuisine. A service known as You Buy, We Cook is available at the waterfront of Fort Kochi, where the fresh seafood purchased from the nets is cooked as per the customers needs.[125] Arabian food joints that serve Shawarma and roasted chicken are a new addition to the fast food scene in the city.

Kochi also has a number of shopping malls including Oberon Mall, Gold Souk Grande, Bay Pride Mall, Centre Square Mall, Abad Nucleus Mall and Lulu Mall, which is the largest shopping mall in India in terms of total leasable area of 17 acres (7 ha).[126][127][128][129] Various shopping malls are expected to open in the city in the near future including Forum Thomsun Mall.

Kochi also has the most number of five star hotels in the state. These include international hotel brands like Crowne Plaza, Marriott, Le Méridien, Radisson Blu, Vivanta By Taj, Holiday Inn, The Gateway etc.

Kochi was home to some of the most influential figures in Malayalam literature, including Changampuzha Krishna Pillai, Kesari Balakrishna Pillai, G. Sankara Kurup, and Vyloppilli Sreedhara Menon. Prominent social reformers such as Sahodaran Ayyappan and Pandit Karuppan also are from Kochi.

The Maharajas of Kochi (then Cochin) were scholars who knew the epics and encouraged the arts. The paintings at the Hill Palace and the Dutch Palace are testimony to their love for arts.

Kochiites are known for their enthusiasm in sports, especially football and cricket.[130] The Jawaharlal Nehru International Stadium in Kochi is one of the largest stadiums in India with floodlights for Cricket and Football matches.[131] The Regional Sports Centre is an important centre of sporting activity in the city. Kochi is reportedly the 6th best city in India according to the livability index of 2011.[132]

Aster Medcity is one of the largest hopitals in the state

With a large number of advanced tertiary/quaternary care facilities, Kochi has one of the best healthcare facilities in India. It is the prime destination for people seeking advanced healthcare facilities from across Kerala.[133][134]

In recent times, it has attracted a large number of patients from all over India, Middle East, African nations as well as from Europe and United States looking for relatively inexpensive advanced medical care. Kochi is the only city from Kerala that have carried out successful heart transplantations.[135] Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Sunrise Hospital, Specialist Hospital, Medical Trust Hospital, PVS Memorial Hospital, Lakeshore Hospital, Lisie Hospital, Aster Medcity,[136] Rajagiri Institute of Medical Sciences are some of the advanced tertiary/quaternary healthcare facilities in Kochi.[137] Other reputed institutions in the city include Ernakulam Medical Centre, KIMS Hospital, Gautham Hospital, Renai Medicity, Lourdes Hospital, Kochi Medical College, and Saraf Hospital. Some of the reputed fertility related treatment centres in India – like Vijaya Hospital, Bourn Hall Clinic[138] and CIMAR – are located in Kochi. General Hospital, Ernakulam is the only notable medical institution in the government sector in Kochi.

Primary education[edit]

The pattern of primary education is essentially the same all over the state. There are government owned schools and government aided schools, which are affiliated to the Kerala State Education Board. A few privately owned schools are also affiliated to the system. Most of the schools owned by private organisations or individuals are affiliated to the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE). Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) have some schools affiliated to them as well. The state education board offers both Malayalam and English medium instruction, while the other boards offer English medium alone. There are a few schools that follow international curricula, such as IB and IGCSE.

Established in 1875, the Maharaja's College is one of the oldest colleges in the state
The main building of Model Engineering College was inspired from India's first satellite, Aryabhatta
Rajagiri College of Social Sciences at Kalamassery

There 34 government schools, 67 private aided schools and 31 unaided schools affiliated to the Kerala State Education Board in the city and suburbs.[139] There are 62 CBSE Schools, 2 IGCSE and 9 ICSE Schools as well.[140][141]

The general pattern of education is ten years of common schooling to reach the secondary level. Kindegartens are widely available, but considered separate from formal schooling, and generally unregulated. After the secondary level, three streams, namely Arts, Commerce or Science are offered for higher secondary education. After finishing the school, students can opt for higher education related to the streams they had undergone for higher secondary schooling.

The notable schools in the government sector are Sree Rama Varma High School, Edappally High School, Government School-Kochi and Govt Girls Higher Secondary School in Kacheripady. There are Kendriya Vidyalaya, Chinmaya Mission and Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan run several quasi-private charter schools within the city limits, as well as in the suburbs. There are several fully private schools that are owned by secular and religious trusts which are of particular renown, such as The Delta Study, Rajagiri Public School, Campion School, Assisi Vidyaniketan, Cochin Refineries School, Gregorian Public School, Greets Public School, Toc-H Public School, Global Public School, Choice School, Vidyodaya School, Mar Thoma Public School, Nava Nirman Public School and St. Pauls International School, Kalamassery, The Charter School Kochi.

Higher education[edit]

The Cochin University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) is a major university named after the city. Most of the colleges in Kochi offering tertiary education are affiliated either with the Mahatma Gandhi University or with the Cochin University. Kochi has one of the campuses of the Indian Maritime University at Willingdon Island. Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit in Kalady is a research oriented university located at the outskirts. Other national educational institutes include the Central Institute of Fisheries Nautical and Engineering Training, the National University of Advanced Legal Studies, the National Institute of Oceanography and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute.

Kochi has some of the leading B-Schools in the region. The Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode (IIMK) has set up its first satellite campus at Athulya building in InfoPark, Kochi.[142] Cochin University's School of Management Studies (SMS) is the first and oldest managerial education institution in South India. SCMS Cochin is one of the emerging B-Schools in the country.[143] Another major B-School XIME is opening a new campus in Kochi.[144] Other leading managerial institutions include Rajagiri Centre for Business Studies, Kochi Business School, Amrita School of Business, Albertian Institute of Management and Toc-H B school.

The city and outskirts are home to four medical schools — Amrita Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre at Ponekkara, Cochin Medical College at Kalamassery, Sree Narayana Institute of Medical Sciences, M.O.S.C. Medical College, Kolenchery. Some of the prestigious general colleges are Maharaja's College, St. Albert's College, St. Teresa's College, Sacred Hearts College, Bharata Matha College, Aquina's College. De Paul Institute of Science & Technology (DIST) and Cochin College. The major Engineering and Technology colleges in the city are School of Engineering CUSAT, SCMS School of Engineering and Technology at Kalamassery, Model Engineering College, Rajagiri School of Engineering & Technology and FISAT (Federal Institute Of Science &Technology).

Being the seat of the High Court of Kerala, several top legal education institutes are here. The Government Law College-Ernakulam is one of the oldest law schools in Kerala.[145] The School of Legal Studies (SLS), CUSAT is one of the leading graduate, post-graduate, and research institutes in the country. The National University of Advanced Legal Studies (NUALS) is located in the city, which is a premier law university in India and the only Law college listed in CLAT (Common Law Admission Test) in Kerala.

Social service organisations[edit]

Some of the main orphanages and rehabilitation shelters in Cochin City are Palluruthy Relief Settlement in Palluruthy Veli, Don Bosco Sneha Bhavan, Don Bosco Big Boys, Crescent Girls Orphanage, YMCA Boys Home,[146] Bal Bhavan, Valsalya Bhavan.[147]

Palluruthy Relief Settlement is under Corporation of Cochin and managed in association with Peoples Council for Social Justice. There are about 300 inmates and many of them are mentally ill.[148] The night shelter for women run by Corporation of Cochin near Kerala State Road Transport Corporation bus stand provides free and safe accommodation.[149] Peoples Council for Social Justice was found in 1985 under the patronage of Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer with the aim to work for human rights protection, free legal aid and to strive for social justice.[150][151][152]

The orphanages for children under Don Bosco Sneha Bhavan Cochi are Sneha Bhavan Annexe, SnehaBhavan, Valsalya Bhavan, Don Bosco and Bosco Nilayam. The Childline India project in Cochin is taken in collaboration with Don Bosco. Children in distress and in need of help can contact in '1098' (toll free number).[153] Sneha Bhavan Annexe is the first point of contact with children and children can stay as a safe night shelter.[154] Sneha Bhavan is a home for the children from the streets and for those from unhealthy and risky situations. The Valsalya Bhavan centre is solely for the girls who are rescued from the streets. Runaways, street children, children of sex workers, abused children and child labourers all live here. Along with primary and high school education at a local school, the centre provides shelter, food, clothing and educational support.[155]

There are many good people doing independent social service. The Italian Sister Sabiola conducts a home at Fort Cochin known as "Ashwasa Bhavan", for young orphaned children.[156] Br. Judson run his own mobile bath in his vehicle for the abandoned: His "Mobile Bath Service" moves around Kochi mornings and in evenings to clean and clothe people living on the streets. Judson washes and cleanses their wounds, provides them new clothes and food, and takes them to shelters in the city.[157][158]

Sree Narayana Sevika Samajam, a charitable organisation situated at Thottumugham, Aluva, Ernakulam District, Kerala, India.[159][160][161] It was established in the year 1965 under Societies Registration Act, Travancore, 1955. Sreenarayana Sevika Samajam seeks to give a home to those who would otherwise have none.

Akshara Mandiram at Marine Drive

Major Malayalam newspapers published in Kochi include Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Deshabhimani, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi, Janmabhumi, etc. Popular English newspapers include The Hindu, The New Indian Express, The Times of India, The Pioneer and The Deccan Chronicle. A number of evening papers are also published from the city.[162] Newspapers in other regional languages like Hindi, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are also available.

A number of financial publications are also published in the city. These include The Economic Times, Business Line, The Business Standard and The Financial Express. Prominent magazines and religious publications like the Sathyadeepam, The Week and Vanitha are also published from the city.

Kochi houses several leading Malayalam television channels like Flowers, Surya TV, Indiavision, Jeevan TV,Mazhavil Manorama, Manorama News, Reporter TV and We (music channel of Kairali TV) as well as major news studios of Asianet, Kairali TV, Amrita TV and Doordarshan. Prasar Bharati maintains its earth station and broadcasting centre in Kakkanad, Kochi. Satellite television services are available through DD Direct+, Dish TV, Airtel digital tv, Reliance DTH, Sun Direct DTH and Tata Sky. FM radio channels broadcast from Kochi[163] are Rainbow FM (AIR) 101.9 MHz, AIR Kochi 102.3 MHz, Club FM 94.3 MHz,[164] Radio Mango 91.9 MHz,[165] Red FM 93.5 MHz,[166] Radio Mirchi 104.0 MHz.[167]

Kochi is considered to be the hub of the vibrant Malayalam movie industry,[168] especially new generation Malayalam movies. The rise of Kochi to the centre stage of the entertainment industry occurred coinciding with the economic boom of the last couple of decades. A large number of movies are shot in Kochi every year.[169] Kochi also has a host of state-of-the-art production and post production facilities.[170][171][172][173][174][175] Due to these reasons, major section of film personalities including of actors, technical experts and other related workers reside in Kochi.[176][177] There are over 50 cinema halls that screen movies in Malayalam, Tamil, English and Hindi. The city hosts Kerala's first cine multiplex, at the Oberon Mall with four screens. Gold Souk Grande also has a cine multiplex operated by Q cinemas with four screens. PVR with 9 screens is another national multiplex brand that has presence in Kochi and is based out of LuLu International Shopping Mall. Cinepolis at Centre Square Mall with 11 screens is the first international megaplex brand in the state. 16 more multiplex screens are expected in the city in the near future.

The district has the largest number of telephone connections in Kerala.[178] Telephony services are provided by various private sector players like Aircel, Airtel, Idea Cellular, Vodafone, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Docomo, Tata Indicom and the state owned BSNL. All the private sector telecom companies have their headquarters for Kerala circle located in Kochi.

Like elsewhere in Kerala, football is the most passionate sport among locals. Kochi is home to two of India's major professional football teams, FC Kochin and Chirag United Kerala and also teams like Josco FC since 2008.[179][180] In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar and PVP Ventures won the bid to own Kochi based football team, Kerala Blasters FC in the IMG-Reliance ISL. Kerala Blasters FC has reached to the finals of IMG-Reliance ISL debut season.

The Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium is one of the largest stadiums in India

India's third largest stadium and second largest cricket stadium, the Jawaharlal Nehru International Stadium located in Kaloor, is a major facility for football and cricket.[181][182] Recently, the stadium was renovated to facilitate more cricket tournaments as well as for hosting IPL Matches. Kochi was home to the Indian Premier League cricket team, the Kochi Tuskers which won franchise rights to play IPL which participated in the 2011 edition of IPL. Kochi is selected as one of the six host cities for the 2017 FIFA U-17 World Cup to be held in India.[183] Because of this selection, huge investments and business opportunities are expected to come to the city.

The Maharaja's Stadium located on MG Road in the heart of the city, is the major athletic facility in the state with synthetic tracks and turf grass as per international standards.[184] The Ambedkar stadium, maintained by GCDA, will be developed exclusively for Football with funds from Government of Kerala and FIFA.[185] Spanish club Real Madrid has proposed to set up a football school in Kochi.[186]

The Rajiv Gandhi Sports Complex at Kadavanthra is a major indoor stadium, mainly used for conducting badminton, tennis and basketball tournaments. The 25m X 10m swimming pool[187] at the centre is one of the larger water sports facility in the state, where regular swimming competitions and coaching are conducted.

The FACT Grounds at Udyogamandal, Sacred Heart's College Grounds, HMT Grounds at Kalamassery and St. Albert's College Grounds are the other major training facilities for various games like volleyball, badminton, cricket etc.

Kochi has two golf courses in the city, and one in the suburbs. The oldest golf club is located at Bolgatty Palace constructed in 1903, which is a nine-hole facility run by Cochin Golf Club society.[188] The Cochin Golf and Country Club located near to Cochin Airport, operated by CIAL, is Kerala's first 18-hole golf course with a playing area of over 7,200 yards. The first phase of the all-weather golf course comprising nine holes was opened in May 2010 for members and public. The expansion to an 18-hole course is progressing, which is scheduled to be open in September 2012.[189][190]

Being surrounded by water bodies, the city is ideal for Yachting. The Kerala Yachting Association and[191] the Cochin Yacht Club[192] are located in the city. Both organisations conduct regular yachting tournaments. Kochi was the only Indian city chosen for stopover during the Volvo Ocean Race 2008.[193]

The Southern Naval Command, one of the three main formations of the Indian Navy has its HQ in Kochi at INS Venduruthy. It is commanded by the Flag Officer Commanding-in-Chief. The Southern Naval Command consists of Flag Officer Sea Training (FOST), a training squadron, training establishments and bases, and land forces and survey ships. It has a naval air station, and a ship repair yard.

The Indian Navy Day is also celebrated here. It is a week-long event showcasing warships, planes, helicopters etc. of the Indian Navy at INS Venduruthy. It is a public event attended in large numbers.

The close by located Cochin Shipyard Limited is the largest shipbuilding and maintenance facility in India.[194] Presently it is building the first indigenous aircraft carrier for the Indian Navy.

Sister cities[edit]

Kochi is twinned with:

See also[edit]

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  197. ^ "Association with Pyatigorsk".

214. Yusoft Info Solutions No 1 Software development company in Kochi.

Further reading[edit]

  • Ma Huan: Ying Yai Sheng Lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores, translated by J.V.G. Mills, 1970 Hakluyt Society, reprint 1997 White Lotus Press. ISBN 974-8496-78-3
  • Plunkett, R, Cannon, T, Davis, P, Greenway, P & Harding, P (2001), Lonely Planet South India, Lonely Planet, ISBN 1-86450-161-8
  • Manorama Yearbook 2003 (English Edition) ISBN 81-900461-8-7
  • Robert Charles Bristow – Cochin Saga, Paico Pub. House; 2d ed. edition (1967), OCLC 1659055
  • Unemployment in Kerala at the turn of the 20th century Insights from the CDS gulf migration studies — K. C. Zachariah, S. Irudaya Rajan
  • Kochi Rajyacharithram by KP Padmanabha Menon. P (1914)
  • Akhilavijnanakosam Malayalam Encyclopedia — D C Books Multimedia Series.

External links[edit]


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text:
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Southern beeches
Temporal range: 72–0 Ma
Late Campanian–Present
Roble (Nothofagus obliqua).JPG
The roble beech (Nothofagus obliqua) from South America
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Fagales
Family: Nothofagaceae
Genus: Nothofagus
Nothofagus Distribution.svg
The range of Nothofagus.
  • Fagaster Spach
  • Cliffortioides Dryand. ex Hook.
  • Myrtilloides Banks & Sol. ex Hook.
  • Calucechinus Hombr. & Jacquinot ex Decne. in J.S.C.Dumont d'Urville
  • Calusparassus Hombr. & Jacquinot ex Decne. in J.S.C.Dumont d'Urville
  • Lophozonia Turcz.
  • Trisyngyne Baill.
Shoots, leaves, and cupules of N. obliqua

Nothofagus, also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species[3] of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and Australasia (east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and New Caledonia). The species are ecological dominants in many temperate forests in these regions.[4] Some species are reportedly naturalised in Germany and Great Britain.[2] The genus has a rich fossil record of leaves, cupules and pollen, with fossils extending into the late Cretaceous and occurring in Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica and South America.[5] In the past, they were included in the family Fagaceae, but genetic tests revealed them to be genetically distinct,[6] and they are now included in their own family, the Nothofagaceae (literally meaning "false beeches" or "bastard beeches").[7]

The leaves are toothed or entire, evergreen or deciduous. The fruit is a small, flattened or triangular nut, borne in cupules containing one to seven nuts.

Nothofagus species are used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus, including A. eximia and A. virescens.

Many individual trees are extremely old, and at one time, some populations were thought to be unable to reproduce in present-day conditions where they were growing, except by suckering (clonal reproduction), being remnant forest from a cooler time. Sexual reproduction has since been shown to be possible.[8] Although the genus now mostly occurs in cool, isolated, high-altitude environments at temperate and tropical latitudes the fossil record shows that it survived in climates that appear to be much warmer than those that Nothofagus now occupies.[9]

The genus is classified in these sections:[10]

Sect. Brassospora (type Nothofagus brassi)
Sect. Fuscospora (type Nothofagus fusca)
Beech trees in New Zealand
Sect. Lophozonia (type Nothofagus menziesii)
Sect. Nothofagus (type Nothofagus antarctica)
Section uncertain

It was recently proposed that the generic classification of the Nothofagaceae should be revised, with the four subgenera elevated to full genera.[15] This proposed change is not taxonomically essential and it remains to be seen if this work will gain wide acceptance.[2][16]

The Nothofagus plant genus illustrates the distribution on fragments of the old supercontinent Gondwana Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Argentina and Chile. Fossils show that the genus originated on the supercontinent.

The pattern of distribution around the southern Pacific Rim suggests the dissemination of the genus dates to the time when Antarctica, Australia, and South America were connected in a common land-mass or supercontinent referred to as Gondwana.[17] However, genetic evidence using molecular dating methods has been used to argue that the species in New Zealand and New Caledonia evolved from species that arrived in these landmasses by dispersal across oceans.[18] There is uncertainty in molecular dates and controversy rages as to whether the distribution of Nothofagus derives from the break-up of Gondwana (i.e. vicariance), or if there has been long distance dispersal across oceans. In South America the northern genus limit can be construed as La Campana National Park and the Vizcachas Mountains in the central part of Chile.[19]

Beech mast[edit]

Every four to six years or so, Nothofagus produces a heavier crop of seeds and is known as the beech mast. In New Zealand, the beech mast causes an increase in the population of introduced mammals such as mice, rats, and stoats. When the rodent population collapses, the stoats begin to prey on native bird species, many of which are threatened with extinction.[20] This phenomenon is covered in more detail in the article on stoats in New Zealand.

Beechwood Honeydew[edit]

Beechwood Honeydew is a type of honey made in New Zealand from the secretions of Hemiptera aphids feeding on Nothofagus trees.[21][22]

See also[edit]

  • Cyttaria, genus of ascomycete fungi found on or associated with Nothofagus
  • Misodendrum, specialist parasites of Nothofagus

  1. ^ Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2009). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III" (PDF). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 161 (2): 105–121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x. Retrieved 2013-06-26.
  2. ^ a b c Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families
  3. ^ Christenhusz, M. J. M., and Byng, J. W. (2016). "The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase". Phytotaxa. Magnolia Press. 261 (3): 201–217. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1.
  4. ^ Veblen, Thomas; Hill, Robert; Read, Jennifer (1996). Ecology and Biogeography of Nothofagus Forests. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06423-3.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Hill, Robert (2001). "Biogeography, evolution and palaeoecology of Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae): The contribution of the fossil record.". Australian Journal of Botany. 49: 321. doi:10.1071/BT00026.
  6. ^ Manos PS, Steele KP (1997) Phylogenetic analyses of 'higher' Hamamelididae based on plastid sequence data. American Journal of Botany 84, 1407-1419. Stable URL:
  7. ^ Manos, Paul (1997). "Phylogenetic analyses of 'higher' Hamamelididae based on plastid sequence data". American Journal of Botany. 84: 1407–1419. doi:10.2307/2446139. JSTOR 2446139.
  8. ^
  9. ^ Carpenter, RJ; Jordan, GJ; Macphail, MK; Hill, RS (2012). "Near-tropical early eocene terrestrial temperatures at the Australo-Antarctic margin, western Tasmania". Geology. 40: 267–270. doi:10.1130/G32584.1.
  10. ^ Nothofagus website (in French)
  11. ^ Carpenter, RJ; Bannister, JM; Lee, DE; Jordan, GJ (2014). "Nothofagus subgenus Brassospora (Nothofagaceae) leaf fossils from New Zealand: A link to Australia and New Guinea?". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 174: 503–515. doi:10.1111/boj.12143.
  12. ^ Jordan, GJ (1999). "A new Early Pleistocene species of Nothofagus and the climatic implications of co-occurring Nothofagus fossils". Australian Systematic Botany. 12: 757–765. doi:10.1071/sb98025.
  13. ^ Neogene Period (23–0.05 mya)
  14. ^ Nothofagus beardmorensis Nothofagaceae, a new species based on leaves from the Pliocene Sirius Group, Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica
  15. ^ Heenan, P.B.; Smissen, R.D. (2013). "Revised circumscription of Nothofagus and recognition of the segregate genera Fuscospora, Lophozonia, and Trisyngyne (Nothofagaceae)". Phytotaxa. 146 (1): 1–31. doi:10.11646/phytotaxa.146.1.1.
  16. ^ Hill, RS; Jordan, GJ; Macphail, MK (2015). "Why we should retain Nothofagus sensu lato". Australian Systematic Botany. 28: 190–193. doi:10.1071/sb15026.
  17. ^ Native Forest Network (2003) Gondwana Forest Sanctuary
  18. ^ Knapp, M; Stockler, K; Havell, D; Delsuc, F; Sebastiani, F; Lockhart, PJ (2005). "Relaxed molecular clock provides evidence for long-distance dispersal of Nothofagus (Southern Beech)". PLoS Biology. 3: 38–43. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030014.
  19. ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008) Chilean Wine Palm: Jubaea chilensis,, ed. Nicklas Stromberg
  20. ^ "Beech forest: Native plants". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 26 August 2012.
  21. ^ "J.Friend and Co NZ Artisan Honey - Beechwood Honeydew". J.Friend and Co. Retrieved 2016-03-25. Beechwood Honeydew is a naturally dark amber liquid honey, resembling golden syrup, with a bold pungent nose.
  22. ^ "The Cuba Street Honey Store - Beechwood Honeydew". The Cuba Street Honey Store. Retrieved 2016-03-25. From the nectar of Hemiptera, an aphid like creature feeding on the sap Nothofagus spp, comes this remarkably different honey dew honey from New Zealand's south Island. Hemiptera eat the sap of the tree, and secrete a light sugary substance using a special tube.

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text:
Performing Animal Welfare Society

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

The Performing Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) is a U.S. based group for abandoned or abused performing animals as well victims of the exotic animal trade. They claim 30,000 members. As a member accredited by The Association of Sanctuaries (TAOS), the society follows guidelines stipulated by TAOS, one of which is that none of the elephants be bred.[1]

Founded by former Hollywood animal trainer and author Pat Derby and partner Ed Stewart, PAWS works to ensure that animals are protected by the Endangered Species and the Animal Welfare Acts, as well as by local laws. In 2007, with the arrival of a retired circus elephant named Nicholas, PAWS' ARK 2000 became the first sanctuary in the United States to house bull elephants.[citation needed] Today, the sanctuary is home to three bull elephants following the arrival of Sabu in September 2010, and Prince in July 2011. Sabu and Prince are both retired circus elephants.

Sanctuary Facilities[edit]

PAWS maintains three sanctuaries for captive wildlife—a 30 acre sanctuary in Galt, California, the 100-acre (0.40 km2) Amanda Blake Wildlife Refuge in Herald, California and a third, Ark 2000, which comprises 2,300 acres (9.3 km2) in San Andreas, California. The Galt sanctuary was the first in the United States equipped to care for elephants.[2]

The animals live in facilities specifically designed for their needs; the elephants, for example, have access to 100 acres (0.40 km2) of land and have been given a jacuzzi for the more arthritic members of their family.

Ark 2000 is supported by private and corporate donations. Its membership list is said to have 33,000 names.[2]

Animal Population[edit]

The sanctuaries currently house approximately six Asian elephants, five African elephants, 41 exotic cats such as tigers, lions, cougars, a black leopard, a serval, and a bobcat, eight bears (mostly American black bears), eight primates (mostly White-headed capuchins), one coyote, emu, rhea, fallow deer, eland, Muntjack deer and a herd of scimitar-horned oryx.

Ark 2000 houses two bears who appeared in the 1994 film Legends of the Fall: a grizzly bear named Tuffy and a Kodiak bear named Manfried.[2]

See also[edit]

  1. ^ "Care Guidelines for Captive Elephants". TAOS. Archived from the original on September 10, 2005. Retrieved February 3, 2007.
  2. ^ a b c Vitello, Paul. (2013, February 22). Pat Derby, 69, Champion of Animal Welfare. The New York Times, p B13.

External links[edit]


text:
Political faction

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

A political faction is a group of individuals, such as a political party, a trade union, or other group with a common political purpose. A faction or political party may include fragmented sub-factions, “parties within a party," which may be referred to as power blocs, or voting blocs. Members of factions band together as a way of achieving these goals and advancing their agenda and position within an organization.

Factions are not limited to political parties; they can and frequently do form within any group that has some sort of political aim or purpose.

The Latin word factio denoted originally either of the chariot teams that were organised professionally by private companies in ancient Rome, each recognizable by characteristic colour and arousing supporter hysteria similar to that in modern sports fans. These teams were not unlike gladiator schools, but the lethal nature of that entertainment meant few performers lasted long enough to build up similar crowd loyalty to the "team", while the fighters rarely actually teamed up, but rather fought duels or beasts. In time, political currents could become associated with such a team, although precisely how this happened is unclear. In Byzantine Constantinople, two such chariot factions, blue and green, repeatedly made or broke the claims of candidates to the imperial throne.

Occasionally, the term "faction" is still used more or less as a synonym for political party, but "with opprobrious sense, conveying the imputation of selfish or mischievous ends or turbulent or unscrupulous methods", according to the Oxford English Dictionary. In his Dictionary, Samuel Johnson (a Tory) dismissively defined Whig as "the name of a faction". Similarly, in the tenth installment of The Federalist Papers, James Madison defines a faction as "a number of citizens, whether amounting to a minority or majority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." In plain English this is a group that pursues self-interest at the expense of the greater good.

Aims of factions[edit]

The aims of a political faction are as diverse as the different types of bodies within which they appear. Typically, however, they include: advancing a particular policy or policy agenda, preventing the adoption of alternative policies and supporting given individuals to positions of power within the organization or in the wider political world. A faction can primarily be based around supporting a given person or group, or a single major aim, with little in the way of common agenda otherwise, or it can have a comprehensive and definitive set of policies. Either way, factional politics typically revolve around personality, with a few individuals playing key roles, acting as a magnet for like-minded people, leading the activities of the faction, and acting as a prominent voice for the shared objectives of the faction. Such individuals can be referred to by a variety of names, such as “powerbrokers” or “factional chiefs”.

Factions differ in the amount of organisation and internal structure they possess. On the left, these may take the form of tendencies or platforms. Most factions are very loose organisations, having no definitive list of members, but some factions, have a formal internal structure, with membership lists, regular meetings, official positions – such as negotiators, conveners, whips, and organizers, – and a definitive policy position on every issue affecting the broader organisation. Such factions will typically be binding; that is, they rely upon all members casting their votes in accordance with the pre-ordained official stance of the faction.

Operation of factions[edit]

In political organizations that are democratic in structure, factions rely heavily on securing enough votes to win important ballots. This process is sometimes referred to as “doing the numbers”. Having the numbers will allow the faction to push policies it supports and elect its members to powerful positions within the broader organisation.

If one faction develops within an organization, there will usually be at least one other that develops in opposition to it. Opposing factions will try to match each other's level of organization and internal discipline, but will also engage in negotiations and trade-offs to ensure that the organisation’s activities are not compromised and that every group has a chance to obtain at least some of its goals.

Key to the operation of an organized faction is the existence of a power base. This will typically be some office, division or branch of the broader organization over which the faction has effective control. Sometimes a power base may be an external or affiliated organization that is involved with the broader organization in some way.

A power base serves several key functions:

  • It acts as a recruitment center for new members, and promotes homogeneity within the membership (crucial for maintaining factional cohesion);
  • It can be used as an organising center for factional events and activities;
  • It functions as a springboard, advancing the career of selected factional members and allowing them to gain skills that will increase their effectiveness and clout.

Effects of factions[edit]

The existence of a factional system can have serious negative consequences for a political organisation. If factional strife becomes intensive and public, the organisation may suffer from perceptions of disunity. Taken one step further, if the conflict is particularly severe, it may cause ruptures within the organisation that seriously impede its effectiveness, leading to break-up or collapse of the organisation.

To avoid harm to the organisation, factional operations are usually conducted under strong secrecy and with minimal public scrutiny. This, however, can lead to the proliferation of unethical behaviour. Warfare between the factions may lead to tactics such as ballot box-stuffing, stack-outs, membership fraud, and other generally fraudulent conduct. Individuals who abandon a faction may be subject to intense personal vendettas where their former comrades go about sabotaging their careers. A climate of intense factional conflict can also motivate individuals to focus on attacking their factional enemies rather than furthering the broader organisation.

Despite this, the benefits of factional systems are often overlooked. It is often incomprehensible to outsiders why members of a broader organisation would engage in factionalism. This stems from the assumption that the natural factional relationship is one of conflict and strife, when in fact, factions are often able to engage in productive co-operation.

In any political organization there are likely to be many highly opinionated and passionate people. The existence of a factional system allows its operations to be more predictable and stable. Compromise and give-and-take between factions allows the organisation to operate without having to satisfy the whims of many different, uncompromising individuals who might otherwise cause a split. So, somewhat counter-intuitively, factionalism can actually promote organisational harmony.

Factions also help to broaden and diversify the organisation’s appeal. A person who might otherwise find the organisation’s goals unattractive might be persuaded to support a faction within it whose goals are closer to their own. Just as a democratic government is often invigorated by a strong opposition, so having a number of distinct points-of-view with an organisation can energise it and allow it to perform its role more effectively. It is also highly unlikely that any sizeable political organisation is wholly united in purpose, so arguably factions simply represent a way of managing pre-existing differences within the organisation.

The Founding Fathers of the American constitution, explicitly warned against the dangers of party factionalism. Madison, Hamilton, and Washington expressed the belief that factions would create divides that would ultimately dismantle the government. These sentiments can be found in The Federalist Papers, specifically Federalist 10 and 51 written by Madison.

See also[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Robert J. Alexander, "Splinter Groups in American Radical Politics," Social Research, vol. 20, no. 3 (Autumn 1953), pp. 282–310. In JSTOR.

External links[edit]