Lugha ya biashara huzungumzwa na wauzaji na wanunuzi katika sehemu za kibiashara Inapaswa ikumbukwe kwamba lugha hii inaweza kubadilika kidogo kulingana na mazingira Kwa mfano katika mikutano ya kibiashara lugha rasmi hutumiwa ilihali katika soko lugha ya mitaani inaweza kutumika


Sifa za Lugha ya Biashara


Hutumia msamiati wa kibiashara kama vile


Fedha


Faida


Hasara


Bei


Bidhaa


Hutumia misimu ili kuwavutia wanunuzi


Ni lugha yenye malumbano hasa watu wanapojadiliana kuhusu bei


Ni lugha legevu  haizingatii kanuni za lugha


Huchanganya ndimi kwa kuingiza maneno ya lugha za kigeni


Ni yenye heshima na unyenyekevu kwa wanunuaji


Msamiati katika lugha ya Kibiashara


Mfano wa Sajili ya Biashara


Sajili ya Bungeni


Hii ni lugha inayozungumzwa wakati wa kikao cha bunge Sajili hii ni tofauti na na sajili ya siasa ambayo huhusisha wanasiasa wakipiga kampeni


Sifa za Lugha ya Bungeni


Ni lugha yenye ushawishi  wabunge hutumia vishawishi ili kuwahimiza wenzao waunge ama kupinga msalaba


Ni lugha ya mjadala yenye waungao na wapingao


Ni lugha yenye heshima na nidhamu Maneno ya heshima kama mheshimiwa tafadhali na samahani hutumika sana


Hutumia maneno maalum yanayopatikana katika mazingira ya bunge kama vile kikao mswaada kuunga mkono kujadili kupitisha nk


Lugha ya bungeni ni rasmi na sanifu


Hulenga maswala mbalimbali ya kisiasa na maendeleo katika taifa


Huwa na maelezo kamilifu


Ni lugha yenye maswali na majibu miongoni mwa wabunge


Mfano wa sajili ya Bungeni


Sajili ya Hospitalini


Sifa za Lugha ya Hospitalini


Hutumia msamiati wa hospitalini kama vile


dawa


magonjwa


Daktari


Wadi


Mgonjwa


Dawa


Kipimo


Ni lugha yenye upole na heshima


Huwa na maswali mengi hasa daktari anapotaka kutambua kiini cha ugonjwa unaomhadhiri mgonjwa wake


Ni lugha yenye hofu na huzuni


Mfano wa Sajili ya Hospitalini


Sajili ya Kidini


Katika sajili ya kidini tunaangazia lugha inayozungumzwa na wauminiwashiriki wa imani fulani wakati wa ibada sala katika nyumba takatifu au mahali popote pale ambapo wanazungumzia mambo yanayorejelea imani au Mwenyezi Mungu


Sifa za Lugha ya Kidini


Hutumia msamiati wa kidini kama vile


Bibilia


maombi


mbinguni


jehanamu


Madhabahu


Paradiso


Mbinguni


Mwenyezi Mungu


Mwokozi


Ni lugha inayonukuu sana hasa wazungumzaji wanaporejelea Kitabu kitakatifu


Lugha yenye heshima upole na unyenyekevu


Lugha sanifu


Ni lugha iliyojaa ahadi nyingi kwa wanaoandamana na mafunzo ya kidini na vitisho kwa wanaoenda kinyume na mafundisho


Huwa imejaa matumaini


Ni lugha yenye kutoa maneno ya sifa kumtukuza na kumshukuru Mwenyezi Mungu


Mfano wa Sajili ya Kidini


Sajili ya Kisayansi


Sifa za Lugha ya Kisayansi


Hutumia msamiati wa kipekee unaoambatana na taaluma inayorejelewa


Huwa na maelezo kwa ukamilifu


Huwa na mpangilio maalum na maendelezo ya hoja na ujumbe


Huchanganya ndimi na kutumia maneno ya kisayansi au lugha mbalimbali


Hutumia lugha sanifu


Ni lugha yenye udadisi mwingi wakati wa kufanya utafiti


Mfano wa Lugha ya Kisayansi


Kwa sababu zisizoweza kuepukika kikundi chetu hakitamaliza utafiti ulioratibiwa kukamilishwa mwishoni mwa mwezi ujao Hii ni kwa sababu ya changamoto kadhaa ambazo tumekutana nazo Kwanza viluwiluwi ambao ndio tunaotafiti wamekuwa haba sana wakati huu wa ukame Pili kutokana na kufungwa kwa maabara ya kisayansi katika taasisi hii ni muhali kufanya majaribio yoyote ya kazi yetu Tatu kumekuwa na pingamizi kubwa kutoka kwa baadhi ya wanakijiji kwamba kukusanya viluwiluwi kunawatia hofu Aidha tume yetu imepungukiwa na fedha baada ya serikali kusitisha kudhamini utafiti huu


Baada ya kujadiliana kwa vikao tatu mfululizo tume yetu inapendekeza haya Muda wa kufanya utafiti uongezewe kwa kipindi cha miezi sita serikali kupitia kwa taasisi hii ifadhili wachunguzi Wananchi wahamasishwe kuhusu umuhimu wa kuwafanyia viwavi utafiti na maabara ya utafiti ikaraatiwe haraka iwezekanayo


Sauti za Kiswahili


a b ch d e f g h i k l m n o p r s t u v w y z


Kuna aina mbili za Sauti katika lugha ya Kiswahili


Irabu


Konsonanti


Irabu Vokali


a e i o u


Irabu zinapotamkwa hewa haizuiliwi katika ala za matamshi Jedwali lifuatalo litakuonyesha jinsi ya kubainisha vokali kulingana na sehemu ya ulimi inayoachilia hewa na jinsi midomo inavyobadilika


b ch d f g h j k l m n p r s t vw y z


Konsontanti zinapotamkwa hewa huzuiliwa katika ala za matamshi  ulimi na midomo Kuna aina mbili kuu za sauti za konsonanti


Sauti Ghuna  konsonanti hizi zinapotamkwa hewa hutikisa nyuzi za sauti


Sauti Sighuna  konsonanti hizi zinapotamkwa hewa haitikisi nyuzi za sauti


Jedwali lifuatalo litakuonyesha aina za konsonanti kulingana na mahali zinapotamkiwa na sauti ghuna au sighuna


Vipasuo  pbkgtd


Hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ala za kutamkia ili kufungilia hewa na kisha kuiachilia ghafla


Vipasuo sighuna p k t   hutamkwa bila kutikisa nyuzi za sauti


Vipasuo ghuna b g d   hutamkwa kwa kutikisa nyuzi za sauti


p na b hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha midomo katika meno


p  papa pepea pipi popo pua


b  baba bebea bibi bobo bubu


t na d hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ufizi na ncha ya ulimi


t  taa tetea titi toto tua


d dada doa dua


k na g hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha nyuma ya ulimi na kaakaa laini


k  kaka koko kuku


g  gae gege gogo gugu


Vikwamizo  d fvdhth szshhgh


Pia huitwa Vikwaruzo Hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ala za matamshi na kisha kuachilia hewa kupitia katika mwanya mwembamba


Vikwamizo sighuna fthskhhsh  hewa haitikisi nyuzi za sauti


Vikwamizo ghuna v dhzgh  hewa hutikisa nyuzi za sauti


f na v hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha mdomo wa chini na wa juu na kuachilia hewa kidogo kupita


f  faa fee fua


v  vaa vua


s na z hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha sehemu ya kati ya ulimi na kaakaa gumu


s  sasa sisi


z  zaa zeze zizi zuzu


dh na th hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ncha ya ulimi na meno ya juu


dh  dharau dhani


th  thubutu


gh na kh hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha kaakaa laini na kilimi


h hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha kilimi na koo na kuachilia hewa kwa nguvu


h  haha hii huu


Kipasuokwamizo  ch


Pia huitwa kituokwamizo  Hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ulimi na ufizi na kuachilia hewa


ch  chacha chechea choo


Vingongo  Nazali  mnngny


Hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ala za matamshi na kuzuia hewa kupitia kinywani hewa hupitia puani m hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha mdomo wa juu na wa chini ili kuzuia pumzi kupita kinywani


m  mama umeme mimi


n hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ulimi na ufizi ili hewa ipitie puani


n  nana nene nini nono nunua


ny hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ulimi na kaakaa gumu


ny  nyanya nyenyea nyinyi nyoa nyunyu


ng hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ulimi na kaakaa laini


ng  nganga ngoa


Kitambaza  l


Hutamkwa kwa kukutanisha ncha ya ulimi na ufizi huku hewa ikipitia kwenye pande za ulimi bila kukwaruza ufizi


l  lala lea lilia lo lulu


Kimadende  r


Hutamkwa kwa kupigapiga na kukwaruza ufizi haraka haraka kwa ncha ya ulimi


r  rai rarua


Viyeyusho  yw


Pia huitwa nusuirabu Hutamkwa kwa utaratibu kwa kuleta ala za matamshi karibu sana lakini kuachilia hewa bila kuikwaruza w hutamkwa midomo ikiwa wazi


w  wawa wewe


y hutamkiwa kwenye kaakaa gumu


y  yaya yeye


Ala za Kutamkia


Hizi ni sehemu za mwili zinazotumika wakati wa kutamkia maneno Meno Ulimi Midomo Pua Chemba cha Pua Ufizi Kaakaa gumu Kaakaa laini Kimio  Chemba cha Kinywa Ncha ya ulimi Bapa la ulimi Shina la Ulimi Koromeo Kidakatonge Kongomeo Nyuzi za Sauti Koo Njia ya Chakula


Sentensi za Kiswahili


Sentensi ni kundi la neno moja au maneno zaidi yenye kiima na kiarifa na inayofuata kanuni za sarufi


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Aina za Sentensi


1 Sentensi Sahili


2 Sentensi Ambatano


3 Sentensi Changamano


Hizi ni sentensi zenye kishazi kimoja na huwakilisha wazo moja tu


Sentensi sahili kutokana na kikundi tenzi pekee


Ninasoma  KTT


Hajakuandikia barua  KTT  N


Tulimwona nyoka mkubwa KTT  N  V


Alikimbia haraka sana  KTT  E  E


Kikundi Nomino  Kikundi Tenzi


Sakina anaimba  KNN  KTT


Latifa na Kanita wamejipamba vizuri  KNN  U  N  KTT  E


Jua kali liliwaka mchana kutwa  KNN  V  KTT  E  E


Runinga ya Bwana Kazito imeharibika tena  KN N  V  N  N  KT T  E


Sentensi ambatano ni sentensi zenye zaidi ya kishazi huru kimoja na huwakilisha mawazo mawili au zaidi Aghalabu sentensi hizi hutumia viunganishiU au alama za uakifishaji kama vile kituo na nuktanusu  ili kubainisha wazo moja toka nyingine


Kuunganisha Sentensi Mbili


Chesi alisoma kwa bidii Chesi alianguka mtihani Ingawa alisoma kwa bidii Chesi alianguka mtihani


Dadangu amerudi nyumbani Dadangu amelala Dadangu amefika nyumbani na kulala


Mifano mingine


Tulifika tukaona tukapiga na tukatawala


Leo inaonekana Karimi amejipamba akapambika


3 Sentensi Changamano


Hizi ni sentensi zinazoundwa kwa kuunganisha kishazi huru pamoja na kishazi tegemezi au sentensi mbili kwa kutumia orejeshi ili kuleta zaidi ya wazo moja


Kuunganisha Sentensi


Juma amenilitelea kitabu Nilikuwa nimetafuta kitabu hicho kwa muda mrefu  Juma ameniletea kitabu ambacho nilikuwa nimekitafuta kwa muda mrefu


Yeye ni mwizi Alipigwa jana jioni  Yeye ndiye mwizi aliyepigwa jana jioni


Mifano Zaidi


Nimemuona yule ninayemtafuta na neema zake


Ndoto zinazotisha ni za kishetani


Tanbihi Ili kutofautisha sentensi ambatano na changamano kwa urahisi sentensi changamano hutumia orejeshi km ambacho ambaye niliye  nililo nk


Shadda na Kiimbo


ShadaShadda na Kiimbo ni namna ya kutamka neno au fungu la maneno kwa namna tofauti kuleta maana mbalimbali


Shadda  Shada  Stress


Shadda ni mkazo wa silabi Maneno ya Kiswahili huwa na silabi moja ambayo hutamkwa kwa nguvu zaidi kuliko silabi nyingine Unapotamka silabi iliyotiwa mkazo shada sauti hupandishwa juu kiasi


Maneno mengi ya Kiswahili hasa yale yenye asili ya Kibantu hutia mkazo katika silabi ya pili kutoka mwisho


Kwa mfanomama sanduku kitabu tulikotoka burudani barabara njia


Baadhi ya maneno yenye asili ya kigeni huwa na shada katika silabi nyingine


Kwa mfanobarabara sawa sawa mukhtasari


Kiimbo  Intonation


Kiimbo ni sauti maalum inayojitokeza unapotamka maneno fulani Kiimbo husaidia kuleta maana kamili ya sentensi iliyokusudiwa Kwa kutamka sentensi kwa sauti fulani ya kiwimbo tunaweza kubainisha kauli ya kawaida swali hisia nk


Sentensi au maneno yanapotamkwa kwa viimbo mbalimbali hutoa dhana tofauti Katika uandishi Viimbo husaidiwa na alama za uakifishaji ili kumwelekeza msomaji asome kwa kiimbo kilichokusudiwa


a Kuulizia Swali


Tunainua sauti tunapouliza swali ili kulitofautisha na sentensi ya kawaida km Ulisoma kitabu nilichokupatia


b Kuonyesha Hisia


Tunapotoa hisia aghalabu kiimbo huenda juu km Ajabu


c Kutoa Kauli


Tunapotoa kauli sentensi ya kawaida aghalabu sauti huenda chini katika neno au silabi ya mwisho Hata hivyo sauti inaweza kubadilika kulingana na neno linalotiliwa mkazo katika sentensi


Tamathali za Usemi


Tamathali za Usemi ni matumizi ya maneno kwa namna fulani ili kuifanya lugha iwe ya kuvuitia na kuifanya kazi ya sanaa iwe ya kupendeza Kuna aina mbili za tamathali za usemi


Mbinu au Fani za Lugha Ni uteuzi wa maneno ili kuifanya lugha iwe ya kupendeza na kuvutia Pia Mapambo ya Lugha Fani za Lugha zinaweza kutambulikana moja kwa moja bila kusoma kifungu kizima


Mbinu za Sanaa Ni ubunifu wa kisanaa unaojitokeza baada ya kusoma au kusikiliza masimulizi Angalau unahitaji kusoma sentensi kadhaa au hata hadithi nzima ili kutambua mbinu ya sanaa iliyotumika


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Mbinu za Lugha


Mbinu za Sanaa


Tanakali za Sauti Ni mbinu ya kutumia maneno yanayoiga sauti au hali fulani au namna kitendo kilivyofanyika Milio


Tashbihi Hii ni mbinu ya lugha inayolinganisha vitu au hali mbili tofauti kwa kutumia maneno ya kulinganisha kama mithili ya sawa na ja Tashbiha Similes


Istiara Ni mbinu ya kulinganisha vitu viwili moja kwa moja kwa kutumia kiungo ni ama kuwa Istiari Sitiari Imagery


Jazanda  Ni kulinganisha vitu viwili moja kwa moja bila kutumia viunganishi


Taashira Ni matumizi ya lugha ya ishara kuwakilisha ujumbe fulani Jina au kitu fulani kinatumika kumaanisha kitu kingine chenye uhusiano na kile kilichotumiwa Symbolism


Taswira  Ni matumizi ya lughamaneno yanayojenga picha ya hali au jambo fulani kwa msomaji


Tashihisi Hii ni mbinu ya kupatia kitu kisicho hai sifa za kiumbe mwenye uhai sifa za kibinadamu Uhuishaji Personification


Chuku Ni kutumia maneno yaliyotiliwa chumvi ili kusisitiza ujumbe fulani au kusifia kitu Kutilia Chumvi Hyperbole


Takriri Ni mbinu ya kurudiarudia neno moja au kifungu cha maneno ili kusisitiza ujumbe fulani Repetition


TanakuziTanakuzi ni mbinu ya kusisitiza ujumbe kwa kuambatanisha maneno ya kinyume au yanayokinzana Ukinzani


Majazi  Majazi ni pale tabia za wahusika zinapoambatana na majina yao halisi


Lakabu  Ni mbinu ya mhusika kupewakubadikwa jina na wahusika wengine ama yeye mwenyewe kujibandika jina linalooana na tabiasifa zake


Semi  Ni fungu la maneno linapotumika kutoa maana nyingine badala ya ile ya maneno yaliyotumika Semi hutumika kuficha ukali wa maneno au kupamba lugha Kuna aina mbili za semi


Nahau  huwa na vitenzi


Misemo  haina vitenzi


Methali  Methali ni misemo ya hekima yenye maana iliyofumbwa Mhusika mwandishi wa fasihi anaweza kutumia methali kupitisha ujumbe


Maswali ya Balagha Tashititi au maswali ya balagha ni maswali yanayoulizwa na msimulizi au mhusika ambayo hayahitaji jibu Mubalagha Rhetorical questions


Uzungumzi Nafsiya  Mhusika hujizungumzia ama kwa kuongea au kuwaza bila kukusudia kusikika na yeyote


Ritifaa  Mbinu ya kuzungumza na mtu aliyekufa au asiyekuwepo kana kwamba yuko pamoja nawe


Utohozi  Kutohoa ni mbinu ya kuswahilisha maneno ya lugha nyingine yatamkike kama ya Kiswahili


Kuchanganya Ndimi  Kuweka maneno yasiyo ya Kiswahili katika sentensi ya Kiswahili


Kuhamisha Ndimi  Ni kuingiza sentensi ya lugha nyingine katika kifungu cha lugha ya Kiswahili Kinyume na Kuchanganya ndimi ambapo mwandishi huchanganya maneno katika sentensi moja katika kuhamisha ndimi sentensi kamilifu ya lugha nyingine hutumika miongoni mwa sentensi za Kiswahili sanifu


Mbinu za Sanaa


Kinaya  Kinaya ni mambo katika sanaa kuwa kinyume na matarajio ya hadhira Irony


Kejeli Kejeli ni mbinu ya sanaa inayotumia maneno kudharau au kukemea kitendo au mtu fulani


Taharuki Taharuki ni mbinu ya kusimulia au kuandika riwayahadithi kwa kufanya hadhira naau wahusika wajawe na hamu ya kutaka kujua kitakachotokea baadaye hamu ya kutaka kuendelea kusomakusikiliza Baadhi ya hadithi huishia kwa taharuki na kuilazimisha hadhira yake ijikamilishie au ibaki ikijiuliza maswali Suspense


Sadfa  Sadfa ni kugongana kwa vitendo viwili vinavyohusiana kana kwamba vilikuwa vimepangwa japo havikuwa vimepangiwa Coincidence


Kisengere Nyuma  Mwandishi hurudi nyuma na kuanza kusimulia kisa kilichokuwa kimetendeka kabla ya alichokuwa akisimulia Aidha mwandishi hubadilisha wakati wa masimulizi na kuwa wakati wa kisa hicho Hutumika sana kuonyesha mhusika anapokumbuka kitu au kutupatia msingi wa jinsi mambo yalivyoanza Mbinu Rejeshi Flashback


Kisengere Mbele  Mwandishi anapobadilisha wakati na kusimulia mambo yatakavyokuwa siku za usoni au kutumia lugha isiyo moja kwa moja kutabiri yatakayojiri Utabiri Foreshadow


Njozi au Ndoto  Mwandishi hutumia ndoto kutabiri jambo litakalofanyika au kufumbua jambo lililokuwa limefumbwa


Upeo wa Juu  Ni sehemu ya hadithi ambayo matukio yanafanyika kulingana na mapenzi ya hadhira au msomaji Climax


Upeo wa Chini  Ni sehemu ya hadithi ambayo matukio yanafanyika kinyume na mapenzi ya hadhira au msomaji Aghalabu upeo wa chini hutokea baada ya upeo wa juu anticlimax


Nyimbo  Nyimbo naau mashairi yanaweza kutumika katika hadithi kwa madhumuni mbalimbali


Tamthilia


Tamthilia au tamthiliya ni sanaa ambayo huwasilisha mchezo wa kuigiza kwa njia ya maandishi Majina ya wahusika huandikwa katika upande wa kushoto kisha koloni halafu hufuatiwa na maneno halisi yaliyotamkwa na mhusika huyo


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Aina za Tamthilia


Mifano ya Tamthilia


Kunazo aina kadhaa za tamthilia katika fasihi andishi


Tamthilia CheshiKomedia  ni mchezo wa kuchekesha Maudhui yake huundwa kwa lengo la kutumbuiza hadhira


Tamthilia SimanziTrejedia  ni mchezo uliojaa huzuni mikasa mikosi visa vya kutisha na aghalabu baadhi ya wahusika wakuu hufa


Tamthilia SimanziCheshiTrejikomedia  ni mchezo wenye visa vya kuhuzunisha lakini pia unawasilisha kwa njia ya kuchekesha Aghalabu wahusika hutumia kejeli kuchekesha hadhira ijapokuwa kuna shida fulani inayowakabili Baadhi ya wahusika wakuu hukumbwa na mikasa Mfano Kifo Kisimani na Kithaka Wa Mberia


Tamthilia Tatizo  ni mchezo wa kuigiza ambapo wahusika huwa na tatizoshida kuu wanalotaka kulitatua Tamthilia hii aghalabu hutumia mbinu ya taharuki ili kuwafanya hadhira wawe makini ili kuona jinsi tatizo hilo litakavyoishia


Tamthilia ya Domestiki Drama  ni mchezo unaoangazia maisha ya kawaida ya watu kama vile familia urafiki ndoa nk


Tamthilia ya Melodrama  ni mchezo ambao husisitiza sifa za wahusika kwa kuunda wahusika kuunda wahusika wenye sifa zilizopigiwa chuku na zisizobadilika Tamthilia hizi huundwa kwa namna inayowafanya hadhira wawapende wahusika fulani na wawachukie wahusika wengine Kwa mfano


Shujaa ambaye hushinda kila mara


Wahusika wabaya ambao hubakia wabaya kutoka mwanzo hadi mwishi


Wahusika wazuri ambao hufanya vitendo vizuri kutoka mwanzo hadi mwisho


Wapenzi ambao hata wakitenganishwa bado watapendana


Aghalabu huishia kwa raha mustarehe


Kifo Kisimani


Shamba la Wanyama


Mstahiki Meya


Tungo Fupi


Tungo Fupi ni kipera cha Fasihi Simulizi kinachojumulisha sanaa simulizi zinazoundwa kwa maneno machache sentensi moja au mbili hivi Tungo Fupi nyingi huwa na sehemu mbili na aghalabu huhitaji kujibizana ambapo mtu mmoja hutoa pendekezo au swali halafu mtu mwengine hutoa jawabu  km vitendawili na mafumbo Baadhi ya tungo fupi husemwa na mtu mmoja tu kama vile methali Aghalabu vipera vyote vya tungo fupi hutumiwa katika kazi nyingine za fasihi  na lugha kwa ujumla  kama mapambo ya lugha


Vipera vya Tungo Fupi


Methali Methali ni tungo fupi za sentensi moja ambazo hutoa funzo fulani kwa njia ya mafumbo Methali huwa na sehemu mbili Sehemu ya kwanza hutoa hoja nayo sehemu ya pili hutoa suluhisho Methali hutumika kwa minajili ya kutoa funzo kwa njia isiyo ya moja kwa moja Methali nyingine huhitaji hekima ili kujua maana yake


Vitendawili Vitendawili ni tungo fupi ambazo huwa na swali fupi na jibu kwa makusudi ya kupima ufahamu wa hadhira kuhusu mazingira yake Anayetoa kitendawili huulizia swali lake kwa kutoa maelezo mafupi yanayorejelea umbo la kitu hicho sauti harufu au kukifananisha na kitu kingine Anayejibu huhitajika kufikiria haraka na kutoa jawabu ambalo huwa la neno moja au maneno mawili hivi Vitendawili huwa na mianzo maalum kulingana na jamii yake


Mafumbo Mafumbo hutumika kuupima uwezo wa mtu kufikira na kufumbua swali ambalo huwa na maelezo marefu Majibu ya mafumbo huhitaji maelezo na aghalabu hukusudia kujua jinsi mtu anavyoweza kutatua tatizo fulani ambalo linahitaji kufikiria sana


Vitanza Ndimi Vitanza ndimi huwa ni sentensi zinazotumia maneno yanayomkanganya msomaji katika matamshi Vitanza ndimi huhitaji kutamkwa haraka haraka na kurudiwa rudiwa mara kadhaa kwa kusudi la kukuza uwezo wa kutamka


Vichezea Maneno Ni maneno yanayokaribiana kimatamshi au kimaana hutumika katika sentensi moja kama njia ya kuonyesha ukwasi wa lugha au kuburudisha Pia hutumika kama vitanza ndimi


Misimu Misimu ni maneno ambayo huzuka miongoni mwa kundi fulani katika jamii na hueleweka tu miongoni mwa watu katika kundi hilo Misimu hukua na kutoweka baada ya muda


Lakabu Lakabu ni majina yanayobandikwa watu kutokana na sifa zao maumbile hulka au mambo yanayowahusu Lakabu pia ni mbinu ya sanaa


Semi Nahau na Misemo Semi ni mafungu ya maneno ambayo hutumika kuleta maana tofauti na maana halisi ya maneno yaliyotumika Semi hutumika kuficha maneno makali kwa kutumia maneno mengine Aidha semi zinaweza kutumika tu kwa minajili ya kupamba lugha Kuna aina mbili za semi Nahau na misemo


Uainishaji wa Neno


Kuainisha ni kugawa neno katika viambishi vyake mbalimbali Tunapoainisha neno tunaonyesha mzizi wa neno pamoja na viambishi vyote vilivyofungamanishwa kuunda neno hilo


Angalia


Viambishi


Uchanganuzi wa Sentensi


Mifano


Ainisha maneno yafuatayo


nitasoma  nitasoma


ni  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha nafsi ya kwanza umoja ta  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha wakati ujao som  shina la kitenzi cha kusoma a  kiishio


walipozipata  walipozipata


wa  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha nafsi ya pili wingi li  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha wakati uliopita po  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha po ya wakati au cha ngeli ya mahali PO zi  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kitendwa ngeli ya IZI wingi pat  shina la kitenzi cha kupata a  kiishio


vimeshikamana  vimeshikamana


vi  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya KIVI wingi me  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha wakati uliopita muda mfupi shik  shina la kitenzi cha kupata aman kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kauli ya kutendamana a  kiishio


mnayemkimbilia  mnayemkimbilia


m  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha nafsi ya pili wingi na  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha wakati uliopo ye  kiambishi kirejeshi cha nafsi ya tatu m kiambishi kiwakilishi cha mtendewa nafsi ya tatu umoja kimbi  mzizi wa kitenzi cha kukimbia li  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kauli ya kutendea a  kiishio


yakimwagika  yakimwagika


ya  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya YAYA ki  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha KIya masharti au au cha KIya kuendelea mwag  mzizi wa neno mwaga ik kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kauli ya kutendeka a  kiishio


hawakukushibisha  hawakukushibisha


ha  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kukanusha wa  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha nafsi ya tatu wingi ku  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kukanusha wakati uliopita ku  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha nafsi ya pili mtendewa shib  mzizi wa kitenzi cha kushiba ish kiambishi kiwakilishi cha kauli ya kutendesha a  kiishio


lililolililia  lililolililia


li  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya LIYA umoja li  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha wakati uliopita lo  kiambishi kirejeshi cha ngeli ya LIYA umoja li kiambishi kiwakilishi cha mtendewa ngeli ya LIYA li  shina la kitenzi cha kulia li  kiambishi kiishio cha kauli ya kutendea a  kiishio


Alama za Uakifishaji


Kunazo alama kadhaa zinazotumika kuakifisha maneno na sentensi za Kiswahili


Uchambuzi wa Mashairi


Yafuatayo ni mambo muhimu unayohitajika kuzingatia kila unapochambua shairi


MuundoUmbo la shairi


Uhuru wa Mshairi


Maudhui


Dhamira


Mtindo wa  Mbinu za Lugha


MuundoUmbo la Ushairi


Katika umbo wa shairi tunaangazia jinsi shairi lilivyoundwa kwa kuangazia mizani vina mishororo nk Aidha ni muhimu kutaja aina na bahari za shairi zinazohusiana na kila sifa uliyoitaja


Idadi ya mishororo katika kila ubeti  Tumia idadi ya mishororo kubainisha aina ya shairi hilo Kwa mfano Shairi lina mishororo minne katika kile ubeti kwa hivyo ni Tarbia


Idadi ya mizani katika kila mshororo na katika kila kipande cha mshororo Kwa mfano Kila mshororo una mizani kumi na sita nane katika utao na nane katika ukwapi


Idadi ya vipande katika kila mshororo  Taja ikiwa shairi lina kipande kimoja viwili vitatu au vinne kisha utaje bahari yake


Kituo kiishio au kibwagizo  Ikiwa mstari wa mwisho umerudiwa rudiwa basi shairi lina kibwagizo au kiitikio la sivyo lina kiishio


Vina  Zingatia vina vya kati na vya mwisho kutoka ubeti mmoja hadi mwingine Kisha utaje ikiwa ni Mtiririko Ukara au Ukaraguni


Mshairi hafungwi na kanuni za kisarufi za lugha katika utunzi wa shairi Anaweza kufanya makosa ya kisarufi kimakusudi ili shairi lizingatie umbo fulani Zifuatazo ni njia mbalimbali ambazo mtunzi wa shairi anaweza kutumia kuonyesha uhuru wake


Inkisari  kupunguza idadi ya silabi katika neno ili kusawazisha idadi ya mizani katika mshororo mfano kubadilisha nimeona aliyenipenda kuwa meona alenipenda


Mazda  kuongeza silabi katika neno ili kusawazisha idadi ya mizani katika mshororo mfano afya ukijaliwa kuwa afiya ukijaliwa


Tabdila  kubadilisha silabi ya mwisho ili kustawazisha urari wa vina katika kipande bila kuathiri mizani mfano yahuzunisha dunia kuwa yahuzunisha duniya


Kuboronga Sarufi ni mbinu ya kupangua mpangilio wa maneno ili kuleta urari wa vina au mdundo wa ushairi mfano siku hiyo ikifika kuwa ikifika hiyo siku


Utohozi  Kuswahilisha Maneno  Wakati mwingine mshairi anaweza kubadilisha neno la lugha nyingine litamkike kwa Kiswahili ili kudumisha mdundo wa kishairi na pia kupata neno mwafaka litakalotimiza arudhi za kiushairi mfano tukapata intaneti badala ya tukapata internet ama mtandao wa tarakilishi


Maudhui ni jumla ya ujumbe na mawazo mbalimbali yanayojitokeza katika shairi fulani Haya ni mambo yanayotajwa katika hadithi na yanaweza kujumuisha mawazo zaidi ya moja Maudhui husaidia kujenga dhamira ya shairi


Dhamira ni lengo dhumuni au nia ya mtunzi wa shairi Mtunzi wa shairi anaweza kuwa na kusudi la kutuonya kututahadharisha au kutunasihi kuhusiana na jambo fulani


Mtindo wa Lugha


Mtindo wa lugha hurejelea namna mbalimbali ambazo mshairi anatumia mbinu za lugha Mshairi anaweza kutumia mbinu za lugha kama vile Tanakali za Sauti Istiara Takriri Semi nk


Angalia Mbinu za Lugha katika Fasihi


Uchanganuzi wa Sentensi


Kuchanganua sentensi ni kugawa sentensi kulingana na makundi ya maneno na aina ya maneno


Kuna njia tatu za kuchanganua sentensi


matawi


jedwali


mishale


Content


Mifano


Kuchanganua Sentensi Sahili


Kuchanganua Sentensi Ambatano


Kuchanganua Sentensi Changamano


1 Nimefika


Matawi


Jedwali


Mishale


S  KT


KT  T


T  Nimefika


2 Jiwe Limeanguka


S  KN  KT


KN  N


N  Jiwe


T  limeanguka


3 Mvua nyingi ilinyesha jana usiku


KN  N  V


N  Mvua


V  nyingi


KT  T  KE


T  ilinyesha


KE  E1  E2


E1  jana


E2  usiku


Kuchanganua Sentensi Ambatano


1 Barua ilitumwa lakini haikumfikia Shakila


Matawi


Jedwali


Mishale


S  S1  U  S2


S1  KN1  KT1


KN1  N1


N1  Barua


KT1  T1


T1  ilitumwa


U  lakini


S2  KT2  KN2


KT2  T2


T2  haikumfikia


KN2  N2


N2  Shakila


2 Mwalimu alikunja shati lake na kuwachapa wanafunzi kwa kiboko


KN1  N


N  mwalimu


KT1  T  KN2


T  alikunja


KN2  N  V


N  shati


V  lake


U  na


S2  KT2  KN3  KE


KT2  T


T  kuwachapa


KN3  N


N  wanafunzi


KE  U  N


U  kwa


N  kiboko


Kuchanganua Sentensi Changamano


1 Wote waliokufa watafufuka


Matawi


Jedwali


Mishale


S  KN  KT


KN  N  s


W  wote


s  waliokufa


KT  T


T  watafufuka


2 Wanafunzi ambao hawatasoma vizuri wataanguka mtihani


s  V  T  E


V  ambao


E  hawatasoma


KT  T  N


T  wataanguka


E  mtihani


Ukubwa na Udogo


Maneno huwekwa katika ukubwa au udogo yanapozidi kiasi cha wastani kinachotarajiwa Hali ya ukubwa na udogo hutumika hasa unaposifia au kudharau kitu


Ukubwa


Nomino zote katika hali ya ukubwa huwa katika ngeli ya LIYA Tunaweka maneno katika ukubwa kwa kuongeza kiungo JI naau kutoa kiwakilishi cha ngeli


Udogo


Maneno huwekwa katika udogo ili kusifia udogo wao au kudharau kiasi chake Nomino zote katika hali ya udogo huwa katika ngeli ya KIVI Maneno huwekwa katika udogo kwa kuongeza kiungo ki au kiji Katika baadhi ya maneno kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli huachwa nje tunapoweka maneno katika udogo


Wastani


Hii ni hali ya kawaidakatikati ya nomino Si kubwa si ndogo


Umoja na Wingi


Sentensi za Kiswahili zinaweza kubadilishwa kutoka kwa umoja hadi wingi kulingana na ngeli yake Baadhi ya ngeli hubaki sawia katika umoja na wingi


Mifano ifuatayo itakuonyesha umoja na wingi wa sentensi katika ngeli mbalimbali


Ushairi


Ushairi ni utungo wa kisanaa unaotumia lugha teule na mpangilio fulani wa maneno badala ya kutumia lugha nathariamflulizo


Ushairi unaweza kuwa kipera cha fasihi simulizi nyimbo na pia katika fasihi andishi kwa sababu mashairi yanaweza kuwasilishwa kwa njia ya kukariri na pia kwa njia ya maandishi Mashairi yanayoghanwa badala ya kuimbwa huitwa maghani


Content


Uchambuzi


Istilahi za Kishairi


Sifa za Ushairi


Umuhimu wa Mashairi


Katika ushairi tutaangalia


Aina za Mashairi  Kuainisha mashairi kulingana na idadi ya mishororo katika kila ubeti


Bahari za Ushairi  Muundo wa shairi kulingana vina idadi ya mizani vipande mpangilio wa maneno nk


Uchambuzi wa Mashairi  Mambo muhimu unayohitajika kuzingatia unapochambua shairi


Uhuru wa Mshairi  Ukiukaji wa kanuni za sarufi


Istilahi za Kishairi  Msamiati unaotumika katika ushairi km vina mizani nk


Sifa za Ushairi  Sifa zinazobainisha ushairi kutokana na aina nyingine za sanaa


Umuhimu wa Ushairi  Umuhimu wa ushairi katika jamii


Haya ni baadhi ya maneno ambayo hautakosa kukutana nayo unapozingatia ushairi Ni muhimu mwanafunzi kuyajua vizuri


Shairi  ni sanaa ya maneno utunzi maalum wa lugha ya kisanaa unaotumia mpangilio na uteuzi maalum wa maneno na sauti ili kupitisha ujumbe fulani


Vina  ni silabi za mwisho katika kila kipande


Mizani  ni idadi ya silabi katika kila mshororo


Mshororo  ni msitari mmoja wa maneno katika shairi


Ubeti  ni kifungu cha mishororo kadhaa


Vipande  ni visehemu vya mshororo vilivyogawanywa kwa alama ya kituo


Ukwapi  kipande cha kwanza katika mshororo


Mwandamo  Kipande cha tatu katika mshororo


Ukingo  kipande cha nne katika mshororo


Utao  kipande cha pili katika mshororo


Mwanzo  mshororo wa kwanza katika ubeti


Mloto  mshororo wa pili katika ubeti


KimalizioKiishio  mshororo wa mwisho katika ubeti usiorudiwarudiwa katika kila ubeti


Kibwagizo  mshororo wa mwisho katika ubeti unaorudiwarudiwa kila ubeti


Sifa za Ushairi


Huwa na vina mizani mishororo na beti


Hutumia lugha teule


Hufupisha au kurefusha maneno ili kutosheleza idadi ya mizani


Mashairi hayazingatii kanuni za kisarufi Angalia uhuru wa mshairi


Hutumia mbinu za lugha


Umuhimu wa Mashairi


Kuburudisha


Kuhamasisha jamii


Kukuza sanaa na ukwasi wa lugha


Kuliwaza


Kuelimisha


Kuonya kutahadharisha kunasihi na kuelekeza


Kupitisha ujumbe fulani


Kusifia mtu au kitu


Kukejeli au kukemea mambo yanayoenda kinyume na maadili ya jamii


Viambishi


Kiambishi ni silabi inayofungamanishwa na mzizi wa neno ili kuleta maana iliyokusudiwa Viambishi havina maana kamilifu peke yake huhitaji kufungamanishwa na mzizi wa neno Kwa hivyo kiambishi ni mofimu tegemezi inayoongeza maana fulani katika neno kama vile ngeli wakati hali mnyambuliko wa kitendo nk


Angalia Uainishaji wa Neno


Kuna aina mbili kuu za viambishi


Viambishi Awali


Viambishi Tama


Viambishi hivi hutokea kabla ya mzizi ya neno  shina la kitenzi Kuna aina kadhaa za viambishi hivi kama vile viambishi viwakilishi vya nafsi ngeli mahali wakati hali nk


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Ngeli


Hizi ni silabi zinazowakilisha ngeli katika neno Mfumo wa ngeli unaokubalika hutumia viambishi hivi kubainisha ngeli mbali mbali


km


ameavya  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya AWAumoja zitapasuka  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli IZI wingi kilipotea  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya KIVIumoja yanaangaziwa  kiambishi kiwakilishi cha ngeli ya LIYAwingi


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Nafsi


hivi ni viambishi ambavyo huonyesha nafsi katika neno Kuna aina mbili za viambishi viwakilishi vya nafsi a Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Nafsi ya MtendajiMtenda


Hutumika kuonyesha aliyefanya kitendo katika neno Kama viambishi vya Ngeli ya Mtendaji viambishi hivi ndivyo vinavyotangulia viambishi vingine katika kitenzi


b Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Nafsi ya MtendewaMtendwa  Hutumika kuonyesha nafsi ya aliyeathirika na kitendo katika neno Kama viambishi viwakilishi vya ngeli ya mtendewa mara nyingi viambishi hivi huwekwa punde kabla ya shina la kitenzi Viambishi viwakilishi vya mtendewa ni sawa na viambishi viwakilishi vya mtendaji isipokuwa


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Wakati Hali


Hivi ni viambishi ambavyo vinapowekwa kabla ya shina la kitenzi vinatufahamisha wakati kitendo hicho kilipofanyika Viambishi hivi ni


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Kukanusha Wakati


Viambishi hivi hutumika kukanusha kitenzi katika sentensi kulingana na wakati au hali


Tanbihi  Tunapokanusha wakati uliopo wakati wa mazoea na wakati usiodhihirika tunatumia kiambishi kiishioI badala ya kutumia kiambishi tamati kmsikujui hapatikani


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Kukanusha Nafsi


Tunapokanusha kitenzi kiambishi cha kwanzwa hubadilika kulingana na nafsi


Viambishi Virejeshi vya Ngeli


Hurejelea ngeli ya mtendewa au mtendwa na hutumika hasa katika vishazi tegemezi vyenye o  rejeshi km


walichonitumia  kiambishi kirejeshi cha ngeli ya KIVI


nitakayemsalimia  kiambishi kirejeshi cha ngeli ya AWA


ulikojificha  kiambishi kirejeshi cha ngeli ya mahali KU


tulipopasafisha  kiambishi kirejeshi cha ngeli ya mahali PO


Viambishi Tama


Viambishi tama hutokea baada ya shina la kitenzi na hutumika kutuarifu kauli au myambuliko wa kitenzi hicho


Viishio


Katika kauli ya kutenda vitenzi vyenye asili ya Kibantu huishia kwa sauti a Kwa mfano anaomba tulizoandika


Tanbihi Tunapokanusha vitenzi hivi vyenye asili ya Kibantu katika wakati uliopo na wakati wa mazoea kiishio a hubadilika na kuwa i Kwa mfano Hapatikani Sikujui


Vitenzi vyenye asili ya kigeni huchukua viishio tofauti kama vile e i na u katika kauli ya kutenda Kwa mfano hawajatujibu anatusubiri nimekusamehe


Hata hivyo katika kauli nyinginezo isipokuwa kauli ya kutenda vitenzi hivi vya kigeni huchukua kiishio a km haribika tumejibiwa


Viambishi Viwakilishi vya Kauli ya Kitenzi


Hubadilika kulingana na mnyambuliko wa kitenzi


Kwa mifano zaidi angalia mnyambuliko wa vitenzi


Vielezi E


Vielezi ni maneno yanayotoa habari zaidi kuhusu kitendo kilivyofanyika Pia vielezi hutoa habari zaidi kuhusu hali vivumishi au vielezi vingine


Content


Aina za Vielezi


Vielezi vya Mahali


Vielezi vya Wakati


Vielezi vya Idadi


VIelezi Vya Namna


Vielezi vya mahali hutoa habari kuhusu mahali ambapo kitendo kilifanyika Aghalabu vielezi hivi huundwa kwa kutumia jina la mahali au kwa kuongeza kiungo NI mwishoni mwa neno linaloashiria mahali


km nyumbani kazini shuleni


Mtoto huyo hajatulia nyumbani tangu alipotoka Mombasa


Msipitie sokoni mkienda kanisani


Huelezea zaidi kuhusu wakati kitendo kipofanyika


km jioni jana asubuhi saa saba mwaka juzi


Mzee Kasorogani amesema kwamba ataoga mwaka ujao


Musa alilazimishwa kuchimba mtaro saa sita usiku


Kisaka na Musa watakutana kesho


Vielezi vya idadi hutulezea kitendo kilifanyika mara ngapi


a Idadi Kamili


Vielezi vya Idadi Kamili hutaja idadi kamili ya mara ngapi kitendo kilifanyika


km mara mbili siku mbili kwa juma mara kumi


Gibi alimzaba kofi mara tatu na kisha akakimbia


Daktari alimwagiza mama huyo achukue dawa mara tatu kwa siku na arudi hospitalini siku mbili kwa mwezi


b Idadi Isiyodhihirika


Vielezi vya Idadi Isiyodhirika huelezea kiasi ambacho kitendo kilifanyika bila kutaja kiasi kamili


km chache nyingi kadhaa kidogo wastani


Mwizi wa kuku alipigwa mara kadhaa kabla ya kuokolewa na polisi


Yeye hunipigia simu mara kwa mara


VIelezi Vya Namna


Huelezea jinsi au namna kitendo kinavyofanyika Kitendo kinaweza kufanyika kwa namna mbalimbali Hivyo basi kuna aina mbalimbali za vielezi vya namna


a Vielezi vya Namna Halisi


Hutufahamisha jinsi kitendo kinavyofanyika kwa kutumia maneno halisi bila kuambatanishwa na maneno mengine au viambishi vingine


km vizuri ovyo haraka


Kioo cha bibi harusi kilianguka na kuharibika vibaya


Mama alipika chakula upesi


Amepigwa kalamu kwa kufanya kazi kiholela


b Vielezi vya Namna Hali


Hutufahamisha hali ambayo kitendo kilifanyika Vielezi hivi hujihusisha na tabia ya kitumtendaji wa kitendo


km kwa furaha kwa makini


Bibi harusi aliingia kanisani kwa madaha


Mtoto alilia kwa maumivu mengi


c Vielezi vya Namna KitumiziAla


Hutoa habari kuhusu kifaa ala au mbinu iliyotumiwa kufanya kitendo fulani


km kwa kisu kwa jembe kwa meno kwa moto kwa maji


Mkulima aliangusha mti mkubwa kwa shoka


Mzee huyo alimpiga mke wake kwa bakora kabla ya kuchoma nguo zake kwa makaa


d Vielezi Vikariri


Husisitiza kitendo kinavyofanyika kwa kutaja kielezi kinachorejelewa mara mbili mfululizo


km haraka haraka ovyo ovyo juu juu


Polisi walipoingia wezi walitawanyika haraka haraka


Wanafunzi wengi hufanya kazi yao ovyo ovyo


e Vielezi vya KiMfanano


Vielezi mfanano hutumia KImfanano kuelezea kitendo kinavyofanyika kwa kulinganisha


km kitoto kiungwana


Babake huongea kiungwana


Harida hutembea kijeshi


f Vielezi Viigizi


Vielezi hivi huigiza sauti au mlio wa kitu kitendo kitendo kilipofanyika kwa kutumia tanakali za sauti


km tuli chubwi tifu chururu


Mwanafunzi alitulia tuli mwalimu alipomzaba kofi pa


Kaswimu aliangusha simu changaraweni tifu na kujitumbukiza majini chubwi


g Vielezi vya Vielezi


Vielezi hivi hutumika kuelezea kielezi kingine Hivyo basi hutanguliwa na kielezi badala ya kitendo


km sana kabisa hasa mno


Mamake Kajino alitembea polepole sana


Chungu kilivunjika vibaya kabisa


h Vielezi vya Vivumishi


Hutoa habari zaidi kuhusu kivumishi


Yeye ni mrefu sana


Mtoto wake ana tabia nzuri mno


Vihisishi I


Vihisishi ni maneno yanayotumika kuonyesha hisia kama vile hasira furaha mshangao kusifia kushangilia nk Vihisishi hutambulishwa katika sentensi kwa kuambatanishwa na alama ya mshangao  Kihisishi kimoja kinaweza kutumika kutoa hisia tofauti kulingana na muktadha


Mifano ya Vihisishi


Ifuatayo ni baadhi ya mifano ya maneno yanayotumika kuonyesha hisia Hata hivyo maneno mengine yoyote yanaweza kutumika kama vihisishi kulingana na mukhtadha kv Potelea mbali


Vihusishi H


Vihusishi ni maneno yanayotuarifu zaidi kuhusu uhusiano wa nomino na mazingira yake


Content


Aina za Vihusishi


Vihusishi vya Mahali


Vihusishi vya Wakati


Vitenzi T


Vitenzi ni maneno yanayosimamia kitendo Kila kitenzi huwa na shina la kitenzi sehemu ndogo zaidi ya kitenzi ambayo ndiyo huwakilisha tendo hilo Shina la kitenzi huambatanishwa na viambishi ili kutoa maana iliyokusudiwa kama vile mtendaji mtendewa wakati kitendo kinafanyika na pia kauli ya kitenzi hicho


Aina za Vitenzi


Vitenzi Halisi


Vitenzi Visaidizi  Vitenzi Vikuu


Vitenzi Vishirikishi


Vitenzi Sambamba


Hivi ni vitenzi vinavyorejelea kitendo moja kwa moja Vitenzi halisi vinapoambatanishwa na vitenzi vidogo katika sentensi huitwa vitenzi vikuu


km soma kula sikiza


Waziri Mwasimba aliwasili jana kutoka ngambo


Kawia atapikia wageni


Funga mlango wa dirisha


Vitenzi Visaidizi


Vitenzi visaidizi hutangulia vitenzi halisi vitenzi vikuu katika sentensi ili kuleta maana inayokusudiwa kulingana na wakati au hali


km kuwa ngali


Jua lilikuwa limewaka sana


Bi Safina angali analala


Vitenzi vishirikishi hutumika kuelezea hali iliyopo au mazingira Kuna aina mbili za vitenzi vishirikishi


a Vitenzi Vishirikishi Vipungufu  havichukua viambishi vyovyote


km ni si yu


Kaka yako ni mjanja sana


Huyo si mtoto wangu


Paka wake yu hapa


b Vitenzi Vishirikishi Vikamilifu  huchukua viambishi vya nafsi au ngeli Vitenzi hivi vinaweza kusimama peke yake au vinaweza kufuatiliwa na vitenzi vikuu


km ndiye ndio ndipo


Sanita ndiye mkurugenzi wa kampuni


Huku ndiko kulikoibiwa


Muundo wa Vitenzi


Kwa kuzingatia muundo wa vitenzi tunaweza kuweka vitenzi katika aina zifuatazo


Vitenzi vya Silabi Moja


Vitenzi vya Kigeni


Vitenzi vya Kibantu


Hivi ni vitenzi vyenye silabi moja pekee Ili kuleta maana kamili vitenzi hivi huambatanishwa na kiungo KU katika kauli ya kutenda Kama vitenzi vingine vitenzi vya silabi moja vinaweza kunyambuliwa


km soma kula sikiza


cha  kucha  jua linapochomoza asubuhi km kumekucha


fa  kufa  kuacha kupumua kupoteza uhai km amekufa


ja kuja  fika mahali hapa km nimekuja


la kula  kutia chakula mdomoni km anakula


nya kunya  kutoa mabaki ya chakula toka tumboni km mtoto amekunya


nywa kunywa  kutia kinywaji kama vile maji au maziwa mdomoni km ninakunywa uji


pa kupa  kumkabithikumpatia mtu kitu km amenipa pesa


pwa kupwa  kujaa hadi pomoni  km kisima kimekupwa maji


twa kutwa  jua linapozama magharibi na usiku kuingia km kumekutwa


wa kuwa  kutokea katika hali au mahali fulani km alikuwa


Hivi ni vitenzi vyenye asili kutoka kwa lugha nyingine badala ya Kibantu Baadhi ya lugha hizo ni Kiarabu Kizungu Kireno Kihispania nk Vitenzi hivi havifuatilii muundo wa kawaida wa vitenzi vya Kiswahili ambavyo huishia kwa sauti a Badala yake vitenzi hivi huishia kwa sauti nyingine kama vile e i o na u


km haribu tubu shukuru salimu thamini amini samehe baleghe


Hivi ni vitenzi vyenye asili ya Kibantu na ambavyo huishia kwa sauti a Kitengo hiki hujumuisha asilimia kubwa zaidi ya vitenzi vya Kiswahili


km simama shika tembea beba soma lia


Viunganishi U


Viunganishi ni maneno yanayoutumika kuunganisha kulinganisha au kuonyesha uhusiano wa dhana mbili au zaidi


Aina za Viunganishi


Zifuatazo ni aina mbalimbali za viunganishi kulingana na matumizi yake


Kuonyesha Umilikaji


Kujumuisha


Kutofautisha


Kuonyesha Sababu


Kuonyesha Matokeo


Kulinganisha


Kuonyesha Kitu kimoja kama sehemu ya kingine


Kuonyesha Kitu kufanyika baada ya kingine


Kuonyesha Kitu kufanyika badala ya kingine


Kuonyesha Uwezekano


Kuonyesha Masharti


Vivumishi V


Vivumishi au visifa ni maneno yanayotuelezea zaidi kuhusu nomino Aghalabu vivumishi hutanguliwa na nomino


Content


Aina za Vivumishi


Vivumishi vya Sifa


Vivumishi Vimilikishi


Vivumishi vya Idadi


Vivumishi Visisitizi


Vivumishi Viashiria  Vionyeshi


Viwakilishi Viulizi


Vivumishi Virejeshi


Vivumishi vya KIMfanano


Vivumishi Vya AUnganifu


Hivi ni vivumishi ambavyo hutoa sifa ya kitu mtu mahali nk


km kizuri kali safi mrembo


Yule mama mweusi hupika chakula kitamu


Mvulana mkorofi aliadhibiwa na mwalimu kutokana na tabia zake mbaya


Sauti nzuri humtoa nyoka mkali pangoni


Vivumishi hivi hutumika kuonyesha nomino inamiliki nyingine Mizizi ya vivumishi hivi huundwa kulingana na nafsi mbalimbali  angu ako ake etu enu ao


km changu lako yake kwetu vyenu zao


Nitatumia talanta zangu kwa manufaa ya taifa letu


Aliweka kitabu chako sebuleni mwako


Katosha amepata nguo yake miongoni katika sanduku lao


Vivumishi vya Idadi


Hutueleza zaidi kuhusu kiasi au idadi ya nomino Kuna aina mbili za vivumishi vya idadi


a Idadi Kamili


hutumia nambari kuelezea idadi ya nomino


km tatu mbili kumi


Msichana mmoja amewauwa nyoka wawili


Siku kumi zimepita tangu Bi Safina alipojifungua watoto watatu


b Idadi Isiyodhihirika


huelezea kiasi cha nomino kwa ujumla bila kutaja idadi kamili


km chache nyingi kadhaa kidogo wastani


Watu wachache waliohudhuria mazishi ya Kajuta walikula chakula kingi sana


Baba yao alikuwa mateka kwa miaka kadhaa


Vivumishi Visisitizi


Husisitiza nomino fulani kwa kurudia rudia kivumishi kiashiria


km yuyu huyu wawa hawa kiki hiki papo hapo mumu humu


Jahazi lili hili


Wembe ule ule


Ngombe wawa hawa


Vivumishi Viashiria  Vionyeshi


Vivumishi viashiria hutumika kuonyesha au kuashiria nomino kulingana na mahali


Msichana huyu ni mkubwa kuliko yule


Jani hili la mwembe limekauka


Tupa mpira huo


Viwakilishi Viulizi


Vivumishi viulizi hutumika kuuliza swali


Baadhi ya vivumishi viulizi huchukua viambishi vya ngel


km ngapi pi


Ni walimu wangapi wamefukuzwa  kuulizia idadi


Je ni dawati lipi lenye funguo zangu


Kunavyo vivumishi viulizi vingine ambavyo havichukui viambishi vyovyote


km wapi gani nini vipi


Unazungumza kuhusu kipindi gani


Je mmefika mahali wapi  kuulizia mahali


Vivumishi Virejeshi


Hivi ni vivumishi ambavyo hurejelea nomino Vivumishi hivi vinaweza kuwa vivumishi vya Orejeshi au vivumishi viashiria vinapotumika kurejelea nomino


km ambaye ambao ambalo ambacho


Msichana ambaye alikuja ni Sheila


Sauti ambayo uliisikia ilikuwa ya Mzee Kasorogan


Vivumishi vya KIMfanano


Vivumishi vya KI ya Mfanano hutumika kulinganisha sifa ya nomino na hali au tabia nyingine Vivumishi hivi hutanguliwa na nomino kiunganishi cha Aunganifu na huchukua kiungo KI


km wa kifalme za kijeshi ya kitajiri nk


Chifu wa Vikwazoni anaishi maisha ya kimasikini


Chali anapenda kusikiliza mziki wa kizungu


Bi Naliza huvulia mavazi ya kifalme


Vivumishi Vya AUnganifu


Vivumishi hivi hutuelezea zaidi kuhusu nomino kwa kuonyesha kitu kinachomiliki nomino hiyo Huundwa kwa kuambatanisha kiambishi cha nafsingeli pamoja na kiambishi a cha aunganifu kisha nomino


km cha la kwa za ya


Watoto wa mwalimu mkuu wana tabia nzuri


Chai ya daktari imemwagika


Viwakilishi W


Viwakilishi vya Nomino ni maneno yanayotumika badala ya nomino Kiwakilishi hakiwezi kuambatanishwa na nomino inayorejelewa


Content


Aina za Viwakilishi


Viwakilishi vya Nafsi


Viwakilishi Viashiria


Viwakilishi Visisitizi


Viwakilishi vya Sifa


Viwakilishi vya Idadi


Viwakilishi Viulizi


Viwakilishi Vimilikishi


Viwakilishi Virejeshi ORejeshi


Viwakilishi Vya AUnganifu


Viwakilishi hivi hutumika kwa niaba ya nafsi kwa umoja na kwa wingi


km mimi wewe yeye sisi nyinyi wao


Sisi tuliwatangulia nyinyi kufika hapa


Mimi si mjinga kama vile yeye anavyofikiria


Viwakilishi viashiria vionyeshi hutumika badala ya nomino kwa kutumia kuonyesha nomino inayorejelewa bila kuitaja


km huyu yule hapa nk


Hiki hakina maandishi yoyote


Hao hawajui tofauti ya viwakilishi na vivumishi


Tumekuja hapa ili kuwaburudisha kwa nyimbo tamu tamu


Husisitiza nomino inayowakilishwa kwa kurudiarudia kiashiria chake


km yuyu huyu wawa hawa kiki hiki papo hapo mumu humu


Zizi hizi ndizo zilizovunjika wiki jana


Yule yule aliyekamatwa juzi ameiba tena


Viwakilishi vya Sifa


Husimama badala ya nomino kwa kurejelea sifa yake


km eupe zuri tamu embamba rembo safi


Vyekundu vimehamisha


Warembo wamewasili


Kitamu kitaliwa kwanza


Viwakilishi vya Idadi


Hutumika kusimama badala ya nomino kwa kurejelea idadi yake


a Idadi Kamili hutumia nambari kuelezea idadi ya nomino


km saba mmoja ishirini


Wawili wamepigwa risasi polisi leo jioni


Alimpatia mtoto wake hamsini kununua chakula


b Idadi Isiyodhihirika huelezea kiasi cha nomino kwa ujumla bila kutaja idadi kamili


km chache nyingi kadhaa kidogo wastani


Tutazungumza na wachache kabla ya kuanzisha maonyesho yetu


Kadhaa zimeripotiwa kupotea


Viwakilishi Viulizi


Viwakilishi viulizi hutumika kwa niaba ya nomino katika kuulizia swali


Baadhi ya viwakilishi viulizi huchukua viambishi vya ngeli


km  ngapi pi


Vingapi vinahitajika  kuulizia idadi


Zipi zimepotea


Kunavyo viwakilishi viulizi vingine ambavyo havichukui viambishi vyovyote


km wapi gani nini vipi


Gani imefunga bao hilo


Wapi hapana majimaji


Yule mvulana alikupatia nini


Uliongea naye vipi  kuulizia namna


Viwakilishi Vimilikishi


Viwakilishi hivi hurejelea nomino kwa kutumia vimilikishi


km angu ako ake etu enu ao


Kwetu hakuna stima


Lake limekucha


Zao zimeharibika tena


Viwakilishi Virejeshi ORejeshi


Hutumia Orejeshi kurejelea na kusimamia nomino


km ambaye ambao ambalo ambacho huyo yule


Ambalo lilipotea limepatikana


Ambaye hana mwana aeleke jiwe


Viwakilishi Vya AUnganifu


Huwakilishi nomino kwa kutaja kinachomiliki nomino hiyo Huundwa kwa kuambatanisha kiambishi cha nafsingeli pamoja na kiambishi a cha aunganifu kisha nomino nyingine


km cha la kwa za ya


Cha mlevi huliwa na mgema


Za watoto zitahifadhiwa


Virai na Vishazi


Sentensi huwa na vifungu mbalimbali Baadhi ya vifungu hivi ni vishazi na virai


Content


Virai phrase


Kirai Nomino


Kirai Kiwakilishi


Kirai Kivumishi


Kirai Kielezi


Vishazi clause


Kishazi Huru Independent Clause


Kishazi Tegemezi Dependent Clause


Kirai ni fungu la maneno lisilokuwa na kitenziPhrase


Kuna aina nne za virai


Kirai Nomino ni fungu la maneno katika sentensi lenye nomino Kikundi NominoKiima


Redio na runinga hutumika kutupasha habari


Bintiye Mchungaji Boriti anapenda kuwasaidia watu


Miembe mirefu itakatwa


Kirai Kiwakilishi ni fungu la maneno linalowakilisha nomino katika sentensi


Zenyewe zimekwishaharibika


Watakaovumilia hadi siku ya mwisho wataokolewa


Yeye alijitumbukiza majini na kufariki papo hapo


Kirai Kivumishi ni fungu la maneno katika sentensi linalotupa habari zaidi kuhusu nomino


Matokeotuliyokuwa tukiyasubiri yametangazwa


Duka zenye bei nafuu zimefungwa


Msichana mrembo kama malaika ameolewa


Kirai Kielezi


Kirai Kielezi ni fungu la maneno linaloelezea zaidi kuhusu kitenzi au kivumishi


Walevi wana mazoea ya kupayuka ovyo ovyo


Viumbe vyote vyenye uhai vinamshangilia kwa furaha milele na milele


Kwaya ya Chuo Kikuu cha Nairobi huimba kwa sauti za kimalaika


Vishazi clause


Kishazi ni sehemu ya sentensi yenye kitenzi Kuna aina mbili za virai


Kishazi Huru Independent Clause


Kishazi Huru huwa na maana kamili na kinaweza kujisimamia chenyewe kama sentensi


Amina ameanza kuimba baada ya kumaliza kusali


Watakaopatikana wakichekacheka ovyoovyo watangolewa meno


Nitakupatia nusu ya ufalme wangu iwapo utanipigia magoti


Kishazi Tegemezi Dependent Clause


Kisha Tegemezi huhitaji kuunganishwa na kishazi kingine ili kuleta maana iliyokusudiwa Aghalabu huwa na kirejeshi kv amba enye nk


Vitate Vitawe na Visawe


Baadhi ya maneno ya Kiswahili yanaweza kuwa na maana sawa maana zaidi ya moja au matamshi yanayotatiza Vikundi hivi vitatu ni


Vitate  maneno yanayotatiza kimatamshi  Vitate hutatiza kimatamshi


Vitawe  maneno yenye maana zaidi ya moja  Vitawe hugawanywa kwa matawi au maana zaidi


Visawe  maneno tofauti yenye maana sawa  Visawe huwa na maanasawa


Vitate


Maneno yanayotatiza kimatamshi


ndoa na doa


ndoa  kuungana kwa watu wawili na kuishi pamoja kama mume na mke


doa  alama ya uchafu kasoro au dosari


baba na papa


baba  mzazi wa kiume


papa  mnyama wa baharini


fua na vua


fua  osha nguo tengeneza vyuma


vua  shika samaki kutoka majini toa nguo


faa na vaa


faa  inayostahili inayopaswa


vaa  weka nguo juu ya mwili


ngoma na goma


ngoma  ala ya muziki itoayo sauti inapopigwa


goma  acha kufanya kazi


shinda na shida


shinda  ongoza katika makabiliano mashindano


shida  taabu au matatizo


shindano na sindano


shindano  makabiliano baina ya watu wawili au zaidi ili kutambua atakayeongoza


sindano  kifaa kinachotumika kushonea vitu


pinga na piga


pinga  kutokubaliana na jambo fulani


piga  kugonga au kuchapa


fahali na fahari


fahali  ngombe wa kiume pia ndume


fahari  kujivunia furaha


haba na hapa


haba  kisichokuwa kingi


hapa  mahali karibu


Vitawe


Mano yenye maana zaidi ya moja


paa


kwea enda juu


mnyama wa porini anayefanana na mbuzi


sehemu ya juu ya nyumba


shinda


kaa au ishi mahaliwakati fulani


ongoza katika shindano


tupu


kaa


sehemu yenye moto ya kuni


mnyama wa majini


keti chini


kuwa mahali fulani kwa muda


mbuzi


mnyama anayefugwa kama ngombe


chombo cha kukunia nazi


mlango


ukoo au watu wenye asili smoja


sehemu ya kuingia kwenye nyumba


kitu kinachotumika kifunga nyumba


fua


unda vyombovifaa mbalimbali kwa kupiga chuma


osha nguo


vua


toa nguo kutoka mwilini


toa samaki kwenye maji


kiboko


mnyama mkubwa wa baharini


silaha inayotumika kwa kuchapa au kupiga


tembo


aina ya ndovu


aina ya pombe


Visawe


Maneno tofauti yenye maana sawa


msichana au banati   kijana wa jinsia ya kike


mvulana au ghulamu   kijana wa jinsia ya kiume


huzuni au majonzi   hali ya kilio na huruma


mazishi au matanga   shughuli za kumzika marehemu


wakati au mwia   wakati au muda


mtu au mja   mnyama atembeaye kwa miguu miwili mwenye uwezo wa kuongea na kufikiri kimantiki


barua au waraka   kartasi inayoandikwa na kutumwa ili kuwasilisha ujumbe fulani


siri au faragha   jambo lisilopaswa kujulikana na mtu mwengine


macho au maninga   sehemu za mwili zinazotumika kuangalia na kuona


mwangaza au nuru   miyale inayowezesha watu kuona vitu


Mungu au Mola au Rabana au Jalali au Rabuka   Majina ya Mwenyezi Mungu


Wahusika Katika Fasihi Andishi


Fasihi Andishi hutumia wahusika wanadamu kinyume na Fasihi Simulizi ambayo hutumia wahusika changamano watu wanyama mazimwi nk Kunazo aina kadhaa za wahusika katika kazi ya fasihi andishi kama vile tamthilia riwaya na hadithi fupi


Aina za Wahusika


Wahusika Wakuu  hawa ni wahusika ambao wanahusishwa na takribani visa vyote katika riwayatamthilia Wahusika huhusishwa kutoka mwanzo hadi mwisho Aghalabu mhusika mkuu hafi isipokuwa katika trejediasimanzi au hufa kifo cha ushujaa


Wahusika Wasaidizi  hawa ni wahusika wanaosaidia kujenga mhusika mkuu Hutokeza mara nyingi katika hadithi Wahusika wasaidizi wanaweza kuwa na visa vyao Kwa mfano marafiki na aila za wahusika wakuu


Wahusika Wadogo  ni wahusika ambao wanafanya kazi ndogo sana katika fasihi kama vile kujenga maudhui au mandhari Wahusika hawa wakitolewa riwayatamthilia inaweza kuendela bila kubadilika sana Kwa mfano mwenye duka ambalo mhusika alinunua kitu fulani


Wahusika Bapa  hawa ni wahusika wasiobadilika kutoka mwanzo hadi mwisho Kwa mfano mhusika mbaya anabakia kuwa mbaya kutoka mwanzo hadi mwisho Sifa za wahusika bapa huweza kutambulika mwanzoni mwa hadithiriwaya Wahusika bapa hawawakilishi sifa halisia za binadamu Nia yao ni kujenga tabia moja tu Kuna aina mbili za wahusika bapa


Wahusika bapasugu  huoenyesha msimamo wao kulingana na masimulizi ya msanii


Wahusika bapavielelezo  msimamo wao hutambulika kulingana na majina yao Msanii hutumia mbinu ya majazi au lakabu kuwapatia wahusika majina yanayolingana na sifa zao Kwa mfano Mhusika Rehema ni mwenye huruma na neema kutoka mwanzo hadi mwisho


Wahusika Duara  mhusika duara hubadilika kitabia katika fasihi Hawana msimamo thabiti Hubadilika kulingana na maudhui na mazingira Kwa mfano msichana aliyeanza kama mpole na mwadilifu anapobadilika na kuwa mtovu wa nidhamu kahaba na asiyeshirikiana na mtu yeyote


Wahusika Wafoili  huwa katikati ya wahusika bapa na wahusika duara Wanaweza kuchukua msimamo fulani katika maswala fulani lakini pia wanaweza kubadilisha msimamo huo wakati mwingine kulingana na hali Wahusika hawa hutegemea wahusika duara na wahusika bapa ili kutoa sifa zao Kwa mfano wakiishi na mhusika bapa wanaweza kuchukua msimamo wa mhusika huyo lakini wakikaa sana na mhusika mwengine wanabadilika Wahusika hawa aghalabu huwakilisha uhalisi wa binadamu


FASIHI


Fasihi Simulizi


Fasihi Andishi


Ushairi


Tamathali za Usemi


FASIHI SIMULIZI


Hadithi  Ngano


Nyimbo


Maigizo


Tungo Fupi


FASIHI ANDISHI


Hadithi Fupi


Riwaya


Tamthilia


Aina za Wahusika


USHAIRI


Aina za Mashairi


Bahari za Ushairi


Uchambuzi


AINA ZA MANENO


Nomino N


Viwakilishi W


Vitenzi T


Vivumishi V


Vielezi E


Viunganishi U


Vihusishi H


Vihisishi I


VIJENZI VYA NENO


Sauti za Kiswahili


Mofimu


Viambishi


Uainishaji


Shadda na Kiimbo


UPATANISHO WA SARUFI


Ngeli za Kiswahili


Ukubwa na Udogo


Umoja na Wingi


Nyakati


Kukanusha


Kinyume


Viungo Mbalimbali


Uakifishaji


NGE na NGALI


SENTENSI


Aina za Sentensi


Muundo wa Sentensi


Uchanganuzi wa Sentensi


Virai na Vishazi


PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY


Introduction


Scientific subjects are by their nature experimental It is accordingly important that an assessment of a students knowledge and understanding of Chemistry should contain a component relating to practical work and experimental skills This booklet has been produced to help students preparing for and taking practical Examinations The material contained in this booklet does not extend the curriculum specification content Rather it seeks to help the candidate succeed in practical examination by explaining in more depth what is required of him or her in carrying out the exercises making observations and measurements with appropriate precision and recording these methodically This booklet advices candidate on how he or she should interpret explain evaluate and communicate the results of the exercises clearly and logically using relevant chemical knowledge and understanding and using appropriate specialist vocabulary


11APPARATUS IN A CHEMISTRY LABORATORY


12 SPECIAL LABORATORY APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES


a USING THE BURETTE


A burette is used to deliver solution in precisely measured variable volumes Burettes are used primarily for titration to deliver one reactant until the precise end point of the reaction is reached To fill a burette close the stopcock at the bottom and use a funnel You may need to lift up on the funnel slightly to allow the solution to flow in freely You can also fill a burette using a disposable transfer pipette This works better than a funnel for the small 10 mL burettes Be sure the transfer pipette is dry or conditioned with the titrant so the concentration of solution will not be changed


Before titrating condition the burette with titrant solution and check that the burette is flowing freely To condition a piece of glassware rinse it so that all surfaces are coated with solution then drain Conditioning two or three times will insure that a stray drop of water does not change the concentration of titrant Rinse the tip of the burette with water from a wash bottle and dry it carefully After a minute check for solution on the tip to see if your burette is leaking The tip should be clean and dry before you take an initial volume reading When your burette is conditioned and filled with no air bubbles or leaks take an initial volume reading A burettereading card with a black rectangle can help you to take a more accurate reading Read the bottom of the meniscus Be sure your eye is at the level of meniscus not above or below Reading from an angle rather than straight on results in a parallax error


Deliver solution to the titration flask by turning the stopcock The solution should be delivered quickly until a couple of mL from the endpoint The endpoint should be approached slowly a drop at a time Use a wash bottle to rinse the tip of the burette and the sides of the flask Your TA can show you how to deliver a partial drop of solution when near the endpoint


b Volumetric measuring Flasks


Erlenmeyer flasks and beakers are used for mixing transporting and reacting but not for accurate measurements The volumes stamped on the sides are approximate and accurate to within about 5


c Graduated Cylinders


Graduated cylinders are useful for measuring liquid volumes to within about 1 They are for generalpurpose use but not for quantitative analysis


If greater accuracy is needed use a pipette or volumetric flask


d Pipette


A pipette is used to measure small amounts of solution very accurately A pipette bulb is used to draw solution into the pipette


Start by squeezing the bulb in your preferred hand Then place the bulb on the flat end of the pipette Place the tip of the pipette in the solution and release your grip on the bulb to pull solution into the pipette Draw solution in above the mark on the neck of the pipette If the volume of the pipette is larger than the volume of the pipette bulb you may need to remove the bulb from the pipette and squeeze it and replace it on the pipette a second time to fill the pipette volume completely


Quickly remove the pipette bulb and put your index finger on the end of the pipette Gently release the seal made by your finger until the level of the solution meniscus exactly lines up with the mark on the pipette Practice this with water until you are able to use the pipette and bulb consistently and accurately


e Volumetric Flask


A volumetric flask is used to make up a solution of fixed volume very accurately This volumetric flask measures 500 mL  02 mL This is a relative uncertainty of 4 x 104 or 400 parts per million


To make up a solution first dissolve the solid material completely in less water than required to fill the flask to the mark After the solid is completely dissolved very carefully fill the flask to the 500 mL mark Move your eye to the level of the mark on the neck of the flask and line it up so that the circle around the neck looks like a line not an ellipse Then add distilled water a drop at a time until the bottom of the meniscus lines up exactly with the mark on the neck of the flask Take care that no drops of liquid are in the neck of the flask above the mark After the final dilution remember to mix your solution thoroughly by inverting the flask and shaking f Analytical Balance


An analytical balance measures masses to within 00001 g Use these balances when you need this high degree of precision Turn the balance on by pressing the control bar The display lights up for several seconds then resets to 00000 Place creased small weighing paper on the balance pan Close the sliding glass doors Wait for the green dot on the left to go out This is the stability indicator light indicating that the weight is stable Press the control bar to cancel out the weight of the container or paper The display will again read 00000 Carefully add the substance to be weighed up to the desired mass Do not attempt to reach a particular mass exactly Before recording the mass close the glass doors and wait until the stability detector lamp goes out Record mass of solid


Dont pick up tare containers with bare hands since your fingerprints add mass Use tongs to prevent this Dont lean on the bench while weighing Do record the mass of your container if you will need it later Do check the level indicator bubble before weighing The two rear balance feet serve as levelling screws Use the brush provided to clean spills in the weighing chamber Discard any disposable tare containers or weighing paper in the nearest wastebasket g Calorimetry


Calorimetry is used to determine the heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction The calorimeters shown here can determine the heat of a solution reaction at constant atmospheric pressure The calorimeter is a double Styrofoam cup fitted with a plastic top in which there is a hole for a thermometer


Its crude but very effective Key techniques for obtaining accurate results are starting with a dry calorimeter measuring solution volumes precisely and determining change in temperature accurately


h Using a Calorimeter


Solutions volumes should be carefully measured with a graduated cylinder Add solution completely to a dry calorimeter Dont forget to add the spin bar each time Set up the calorimeter with the thermometer 0 to 50C graduated every 01C supported from a stand so that the bulb does not touch the bottom of the cup Note that the thermometer used for calorimetry differs from the less accurate one in your glassware drawer Clamp the calorimeter so that it rests on the stirrer Be careful not to turn on the heat or you will melt the Styrofoam


The change in temperature is determined by measuring the initial temperature T1 of the reactants and the maximum temperature T2 of the contents of the calorimeter during the exothermic reaction Use a magnifying glass to measure temperature values precisely Interpolate between the divisions of the thermometer and record temperatures to  001 C See your lab manual for a discussion of how to determine accurately the change in temperature from your graph of temperature vs time i Toploading Balance


Use a top loading balance to weigh solid material when a precision of 01 g is adequate For more accurate mass measurements or small amounts use an analytical balance


Using a Toploading Balance


Check if the balance is turned on If not press the onoff button and wait until the display reads 00 g Place a container or large creased weighing paper on the balance pan Push tare button to zero the balance Carefully add substance to the container or paper Record the mass Use the brush provided to clean any spills Discard any disposable tare containers or weighing paper in the nearest wastebasket


GENERAL EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSES


Quantitative Transfer


Quantitative Transfer simply means that all the material to be transferred from one place to another must make the trip For example every particle of solid must be transferred from the weighing paper to the clean beaker This can be done be carefully tipping the creased weighing paper to pour the solid into the beaker Tapping the paper with a spatula will knock particles into the beaker Finally the paper should be rinsed into the beaker to remove all traces of the solid


Transferring a Solution or Mixture


If you are transferring a solution or heterogeneous mixture to another vessel rinse the container with solvent to be sure the transfer is quantitative The rinsing should be transferred to the second vessel along with the rest of the mixture or solution


Titration


A titration is a method of analysis that will allow you to determine the precise endpoint of a reaction and therefore the precise quantity of reactant in the titration flask A burette is used to deliver the second reactant to the flask and an indicator or pH Meter is used to detect the endpoint of the reaction


COMMON LABORATORY EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES


1 BUNSEN BURNER i Close the air hole and turn the gas tap full on Light the gas and hold a piece of wire in different parts of the flame moving it from the bottom to the top Note the hottest place in the flame Open the air hole Again hold the wire in the flame moving from the bottom to the top Note the hottest place in the flame Compare the two flames and note which has the hottest point ii Close the air hole Hold a testtube with its bottom end just above the flame Carbon deposits on the glass To test whether unburned carbon gives the yellow colour to the flame sprinkle powdered charcoal into the flame to see if this gives the same effect iii Open the air hole again Note whether carbon deposits on a testtube held in this flame Air mixing with the gas helps it to burn more rapidly and efficiently To test what is in the cooler inner cone hold a splint of wood in the flame so that it passes through the inner cone Note which part of the splint burns Hold a piece of glass tubing with one end in the inner cone then ignite the gas that comes out of the other end iv Investigate a candle flame and the flame of a spirit lamp in a similar way Find the hottest part of the flame Test for unburned carbon particles in the flame Look for an inner cone of unburned gases


IDENTIFICATION OF PURE SUBSTANCES


2 Melting points mp of naphthalene i Put a very small amount of naphthalene in a capillary tube sealed at one end You can pull out the capillary tube from heated glass tubing Use a rubber band to attach the capillary tube sealed end down to a thermometer Heat a thermometer and capillary tube in a beaker of water on a tripod Use the thermometer to stir the water but do not let water enter the capillary tube Slowly raise the temperature of the water Note the temperature of the naphthalene when it melts Let it cool and note the temperature when the naphthalene solidifies Calculate the average of these two values ii Use a clean testtube and thermometer to repeat the experiment using stearic acid mp 69o or use any other substance mp  100oC


3 Impurities affect the melting point of a substance Mix stearic acid with the naphthalene thus making the naphthalene impure Look for changes in the melting point Impurities lower the melting point


4 Boiling point of water We can identify a pure substance from its melting point or boiling point Put water in a testtube and hold a thermometer with the bulb just under the water Add boiling chips to prevent bumping Bring the water to the boil with a very small flame and read the thermometer Note any change in the reading if the thermometer touches the bottom of the testtube


5 Boiling point of inflammable liquids i Use a different method of heating inflammable liquids eg ethanol bp 784oC and acetone bp 56oC Put 2 cm of the inflammable liquid in a testtube Put the testtube in an empty beaker Put a thermometer into the testtube with the bulb in the liquid Boil water in an electric jug or on an electrical hot plate Pour the hot water into the beaker so that the level is higher than the inflammable liquid in the testtube Stir the inflammable liquid gently with the thermometer and read the thermometer when the inflammable liquid boils ii Use a very small testtube or seal one end of a piece of glass tubing 8 cm length and 3 cm external diameter Put the inflammable liquid into this tube Put a capillary tube sealed at one end into the inflammable liquid with the sealed end up and the open end down in the inflammable liquid Use a rubber band to attach the tube containing inflammable and capillary tube to the bulb of a thermometer Hold the apparatus in a beaker of water and heat gently with a Bunsen burner flame When the temperature rises bubbles slowly come out of the capillary tube At the boiling point the bubbles suddenly come out as a steady stream Read the temperature Let the water cool and read the temperature again when the steady stream of bubbles ceases Calculate the boiling point as the average of the two readings


6 Pressure affects the boiling point Put water in a sidearm testtube or in a roundbottom flask with a 2hole stopper Insert a thermometer through a hole in the stopper so that the bulb of the thermometer reaches but does not touch the bottom of the testtube or flask Add boiling chips to prevent bumping Boil the water and read the temperature on the thermometer Stop heating Connect a water pump to the sidearm or to the second hole of the 2hole stopper When the water stops boiling turn on the water pump to reduce the pressure Read the temperature heat to boiling and read the temperature again


7a Solubility in water Test different salts taken to show that each has a different solubility in water Take 5 g samples and try to dissolve each in 15 mL of water in a testtube Attach the stopper then shake each testtube vigorously for the same time to show that solubility is a characteristic of a particular substance eg sugar common salt potassium nitrate calcium sulphate The solubility of a salt is usually expressed as the number of grams able to dissolve in 100 g water at 20oC eg ammonium chloride 372 g barium chloride 357 g calcium chloride 427 g copper sulphate 207 g lead nitrate 544 g magnesium sulphate 252 g potassium chloride 340 g potassium iodide 1440 g sodium bicarbonate 96 g sodium chloride 360 g sodium hydroxide 1090 g sodium nitrate 875 g


b Solubility of a substance in water at a given temperature Put about 50 cm3 of water in a beaker and add baking powder sodium bicarbonate gradually while stirring Potassium sulphate is an alternative substance Make a saturated solution by stirring until no more solute will dissolve Read the temperature of the saturated solution Weigh a clean evaporating dish w1 Add some clear saturated solution and weigh again w2 Carefully evaporate the solution in the evaporating dish to dryness and weigh again w3 The mass of the sodium bicarbonate dissolved  w3  w1 The mass of water  w2  w1  w3 Calculate the solubility of the sodium bicarbonate as g per 100 g water at room temperature


8a Solubility and particle size To show that small particles dissolve faster than the large particles add 4 g of coarse able salt to one testtube half filled with water and 4 g of fine table salt to a second testtube containing the same amount of water or use whole and crushed copper sulphate crystals Stir or shake both tubes equally and simultaneously Pause after every few seconds to observe the amount of undissolved salt left in each tube


b Solubility and solvents i Fill two testtubes one third full with a water and b methylated spirits To each testtube add 1 g sodium chloride attach a stopper and shake Sodium chloride dissolves readily in water but not so readily in methylated spirits ii Fill two testtubes one third full with a 88g water and b a solution of 1 g potassium iodide in 5 mL water To each testtube add iodine crystals attach a stopper and shake Sodium chloride dissolves readily in water but not so readily in alcohol


DETERMINATION OF DENSITY


9a Density of a solid The density of a solid is the ratio of mass to volume We can find the density of a regular solid with a balance and ruler We can find the volume of an insoluble irregular solid with a measuring cylinder Half fill a graduated cylinder with water Read the volume immerse the solid in the water and read the volume again The difference in the two readings is the volume of the solid


b Density of a liquid Weigh a small container fill with liquid and weigh again Transfer the liquid to a measuring cylinder Find the density by dividing the mass of the liquid by the volume Heat of fusion and vaporization


10a Separate by sublimation Separate iodine from a mixture of crystals of iodine and sodium chloride Heat the mixture in an evaporating dish with a funnel placed over it The iodine sublimes on to the cool sides of the funnel


SEPARATION OF MIXTURES


b Separate by distillation Put 10 mL ink in a flat bottom conical flask Add boiling chips to prevent bumping Fit a stopper with a delivery tube reaching half way down a collecting testtube or an Utube in a beaker of water Heat the ink with a Bunsen burner flame Drops of a colourless liquid appear in the collecting tube Identify the liquid as water by its action of turning white anhydrous copper sulphate to blue hydrated copper sulphate Do not allow ink to froth up or splash into the delivery tube


c Separate salt and sand Prepare a mixture of salt and sand Put about 2 mL of the mixture in a testtube Add 5 mL water and shake until all the salt has dissolved Pour the contents of the tube into a filter paper in a funnel over an evaporating basin Wash the testtube with water and add this to the filter paper The sand will remain on the filter paper and may be dried and collected The salt can be recovered from the filtrate by warming the evaporation basin to drive off the water


d Solvent extraction of oil from nuts Put groundnuts peanuts or pieces of chopped coconut into a mortar Add 20 mL of acetone or methylated spirits Grind the nuts in the solvent as finely as possible Pour off the liquid into a testtube and filter into an evaporating basin Warm the evaporating basin for 10 minutes The solvent evaporates leaving the oil extracted from the nuts


e Separate two immiscible liquids of different density Use a separating funnel or make a separating funnel with a piece of wide tubing fitted with a stopper tube and rubber tube with a clip Shake the mixture thoroughly in a closed container then run it into the separating funnel Wait until a clear boundary appears between the two liquids and then run off the denser layer into a beaker below


11b HEATING AND BURNING DIFFERENT SUBSTANCES Substances that gain mass when heated


Clean 25 cm of magnesium ribbon and cut into 1 cm pieces Weigh a crucible plus lid put the pieces of magnesium ribbon in the crucible and weigh again Put the crucible on a pipe clay triangle supported on a tripod Heat very gently then strongly Hold the crucible lid in a pair of tongs close to the crucible The magnesium ribbon darkens just before it begins to melt At the first sign of burning place the lid on the crucible and remove the Bunsen burner Every 4 seconds raise the lid to allow more air to enter but do not allow any white magnesium oxide smoke to escape When the magnesium stops burning on raising the lid remove the lid Heat the crucible again strongly but still hold the crucible lid in a pair of tongs close to the crucible in case the magnesium starts to burn again Leave the crucible to cool When cool weigh the crucible plus lid plus contents Calculate the increase in mass of the magnesium


b Substances that lose mass when heated i Weigh a testtube containing 1 cm potassium permanganate crystals and a 1 cm plug of cotton wool at the mouth to prevent loss of any solid during heating Heat the testtube and cotton wool and weigh it again Note any change in the potassium permanganate crystals Note any loss in mass due to the loss of water of crystallization ii Weigh a testtube containing 1 cm copper carbonate and a 1 cm plug of cotton wool at the mouth to prevent loss of any solid during heating Heat the testtube and cotton wool and weigh it again Note any change in the copper carbonate Note any loss in mass


b Substances that neither gain nor lose mass when heated Weigh a testtube containing 1 cm dry zinc oxide and a 1 cm plug of cotton wool at the mouth to prevent loss of any solid during heating Heat the testtube and cotton wool and weigh it again Note any change in the zinc oxide Note any loss in mass


c Effect of heat on copper sulphate crystals Crush blue copper sulphate crystals and put them into a dry testtube to a depth of 4 cm Heat the tube gently Note whether vapour collects on the cooler parts change of colour from blue to white and any liquid collecting in the receiving tube Identity of the liquid by measuring the boiling point When all the copper sulphate crystals have changed to white and the tube has cooled hold the tube in your hand and pour the liquid back on to the white crystals Note whether the blue colour restored and if any heat is given back


Blue copper sulphate crystals  heat  white anhydrous copper sulphate  water This is a reversible change


12PREPARING COLLECTING AND TESTING GASES b Hydrogen Be careful A dangerous explosion may occur if you use any vessel bigger than a small testtube when igniting the gas particularly if it is mixed with air Never dry hydrogen gas with concentrated sulphuric acid i Place a few pieces of granulated zinc or zinc foil from the casing of an old dry cell in a boiling tube add 2 drops of copper sulphate solution An alternative to the thistle funnel at A is a syringe as shown at B Pour enough 1 M sulphuric acid down the thistle funnel on to the zinc to cover the bottom of the funnel tube Discard the first two or three test tubes of hydrogen as they will contain displaced air Collect test tubes of the gas and stopper them Test the third testtube of gas by holding a lighted taper or splint over the mouth as soon as you take out the stopper Pure hydrogen burns with a quiet pop sound ii Alternatively add sulphuric acid from a syringe Gas cannot escape through the syringe so you do not need to cover the tube of the syringe with acid iii Hydrogen burns in air to form water vapour When hydrogen ignites in a dry testtube note any vapour or mist on the sides of the testtube iv Investigate whether hydrogen is lighter than air by pouring the gas into a testtube held either above the first tube or below it Use a lighted taper to investigate where the hydrogen has gone v Blow soap bubbles by holding the delivery tube of the apparatus in detergent or soap solution The hydrogen bubbles will rise into the air showing the low density of hydrogen gas


b Oxygen i Prepare oxygen safely by decomposition of hydrogen peroxide solution Put 20 mL hydrogen peroxide into a 100 mL bottle Fix a delivery tube to the bottle Add two spatulas of manganese dioxide and oxygen bubbles off for collection ii Oxygen is colourless and has no smell To test whether the testtube contains oxygen light a splint of dry wood blow out the flame leaving a glowing splint then put the glowing splint in a testtube of oxygen The glowing splint bursts into flame This experiment is called the glowing splint test iii Use an Lshape piece of nichrome wire with a shield to fit on the top to protect your hand Fix steel wool into a loop in the lower end of the Nichrome wire Heat the steel wool to red hot in a Bunsen burner flame then inserts it quickly into a testtube of oxygen iv Fix a small piece of charcoal into the loop in the lower end of the Nichrome wire Ignite the charcoal in the Bunsen burner flame and then insert it quickly into another testtube of oxygen v Dip the loop in the lower end of the Nichrome wire into sulphur powder Ignite the sulphur powder in a Bunsen burner flame and then insert it quickly into another testtube of oxygen


c Hydrogen chloride Put rock salt sodium chloride into a 100 mL filtering flask Coarse rock salt causes less frothing than the fine salt Carefully add concentrated sulphuric acid down the thistle funnel You can collect hydrogen chloride gas by upward displacement of air as in the diagram i Collect four test tubes of the gas and cork them Remove the cork from one of these test tubes under water Note the solubility of hydrogen chloride ii Hold a piece of cotton wool soaked in ammonium hydroxide at the mouth of a testtube of hydrogen chloride iii Shake a testtube of the gas with water to obtain a solution of hydrogen chloride Test the solution with an acidbase indicator Put a piece of magnesium ribbon in the solution Collect any gas formed and test for hydrogen with the glowing splint test


d Ammonia i Put a mixture of calcium hydroxide and ammonium chloride into a testtube to a depth of 4 cm Fill a Utube with lumps of calcium oxide mixed with cotton wool The cotton wool is to prevent blocking of the tube Gently heat the testtube The calcium oxide dries the ammonia gas Test whether the receiver testtube is full by holding a piece of red litmus paper at the opening Collect test tubes of ammonia and cork them The method of collection illustrates that ammonia gas is lighter than air ii Fill a flask with ammonia Fit a cork and tube into the flask as shown The tube should have been drawn out into a jet Warm the flask gently to expand the gas and then hold the flask upside down with the tube in the water Water will spray into the flask from the jet


e Carbon dioxide Many reactions can be used to produce carbon dioxide gas Marble chips or other carbonate rock treated with dilute acid provides a good source The gas is not too soluble to be collected by water displacement as shown above for the preparation of hydrogen Alternatively carbon dioxide can be collected by displacing air from dry bottles To test if the bottle is full lower a lighted splint or taper into the top of the jar If the flame is extinguished at the entrance as at ii then the jar is full Put a cardboard cover over the top to prevent diffusion of the gas Check the density of the carbon dioxide by pouring the gas into another bottle either above or below the first bottle Find where the gas is by testing with a lighted splint Note The presence of carbon dioxide can be confirmed by the fact that limewater becomes milky when the gas is Passed through it


f Cooking and carbon dioxide The purpose of baking powder or soda in cooking is to produce tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide This expands the pastry cake or dough making it light and pleasant to eat Yeast cells do the same thing in bread making though this takes longer Baking powder or sodium bicarbonate NHCO3 reacts with an acid such as lactic acid from sour milk to produce carbon dioxide Commercial baking powders often contain a solid acid which only reacts with the sodium bicarbonate when moist i Put baking powder into water Note whether carbon dioxide gas forms Note whether carbon dioxide forms when you put sodium bicarbonate into water Add baking powder in a testtube with vinegar or lemon juice acetic acid Note whether carbon dioxide forms ii Make a sugar solution and half fill a jar with this solution Add a spoonful of yeast and leave to stand for 2 days Construct a bubbler to fit on the top of the jar Note whether the yeast forms a gas Note whether carbon dioxide gas collects in the upper part of the jar


12a RUSTING Take 7 test tubes and 11 clean nails Prepare the tubes as shown below Tube 1 Put 2 clean nails in the testtube and half cover them with distilled water These nails are in contact with air and water and form the control experiment Tube 2 Put a few pieces of anhydrous calcium chloride or silica gel in the bottom of a dry testtube and also two nails Put a plug of cotton wool in the top of the tube These nails are in contact with air but not moisture Tube 3 Boil water for several minutes to expel dissolved air and pour into the testtube whilst hot Put 2 nails in the water Put a little Vaseline or a few drops of olive oil on the surface of the hot water The Vaseline will melt and form an airtight layer solidifying as the watercools These nails are in contact with water but not air Tube 4 Half cover 2 nails with water containing a little common salt dissolved in it These nails are in contact with air water and salt Tube 5 Wrap a piece of zinc foil round part of a nail Put the nail in the testtube and almost cover with tap water Tube 6 Wrap a piece of tin foil round part of the nail Put the nail in the testtube and add tap water as you did for tube 5 Tube 7 Wrap a piece of copper wire round a nail and put it in the testtube exactly like tubes 5 and 6 Stand these 7 test tubes in a rack and leave for several days Note the conditions for rusting and which metal zinc copper or tin is best at preventing rusting


b INCREASE IN MASS OF IRON DURING RUSTING Counterbalance a piece of iron on a knifeedge using a brass weight or stone Leave in moist air or on a window ledge for a few days and note the effect of the rust on the longer arm of the lever During rusting metallic ion changes to Fe OH 3xH2O


c WHAT COMBINES WITH IRON DURING RUSTING Moisten the inside of a testtube with water sprinkle into it a spatula measure of iron filings and rotate it horizontally so that the filings spread and adhere to the walls Alternatively push a small plug of moistened iron wool to the bottom of the tube Invert the testtube in a beaker about one third full of water Use the beaker lip to support the tube The water levels inside and outside the tube should be the same and the level should be marked on the tube Leave the tube in this position for a few days The iron will rust and the water level will rise up inside the tube finally becoming steady Again add water to the beaker until the levels inside and outside the tube are the same and mark the new level It will be seen that one fifth of the air volume has been used up suggesting that oxygen has been used up in the rusting of iron The residual gas does not support combustion of a lighted splint


13 COLOURED EXTRACTS FROM FLOWERS AS INDICATORS OF ACIDS AND BASES a Extract coloured substances from plants Select brightly coloured flowers such as the purple and red bougainvillaea or coloured leaves Squeeze or grind one of the coloured flowers or leaves in a mortar with a mixture made of 2 mL acetone and 2 mL ethanol By this means the colouring matter will be extracted into the solvent Filter and collect the filtrate Repeat this experiment with one or two other flower colours Keep these coloured solutions for use as indicators in the next experiment


b Plant extracts to indicate whether a substance is acidic or basic i Put a spot of the coloured flower extract on to a filter paper and leave to dry Put one drop of lemon juice on to the spot then note any change of colour Repeat the experiment with other fruit juices and vinegar They are acidic substances Note any colour change with dilute hydrochloric acid Different colours suggest that some substances are more acidic than others ii Put some of the original filtrate on to another piece of filter paper When dry note the colours given by sodium bicarbonate solution washing soda limewater and a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide These are alkaline or basic substances Note whether they all give the same colour Plant extracts can act as indicators to test whether a substance is acidic or basic iii Add a few drops of sodium bicarbonate solution to 1 mL of flower extract indicator in a testtube Then add lemon juice and note any colour change iv Repeat the experiment with limewater and indicator followed by dilute hydrochloric acid Note any colour change Note whether you can get back the original colour by adding more limewater Note how many times you can change the indicator colour before the testtube is full v Litmus an extract of lichens is another plant indicator An acidic solution turns blue litmus red An alkaline solution turns red litmus blue v Universal Indicator can be in the form of a solution or dried on filter paper Universal indicator not only indicates whether a substance is acidic or basic but also how acidic it is Investigate the effect of Universal Indicator on the solutions above To avoid using the name of a colour to indicate acidity we use a scale of numbers from 0 to 14 called the pH scale We can use the pH scale to express the degree of acidity Acid solutions have a pH value less than 7 Alkaline or basic solutions have a pH value greater than 7 Solutions with a pH value of 7 are neither acidic nor basic they are neutral On the bottle or packet of Universal indicator a colour chart shows the colour and the pH value associated with this colour as follows a Colour b pH c AcidBase a Red b 13 c very acidic a Orange b 45 c weak acid a Yellow b 6 c very weak acid a Green b 7 c neutral a Blue b 8 c very weak base a Indigo b 910 c weak base a Violet b 11 14 c very basic Use 2 drops of Universal Indicator to 10 mL of solution to be tested Test the pH value of lemon juice vinegar sodium bicarbonate solution washing soda lime water sodium hydroxide solution tap water distilled water


14 CRYSTALS a Crystal growth Sodium thiosulphate crystals grow rapidly from a supersaturated aqueous solution The formula for the crystals is Na2S2O310H2O On heating these crystals dissolve in some of their water of crystallization Put 3 cm of sodium thiosulphate crystals in a testtube Add 2 drops of water Heat gently until all the crystals have dissolved They appear to melt Leave to cool Crystals may not form unless you drop a tiny seed crystal of sodium thiosulphate into the solution Then crystal growth commences and spreads rapidly through the whole solution Watch the growth from one centre Hold the tube in the hand while crystallization occurs


b Crystals of naphthalene grow from the melt Put a little naphthalene on a glass slide Hold over a flame until the crystals melt Put a cover slip over the liquid and allow to cool Watch the crystals grow using a hand lens Sometimes crystals will grow from several points simultaneously to make boundaries where they meet Draw the shape of the boundary between the forming crystals and the melt View the crystals through Polaroid filters


c Grow large crystals i Use a 05  08 cm long seed crystal to start growing large crystals Make seed crystals by slow evaporation of 30 mL of saturated solution in a glass dish Dry a selected seed crystal Tie a piece of clean cotton around it without touching the seed crystal with your hands because impurities easily affect the size and shape of the crystal Hang the seed crystal 5 cm from the base of the container with a bent wire Fill a jar with a screwon lid with a solution of the salt less than saturation strength before you put the seed crystal in position If little crystals grow on the surface of the seed crystal then screw on the lid of the jar to make the little crystals dissolve Prevent crystals growing on the sides of a crystallizing dish by rubbing Vaseline round the upper inside rim Evaporation may be increased by sitting the crystal growing jar on a tin with a 5 watt bulb mounted inside it An air flow over the solution surface given by a fan will also hasten crystal growth You can preserve large crystals by painting with a clear varnish ii You can also support the seed crystal at the end of a glass tube Heat a 3 mm bore piece of glass tubing in a flame until the end softens sufficiently to squeeze with pliers to make a smaller hole When the glass tubing cools drop seed crystals on its end until one catches in the smaller hole Keep this crystal in place by dropping other crystals on it Support the glass tubing vertically so that the seed crystal at the end is immersed in the solution of the salt The seed crystal should then grow Turn the crystal regularly so that growth on all faces is equal


15 DIFFUSION


a Diffusion of heavy carbon dioxide gas upwards i Fill a jar with carbon dioxide and invert it over a similar jar full of air After a few moments separate the jars pour a little lime water in the lower one and shake it The lime water will turn milky indicating that the carbon dioxide has fallen into the lower jar because it is the heavier gas ii Repeat the experiment with the carbon dioxide in the lower jar and invert a jar of air on top of it If the jars are left for about 5 minutes carbon dioxide will be carried into the upper jar by diffusion in the same way air will be carried into the lower jar The lime water test will show the presence of carbon dioxide in the upper jar


b Diffusion rates of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases The long glass tube should be horizontal Corks should fit at both ends Using a pair of tongs or tweezers dip a piece of cotton wool into concentrated hydrochloric acid and another piece into concentrated ammonium hydroxide Drain off excess liquid As nearly as possible at the same time put the ammonia cotton wool at one end of the tube and the acid cotton wool at the other Close the ends of the tube with corks After a while look carefully for a white ring which will form where the ammonia gas and the hydrogen chloride gas meet after diffusing through the air towards each other Ammonia is the less dense gas and the white ring of ammonium chloride should form nearer to the hydrogen chloride end than from the ammonia end of the tube


c Diffusion of liquids i Place a crystal of potassium dichromate potassium dichromate VI or ammonium dichromate at the bottom of a beaker of water To do this put a glass tube into the beaker of water so that it touches the bottom then to drop the crystal down the tube Close the top of the tube with your finger and remove the tube gently leaving the crystal in the beaker The colour of the dissolving crystal will spread throughout the water in quite a short time ii Fill a very small open bottle with a strong solution of potassium permanganate potassium manganate VII Place this in a larger jar Fill the larger jar very carefully by pouring water down the side until the water level is above the top of the small bottle Leave this for a few days The potassium permanganate solution diffuses evenly through the water


d Size of a molecule We select an oil molecule because it has a density less than the density of water Oil floats on the surface and does not dissolve in the water If the water has a large enough surface area we assumed that thin oil will spread out in a layer one molecule thick called a monomolecular layer and not form little hills of molecules If we know the original volume of oil and the surface area that it forms then we can calculate the thickness of a monomolecular layer dividing the volume by the area Use a tray with area  30 cm2 so as not to restrict the oil film Sprinkle the surface of the water with a very fine light powder eg talc powder When you put oil on the water it pushes the powder aside so you can easily see the area covered by the oil Pour thin petroleum distillate oil into a burette Find the volume of fifty drops by running oil from the burette drop by drop and counting the drops Allow one more drop to fall on a piece of plastic Touch the oil drop with the point of a glass rod and then touch the prepared water surface The oil spreads out Measure the approximate area over which it spreads Estimate what fraction of oil was removed by the glass point by using the glass point to remove successive fractions from the drop until it has been used up The volume of oil put on the water can be calculated and an estimate made of the thickness of the oil layer about 106 mm This is an approximate dimension of a single molecule of the oil


16 ELECTRICITY


a Solids that conduct electricity The source of the DC supply can be dry cells in series giving 6 volts The bulb which should be low power indicates when the current is flowing The electrodes may be carbon or steel perhaps mounted in a wooden support cork or rubber stopper so as to keep the electrodes a constant distance apart


i Test the conductivity of solids by making a good contact between the surface of the solid and the two electrodes The surface of the solid must first be cleaned All metals conduct electricity Carbon conducts electricity Note whether nonmetallic solids eg plastics naphthalene wax sugar sodium chloride and sulphur conduct electricity ii Glass can be a conductor Heat a glass rod until it becomes very hot and begins to soften Test the hot soft part with the conductivity apparatus When molten glass is a good conductor of electricity


b LIQUIDS THAT CONDUCT ELECTRICITY i First test liquids obtained by melting substances Melt the following substances but heat very gently and cautiously because otherwise they may ignite and burn sulphur wax naphthalene polyethylene material tin lead and if available a low melting point salt such as lead bromide mp 488oC or potassium iodide mp 682oC  Test the conductivity of the melt by dipping in the electrodes and waiting a few moments for the electrodes to reach the same temperature This ensures that the electrodes are in contact with the liquid and not the solidified melt Scrape and clean the electrodes between each test ii Test ethanol or methylated spirits acetone carbon IV chloride vinegar sugar solution copper II sulphate solution sodium chloride solution and other substances dissolved in water Clean and dry the electrodes between each test iii Test pure distilled water for conductivity Put the electrodes into a beaker of distilled water The bulb does not light up so pure water does not conduct electricity Very gradually stir small crystals of common salt into the water Note any changes to the bulb as the salt dissolves Classify substances into the following groups a those which conduct electricity in the solid state and those which do not b those which conduct in the liquid state and those which do not c those which conduct when dissolved in water and those which do not


c ELECTROLYSIS OF LEAD BROMIDE There are very few suitable low melting point salts Lead bromide has a low melting point and makes an interesting electrolysis experiment Potassium bromide may have too high a melting point 682oC to melt easily The lead bromide is melted in a 100 mL hard glass beaker or in a crucible The carbon electrodes are supported by a strip of wood with two holes bored 2 cm apart for the electrodes Connect crocodile clips to the rods and complete the circuit with a torch bulb to indicate when a current is flowing and a 12volt torch battery or cells wired in series The electrodes can be labelled positive and negative The only ions present in this melt are the bromide and lead ions Bromine is readily seen coming off at the positive electrode which is the anode The fact that bromine appears only at the positive electrode helps in the understanding of the existence of a negative bromide ion Lead has both a lower melting point and a greater density than lead bromide and therefore appears as a melt at the bottom of the beaker The small globule of lead which accumulates at the negative electrode the cathode can be seen after about 10 minutes of electrolysis Decant off the molten lead bromide carefully into another crucible The electric current has split up crystalline lead bromide into bromine gas and lead metal