History

Native tribes

Native Americans lived in Marshfield for thousands of years before the white traders and settlers arrived in what is today considered coastal Massachusetts. These people included members of the Wampanoag Tribe of the Algonquin nation and members of the Massachusetts Tribe. Evidence of Native American habitation extending back to 9,000 to 10,000 B.C. has been found extensively in the area; it is possible that there are even older human settlements in the area, but these are submerged due to rising sea levels since the early Holocene.

Native American roads were well established in the town by the time of English settlement in the 17th century. These Native American roads are still in use today, comprising the town's main roads. A hauntingly beautiful, pre-historic Native American road—extending between three rivers—can still be seen today in seemingly pristine condition. It is in woodlands formerly owned by the Marshfield Drive-In Movie Theatre.

The Wampanoag name for the area is "Missacautucket." The earliest English settlers became allies of the Wampanoags, due in part to a strong friendship formed between Chief Massasoit and Edward Winslow. That alliance lasted 40 years.

After Massasoit's death in 1661, his son Wamsutta succeeded him as Sachem of the Wampanoags. However, Wamsutta died under suspicious circumstances in 1662. After a visit to the home of Governor Josiah Winslow in Marshfield he suddenly collapsed and died. Wamsutta was succeeded as Sachem by his brother Metacomet, who was known to the English as King Philip. Metacomet grew increasingly resentful of the colonists after the mysterious death of his brother. These resentments led to King Philip's War. Governor Josiah Winslow of Marshfield commanded the colonial forces against the Native Americans during that brutal war. While nearby towns, including adjoining Scituate, were attacked during King Philip's War, Marshfield was spared. Subsequent to the victory of the colonists in King Philip's War, Native Americans had a limited presence in Marshfield.

Pilgrim settlement

Marshfield is an early Pilgrim town, originally part of the "New Colony of New Plimoth in New England," which was established in 1620. Marshfield retains some of its historic character throughout its several quaint villages.

Marshfield was first established as a separate settlement in 1632 by Edward Winslow, a Mayflower Pilgrim who became a governor of Plymouth Colony.  Edward Winslow was the third signatory to the Mayflower Compact.  He became a negotiator and diplomat for the Colony in its dealings with the Native Americans and with the British.  Edward Winslow established the first church and the first school in the town, near the cemetery which today still bears the Winslow name.

Governor Winslow was the author of several works concerning Plimoth Colony, which are now considered among the most important primary source materials about Plimoth still in existence. These include Good Newes from New England (1624); Hypocrisie Unmasked (1646),; New England's Salamander Discovered (1647); and The Glorious Progress of the Gospel Amongst The Indians of New England (1649). It is believed that he also wrote Mourt's Relation with William Bradford in 1622, although he did not sign the work.

Governor Edward Winslow made a major contribution to the success of Plimoth Plantation by returning to England to obtain cattle for the Colony. Cattle farming was introduced into Marshfield at the inception of its settlement and became a major industry for the town for the next 300 years. Governor Bradford described the first land grants in the Town as being made for tillage and cattle.

A commercial fishing enterprise was established in Marshfield by 1623, by William Green, who later married a granddaughter of Pilgrim Richard Warren. The area was originally referred to as "Green's Harbor." When the area was formally set off as a town, it was named "Rexhame." Later, the name of the town was changed to "Marshfield." The town has extensive acreage of salt water tidal marshes along its three rivers: the Green Harbor River, the South River and the North River. Hence the name "Marshfield".

Marshfield was officially set off from Plimoth Plantation as a separate "town" in 1640. Much of the land in Marshfield was originally granted to Pilgrims, their family members or to the investors in the Pilgrim settlement at Plymouth.

According to the List of Freemen of 1643, the earliest settlers in Marshfield, in addition to Edward Winslow, included his brothers Kenelm Winslow and Josiah Winslow. The list also included Thomas Bourne, Robert Waterman, John Dingley, Thomas Chillingsworth, John Russell, Edward Buckley, William Sherman, William Thomas and Nathaniel Thomas. (According to William Thomas' will, dated 9 July 1651, he was the father of Nathaniel Thomas).

The list of those who took the Oath of Fidelity in the Town in 1657 includes John Adams, John Booth, John Howland, Jr., Thomas Dogget, Samuel Baker, Robert Latham, Joseph Rose, Edward Bumpas, Jr., John Branch, James Dougherty, Robert Parker, Edmund Hincksman, Richard Sylvester, Thomas Tilden, Francis Crocker, John Thomas, Abraham Jackson, John Thomas, John Rogers, Jr., John Walker, George Vaughan, William Foard, Jr., William Maycomber, Richard French, Ralph Chapman, John Bumpas, and Grigory Flecnam.

Pilgrim Peregrine White

An early resident of the town was Peregrine White, the first English child born in New England. Peregrine was born on November 20, 1620 on the Mayflower, while the ship was anchored near Provincetown on Cape Cod. This is where the Pilgrims moored for several weeks prior to selecting a location in Plymouth for permanent settlement. Peregrine was born to Pilgrim Susanna (Unknown) White and her husband Pilgrim William White. William died during the first winter. Half of the Pilgrims died that winter due to sickness, cold and starvation.

The name "Peregrine" means "wanderer", "foreign traveler", or "pilgrim." After Peregrine's father died, his mother Susanna White married Edward Winslow in 1621. Winslow's first wife, Elizabeth Barker Winslow, also had perished that initial winter. Susanna was the first English bride married in New England. She was also the first English woman to give birth in New England.

Pilgrims Susanna, Edward and Peregrine all settled in Marshfield, along with Susanna's older son, Pilgrim Resolved White. Edward Winslow adopted Susanna's two son's as his own. The General Court of Plimoth Colony granted Edward Winslow a large tract of land, about , covering much of Marshfield south of the Green Harbor River. This is where Peregrine was raised.

After he married, Peregrine eventually established a successful farm. It was on the western bank of the South River, directly across the river from the farm of Kenelm Winslow, Edward's brother. Yet, Peregrine could be seen almost daily on his horse riding to see his mother Susanna at Green Harbor, with the silver buttons on his jacket twinkling in the sunlight. He was of high energy and described as "comely to the last." Peregrine became widely known for planting a great number of European fruit trees in Marshfield and other parts of the Colony. He held a number of offices in Marshfield and the Colony, including the office of Selectman of Marshfield. Peregrine also served as a lieutenant in the Colony's militia. He lived until age 84, passing on July 20, 1704. Peregrine White was much revered within the Colony as the first born.

Peregrine White's baby cradle, the first cradle of New England births, has been lovingly preserved since 1620. The cradle that helped to found America can be seen today on display at Pilgrim Hall in nearby Plymouth.

Land tenure

For purposes of settling in the area peacefully, Josiah Winslow secured a deed to the town from the Chief of the Massachusett Tribe, Chickatawbut. Chief Chickatawbut granted land rights to the English settlers from Plymouth on the condition that members of the Massachusett Tribe could continue to hunt and fish in the area in perpetuity.

In the earliest years of the town, many of the land grants given by the Plymouth Colony Court were held by investors or speculators who did not live in the town, and frequently swapped and traded their deeds. The settlement of the town was largely confined to the area south of the South River.

There was extensive "common land" in the town, not owned by any individual. Some of the land in the town remains "common land" today, such as the town's magnificent five mile (8 km) long seashore along the Atlantic Ocean. In the case of Briggs Thomas v. Inhabitants of Marshfield, 13 Pickering 240 (1832), the Supreme Judicial Court ruled that the Marshfield seashore was a public highway and landing place. The Court further ruled that the Marshfield seashore, including extensive beach dunes, had been set aside for use as a common for hundreds of years. In connection with that litigation, it was determined that the owner of the farm along some of the beach, Major Briggs Thomas, did not own the beautiful Rexhame Beach, as he claimed, and that Rexhame Beach was part of the common land of the town.

Colonial government

Plymouth Colony was governed by a Governor and a General Court, composed of freemen of the Colony. The term "freemen" included white males, and excluded all women, Native Americans, blacks, indentured servants, Quakers and other religious minorities. In 1685, Plymouth Colony was divided into counties. Marshfield was designated part of Plymouth County. Marshfield did not become part of Massachusetts until 1692, when the English Crown forced the Pilgrim's Plymouth Colony to merge with the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which was seated to the north in Boston.

The 1692 charter created the Province of Massachusetts. The charter joined Plymouth's government with the Massachusetts Bay government, and created a single legislature. The Province of the Massachusetts Bay was replaced by a provisional government called the Massachusetts Provincial Congress during the American Revolution. After the American Revolution, the provisional government became the "State of Massachusetts" which later evolved into the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.

Up until the time of the merger of the two colonies, Plymouth Colony was distinctly different from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. For example, the Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony did not embrace the death penalty or physical mutilation as punishment for crimes, while the colony at Massachusetts frequently employed such punishments. The two colonies were controlled by members of different religions. Plymouth Colony was established by Separatists, while the Massachusetts colony was established by Puritans. The two colonies had different sets of laws. Plymouth Colony demonstrated greater religious tolerance. Neither Marshfield nor Plymouth Colony was involved in the Massachusetts witchcraft hysteria, which erupted simultaneously with the merger of the two colonies, and resulted in the Salem witch trials.

American Revolution

Pilgrim loyalty

In the days of the American Revolution, Marshfield was considered a main hotbed of Tory activity, the most Loyalist town in New England. Although not everyone in the town was a Loyalist, Marshfield was unique in Massachusetts in that for a long while the Loyalists dominated and controlled the town, rather than existing merely as a minority faction.

At the time, the Town had a population of about 1,200 residents, some of whom were considered to be very wealthy. The population was still largely descended from the town's founding families, including the descendants of Pilgrim Edward Winslow, Pilgrim Peregrine White, Pilgrim Resolved White and Pilgrim Richard Warren. These and other Old Colony families within the town had intermarried for generations. Oftentimes, one distant cousin married another distant cousin. The townspeople were closely bound together by an all encompassing web of blood ties.

Some of these families had for generations educated their sons at Harvard College. They were connected with powerful figures in the royal government of the Massachusetts Colony. Members of the Winslow family in particular were part of the aristocracy of Massachusetts, which also was tightly bound together by intermarriage. A number of families in the town were members of the Episcopal Church, which up until the Revolution was part of the Church of England.

Many of these families were alienated by the extreme violence, including the use of tarring and feathering, which characterized the behavior of the Patriots. Contrary to popular myth, the Massachusetts Patriots showed no regard for rights of free speech, or rights of free assembly, or the right to simply hold different views. A fact now buried in time is that the Patriots set out to win by intimidating those who held Loyalist views through mobbings and assaults. In one example, Patriots on Cape Cod acted to silence a woman who dared to express her Loyalist views to her customers in her small grocery store.  A mob of Patriot men broke into the home of a widow named Abigail Freeman during the night. They dragged her from her bed to the town green and there tarred and feathered her. They then carted her around town on a rail.

The Loyalist families tended to hold the view that favorable concessions could be won from Britain through diplomacy, rather than by extremism and threats of a violent rebellion. They considered themselves Englishmen, subjects of the King. The Winslow family in particular retained strong ties to England due to General John Winslow's long and distinguished service in the provincial forces of the British Army.

Winslow relative Nathaniel Ray Thomas was a prominent Loyalist in the town. In August 1774, Thomas was appointed by General Thomas Gage, royal governor of the Province of Massachusetts, and the King's Privy Council to the position of Mandamus Councillor. On September 6, 1774, a large Patriot mob of over a thousand men from Plymouth, Kingston, Pembroke, Hanover and Scituate began assembling to march to Thomas's home to demand his resignation from the post. The Patriots took the position that those accepting appointments as Mandamus Councillors were enemies of the cause of liberty. The mob arrived the next day, September 7, carrying an empty coffin. However, Thomas had been tipped off to the plans of the mob forming in Plymouth. Thomas had already escaped by fleeing on horseback along the beach under cover of night on September 6, 1774. Thomas reached the relative safety of British occupied Boston. For Marshfield, the Revolution had already begun.

Associated Loyalists of Marshfield

In December 1774, Marshfield residents formed a Loyalist militia named the "Associated Loyalists of Marshfield." The membership has been described as numbering about 300, comprising the majority of adult males in the town. However, other sources indicate that there were hundreds more affiliated with the group and that "all but six" of the Marshfield men were members of the group. The formation of the group brought hope to the royal government that more Massachusetts towns would follow the Marshfield example of adopting a strong Loyalist position.

The "Associated Loyalists" concept was conceived by Winslow descendant Timothy Ruggles of Hardwick to counter the efforts of the Patriots under the Continental Association. The Marshfield group signed the so-called "Ruggles Covenant"- a pledge to oppose the formation of any congress within the colonies, to remain loyal to the king, and to defend their principles at risk to their own lives.

Ruggles, who served as a Mandamus Councillor along with Nathaniel Ray Thomas of Marshfield and Isaac Winslow of Boston, intended the Associated Loyalists to become a statewide group to serve as a Tory military force throughout Massachusetts. A number of Loyalists in Freetown, MA, led by members of the Winslow family and their relatives, signed the Ruggles Covenant. However, Marshfield was the only town with a substantial number signing the pledge. Later, Marshfield became one of the few Massachusetts towns to take formal action at its Town Meeting to oppose the Patriots' formation of the Provincial Congress.

The Associated Loyalists of Marshfield held their meetings at the Marshfield mansion of Dr. Isaac Winslow, today known as the Historic 1699 Winslow House. At the time of the formation of the group in 1774, all three members of the Marshfield Board of Selectmen were loyalists, Isaac Winslow, Abijah White and Ephraim Little. The Plymouth Patriots were threatening to tar and feather those in Marshfield who did not recant their Loyalist views, or drive them off their farms. Patriots from Duxbury planned to kidnap Marshfield resident Nathaniel Phillips, a "principal loyalist," but he evaded capture. The Patriots did kidnap Marshfield Loyalists Paul White, Dr. Stockbridge and Elisha Ford, and carted them to the "Liberty Pole" in Duxbury. There they were "forced to sign recantations" of their Tory sentiments, likely in response to mob violence.

In January 1775, the Associated Loyalists of Marshfield sent a petition signed by 200 people to General Gage, commander of the British troops in Boston, requesting that arms and troops be sent to Marshfield for the protection of the Loyalists in the town.

British occupation

To aid the Associated Loyalists, on January 23, 1775 General Gage sent Captain Nesbitt Balfour and numerous officers leading 114 troops of the regiment known as the "King's Own." They arrived on two armed schooners, the Dianna and the Britannia, of the fleet of Admiral Samuel Graves. General Gage also sent 300 stands of arms and two cannons.

After the ships landed at White's Ferry, the troops marched south into the center of the town without meeting resistance. The troops were quartered on the  estate of Nathaniel Ray Thomas and other private Loyalist homes in Marshfield. Captain Balfour placed the troops at the disposal of town authorities for purposes of keeping order. The troops were to be stationed in the town indefinitely.

In a letter from a Marshfield Loyalist printed in the Rivington's New York Gazette dated February 9, 1775, it was reported that the British troops were "joyfully received" by Loyalists in Marshfield. The letter stated: "The king's troops are very comfortably accommodated, and preserve the most exact discipline, and now every faithful subject to his king dare freely utter his thoughts, drink his tea and kill his sheep, as profusely as he pleases.".

On February 20, 1775, Marshfield's Town Meeting voted to repudiate the authority of the Patriot's Provincial Congress. The Town Meeting also voted to express its gratitude to General Gage and Admiral Graves by sending formal letters of thanks. The town received from General Gage and Admiral Graves the following responses:

Admiral Graves replied as follows:

This troop movement was also the subject of a letter from General Gage to Lord Dartmouth dated January 27, 1775, which was read to the British Parliament on March 8, 1775.

The day after the Lexington Alarm of April 19, 1775, approximately one thousand Patriot militia from the local towns of Plymouth, Kingston, Duxbury, Carver, Plympton, Middleboro and Rochester stormed into Marshfield—to attack the British soldiers quartered within the town and the Tories hosting them. Colonel Anthony Thomas, a Patriot leader, helped to coordinate the incursion by assembling several hundred militia forces at his house in preparation for the attack on the estate of his own neighbor, Nathaniel Ray Thomas. The first troops to arrive decided to wait until the next day, so that more Patriot troops could amass for the Marshfield battle.

The confrontation with the British was narrowly averted when General Graves sent the HM Schooner Hope along with two wooden sloops to evacuate the British troops and the Tories at Marshfield. The ships came in near Brant Rock at the Cut River. The two sloops had been "prest" into service by Admiral Graves as the first British "prizes" of the Revolutionary War. Marshfield men alerted the British troops to the arrival of the ships by firing guns from atop "Signal Hill" situated within the vast lands of the Thomas estate. Over one hundred Loyalist residents of the area evacuated with the British troops to Boston. Some of these residents joined regiments in Boston to aid the British. Other Marshfield Tories were taken prisoner by the militia from surrounding towns during the skirmish. The guns sent by General Gage for the Associated Loyalists were confiscated by the Patriots.

The British evacuation of Marshfield occurred just one day after the first battle of the Revolution at Lexington, Massachusetts. Edward Winslow, Jr. served as a guide for Britain's Lord Percy at the Lexington battle. His horse was shot under him during battle.

British military volunteers

During the war, Edward Winslow (loyalist), Junior served as the "Commander of the Associated Loyalists," in charge of Tory regiments. He was a direct descendant of Pilgrim Governor Edward Winslow and was the Plymouth first cousin of Dr. Isaac Winslow of Marshfield. He later held the position of "Muster-Master General of the Loyal North British Volunteers."

Another leader of the Loyalists' militia was Timothy Ruggles, a former general in the provincial forces under the British Army. Both Edward Winslow, Jr. and Timothy Ruggles were reported to have led Loyalists in acts of piracy to fund their military operations- using British privateers coasting along south Massachusetts.

Dr. Isaac Winslow's brother, Marshfield native Pelham Winslow, was a Major with the British forces. He was known as "Commander of Castle William." Castle William is today known as Fort Independence and is situated on Castle Island in South Boston. Pelham Winslow died of fever in 1783 in New York, where he was serving with the British forces.

Abijah White, a descendant of Pilgrim Peregrine White, was a Selectman of the town in 1774. He became Marshfield's representative in the Province legislature in 1775. He was wounded in a battle at sea near Boston Light while fighting alongside British forces. The battle occurred on July 30, 1775. The British forces, aided by Marshfield Tories, were attempting to repair Boston Light. They were attacked by Major Benjamin Tupper leading 20 whale boats and 200 Patriot forces. The Patriot forces shot Representative Abijah White in the back. He died not long afterwards. Four Marshfield Tories were taken prisoner.

Other Marshfield residents took up arms against the Patriots to fight for the British. Among these were Marshfield men who joined the "Loyal American Association, Fifth Company of Associators Militia," assembled in Boston on July 5, 1775:
Joseph Tilden, John Tilden, Stephen Tilden, Silvanus White, Abijah White, Daniel White, Syballine White and Nathaniel Thomas. The Loyal American Association, First Company, then led by Timothy Ruggles and Edward Winslow, Jr., included Marshfield residents Seth Bryant and William Cowper. The Third Company of Associators of the Loyal American Association included Marshfield's Ephraim Little. The Fourth Company of Associators, also assembled in Boston on July 5, 1775, included Nathaniel Phillips and John Phillips Jr.

In July 1775, Patriot forces captured 13 Tories who were camped out on Long Island in Boston Harbor, where they had been harvesting hay for British troops. In a letter to her husband John Adams, the future First Lady Abigail Adams described the Tories as having been sent there by Marshfield's Nathaniel Ray Thomas.

Around this time in July 1775, General George Washington came to Massachusetts to take command of the Patriot forces. His headquarters were in Cambridge.

The first arrest of a Tory on Washington's orders during the American Revolution was carried out at the Kenelm Winslow house in Marshfield. This is the ancient house built by the original Kenelm Winslow about 1640, located on Winslow Street in Rexhame, at the corner of Kenelm Drive. At the time, the house was owned by a descendant, Kenelm Winslow, who was then a Marshfield Selectman. It is not known who was arrested in the house. However, Kenelm's brother Joseph Winslow, who had also grown up in the house, was a tea importer in Boston. He was accused of engaging in efforts to aid the British.

In November 1775, Nathaniel Phillips, a former Selectman of Marshfield, was sent to General Washington as "an infamous Tory." Nathaniel Phillips was sentenced to house arrest from 1775 to 1783.

The Diaspora of the Marshfield loyalists

After the British evacuated from Boston on March 17, 1776, a number of Marshfield residents were banished from the state under the Tory Banishment Act. The Marshfield Tories were met with mobbings, assaults, jailings, land confiscations and banishments. Many of the Marshfield Tories fled Massachusetts. Some never returned. Others eventually did return after they felt it was safe to do so. In April 1776, the town of Milton denied a ship carrying Marshfield Tories returning from Nova Scotia permission to land, presumably along the Neponset River. The ship "Sally", commanded by Loyalist Captain Cornelius White, with numerous Marshfield Tories on board, landed along the North River on April 19, 1776. The ship contained many articles consistent with the ship having been used for warfare, including 17 firearms, 5 bayonets, swords, 8 powder horns, hanger and cartridge boxes. The returning Tories had originally left with the British troops when they evacuated Marshfield on April 20, 1775. All on board were taken to jail by the local Committee of Correspondence.

The anguished dilemma facing the Loyalist families at the conclusion of the war was poignantly expressed in a letter by Sarah Winslow of Plymouth to her cousin Benjamin Marston, dated April 10, 1783:

"Our fate now decreed, and we are left to mourn out our days in wretchedness. No other resources but to submit to the tyranny of exulting enemies or settle a new country. I am one of the number that gladly would embark for Nova Scotia was it either prudent or proper, but I am told it will not do for me at present. What is to become of us, God can only tell. In all our former suffering we had hope to support us--being deprived of that is too much."

Her father, Edward Winslow, a direct descendant of Pilgrim Governor Edward Winslow, tried  to reside in Plymouth after the British Evacuation but was driven out. He explained to the Commission on American Loyalists sitting in Halifax, Canada on October 23, 1783: "I was the butt of the licentious, and had received every species of insult and abuse, which the utmost rancour and malice could invent."

His son, Edward Winslow (loyalist), the Tory military leader, was banished from the state. He helped to found the Loyalist colony in New Brunswick. Many families relocated to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Halifax and other places in Canada and Maine. Of those from Plymouth County who fled, the vast majority were from Marshfield. The loss or displacement of so many residents and working farms, and the disruption to businesses, resulted in the greatest transformation of Marshfield since the time of the arrival of the Pilgrims, led by Governor Edward Winslow.

The Marshfield Tea Party

But not everyone in Marshfield was a Loyalist. Despite the powerful influence of the Loyalist families, the town's Patriots eventually formed one of the revolutionary Committees of Correspondence. Marshfield native John Thomas (general), who lived in Kingston, raised an army of volunteers from Plymouth County for the Continental Army on April 23, 1775 known as the 2nd Massachusetts Regiment, also known as the 23rd Continental Regiment. General John Thomas's regiment would see action during the Siege of Boston. He received a letter from General George Washington praising his service. Other Marshfield Patriot leaders included his brother, Colonel Anthony Thomas, his nephew, Major Briggs Thomas and John Bourne.

Marshfield even had its own version of the Boston Tea Party.  At midnight on December 19, 1773, Marshfield Patriots confiscated tea from the old Ordinary in the town as a protest against the Crown and in sympathy with the Boston Tea Party, which had just taken place. The Ordinary is a building still standing today, which was constructed as a tavern in 1673 by Timothy Williamson. It is located at 2000 Ocean Street at the corner with Moraine Street (today known as The Corner Cafe). In 1773 the building was owned by John Bourne. After taking the tea, the Patriots knelt in prayer and ceremoniously burnt the tea on a large rock, situated on what became known as "Tea Rock Hill".

The Marshfield Patriots finally had their day when, on June 19, 1776, the Town Meeting voted to support independence and to defend the effort with their lives. This preceded the national Declaration of Independence by fifteen days.

The legacy of the past lives on in the town today, largely through silence. Unlike other area towns, Marshfield had no written history book until the 20th century. As far back as can be remembered, Marshfield's official July 4 celebrations have been far more subdued than those of surrounding towns. Many years, the town was noteworthy for not having July 4 celebrations at all, in contrast to most other towns.  The Marshfield Tea Party serves as the town's only symbol of its Revolutionary past, reflective of the town's continuing uneasiness with its breathtaking Loyalist history.

Overview

Early industry in the town included farming, cattle, fishing and salt marsh haying. Tragically, a number of the town's early families held people as slaves, including the Winslow family at Green Harbor, as well as the Winslow and Kent families at Rexhame beach. Some of the ancient and beautiful stone walls along the fields and roads in Marshfield were likely built by people held as slaves by Marshfield families.

An early nail factory, founded by Jesse Reed, was one of the first to manufacture nails by machine.  Shipbuilding grew in the town, and over 1,000 ships were built along the North River in town during the 19th century.  The town is also the site of Brant Rock, where Reginald Fessenden built the antenna from which he sent his first transatlantic voice radio broadcast in 1907.

In 1941, a great conflagration engulfed the eastern part of the town. Approximately 400 buildings burnt down in three hours. This was one of the largest fires in terms of structures destroyed in the history of the United States.  The tragedy was the subject of national news coverage, including photographic coverage in Life Magazine.

Today, Marshfield is largely a semi-rural and suburban town, with many residents commuting daily into Boston. Some of the old farms still remain, as well as a large number of historic houses. The town continues to have a large summer resort population. The Marshfield Fair continues on as the oldest agricultural fair in the United States and serves as the highlight of summer activities in the town. The beach and sea remain largely as they have always been,- ever present, ever beautiful, the essence of Marshfield.

References

Further reading
Pilgrim History
 J.D. Bangs, Pilgrim Edward Winslow, New England's First International Diplomat (Boston, 2004)
Mayflower Compact, first instrument of democracy in America. Signed by Edward Winslow. (1620)
 Mourt's Relation, by Edward Winslow and William Bradford (1622)
Good News from New England, by Edward Winslow (1627)
Hypocrisy Unmasked, by Edward Winslow (1646)
New England's Salamander Discovered, by Edward Winslow (1647)
New England's Memorial, contains Winslow materials

Loyalist History

 Remarkable High Tories: Supporters of King and Parliament in Revolutionary Massachusetts. Author: William H.B. Thomas. Heritage Books, 2001. Bowie, MD.: This book was written by a direct descendant of Nathaniel Ray Thomas, one of the main "High Tories" of Marshfield.
 Marshfield Tory Resolves , January 1774, described starting on bottom right of page, and page following
M'Fingal, Epic Poem about a Town Meeting by John Trumbull. Considered one of the most important pieces of Revolutionary literature. It is believed that the poem is a satire on the infamous Marshfield Town Meeting where the town pledged its loyalty to the Crown.
Tory Banishment Act of 1778
American Loyalists by Lorenzo Sabine (1847)
Volume 2 of Sabine's American Loyalists
Loyalists of Massachusetts by James H. Stark (1910).
Presentation on Tories by Marshfield Historical Society, 1928
Dr.LeBaron and His Daughters, by Jane Austin. Fiction. Includes account of Marshfield battle
 From the Loyalist Perspective
Loyalist Leaders Graduated from Harvard College
Harpers New Monthly Magazine June 1878, vol. LVII, page 6, refers to arrest of Tory at Kenelm Winslow house
Freetown Tories, led by Colonel Thomas Gilbert, Winslow relative
 Loyalist Bibliography

Secretary of State Daniel Webster
Daniel Webster chooses Marshfield as his home (N.Y. Times, 1852)
The Devil and Daniel Webster by Stephen Vincent Benet
Daniel Webster Sleeps with the Pilgrims (N.Y. Times, 1859)

General
Marshfield Dreams

External links
Photos of Town's Natural Beauty and Antiquities
Historical Photographs
Brief history from Marshfield Chamber of Commerce
Memorials, Markers and Plaques
Marshfield  Massachusetts  History
Marshfield in the Massachusetts Gazetteer 1890
Daniel Webster Estate
Town Government Website
 1699 Winslow House
Marshfield Historical Society
 Area Historical Houses
Plimoth Plantation
 Pilgrim Hall
Plymouth County in Massachusetts Gazetteer 1890
General John Thomas Park and National Historical Site

Marshfield
Marshfield, Massachusetts

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Maurizio Arena (26 December 1933 – 21 November 1979) was an Italian film actor. He appeared in more than 70 films between 1952 and 1978.

Life and career
Born in Rome as Maurizio Di Lorenzo, Arena made his film debut at nineteen years old, with a small role in Bellezze in moto-scooter. His breakout role came in 1956 with the role of Romolo in the successful Dino Risi's romance-comedy film Poveri ma belli. Until the early 1960s Arena was one of the most popular actors in the Italian cinema, and was a regular feature of gossip columns for his tumultuous personal life.

In later years his celebrity declined, and Arena found roles as a character actor in smaller films, and occasionally worked as a singer.  He became an alternative medicine healer with some local following.

He died at age 45 following a heart attack, a complication from a long-standing renal condition.

In 2008 a park was named after him in his native district Garbatella.

Selected filmography

 La figlia del diavolo (1952) - Corrado
 Beauties on Motor Scooters (1952)
 Siamo tutti inquilini (1953) - Carlo
 Roman Holiday (1953) - Young Boy with Car (uncredited)
 La lupa (1953)
 It Happened in the Park (1953) - Il fidanzato di Virginia (segment: Incidente a Villa Borghese)
 Tormento d'anim (1953)
 A Day in Court (1954) - Lorenzo (uncredited)
 Tripoli, Beautiful Land of Love (1954) - Feruccio
 Peppino e la vecchia signora (1954)
 Totò and Carolina (1955) - Mario, il ladro
 The Sign of Venus (1955) - Maurice
 Roman Tales (1955) - Mario
 Processo all'amore (1955)
 La porta dei sogni (1955) - Silvio
 Accadde di notte (1956)
 Tempo di villeggiatura (1956) - Checco
 Un giglio infranto (1956) - Ferdinando
 Sangue di zingara (1956) - Tore
 Poveri ma belli (1957) - Romolo Toccacieli
 The Black Devil (1957) - Ruggero
 The Man Who Wagged His Tail (1957) - Alfonso
 Belle ma povere (1957) - Romolo Toccacieli
 Vacanze a Ischia (1957) - Franco
 Buongiorno primo amore! (1957) - Giancarlo
 Il cocco di mamma (1958) - Aldo Manca
 Napoli, sole mio! (1958) - Michele Brunati
 The Italians They Are Crazy (1958) - Benedetti
 Valeria ragazza poco seria (1958) - Mario Renzetti
 Love and Troubles (1958) - Roberto
 Via col para... vento (1958) - Alberto Pompei
 Caporale di giornata (1958) - Felice Fornari
 Marinai, donne e guai (1958) - Mario Santarelli
 Avventura a Capri (1959) - Mario
 Poveri milionari (1959) - Romolo
 Noi siamo due evasi (1959) - Brigadiere Francesco Curti
 The Defeated Victor (1959) - Romolo De Santis
 La duchessa di Santa Lucia (1959) - Carlo
 Il magistrato (1959) - Orlando Di Giovanni
 Terror of Oklahoma (1959) - Clay Norton
 Simpatico mascalzone (1959) - Mario
 Policarpo (1959) - il fattorino dei fiori
 Il principe fusto (1960) - Ettore
 Il carabiniere a cavallo (1961) - Renato Gorini
 You Must Be Blonde on Capri (1961) - Roberto Calli
 Maurizio, Peppino e le indossatrici (1961) - Maurizio Innocenzi
 Fra' Manisco cerca guai (1961) - Giulio
 Pugni, pupe e marinai (1961) - Alberto Mariani
 The Legion's Last Patrol (1962) - Dolce Vita
 Il giorno più corto (1962)
 I soliti rapinatori a Milano (1963) - Aldo
 Via Veneto (1964)
 La fuga (1965) - Alberto Spina
 Le bambole (1965) - Massimo (segment "Il Trattato di Eugenetica")
 The Peking Medallion (1967) - Danny
 Gli altri, gli altri... e noi (1967) - Antonio
 They Came to Rob Las Vegas (1968) - Clark
 Agnaldo, Perigo à Vista (1969)
 Mazzabubù... quante corna stanno quaggiù? (1971) - Giuseppe
 Er Più – storia d'amore e di coltello (1971) - Bartolo Di Lorenzo
 Storia di fifa e di coltello - Er seguito d'er più (1972) - Bartolo Di Lorenzo
 Anche se volessi lavorare, che faccio? (1972) - Garrone
 Storia de fratelli e de cortelli (1973) - Nino
 The Assassination of Matteotti (1973) - Communist Activist
 Società a responsabilità molto limitata (1973) - Gateano Stipoli
 The Godson of the Godfather (1973) - Don Vincenzo
 The Balloon Vendor (1974) - Romolo
 To Love Ophelia (1974) - Spartaco Cesaroni
 Loaded Guns (1975) - Padre Best
 Hallucination Strip (1975) - Buscemi, Il Siciliano
 Il sogno di Zorro (1975) - Friar Miguel
 Remo e Romolo (Storia di due figli di una lupa) (1976) - Marte
 The Career of a Chambermaid (1976) - Luciani
 Vai col liscio (1976) - Aldemiro
 Atti impuri all'italiana (1976) - Gedeone - the Mayor
 The Mistress Is Served (1976) - Domenico Cardona
 Puttana galera! (1976) - Marpione
 La Bidonata (1977) - Maurizio
 Pugni, dollari e spinaci (1978) - Sammy Mania

References

External links

1933 births
1979 deaths
Italian male film actors
Male actors from Rome
20th-century Italian male actors
Deaths from kidney disease


American singer Demi Lovato has released eight studio albums since her solo debut in 2008. This has resulted in six concert tours (five of them worldwide), and live TV and award shows performances. Her debut promotional tour in 2008, Demi Live! Warm Up Tour was based in North America only and supported her debut studio album, Don't Forget. At the same year, Lovato served as one of the opening acts for the Jonas Brothers on her fifth concert tour, Burnin' Up Tour and for Avril Lavigne on her third concert tour, The Best Damn World Tour on selected dates in North America.

In 2009, Lovato performed as the opening act on the Jonas Brothers World Tour 2009 during the South American and European legs, before she headlined her first tour, Demi Lovato: Live in Concert during Summer 2009. The tour was in support of  Don't Forget and her second album Here We Go Again. In 2010, Lovato performed as the opening act on Jonas Brothers' Live in Concert World Tour 2010. On November 1, 2010, Lovato left the tour to receive professional help for personal issues.

During 2011 till 2013, Lovato embarked on her second headlining concert tour, A Special Night with Demi Lovato to promote her third studio album Unbroken. Lovato performed 68 shows and visited North America, South America, Asia and Europe, grossing over $47 million. In 2014, Lovato was named the Grand Marshall and headliner of Los Angeles Pride.

Lovato embarked on her third headlining concert tour, The Neon Lights Tour to promote her self-titled fourth studio album Demi. During the tour, Lovato performed 44 shows and visited North America, South America and Europe. To further promote Demi, Lovato embarked on her fourth headlining concert tour, Demi World Tour in 2014 till 2015. During most of the European tour dates in 2014, Lovato supported Spanish singer Enrique Iglesias on his twelfth concert tour Sex and Love Tour. In 2016, Lovato and American singer Nick Jonas embarked on her co-headlining concert tour Future Now Tour as part of the 15th Annual Honda Civic Tour visiting 41 cities in North America and Europe,

In 2018, Lovato embarked on her fifth headlining tour, Tell Me You Love Me World Tour in support of her sixth studio album, Tell Me You Love Me, visiting 43 cities in North America and Europe. According to Billboard Boxscore, the North American leg of the tour generated $20 million in ticket sales and played to 260,763 fans over 20 shows. The highest grossing show of the leg was at Brooklyn's Barclays Center, playing for 15,249 and grossing $1.5 million. Washington, D.C.'s Capital One Arena drew the largest crowd of the leg with a total of 16,141 tickets sold.

Concert tours

Co-headlining tours

Promotional tours

Festival appearances

Live performances

Don't Forget era

Here We Go Again era

Unbroken era

Demi era

Confident era

Tell Me You Love Me era

Dancing with the Devil... the Art of Starting Over era

Holy Fvck era

Revamped era

References

External links

 Tours of Demi Lovato at Live Nation

Demi Lovato
Demi Lovato


Paolo Rosario De Stefano (; born December 21, 1976 in Melito di Porto Salvo) is an Italian mobster and member of the 'Ndrangheta. He has been a fugitive since 2005 and was included on the list of most wanted fugitives in Italy. He is indicted for Mafia association, robbery and extortion.

He belongs to the De Stefano 'ndrina and is the son of the clan's boss, Giorgio De Stefano, who was killed in 1977. In 2007 he was convicted to eight years and four months in prison.

After the arrest in December 2008 of his cousin Giuseppe De Stefano he was next in line to be the boss of the clan.

He was arrested on August 18, 2009, while on holiday with his family at the popular tourist town of Taormina in Sicily.

References

External links
 Most wanted list of the Italian ministry of the Interior

1976 births
De Stefano 'ndrina
'Ndranghetisti
Living people
People from Melito di Porto Salvo


Catherine Bréchignac (; born 12 June 1946) is a French physicist. She is a commander of the Légion d'honneur, "secrétaire perpétuel honoraire" of the Académie des sciences and former president of the CNRS ("National Centre for Scientific Research"). The Times says she has "a formidable reputation for determination, decisiveness and an aptitude for analysing and clarifying complex matters." As a president of the CNRS, she was responsible for 25,000 employees, 12,000 of whom are researchers, and a budget of 2.42 billion Euros.

Biography
Daughter of the physicist Jean Teillac, Catherine Bréchignac entered the École Normale Supérieure de Fontenay-aux-Roses in 1967, she received her DEA (Masters-level qualification) at the Faculté des sciences d'Orsay in 1971, her doctorate in 1977, and became a Research Director in 1985. In 1989 she became director of the Aimé Cotton laboratory, and was Director General of the CNRS from 1997 to 2000. She clashed with Claude Allègre, the minister at the time, over reforms she oversaw at the institution. She became President of the Institut d'optique théorique et appliquée ("Institute of Optical Theory and Practice") in 2003 and of the Palais de la découverte ("Palace of Discovery") in 2004. In 2005 she was elected future president of the International Council for Science (ICSU). She was appointed President of the CNRS at the Council of Ministers of 11 January 2006 on the recommendation of François Goulard, the minister for higher education and research.
She was replaced by Alain Fuchs in 2010, even though she was a candidate to her own succession.
She was "secrétaire perpétuel" (permanent secretary) of the Académie des sciences, Division 1, from 2011 to 2018.

Field
According to the International Council for Science, Bréchignac co-founded the field of cluster physics, which straddles the gap between atomic, molecular and solid-state physics. Clusters are "the precursors of nano-objects."

Other functions and honours

 President of the CNRS
 Member of the Institute
 President of the Board of the Palais de la Découverte
 President of the International Council for Science
 Member of the Academy of Technologies
 Director of Renault
 "Commandeur" of the Legion d'honneur

 Prix de l 'Académie des Sciences (1991)
 CNRS Silver Medal (1994)
 Correspondent member of the Academy of Sciences (1997)
 Winner of the Holweck Medal (2003)
 Member of the Academy of Sciences (2005)
 Doctor Honoris Causa of the Freie Universität Berlin (2003), the Georgia Tech Institute (2006) and the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (2007)

References

1946 births
Living people
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
French women physicists
French women scientists
Grand Officers of the Legion of Honour
Commanders of the Ordre national du Mérite
ENS Fontenay-Saint-Cloud-Lyon alumni
Scientists from Paris


Kokei may refer to:
 Kōkei (monk) (c. 977 – 1049), Japanese Buddhist monk
 Kōkei (sculptor) (fl. 1175 – 1200), Japanese sculptor


Milovan Vitezović (Serbian Cyrillic: Милован Витезовић; 11  September 1944 – 22 March 2022) was a Serbian writer, professor and screenwriter.

He wrote poems, novels, essays, prose literature for children, reviews, aphorisms, movies and TV scripts. He published more than forty books and was represented in over fifty various anthologies.

His aphorisms were published in a series of European newspapers, such as the Hamburg Stern and Moscow's Sunday Times, and translated into Greek, Romanian, Hebrew, Swedish and Italian. Vitezović was one of the few Serbian and Yugoslav contemporary writers, whose books were banned and even burned in its first edition – the collection of aphorisms Srce me je otkucalo. His satirical texts were often published in the Serbian magazine Jež (Hedgehog).

He is the author of numerous television dramas and series, texts for theatrical performances and film scripts.

Vitezović died in March 2022 from COVID-19, during the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia.

Biography
Vitezović was born in Vitezovići at Kosjerić on 11 September 1944. He was educated in Tubić, Kosjerić, Užice and Belgrade, where he graduated from the University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology, department of general literature, and Faculty of Dramatic Arts, department of movies and TV scripts.

He was editor of operating in Književne novine (Literary Newspaper). In the youth magazine Susret omladine (Youth Meeting), he worked as an editor for literature until 1969, and since then as the editor of the journal Čivija (Pins). He was the editor of a feature series on RTS from 1977 to 1991, when he became the editor-in-chief of the RTS Arts and Entertainment Program. He was a member of the Association of Writers of Serbia (and its president from 2018) and the Serbian PEN Center and he also spoke and wrote for Nacionalna revija (National Review), a magazine on the national heritage of Serbia. In 2001, he became an associate professor at the Academy of Arts, Belgrade.

Literary work
As narrator, the flow of actions leads insensibly, spontaneous and full of humor a custom situation, characterized by the developed part of fabulom anecdotal narration, fully describing atmosphere time on any deals. The range of his work is very wide, from historical figures and events, through the fictional characters of our time, to youth readings that represent chronicle youth, all of us. In his works not only provide insight into the life and world figures, but pictures of different areas, giving a general picture of space and time.

His works can be found in school curricula along with German high school textbooks. As guest editor of the Department of Textbooks and Teaching Aids, capital items in the edition edited by the selected pieces of Bogdan Popović, Jovan Skerlić, Milan Kašanin and Stojan Novaković.

Selected novels
 Professor Kosta Vujić's Hat
 Barking at the Stars
 Milena from Knez Mihailova
 Sveta ljubav
 Hajduk Veljko Petrović
 The European Prince Miloš
 The Socks of King Peter

Aphorisms
 Man, get angry,
 The heart beat me

TV dramas and series
 Where The Yellow Lemon Blooms
 Kingdom of Serbia
 The Principality of Serbia
 Dimitrije Tucović
 Vuk Karadžić
 Then Lola invents slogans
 Student Age
 Snohvatice I-II

Film scripts
 Extramarital Planner
 Branislav Nušić
 Lotus, life, death, Filip Filipovic
 Barking at the Stars
 King Peter of Serbia, co-writer

Awards
He received numerous awards of which the most important: Zmaj Children Games (1978) Great Charter Bazjaške in Bucharest in 2005, Kočića Award (2005) - Republika Srpska, Golden Gašino pen (2006), Public Voice Award Meša Selimović the second place (2000).

He was a candidate for the Anthology of the world's best satirist, which was published in the United States 2007.

The Novi Sad June 2007, went to his honor to receive Zmajev poetic rod and open Zmaj Children Games, the largest festival of children's creativity in Europe.

Adaptation of his novel Barking at the Stars won the prestigious award domestic Golden Arena Novi Sad and the award in Herceg Novi.

He was awarded the Sretenje Order by the Republic of Serbia.

References

External links

 Books by Milovan Vitezović

1944 births
2022 deaths
People from Kosjerić
Serbian writers
Serbian speculative fiction writers
Serbian screenwriters
Male screenwriters
Serbian dramatists and playwrights
Serbian male poets
Aphorists
Recipients of the Order of St. Sava
Members of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of the Republika Srpska
University of Arts in Belgrade alumni
University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology alumni
University of Belgrade Faculty of Dramatic Arts alumni
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia


Badu Bonsu II was a leader of the Ahanta who originally migrated south and separated from the Fante people upon reaching the Pra River and a Ghanaian king who was executed in 1838 by the Dutch, who, at the time, were in control of the Dutch Gold Coast.

Rebellion against the Dutch

In 1837, Badu Bonsu II rebelled against the Dutch government, and killed several officers, including acting governor Hendrik Tonneboeijer. The Dutch government used the Treaty of Butre as the basis for military action against Badu Bonsu and an expeditionary force was sent to Ahanta. In the war that followed, the king was captured, sentenced for murder, and hanged. The Dutch disorganised the Ahanta state, appointing their commandant of Fort Batenstein at Butre as regent, keeping the country under close control with an enlarged military and civilian presence. Following the execution of king Badu Bonsu, his body was desecrated as a Dutch surgeon removed his head. The head was taken to the Netherlands, where it was soon lost for more than a century.

Rediscovery and return of the head
The head was rediscovered in the Leiden University Medical Center (LUMC) in the Netherlands by Dutch author Arthur Japin, who had read the account of the head during research for his 1997 novel De zwarte met het witte hart. Japin found the head in 2005, stored in formaldehyde at the LUMC.  In March 2009, government officials announced that it would be returned to its homeland for proper burial, a promise fulfilled on July 23, 2009, after a ceremony held in The Hague.

Citations

References

History of Ghana
1838 deaths
Executed Ghanaian people
19th-century executions by the Netherlands
People executed by the Netherlands by hanging
Executed monarchs
Year of birth unknown
Ghanaian royalty


Benjamin Pitman (July 24, 1822 – December 28, 1910), also known as Benn Pitman, was an English-born author and popularizer in the United States of Pitman shorthand, a form of what was then called phonography (shorthand). He was also active in the arts and crafts movement in the United States.

Early life
He was born at Trowbridge, Wiltshire, England.  He received a good elementary education there at home, and at a parish school supervised by George Crabbe, a poet. In 1837, he assisted his brother, Isaac Pitman, in perfecting the latter's system of shorthand. From 1843 until 1852, he lectured on the system throughout Great Britain, and had a large role in the compilation of his brother's textbooks. Around 1849, he married Jane Bragg of Manchester.

Shorthand & reporting
At Isaac's request, Benn, Jane and their two children went to the United States in January 1853 so Benn could instruct people in the United States on his brother's system. After brief stays in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Canton, Ohio, they settled at Cincinnati, Ohio, where Benn founded the Phonographic Institute, of which he was long the president. He at first published his brother's shorthand textbooks, giving him credit for the system; but in 1857, when Isaac and his co-laborers made certain changes in the system, he refused to adopt them. Benn felt the original system was better, and the original system became the one which was adopted in the United States. In 1855, Pitman invented the electrochemical process of relief engraving.

From his arrival in the United States until 1873 Pitman was chiefly engaged in reporting. During the first years of the Civil War, he served in the Union Army. From 1863 to 1867, he acted as the official stenographer during the trials of the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln, the “Sons of Liberty,” the “Ku-Klux Klan,” and other similar government prosecutions. He also edited and compiled the printed reports of these trials.

Wood engraving
In 1873 he abandoned reporting and began teaching woodcarving courses at the McMicken School of Drawing and Design School of Design, later the Art Academy of Cincinnati, of the University of Cincinnati. His goal was to secure the development of American decorative art and to open up a new profession for women. The display of wood carving and painting on china sent to the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition was the first attempt to give the public an idea of what had been accomplished. Over 100 pieces were exhibited, including elaborately decorated cabinets, baseboards, bedsteads, doors, casings, mantels, picture frames, and bookcases all the work of girls and women. He lectured at the Cincinnati Art School from 1873 until 1892 on art and wood engraving.

He introduced what later became known as the "Pitman School of Wood Carving", which provided for the treatment of naturalistic designs, and could produce very beautiful effects in wood sculpture. His influence as an artist came to be considerable, particularly throughout the midwest of the United States.

Personal life and death
Pitman's first wife, Jane, died in 1878.  They had three children.  He married Adelaide Nourse in 1881, and they had one child.  Benn Pitman died in 1910. His Cincinnati home, the Ben Pitman House, overlooks the Ohio River and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Writings
 The Reporter's Companion (Cincinnati, 1854)
 The Manual of Phonography, of which 250,000 copies have been issued (1855)
 History of Shorthand (1858)
 Trials for Treason at Indianapolis
 The Assassination of President Lincoln, and the Trial of the Conspirators (1865)
 A Plea for American Decorative Art (1895)
 The Phonographic Dictionary, with Jerome B. Howard (1883 and 1899)
He also wrote many elementary books of instruction on phonography.
In 1902 he wrote a biography of his brother, Sir Isaac Pitman: His Life and Labors.

References

External links

1910 deaths
1822 births
American biographers
English emigrants to the United States
Artists from Cincinnati
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
Journalists from Ohio
Writers from Cincinnati


Panjiva Inc. is a global trade data company based in New York City. It is a subscription-based website with import and export details on commercial shipments worldwide. Panjiva was founded in 2006 by Josh Green and James Psota and acquired by S&P Global in 2018.

Business

Panjiva organizes and indexes data provided by a number of different third-party sources, primarily Customs agencies, but also commercial information resources like Dun & Bradstreet, ZoomInfo, and Kompass. The Panjiva platform aggregates these different data sources to supply information on companies and other agents engaged in international trade.

At the time of its founding, Panjiva was the first online resource of its kind, designed to provide transparency to international trade. Leveraging its trade data, Panjiva is able to produce details of trends within sectors, and has tools on its website to facilitate the analysis and visualization of global trade flows. Information published by Panjiva has been used by news websites such as FT.com and CNNMoney.com.

Panjiva's customers use the data in a variety of different ways: to search for suppliers or manufacturers overseas, to find new customers for their products or services (such as logistic services), to track competitors' trade activity, and to gain insight into high-level global trade trends.

Jeff Silberman, Chair of the Department of Textile Development and Marketing at New York's Fashion Institute of Technology, has praised Panjiva as "not just innovative, but revolutionary."

Panjiva was acquired in February 2018 by S and P Global.

Data

Panjiva obtains data from several Customs agencies and data partners worldwide, with company-level shipment details for: The United States, China, Mexico, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

Data for the United States is obtained through the Freedom of Information Act. Data for all sources is obtained legally.

Founding

Panjiva was founded by Josh Green (CEO) and Jim Psota (CTO) in 2006. The idea for the company was born when Green was asked by his work to find a reliable international supplier of a tablet display. After doing some research, he was shocked at how fragmented data about international trade was, and how difficult it was to obtain reliable information on manufacturers or buyers. From there, Green and Psota - friends from graduate school - decided to launch a website that would make it easier to connect international buyers and suppliers.

Since its founding, Panjiva's objective has expanded from being a resource for buyers and suppliers to providing information to all parties engaged or interested in global trade flows.

Growth

Panjiva has grown quickly in the short time since its inception. In 2013, it was named one of America's fastest-growing private companies by Inc. Magazine. As of August 2015, Panjiva has customers in 89 countries and has offices in three cities worldwide.

Panjiva is headquartered in New York, with an engineering office in Boston and an East Asia sales and support office in Shanghai.

References

External links
 Panjiva.com

Online companies of the United States
International trade organizations
American companies established in 2006


The Muslim Educational Society is an educational organisation established in 1964.

The society operates 150 educational facilities across Kerala, which include 28 colleges, 12 secondary schools and 36 Central Board of Secondary Education schools and has over 100,000 students. In 2019, the society banned face veils from its facilities, a decision that caused controversy.

See also
 Dr. Gafoor Memorial MES Mampad College
 M.E.S. Ponnani College, Ponnani
 MEA Engineering College, Perinthalmanna
 MES Asmabi College
 MES College of Engineering
 MES College of Engineering, Kuttippuram
 MES Kalladi College
 MES Keveeyam College, Valanchery

References

Further reading

External links
MES official site

1964 establishments in Kerala
Organisations based in Kozhikode


In the UK body piercing is an unregulated industry and only requires the studio to be registered with the environmental health Department of their local Council. In addition, there are rules which prohibit or recommendations not to use some forms of anaesthetics. There are also, unlike tattooing, no minimum age requirements for the pierce, although professional Body Piercers will act responsibly. In some areas of London there are voluntary codes about minimum ages, but this varies from borough to borough.

There are not any regulations covering the training of body piercers. It is suggested people do a lot of research into this area and only go to those schools which are recommended from within the industry, have a good track record, are long established, and preferably allowed membership of a professional association once the course is successfully completed. There are also no regulations covering those who teach body piercing. Body Piercing is not in the Life Long Skills Sector.

Considered regulation
The Cosmetic Piercing (Age of Consent) (Wales) Bill was announced by the First Minister for introduction during the 5 year legislative programme in 2011.

A consultation to get views on how to make cosmetic piercing safer for young people began 18 October 2011 and closed 31 January 2012 in Wales. The lead petitioner was Russell Spencer-Downe, a father of two and a town councillor and past mayor from Llantwit Major, Vale of Glamorgan, who campaigned for a change in law.

References

External links
 website of The Association of Professional Piercers (International)
 Ear Piercing

Body piercing
Culture of the United Kingdom
British fashion
Law of the United Kingdom
Health law in the United Kingdom


Anthony DesLauriers (born December 16, 1987) is a former professional Canadian football player.

Football career
DeLurieres was drafted by the Toronto Argonauts in the sixth round of the 2009 CFL Draft and played CIS football for the Simon Fraser Clan. In January 2010, DesLauriers signed with the Argonauts but was released by the team on June 12. When Simon Fraser University joined the NCAA for the 2010 season, DesLauriers was ineligible to rejoin his team and transferred to the University of Calgary to play for the Dinos. On January 15, 2011, DesLauriers signed with the Montreal Alouettes as a defensive back.

References

External links
Simon Fraser Clan bio
Montreal Alouettes bio

1987 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Surrey, British Columbia
Players of Canadian football from British Columbia
Simon Fraser Red Leafs football players


The foveola is located within a region called the macula, a yellowish, cone photoreceptor filled portion of the human retina.  Approximately 0.35 mm in diameter, the foveola lies in the center of the fovea and contains only cone cells and a cone-shaped zone of Müller cells. In this region the cone receptors are found to be longer, slimmer, and more densely packed than anywhere else in the retina, thus allowing that region to have the potential to have the highest visual acuity in the eye.

The center of the foveola is sometimes referred to as the umbo, a small (150-200µm) center of the floor of the foveola; features elongated cones. The umbo is the observed point corresponding to the normal light reflex but not solely responsible for this light reflex.

The anatomy of the foveola was recently reinvestigated.

Serial semithin and ultrathin sections, and focused ion beam (FIB) tomography were prepared from 32 foveolae from monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) and humans. Serial sections and FIB analysis were then used to construct 3D models of central Müller and photoreceptor cells.

It was discovered that in monkeys, outer segments of central foveolar cones are twice as long as those from parafoveal cones and do not run completely parallel to the incident light. Unique Müller cells are present in the central foveolae (area of 200 μm in diameter) of humans and monkeys.

Additional images

Notes

Human eye anatomy
Visual system


Functional analog may refer to:

 Functional analog (chemistry), chemical compounds that have similar physical, chemical, biochemical, or pharmacological properties
 Functional analog (electronic), electronic entities that can be interchanged to fulfill the same function


Chabahar Airlines () is an airline based in Tehran, Iran. Its main base is Mehrabad Airport.

Destinations
As of April 2023, Chabahar Airlines serves 9 destinations domestically in Iran:

Fleet
As of Apr 2023, Chabahar Airlines operated the following aircraft:

References

Airlines of Iran
Iranian companies established in 1999
Airlines established in 1999
Companies based in Tehran


This is a List of the National Register of Historic Places listings in the Town of Islip, New York

This list is intended to provide a comprehensive listing of entries in the National Register of Historic Places in Town of Islip, New York.  The locations of National Register properties for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in an online map.

Listings

|}

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in New York
National Register of Historic Places listings in Suffolk County, New York

References

Islip (town), New York

National Register of Historic Places in Suffolk County, New York


Edmond "Ned" Grey (6 April 1896 – 16 June 1974) is an Irish hurler who played as a goalkeeper for the Cork senior team.

Born in Carrigtwohill, County Cork, Grey first played competitive hurling in local games in the village. He quickly broke onto the Carrigtwohill senior team, where his brother Jimmy was already an established player, and won a championship medal when the club claimed their first title in 1918.

Grey made his debut on the inter-county scene when he first linked up with the Cork senior team for the 1919 championship. He went on to play a key role for Cork as a goalkeeper during a successful era, and won one All-Ireland medal and two Munster medals. He was an All-Ireland runner-up on one occasion.

Throughout his inter-county career Grey made 9 championship appearances. He retired from inter-county hurling following the conclusion of the 1922 championship.

Playing career

Club

In 1918 Grey was in goal for Carrigtwohill's championship campaign. A bye in the first round, followed by a walkover from Redmonds in the quarter-final and a defeat of St. Finbarr's in the semi-final set up a final meeting with Blackrock. "The Rockies" settled first and went into a three-point lead before Carrig struck back with a goal from Jimmy "Major" Kennedy. Both teams added a point before the interval. Blackrock took the lead twice more in the third quarter, however, the clinching goal for Carrig came from Kennedy once again. Grey had to retire injured before the end of the game, however, the 4-1 to 1-6 victory secured a Cork Senior Hurling Championship medal.

Inter-county

Grey made his senior debut for Cork on 18 May 1919 in a 9-4 to 4-0 Munster quartet-final defeat of Waterford. He later won his first Munster medal following a 3-5 to 1-6 defeat of Limerick in the decider. On 21 September 1919, Cork faced Dublin in the All-Ireland final. Cork proved the stronger team and at half time they were coasting by 4–2 to 1–1. Grey's side held onto the lead and won the game by 6–4 to 2–4. It was Cork's first All-Ireland title in sixteen years and a medal for Grey.

1920 saw Grey win a second successive Munster medal as Limerick fell again by 3–4 to 0–5. The subsequent All-Ireland final was a replay of the previous year's game, however, the War of Independence resulted in the game being delayed until 14 May 1922. Both sides remained in the game for the majority of the hour, however, a four-goal blitz by Dublin saw them win by 4–9 to 4–3.

Honours

 Carrigtwohill
 Cork Senior Hurling Championship (1): 1918

 Cork
 All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship: 1919
 Munster Senior Hurling Championship (2): 1919, 1920

References

1896 births
1974 deaths
Carrigtwohill hurlers
Cork inter-county hurlers
Hurling goalkeepers
All-Ireland Senior Hurling Championship winners


John Sidney Smith (1860 – unknown) was an English-born international rugby union forward who played club rugby for Cardiff Rugby Football Club and international rugby for Wales.

Rugby career
Smith came to note as a rugby player during the 1880–81 season when he joined first class club Cardiff. In the 1882–83 season he shared the role of club secretary with W. H. Treat, Smith at the time was articled to Cardiff's Town Clark. Smith was first chosen to represent Wales in the opening game of the 1884 Home Nations Championship in a game against his birth country, England.  Playing under the captaincy of Charlie Newman and fielding seven new caps, the Welsh side lost by a goal and two tries to a goal.  Smith did not play in the next international, with his place taken by Thomas Baker Jones, but regained his position for the final game of the tournament, a win over Ireland. Smith played one more international game for Wales when he was selected for the opening match of the 1885 Championship.  Played at St. Helen's against England, Wales were again beaten, and Smith was not part of the next match, his position taken by Edward Alexander.

International matches played
Wales
  1884, 1885
  1884

Bibliography

References

1860 births
Cardiff RFC players
English rugby union players
Rugby union forwards
Rugby union players from Manchester
Wales international rugby union players
Welsh rugby union players
Year of death unknown


Almaty University of Power Engineering and Telecommunications (AUPET) (Kazakh: Алматы Энергетика және байланыс университеті) is a technical engineering university in Almaty, Kazakhstan. It is located at 126 Baitursynov Street in Almaty and has around 4,000 students. It is one of the best-known universities in the field of power engineering and telecommunications in the Central Asian region. Students from all over central Asia study there. They live in three campuses with Wi-Fi internet access, video cassette record, online library and recreation facilities.

AUPET is building a third educational case with a new modern athletic field. Undergraduate students can receive a second bachelor's degree in economics from the Moscow Power Engineering Institute simultaneously with studying at AUPET.

Faculties
AUPET has four full-time faculties:
 Power engineering
 Electrical engineering
 Telecommunications
 Information Technologies

References

External links
Official website

Education in Almaty
Universities in Kazakhstan


The 1988 Swan Premium Open was a tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts at the Sydney Entertainment Centre in Sydney, Australia and was part of the 1988 Nabisco Grand Prix. It was the 16th edition of the tournament and ran from 10 through 16 October 1988. Fifth-seeded Slobodan Živojinović won the singles title.

Finals

Singles

 Slobodan Živojinović defeated  Richard Matuszewski 7–6, 6–3, 6–4
 It was Živojinović's 2nd title of the year and the 9th of his career.

Doubles

 Darren Cahill /  John Fitzgerald defeated  Martin Davis /  Brad Drewett 6–3, 6–2
 It was Cahill's 4th title of the year and the 7th of his career. It was Fitzgerald's 4th title of the year and the 21st of his career.

References

External links
 International Tennis Federation (ITF) – tournament edition details


Byala Reka (Bulgarian for "White River") may refer to:

 Byala Reka (Luda Reka tributary), a river in the Rhodope Mountains of Bulgaria

 Byala Reka, Plovdiv Province, a village in Bulgaria
 Byala Reka, Shumen Province, a village in north-eastern Bulgaria
 , a village in Rudozem Municipality, south-eastern Bulgaria
 , a village in Suhindol Municipality, north-central Bulgaria

See also
 White River (disambiguation)
 Bela Reka (disambiguation)
 Bijela Rijeka (disambiguation)


Edvin Kallstenius (29 August 1881 – 22 November 1967) was a Swedish composer and librarian.
He arranged the traditional folk tune used as the de facto national anthem of Sweden, Du gamla, Du fria.

Life and career
Born in Filipstad, Kallstenius studied natural sciences at Lund University, then music at the Leipzig Conservatory under Stephan Krehl from 1904–1907. As music librarian at Sveriges Radio from 1928–1946, he made a significant contribution in the field of music administration in Sweden.

He also served on the Board of the Society of Swedish Composers from 1933–1961 (as treasurer 1933–1943), and was on the board of the Swedish Performing Rights Society from 1932–1957.

In addition to arranging Du gamla, Du fria, his work includes five symphonies and eight string quartets. He also published an annotated catalogue of Swedish orchestral works.

Kallstenius achieved an individual style and avoided using only tonal language by devising intense melodies reinforced with imaginative harmony. He declared that his "musical religion is called harmonics – everything else is secondary" and from this basis he worked out his "meticulously declamed themes". Although in later works he employed his own personal interpretation of serial style, he also composed charming versions of older Swedish music. He died in Stocksund, Stockholm.

Selected compositions
 Op. 1 – String quartet no. 1 (1904)
 Op. 2 – String quartet no. 2 (1905)
 Op. 3 – 2 Sånger: ”Lykken mellem to Mennesker” and ”Maanens Klage” (1907)
 Op. 4 – Scherzo fugato for orchestra (1923)
 Op. 4a – Fuga pastorale for organ (1907)
 Op. 5 – Allegro sinfonico (Sista striden), tragic overture (1908)
 Op. 6 – Sonata for cello and piano (1907)
 Op. 7 – Sonata for violin and piano (1907)
 Op. 8 – String quartet no. 3 (1914)
 Op. 9 – Four songs: ”Minnas”, ”Höbärgningen”, ”Barnaftonbön” and ”Välkommen åter, snälla sol”) (ca. 1916)
 Op. 10 – En serenad i sommarnatten, symphonic poem (1918)
 Op. 11 – När vi dö, a Swedish requiem for mixed choir and orchestra (1919)
 Op. 12 – Piano concerto, Sinfonia concertata (1922)
 Op. 13 – Sinfonietta no. 1 for orkester (1923)
 Op. 14 – String quartet no. 4, Divertimento alla Serenata (1925)
 Op. 15 – 3 songs: ”Karin Månsdotters vaggvisa for Erik XIV”, ”Reisesegen” and ”Gunhild” (ca 1920)
 Op. 16 – Symphony no. 1 in E flat major (1926)
 Op. 17 – Clarinet quintet (1929–30)
 Op. 18 – Dalarapsodi for orchestra (1931)
 Op. 19 – Lustspelsuvertyr for orchestra (1934)
 Op. 20 – Symphony no. 2 in F minor (1935)
 Op. 21 – 3 Dansstudier for orchestra (1935)
 Op. 22 – Dalslandsrapsodi for orchestra (1936)
 Op. 23b – Suite for 9 instruments (1949)
 Op. 24 – Romantico, overture for orchestra (1938)
 Op. 25 – Passacaglia and variations on a Rococo theme (”Gubben Noak”) (1939)
 Op. 26 – Högtid och fest for orchestra (1940)
 Op. 27 – Musica gioconda, serenade for string orchestra (1942)
 Op. 28 – Liten Falu-musik (1942)
 Op. 29a – Divertimento for flute, clarinet, horn and bassoon (1943)
 Op. 29b – Divertimento da camera (1943)
 Op. 30 – Cavatina for viola and orchestra (1943)
 Op. 31 – Passacaglia enarmonica (1943)
 Op. 32 – Sångoffer, solo cantata for baritone and orchestra (1944)
 Op. 33 – String quartet no. 5 (1945)
 Op. 34 – Sinfonietta no. 2 (1946)
 Op. 35 – Variations on a theme of Kraus (1947)
 Op. 36 – Symphony no. 3 (1948)
 Op. 37 – forändringar av en barnvisa for piano (1949)
 Op. 38 – Stjärntändningen for chamber choir and orchestra (1944)
 Op. 39 – Trio divertente for flute, violin and viola (1950)
 Op. 40 – Cello concerto (1951)
 Op. 41 – String quartet no. 6 (1953)
 Op. 42 – Musica sinfonica (1953)
 Op. 43 – Symphony no. 4 (Sinfonia a fresco) (1953–54)
 Op. 44 – Nytt vin i gamla läglar (1954)
 Op. 45 – Hymen, o, Hymenaios, ancient Greek wedding cantata for 3 soloists, mixed choir and orchestra (1955)
 Op. 46 – Sinfonietta dodicitonia (1956)
 Op. 47a – Piccolo trio seriale for flute, English horn and clarinet (1956)
 Op. 47b – Piccolo trio seriale for violin, viola and clarinet (1957)
 Op. 48 – Coreographic suite for orchestra (1957)
 Op. 49 – String quartet no. 7 (1957)
 Op. 50 – Sinfonietta semi-seriale (1958)
 Op. 51 – Trio svagente for clarinet, horn and cello (1959)
 Op. 52 – Symphony no. 5, Sinfonia ordinaria ma su temi 12-tonici (1960)
 Op. 53 – Sonata for cello (1961)
 Op. 54 – String quartet no. 8 (1962)
 Op. 55 – Lyrisk svit (Lyric suite) for flute, saxophone or clarinet and cello (1960)
 Op. 56 – 3 songs for male choir: ”Människors möte”, ”fortvivlan” and ”forsvunnen rymd” (1963)
 Op. 57 – Sonata biforma for flute (1962)
 Op. 58 – Äktenskap, suite of three duets for soprano, tenor, flute, clarinet and string trio: ”Program”, ”Psalm for älskande” and ”Äktenskap” (ca. 1964)
 Op. 59 – Två stycken i följd for cello and piano (1963)
 Op. 60 – Knoppningsbikt i kvinnodikt, fyra körsånger i följd (1964)
 Op. 61 – String trio (1965)
 Op. 62 – Sonata for violin (1965, rev. 1967)
 Op. 63 – Prologo seriale for orchestra (1966)

References

External links
 Edvin Kallstenius via Classical Composers database
 biography and review via Classical Music on the Web

1881 births
1967 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Lund University alumni
People from Filipstad
Swedish classical composers
Swedish male classical composers
Swedish librarians
20th-century Swedish male musicians
20th-century Swedish musicians
Music librarians


Jim Allin (born March 14, 1986) is a former Canadian football defensive back and kick returner. He went undrafted in the 2009 CFL Draft. He played CIS football for the Queen's Golden Gaels.

In the 2008 CIS football season, Allin was named to CIS All-Canadian first team as a kick returner and to both the Ontario University Athletics first and second all-star teams; the first as a returner and the second as a cornerback. He performed the best among defensive backs in three of the athletic tests at the 2009 CFL Evaluation Camp including setting a record for the 20-yard shuttle test with a time of 3.97 seconds.

In August 2016, in ceremonies in Canada and Australia, Jim married the love of his life, Tegan Hamilton.

References

External links
Queen's Golden Gaels bio

1986 births
Living people
Canadian football defensive backs
Canadian football return specialists
Queen's Golden Gaels football players
Sportspeople from Belleville, Ontario
Players of Canadian football from Ontario


The Monza Grand Prix (Italian: Gran Premio di Monza) was an automobile race held at the Autodromo Nazionale di Monza at Monza, Italy.

Following the terrible accident during the 1928 Italian Grand Prix, where Emilio Materassi and 27 spectators lost their lives, the Italian Grand Prix was cancelled in 1929 and 1930. Not wanting to abandon racing at the Monza track completely, the Monza Grand Prix was held as a substitute during these years. Even when the Italian Grand Prix returned to the racing calendar, the Monza Grand Prix was retained as a separate event.

The competition was typically divided into three short (~30 minutes) heats according to engine size, one repechage and a longer final.

The 1933 event was to be known as the Black Sunday, due to 3 top drivers (Giuseppe Campari, Baconin Borzacchini and Stanisław Czaykowski) getting killed in two separate accidents at the south banking of the high speed loop. The racing world was stunned and this spelled the end, not only for the Monza Grand Prix, but also for Monza's original 10 km circuit. The Italian Grand Prix continued on during the following years, using a number of different layouts, with chicanes put in to slow down the speed.

After the Second World War the Gran Premio dell'Autodromo di Monza was run in five editions between 1948 and 1952. The first of these was a Formula One race and the rest Formula Two. None of them counted towards the World Championship.

The race was resumed in 1980, when the Italian F1 Grand Prix was raced in "Dino Ferrari" circuit in Imola, a Formula Two race was arranged.

Today, the Italian Grand Prix is sometimes referred to as "the Monza Grand Prix" since it is so closely associated with the Monza track.

Winners of the Monza Grand Prix

These are the winners of the Monza Grands Prix.

See also
Italian Grand Prix

References

Pre-World Championship Grands Prix
Auto races in Italy


Li Jiang (李絳; 764 – March 8, 830), courtesy name Shenzhi (深之), formally Duke Zhen of Zhao Commandery (趙郡貞公), was a Chinese politician during the Tang dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xianzong.

Background
Li Jiang was born in 764, during the reign of Emperor Daizong. His family was part of the prominent Li clan of Zhao Prefecture (趙州, in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei)—not part of the same clan as Tang dynasty's imperial Li clan, but which had been considered one of the five most prominent Han clans of Northern Wei. It traced its ancestry to the prominent Warring States period state Zhao general Li Mu, and the line included officials of the Qin dynasty, the Han dynasty, the state of Cao Wei, the Jin dynasty (266–420), the Northern Wei, the Sui dynasty, and the Tang dynasty His grandfather Li Gang () served as a county magistrate, while his father Li Yuanshan () served as a prefectural official.

After Li Jiang passed the imperial examinations, including a special examination in grand speech, he was made Xiaoshu Lang (), a copyeditor at the archival bureau, and later served as the sheriff of Weinan County (渭南, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi). Late in the Zhenyuan era (785–805) of Emperor Daizong's son Emperor Dezong, Li Jiang became an imperial censor with the title Jiancha Yushi ().

During Emperor Xianzong's reign

Prior to chancellorship
In 807, during the reign of Emperor Dezong's grandson Emperor Xianzong, Li Jiang was made Hanlin Xueshi (), an imperial scholar. Later that year, after the rebellion of the warlord Li Qi the military governor (jiedushi) of Zhenhai Circuit (鎮海, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) was suppressed, the officials in charge confiscated Li Qi's wealth. At the suggestion of Li Jiang and fellow imperial scholar Pei Ji, Emperor Xianzong agreed to have Li Qi's wealth deemed to substitute for the taxes that the people of Zhenhai would have submitted that year (as Li Jiang and Pei reasoned that Li Qi extracted the wealth from the people). Later that year, when Emperor Xianzong discussed with Li Jiang an accusation by the chancellor Li Jifu that another chancellor, Zheng Yin, was in secret communications with the warlord Lu Congshi (), the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), Li Jiang pointed out that Zheng had a reputation for faithfulness and would not be conspiring with a warlord. As a result, Emperor Xianzong took no actions against Zheng. Yet later that year, when Emperor Xianzong was set to marry his daughter Princess Puning to Yu Jiyou (), the son of another warlord, Yu Di, the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangfan, Hubei), Li Jiang opposed, pointing out that Yu Di was of Xianbei extraction, and Yu Jiyou was not even born of Yu Di's wife—but Emperor Xianzong overruled him, as he used the marriage to bring Yu Di into the imperial fold.

In 808, at Li Jiang's and Pei's suggestion, Emperor Xianzong, when declaring a general pardon, did not send eunuchs out to the circuits as messengers, to avoid the eunuchs demanding bribes and disturbing the circuits. In 809, during a drought, Li Jiang and fellow imperial scholar Bai Juyi made several recommendations—decreasing taxes, decreasing the number of ladies in waiting, disallowing regional governors from submitting tributes (so that they would not extract wealth from the people), and the banning of slave-capture in the southern regions of the realm. Emperor Xianzong accepted their suggestions. In 809, at the suggestion of Li Jiang and his fellow imperial scholars that Emperor Xianzong should have a crown prince, Emperor Xianzong created his oldest son Li Ning crown prince. Later that year, when the military governor Pei Jun () submitted a tribute of silver vessels despite the regulations banning the tributes, Li Jiang and Bai pointed out to Emperor Xianzong that if his edicts were to be taken seriously, he needed to decline the tribute; Emperor Xianzong thus transferred the silver vessels to the bureau of finances, but thereafter ordered the circuits not to inform the imperial censors on tributes, despite Bai's objections. Meanwhile, as Wang Shizhen the military governor of Chengde (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei), had just recently died, Emperor Xianzong considered using the opportunity to seize control of Chengde (which had been ruled in a de facto independence from the imperial government), rather than allowing Wang's son Wang Chengzong to inherit the circuit. Li Jiang and the other imperial scholars opposed, pointing out that Chengde would be more difficult of a target than Zhangyi Circuit (彰義, headquartered in modern Zhumadian, Henan), then ruled by Wu Shaoyang. However, Emperor Xianzong, persuaded by the powerful eunuch Tutu Chengcui, prepared for a campaign against Chengde anyway. Meanwhile, later that year, after Tutu headed a project to rebuild Anguo Temple () and built a grand monument, intending to use it to praise Emperor Xianzong, Li Jiang pointed out that in history, the truly great rulers did not establish monuments for themselves. Emperor Xianzong thus ordered the monument destroyed.

Late in 809, Emperor Xianzong resolved to allow Wang Chengzong to inherit the circuit, after Wang informed the imperial official sent to visit him, Pei Wu (), that he would submit two of Chengde's six prefectures to imperial control. When Wang subsequently reneged on the promise, Emperor Xianzong ordered a campaign against Wang and was set to punish Pei Wu, but Li Jiang pointed out that it was not Pei Wu's fault that Wang reneged and further pointed out that the accusations against Pei Wu appeared to be intending to harm Pei Ji (who had by then become a chancellor) as well. Emperor Xianzong agreed and took no actions against Pei Wu. It was said that Li Jiang often pointed out to Emperor Xianzong that the eunuchs were interfering with governance. In 810, when eunuchs injured the official Yuan Zhen () in a confrontation, Emperor Xianzong demoted Yuan despite the objections of Li Jiang and fellow imperial scholar Cui Qun. Later in 810, after Tutu, working with Lu's subordinate Wu Chongyin, arrested Lu at a feast that Tutu held for Lu, Emperor Xianzong, at Li Jiang's recommendation, transferred Meng Yuanyang () the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan) to Zhaoyi and made Wu the military governor of Heyang, rather than directly giving Zhaoyi to Wu, under the rationale that if Wu were given Zhaoyi, effectively, the imperial government had not regained authority over Zhaoyi. After the campaign against Chengde, which Tutu commanded and which Lu encouraged, thereafter ended later that year, it was at Li Jiang's insistence that Emperor Xianzong demoted Tutu. However, when Li Jiang continued to criticize Tutu for interfering in political matters, Emperor Xianzong became angry on one occasion. When Li Jiang, weeping, pointed out that it was his responsibility to do try to report honest advice to the emperor, Emperor Xianzong's anger dissipated and praised Li Jiang for his faithfulness, and he made Li Jiang Zhongshu Sheren (), a mid-level official at the legislative bureau of government (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng). During these years that Li Jiang served as imperial scholar, he was promoted in his titles several times, but remained imperial scholar, and it was said that he was earnest in his responsibilities as correcting the emperor.

In 811, it was said that because the eunuchs disliked having Li Jiang at the Hanlin Institute (where the imperial scholars resided), Li Jiang was made the deputy minister of census (戶部侍郎, Hubu Shilang). On one occasion, when Emperor Xianzong asked him why he was not submitting surpluses to the imperial treasury like prior deputy ministers of census, he pointed out that there should not be such a thing as surpluses—that any property that the ministry of census was in charge of was governmental property in any case. Emperor Xianzong approved of his honesty. In summer of that year, at Li Jifu's suggestion, Emperor Xianzong commissioned Li Jiang, along with Duan Pingzhong (), Wei Guanzhi, and Xu Mengrong (), to revise the salary scales of imperial officials.

As chancellor
In winter 811, Emperor Xianzong made Li Jiang Zhongshu Shilang (), the deputy head of the legislative bureau, and de facto chancellor with the title Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (), because he had heard that Li Jifu, as chancellor, often based his decisions on his personal likes and dislikes. It was said that Li Jifu was often flattering the emperor, while Li Jiang was direct in his opinions, and the two therefore often argued before Emperor Xianzong. Emperor Xianzong often agreed with Li Jiang, causing a rift between Li Jiang and Li Jifu. In 812, when Li Jiang sent the mayor of Jingzhao Municipality (京兆, i.e., the region of the Tang capital Chang'an), Yuan Yifang (), whom Li Jifu had promoted, out of Chang'an to serve as the governor (觀察使, Guanchashi) of Fufang Circuit (鄜坊, headquartered in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi) because he despised Yuan for having flattered Tutu Chengcui, Yuan accused Li Jiang of favoring the deputy mayor Xu Jitong (), who had passed the imperial examinations in the same year that Li Jiang did. Emperor Xianzong was skeptical of Yuan's accusations, and subsequently, when Li Jiang stated that he had no particular reason to favor those who passed the imperial examinations in the same year, Emperor Xianzong sent Yuan on his way.

Also in 812, Tian Ji'an the military governor of Weibo Circuit (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan, Hebei), which had also had de facto independence from the imperial government, died. Li Jifu advocated preparing for a campaign against Weibo to seize it, while Li Jiang believed that soon there would be an uprising from a Weibo officer to seize control of Weibo from Tian Ji'an's young son Tian Huaijian and thus believed that preparing for a campaign was unnecessary. Emperor Xianzong agreed with Li Jiang. Soon thereafter, the Weibo officer Tian Xing seized control of Weibo from Tian Huaijian and submitted to the imperial government. At Li Jiang's suggestion, Emperor Xianzong immediately named Tian Xing military governor, rather than just acting military governor, and awarded a large amount of monetary rewards to the Weibo soldiers. Tian Xing thereafter became a key general in various imperial campaigns against warlords. Also at Li Jiang's suggestion, Emperor Xianzong commissioned a project to put fields in the border Zhenwu (振武, headquartered in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia) and Tiande (天德, headquartered in modern Bayan Nur, Inner Mongolia) Circuits to use. It was said that after some four years, a large amount of fields were created, greatly reducing the expenses of shipping food to the border defense troops. After a Tufan attack on the western border, Li Jiang also advocated that the command of imperial Shence Army soldiers, sent to the western borders to support the local troops, be given to the local commanders, rather than having the eunuchs in command of Shence Army maintain control. Emperor Xianzong initially agreed with Li Jiang, but due to the eunuchs' opposition did not actually carry out the plan.

In 813, with Li Jifu and Li Jiang continuing to often argue and fellow chancellor Quan Deyu not taking sides, Emperor Xianzong lost respect for Quan and stripped Quan of his chancellor position. Meanwhile, in fall 813, when Li Guangjin () the military governor of Zhenwu requested permission to reconstruct the walls of the Eastern Surrender Fort (東受降城, in modern Hohhot), which had been destroyed by a Yellow River flood in 812, Emperor Xianzong, at Li Jifu's suggestion, instead sent the soldiers originally stationed at the Eastern Surrender Fort to Tiande Circuit, despite the objections of Li Jiang and Lu Tan () that the Eastern Surrender Fort was a strategically important spot that the Tang armies should continue to station. However, Li Jiang also used the opportunity to report to Emperor Xianzong the serious issue that the border armies actually lacked soldiers despite their apparent grand numbers—such that while 400 soldiers were supposed to be transferred to Tiande from the Eastern Surrender Fort, only 50 soldiers actually went (because although a 400-strong force existed on paper, there were actually only 50 soldiers there). Emperor Xianzong ordered a review of the border defense rolls, but it was said that because Li Jiang soon thereafter left the chancellorship, the review was never carried out.

Also in 813, Li Jiang was created the Baron of Gaoyi. He soon offered to resign his chancellorship due to a foot ailment. In 814, Emperor Xianzong accepted the resignation and made him the minister of rites (禮部尚書, Lǐbu Shangshu). (However, it was also said that Emperor Xianzong, in doing so, was keenly aware of the long-running feud between Li Jiang and Tutu Chengcui. He had demoted Tutu out of the capital before making Li Jiang chancellor, and it was said that he demoted Li Jiang in order to recall Tutu to the capital, and Tutu was indeed soon thereafter recalled.)

After chancellorship
After Li Jiang's removal from chancellorship, he continued to give Emperor Xianzong advice. For example, soon thereafter, he suggested that Huigu's proposal of having a Tang princess marry Huigu's Baoyi Khan, which Emperor Xianzong had declined previously due to the expenses involved, should be accepted, to further affirm the alliance between Tang and Huigu. His suggestion, however, was not accepted. In 815, he was sent out of the capital to serve as the prefect of Hua Prefecture (華州, in modern Weinan), but soon recalled to serve as the minister of defense (兵部尚書, Bingbu Shangshu). He later, when his mother died, left governmental service to observe a mourning period for her. In 819, he returned to government service and was made the governor of Hezhong Circuit (河中, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), which typically was governed by a military governor, but as the chancellor in power at the time, Huangfu Bo, disliked Li Jiang, Li Jiang was only given a governor title.

During Emperor Muzong's reign
In 820, after Emperor Xianzong died and was succeeded by his son Emperor Muzong, Huangfu Bo was exiled, and Li Jiang was recalled to again serve as minister of defense. He was soon made the chief imperial censor (御史大夫, Yushi Daifu). As Emperor Muzong was often spending time on tours and games, Li Jiang tried to correct his behavior, but Emperor Muzong would not follow his advice. He therefore offered to resign, but was instead again made the minister of defense. In 821, he was made the minister of civil service affairs (吏部尚書, Lìbu Shangshu, note different tone than the minister of rites). Later in the year, he was made the defender of the eastern capital Luoyang. In 822, he was made the military governor of Yanhai Circuit (兗海, headquartered in modern Jining, Shandong). In 823, he was again made the defender of Luoyang. In 824, he was given the title of acting Sikong (司空, one of the Three Excellencies). Around this time, he also served for some time as the military governor of Dongchuan Circuit (東川, headquartered in modern Mianyang, Sichuan).

During Emperor Jingzong's reign
Early in the Baoli era (824–826) of Emperor Muzong's son Emperor Jingzong, Li Jiang was recalled to serve as Zuo Pushe (), one of the heads of the executive bureau (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng). In 825, when Liu Wu the military governor of Zhaoyi died and left a request to let his son Liu Congjian inherit the circuit, Li Jiang opposed, believing that the imperial government should send a replacement for Liu Wu quickly, and that if that occurred, Liu Congjian would not dare to resist. However, it was said that because the chancellor in power at the time, Li Fengji, and the powerful eunuch Wang Shoucheng, had both received bribes from Liu Congjian, they allowed Liu Congjian to inherit the circuit regardless. It was said that Li Jiang despised wicked individuals without compromise, and there was an incident in which, on the street, the deputy chief imperial censor Wang Bo (), despite being less senior in rank, refused to yield to him, leading to Li Jiang initiating a debate on whether the deputy chief imperial censor needed to yield to a Pushe. Li Fengji disliked Li Jiang, and therefore had Li Jiang made Taizi Shaoshi (), an advisor to the Crown Prince, and had Li Jiang's office transferred to Luoyang.

During Emperor Wenzong's reign
After Emperor Jingzong died in 826 and was succeeded by his brother Emperor Wenzong, Li Jiang was recalled to serve as the minister of worship (太常卿, Taichang Qing). In 828, he was made the military governor of Shannan West Circuit (山南西道, headquartered in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi) and the mayor of its capital Xingyuan Municipality (), and he was created the Duke of Zhao Commandery. After Nanzhao forces made a major attack on Chengdu, the capital of the neighboring Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern Chengdu) in winter 829, Li Jiang was ordered to reinforce Xichuan forces, Li Jiang retained some 1,000 soldiers and was ready to send them to Xichuan. However, before the soldiers could head to Xichuan, the Nanzhao forces withdrew. As Shannan West had a set quota of soldiers, Li Jiang could not retain these soldiers, and in spring 830, after distributing wheat to them, he decommissioned them. When the soldiers went to bid farewell to the eunuch monitor of the army, Yang Shuyuan (), Yang, who had long resented Li Jiang for not respecting him, wanted to incite a mutiny against Li Jiang, and therefore aroused their anger by pointing out how little they received. These soldiers, thus incited, attacked Li Jiang's headquarters. Li Jiang, who did not expect this to happen, could not defend against the attack, but when his staff members suggested that he flee the city, he refused, pointing out that as the commander of the region, he could not abandon it. The soldiers killed him and his staff and further slaughtered his household. Yang submitted a false report accusing Li Jiang of having caused the mutiny by embezzling the salary of the soldiers. The imperial officials defended Li Jiang, and Kong Minxing () submitted a report on how Yang incited the mutiny. When the new military governor, Wen Zao (), arrived at Shannan West, he led these mutineers into a trap by holding a feast for them, and then slaughtering them, offering their heads to Li Jiang and the staff members as sacrifices. Yang was spared but exiled. Emperor Wenzong awarded Li Jiang posthumous honors.

Notes and references

 Old Book of Tang, vol. 164.
 New Book of Tang, vol. 152.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 237, 238, 239, 244.

764 births
830 deaths
Chancellors under Emperor Xianzong of Tang
Mayors of Hanzhong
Tang dynasty jiedushi of Dongchuan Circuit
Tang dynasty jiedushi of Shannan West Circuit
Tang dynasty jiedushi of Taining Circuit