Harold Prince (4 December 1921 – 2009) was an English footballer who played as a goalkeeper for Port Vale, Wolverhampton Wanderers, and Stafford Rangers.

Career
Prince played for Bucknall, before graduating through the Port Vale youth side to sign professional forms with the Vale in September 1941. With World War II raging, he transferred to Wolverhampton Wanderers in July 1943 without having played a game for the "Valiants". He returned to The Old Recreation Ground in August 1944, making his debut in a 3–0 home win over Birmingham City in a Football League North match on 26 August 1944. He became the first choice stopper until stubbing a foot whilst taking a goal kick in a 2–1 defeat by Crewe Alexandra at Gresty Road on 30 December 1944. In a display of poor sportsmanship, Crewe went ahead and scored as Prince lay injured on the ground. He recovered, but lost his first team spot in October 1945, at which point he was used as understudy to George Heppell. In one rare appearance, on 18 April 1949, in a 1–1 draw with Bristol City at Ashton Gate, he managed to concede a  'punt' that sailed over his head. It was most probably a major factor in the decision to release him from his contract later that month. He had played fifty competitive games for the club, a good amount of experience to take into the non-leagues with Stafford Rangers.

Career statistics
Source:

References

Footballers from Stoke-on-Trent
English men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Port Vale F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Stafford Rangers F.C. players
English Football League players
1921 births
2009 deaths


North Broward Preparatory School (NBPS) is a PK–12 private, co-educational international day and boarding school in Coconut Creek, Florida, United States.  It was founded in 1957 by James Montgomery.

The school was originally located in Lighthouse Point, Florida and relocated to its Cocounut Creek location in the summer of 2004.

The school became a member of the Meritas Family of Schools in 2005 and then Nord Anglia Education in June 2015.

Accreditation
North Broward Preparatory School is accredited by the Florida Council of Independent Schools.

Athletics
The school is a member of the Florida High School Athletic Association.

Notable alumni

References

External links

Private K-12 schools in Florida
Schools in Broward County, Florida
Educational institutions established in 1957
1957 establishments in Florida
Preparatory schools in Florida
Coconut Creek, Florida
Nord Anglia Education
Boarding schools in Florida


Stefan Schürf (born 8 March 1989) is a German former footballer who played for Bayern Munich II.

Schürf joined Bayern Munich from TSV Forstenried as a 12-year-old, and progressed through the junior team into the reserves, making his professional debut in a 3. Liga match against Stuttgarter Kickers in March 2009, coming on as a substitute for Manuel Duhnke. He was named in Bayern's first-team squad for the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League, where he was assigned the number 24. After 25 games in the 3rd Liga, all in 2009, Schürf suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury midway through the 2009–10 season, which ruled him out for the rest of the campaign. He missed the entirety of the 2010–11 season, and announced his retirement from the game in June 2011.

References

External links

1989 births
Living people
German men's footballers
Germany men's youth international footballers
FC Bayern Munich II players
Men's association football defenders
3. Liga players
Footballers from Munich


Green to Gold may refer to:
Green to Gold (album), a 2021 studio album by The Antlers
Green to Gold (book), a 2006 book by Daniel C. Esty and Andrew S. Winston
"Green to Gold" (song), the Official song for the 2008 Irish Olympic Team
Green to Gold, a United States Army  ROTC program


The Las Vegas Natural History Museum is a private, nonprofit natural history museum that is located in Downtown Las Vegas, Nevada.  The exhibits focus on various subjects, from dinosaurs, marine life, and mammals both exotic and native, as well as an Egyptian exhibit that opened in February 2010, focusing on the life of Tutankhamen.

The Museum opened on July 16, 1991, and is located on Las Vegas Boulevard across from the Las Vegas Library, as part of the downtown area known as the Cultural Corridor.  It is approximately one mile north of the Fremont Street Experience.

Galleries
Treasures of Egypt (The former "King Tut" exhibit donated by The Luxor Hotel and Casino)
Las Vegas Founders' African Gallery
Englestad Family Prehistoric Life Gallery
International Wildlife Gallery
Marine Life Gallery
E. L. Weigand Foundation Wild Nevada Gallery
Geology Gallery
Young Scientist Center

References

External links

Natural history museums in Nevada
Museums in Las Vegas
Downtown Las Vegas
Paleontology in Nevada

Dinosaur museums in the United States


Alexander Nevsky Cathedral () is the  Eastern Orthodox Cathedral in Novosibirsk, Russia, named in honor of Saint Alexander Nevsky.

It is one of the first stone constructions in Novo-Nikolayevsk (former name of Novosibirsk). The church was built in Neo-Byzantine architectural style in 1896–1899. The building design was influenced by the design of Church of Our Lady the Merciful in St.Petersburg built a few years earlier.

It was opened and consecrated on December 29, 1899. In 1915, it became a cathedral.

The cathedral was a specific monument to Tsar Alexander III who initiated construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway which resulted in the foundation of Novo-Nikolayevsk (now Novosibirsk) as a new railway station.

In 1937, the cathedral was closed by Soviet authorities.

In 1988, the year of the 1000th anniversary of Kievan Rus' conversion to Christianity, a movement began for the restitution of the cathedral. In 1989, it was re-opened.

See also
Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire
Alexander Nevsky Cathedral - other cathedrals of the same name

References

External links

Official website
 Людмила Кузменкина. 110 лет назад в Новониколаевском заложили Александро-Невский собор. Вечерний Новосибирск, 12.05.2007

Byzantine Revival architecture in Russia
Churches in Siberia
Russian Orthodox cathedrals in Russia
Churches in Novosibirsk
Tourist attractions in Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk
Tsentralny City District, Novosibirsk
Church buildings with domes
Churches completed in 1899
1899 establishments in the Russian Empire
Cultural heritage monuments of regional significance in Novosibirsk Oblast


The Professional Hockey Writers Association (PHWA) is a North American professional association for ice hockey journalists writing for newspapers, magazines and websites. The PHWA was founded in 1967 and has approximately 180 voting members. The association was founded as the National Hockey League Writers' Association, then renamed itself to the Professional Hockey Writers' Association in 1971, to distinguish itself from National Hockey League (NHL) teams.

Functions
PHWA members vote for the following seven NHL individual awards: Hart Memorial Trophy, Lady Byng Memorial Trophy, Calder Memorial Trophy, James Norris Memorial Trophy, Conn Smythe Trophy, Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy, and Frank J. Selke Trophy. Members of the National Hockey League Broadcasters' Association vote for the Jack Adams Award (coaching), while the NHL general managers vote for the Vezina Trophy (top goalie). Members of the National Hockey League Players' Association vote for the Ted Lindsay Award. There are several other NHL awards, including the Mark Messier NHL Leadership Award and the Jim Gregory General Manager of the Year Award.

The members of the PHWA also vote for the Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award, presented by the Hockey Hall of Fame to professional hockey writers.

The association is dedicated to "preserving the rights and improving the access for members of the North American–based media who cover the sport of hockey all over the world".

Presidents
List of presidents of the National Hockey League Writers' Association (1966–1971), and the Professional Hockey Writers' Association since 1971:

See also
List of National Hockey League awards
National Sports Media Association

References

External links
Professional Hockey Writers Association official website

National Hockey League mass media
Ice hockey organizations
American sports journalism organizations
H
Canadian journalism organizations
Journalism-related professional associations
Organizations established in 1967


The Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle () was an army of the French Revolution which was created on 30 April 1793 and responsible for defending a region from the mouth of the Loire River south to the Gironde. Despite its relatively short existence, the army fought numerous battles during the War in the Vendée including Thouars, Fontenay-le-Comte, Saumur, First Châtillon, Vihiers, Luçon, Chantonnay, Coron and Saint-Fulgent. Many of the battles resulted in Republican defeats at the hands of the Vendean Royalists. Of the two principal army commanders, Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duke of Biron was dismissed and later executed by guillotine while Jean Antoine Rossignol was a political appointee who was generally acknowledged to be incompetent. The army was absorbed by the Army of the West on 5 October 1793.

History

Creation and evolution
The Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle traced it existence to the Army of the Interior which became the Army of the Reserve on 1 March 1793 with Jean-François de Berruyer as commander. The army's area of operations included the 17th, 18th, 19th, 21st and 22nd Military Divisions. On 25 March the Army of the Reserve was charged with putting down the rebellion on the south bank of the Loire River. It was split into two corps, one under Berruyer guarded Nantes while the other under Louis Charles Antoine de Beaufranchet d'Ayat covered the Vendée. Two representatives on mission served with each corps, making them virtually independent of each other. During this period the right wing was also called the Army of Leigonyer, Angers, Chinon, Saumur or Tours while the left wing was at various times referred to as the Army of d'Ayat, Fontenay, Niort or Vendée. On 8 April Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duke of Biron was directed to take command of the region from the south bank of the Loire to the mouth of the Garonne River while a different body was responsible for the north bank of the Loire. On 25 April there was another directive which was quickly superseded.

The Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle was created by a 30 April 1793 decree of the Executive Council of the National Convention. From 1–27 May, François Leigonyer was the army's interim commander in addition to directing the right wing. In May, d'Ayat served as the left wing commander. The army was responsible for the defence of the coasts and areas between the Gironde estuary and the mouth of the Loire, including the north bank of the river upstream as far as Ingrandes. This area encompassed the former provinces of Poitou and Saintonge. Biron was commander-in-chief from 28 May until 16 July. Jacques-Marie Pilotte La Barolière led the right wing while Alexis Chalbos led the left wing from 17 to 30 July. Jean Antoine Rossignol assumed command on 31 July and relinquished leadership on 5 October, except for the period 25–30 August when Antoine Joseph Santerre was temporarily in charge. By a decree of 2 October 1793, the Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle was merged with the Army of Mainz and part of the Army of the Coasts of Brest, becoming the Army of the West. The decree was carried out on 6 October.

Opposing forces

On 24 February 1793 the National Convention ordered mass conscription to fill up armies depleted by desertion. The Vendée rebellion was provoked by conscription, the anti-Catholic laws promulgated by the convention and the high cost of food. The revolt broke out in March and soon 50,000 Vendean rebels were at large. There were three main rebel forces, the largest of which was the Army of Upper Vendée or Grand Army, controlling as many as 50,000 men. Its leaders were Charles de Bonchamps, Jacques Cathelineau, Maurice d'Elbée, Louis Marie de Lescure, Henri de La Rochejaquelein and Jean-Nicolas Stofflet. The two other significant bodies were the Army of Lower Vendée under François de Charette with 15,000–20,000 men in the Marais (western marshes) and the Army of the Center led by Charles Aimé de Royrand with 10,000–12,000 rebels in the area around Les Herbiers and Chantonnay.

The Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle was responsible for Les Sables-d'Olonne, Luçon, Fontenay-le-Comte, Niort and Saumur. North of the Loire, the Army of the Coasts of Brest under Jean Baptiste Camille Canclaux defended Angers, Nantes and Loire-Inférieure department on the west coast. In March the Republicans deployed 34 volunteer and two regular infantry battalions plus two regiments of cavalry. That month an otherwise idle Louis-Alexandre Berthier was posted to the Vendée. In April the government sent the 35th Legion of Gendarmes, good troops. In May the German Legion including officers Pierre Augereau and François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers arrived. The unit was composed of German deserters and former Swiss Guards and fought well, though a number deserted to the rebels. In a misguided effort to increase troop strength, six men were drafted from each company in the Army of the North and Army of the Ardennes and sent to Orléans to organize. This expedient produced 12,000 soldiers which were formed into 15 battalions, but the units had no cohesion and sometimes behaved poorly. Finally, 12 badly-disciplined and flight-prone volunteer battalions arrived from Paris under Antoine Joseph Santerre.

Operations of Biron

In May 1793 the Vendeans or Whites went on the offensive in the east. Bonchamps had 10,000 rebels watching Angers, Elbée and 20,000 men of the Grand Army threatened Bressuire, Charette watched Nantes and Les Sables-d'Olonne and Royrand held the southern front. Bonchamps, Lescure and La Rochejaquelein took Bressuire, won the Battle of Thouars and stormed La Châtaigneraie on 13 May. At Pissotte near Fontenay-le-Comte the Vendeans were beaten by Chalbos on 16 May and lost all their artillery. However, they rallied and gathered 35,000 men under Bonchamps, Elbée, Lescure and La Rochejaquelein and attacked again. In the Battle of Fontenay-le-Comte on 25 May out of 14,000 effectives, Chalbos lost 4,000 men and 40 guns. Vendean casualties were estimated at 1,000. A rebel advance on Niort was put off because the Republicans or Blues under François Nicolas de Salomon and Leigonyer threatened Thouars and Cholet. In the west, the garrison of Les Sables-d'Olonne repulsed Cathelineau, Charette and Stofflet, but the Vendeans won other actions and menaced Nantes.

A particularly motley force gathered at Saumur together with their own representatives on mission. Santerre's Paris battalions were in a perpetual state of disorder, while recently promoted officers strolled the streets with prostitutes. On 7 June 1793 the Vendeans defeated Leigonyer at Doué-la-Fontaine and chased the Blues right into Saumur. Deeming the Republican position too strong, the White army temporarily pulled back while their leaders planned an attack. Hearing that Salomon was marching north from Thouars, a column of Vendeans fell on his division at Montreuil-Bellay and wiped out half the Republican force, sending the survivors fleeing south to Niort. On 11 June the Whites defeated the Blues in the Battle of Saumur. The Vendeans numbered about 20,000 with 100 cannon while the Republicans counted 16,000 soldiers plus some reinforcements. Guy Coustard de Saint-Lo directed the right flank, Santerre the center and Berthier the left, while Jacques-François Menou commanded troops in the town. Recently appointed the army chief of staff, Berthier repulsed the first assault, but Coustard was threatened by his own men and Santerre's troops threw down their muskets and ran away. Menou and Berthier, who were both wounded, tried to lead a cavalry charge, but the horsemen joined the rout. The Blues lost 8,000 men and 46 artillery pieces. After reorganizing the beaten division at Tours, Berthier soon reoccupied Saumur.

The Grand Army crossed the Loire and began marching west along the north bank of the river under the command of Cathelineau. They planned to attack Nantes in conjunction with Charette and 20,000 rebels on the south bank. However, many Vendeans returned to their farms so that only 10,000 attacked the city on the north bank. The Whites fought their way into the center of the city but after Cathelineau was fatally hit, they withdrew and recrossed the Loire. The Battle of Nantes on 29 June 1793 was won by Canclaux and 12,000 troops of the Army of the Coasts of Brest. On 28 June Royrand mounted an attack on Luçon in the south but Claude François Sandoz and his Republican garrison repulsed it despite being outnumbered 6,000 to 800. Asked to help in the defense of Nantes, Biron ordered François Joseph Westermann on a diversion into the Vendée but failed to support his subordinate. After plundering and burning Parthenay and Amailloux, Westermann's column fought its way into Châtillon-sur-Sèvre on 3 July. His force was smashed by the rebels and he lost two-thirds of his troops on 5 July in the First Battle of Châtillon.

The generals and representatives at Saumur, including Berthier, planned to drive the rebels west against the seacoast and crush them there. From his headquarters at Niort, Biron argued that this action might cause the rebels to overrun a port and open communications with the Royal Navy. He and Canclaux wanted to mount a concentric offensive instead. Finding the independent-minded group at Saumur persisting with their plan and being supported by the Committee of Public Safety, Biron sent in his resignation. He was soon recalled to Paris and executed by guillotine on 31 December 1793. Meanwhile, Jacques-Marie Pilotte La Barolière set out from Saumur with a major expedition. On 15 and 17 July they repulsed rebel attacks but the unfitness of their soldiers shook the resolve of the commanders. La Barolière complained that his troops were drunk and insubordinate while Berthier advised retreat after witnessing two units firing at one another. Led by a body of German and Swiss deserters, the Whites attacked on 18 July at Vihiers. The advance guard under Menou held its ground for a long time but many of the Blues ran away after only catching a glimpse of the enemy. Louis-Nicolas Davout covered the rout that followed with some cavalry and Santerre escaped by jumping his horse over a wall. In the Battle of Vihiers the Royalists lost 1,000 killed and wounded out of 12,000. The Republicans suffered losses of 2,000 killed and wounded and 3,000 men captured out of 14,000; they lost 25 out of 30 guns.

Operations of Rossignol

After Biron's recall, La Barolière led the right wing while Chalbos led the left wing between 16 and 31 July 1793. In the south, Augustin Tuncq held Luçon and Chalbos defended Fontenay. Tuncq raided Chantonnay on 25 July, torching the town and wrecking supplies before marching back to Luçon. Reacting to this event, Royrand and Elbée attacked Luçon with 12,000 to 15,000 rebels on 30 July but were driven off. Finally, the Committee of Public Safety named Jean Antoine Rossignol as Biron's replacement. When Rossignol first arrived at Niort with the 35th Legion of Gendarmes he announced that he and his men would not fight the rebels unless they outnumbered them six to four. In disgust, Biron unbuckled his sword remarking to the representatives that he would not lead such cowards. Nevertheless, the politically potent Rossignol was promoted lieutenant colonel on 9 April. Arrested by Westermann for urging a battalion to mutiny and sent to Paris, he was sent back and rushed through the grades of rank, emerging as general of division on 15 July. Hearing of his appointment as commander-in-chief, Rossignol's wife rushed to the convention and assured the deputies that her husband was totally unfit for the post.

Rossignol celebrated his promotion by looting the hotel in Fontenay where he was staying and giving the women's clothing to the whores who traveled with him and his staff. He also stole Biron's horses. For these and other crimes, the representatives on mission suspended him from command on 22 August and set him to Paris. In the convention, Jean-Lambert Tallien defended him, "it is not a question whether Rossignol drinks, whether he pillages, but whether the commissioners have the right to dismiss him." Tallien later explained that he was delighted to replace the Duke of Biron by someone from a class that the nobles scorned. With the approval of Maximilien Robespierre, Rossignol was sent back to the army in triumph.

On 12 August 1793 Vendeans under Charette, Elbée and Lescure joined Royrand's men at Chantonnay. Warned by his scouts, Tuncq arranged 9,000 troops and 31 guns on the hills outside Luçon. In the Battle of Luçon on 14 August 1793, between 14,000 and 35,000 rebels attacked the Republicans on an open plain unfavorable to Vendean tactics. Because the three assaulting columns were poorly coordinated, the Royalists were beaten with losses of 1,500 men and 18 field pieces. Tuncq occupied Chantonnay but soon returned to Luçon, leaving René François Lecomte and Marceau in charge of 7,000 troops in an exposed position. Back in army command Rossignol made the rounds of his divisions, rebuking his generals for not cooperating. He ordered the Luçon division to sweep the country to the west and keep touch with the Sables d'Olonne division. He also ordered Chalbos to capture La Châtaigneraie. On 2 September a council of war at Saumur decided to reinforce Canclaux's army with 16,000 veterans from the Army of Mainz under Jean-Baptiste Annibal Aubert du Bayet and make the main thrust into the Vendée from Nantes. Significantly, du Bayet's officers refused to serve under the political appointee Rossignol. The arrival of Canclaux's army at Legé around 11–13 September would be the signal for the six divisions of the La Rochelle army to advance. However, the result of a battle would throw these plans out of joint. On 5 September 1793, 20,000 Whites smashed 8,000 Blues in the Battle of Chantonnay inflicting 4,000 casualties for the loss of only 500 men. Another authority asserted that the Vendeans had 25,000 men and 21 guns, and that only 2,500 of the 7,000 Republicans escaped the defeat.

In the September invasion, the Vendean leaders utilized the strategy of the central position to concentrate upon each of the isolated Republican divisions that attempted to invade the area of rebellion. Though Rossignol agreed to cooperate with the 2 September plan, the defeat at Chantonnay made him change his mind. He ordered Chalbos to pull back to Fontenay and the Luçon division, now under Louis Paul Beffroy, to return to Luçon. At the same time he foolishly authorized Santerre with the Saumur Division and Charles François Duhoux with the Angers Division to invade the Vendée from the east. At first, Santerre was successful at Doué-la-Fontaine and penetrated as far as Vihiers on 17 September. The next day he was ambushed in the Battle of Coron and routed, losing all his field guns. Duhoux's column suffered a similar defeat at the Battle of Pont-Barré on the 20th. The Brest Army made great progress in the west but on 19 September, the attacks of Jean Baptiste Kléber were repelled in the Battle of Tiffauges and Jean-Michel Beysser was defeated at the Battle of Montaigu on the 22nd. In the final blow, Charette mauled the Sables d'Olonne division under Jean Quirin de Mieszkowski in the Battle of Saint-Fulgent on 22 September. The Blues lost 3,000 out of 6,000 soldiers while the Whites lost only 300 casualties out of 11,000 men engaged.

As Canclaux and du Bayet pushed forward into the Vendée once again in early October, their advance was suspended by an order of 29 September 1793 dismissing them. The Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle, the Army of Mainz and units of the Army of the Coasts of Brest south of the Loire were merged into a new formation called the Army of the West. Rossignol was transferred to command a diminished Army of the Coasts of Brest while Jean Léchelle became commander-in-chief of the new army. Political general Charles-Philippe Ronsin brought about the change by persuading Minister of War Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte that Canclaux and du Bayet caused the recent defeats. The decision also appeared to show that Ronsin and Bouchotte's confidence in their favorite Rossignol had faded.

Commanders

Army of Reserve
 1 March – 28 April 1793: Jean-François de Berruyer (Commander-in-chief and Right wing commander)
 1 March – 30 April 1793: Louis Charles Antoine de Beaufranchet d'Ayat (Left wing commander)
 29 – 30 April 1793: François Leigonyer (Commander-in-chief and Right wing commander)

Army of the Coasts of La Rochelle
 1 – 27 May 1793: François Leigonyer (Commander-in-chief and Right wing commander)
 1 – 27 May 1793: Louis Charles Antoine de Beaufranchet d'Ayat (Left wing commander)
 28 May – 16 July 1793: Armand Louis de Gontaut, Duke of Biron
 16 – 31 July 1793: Jacques-Marie Pilotte La Barolière (Right wing) and Alexis Chalbos (Left wing)
 31 July – 24 August 1793: Jean Antoine Rossignol
 25 – 30 August 1793: Antoine Joseph Santerre (provisional)
 31 August – 5 October 1793: Jean Antoine Rossignol

Notes

References

Field armies of France
Armées of the French First Republic


Currency Wars (), also referred to as The Currency War, is an antisemitic essay by Chinese author Song Hongbing. Originally published in 2007, it gained a resurgence in 2009 and has been described as a prominent exponent of a recently emerged genre labeled "economic nationalist" literature. The premise of the book is that Western countries are ultimately controlled by a group of Jewish international bankers, which, according to Song, runs their central banks. It uses the claim that the Federal Reserve is a private body to support its role.

Reportedly selling over 200,000 copies in addition to an estimated 400,000 unlicensed copies in circulation in 2009, it was a bestseller in China, reportedly being read by many senior level government and business leaders in the country. Unlike other books within the genre, e.g. Unhappy China, Currency Wars has been received more positively by the Chinese leadership as its recommendations are seen as less aggressive towards the US. It was however criticized as being far-fetched and relying on conspiracism. As of 2011, more than one million copies of this book have been sold.

Synopsis
According to the book, Western countries in general, and the United States in particular, are controlled by a clique of Jewish international bankers, who use currency manipulation (hence the title) to gain wealth by first loaning money in USD to developing nations and then shorting those country's currency. The Japanese Lost Decade, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the Latin American financial crisis and others are attributed to this cause. It also claims that the Rothschild family has the wealth of 5 trillion dollars whereas Bill Gates only has 40 billion dollars.

Song also is of the opinion that the famous U.S. central bank, the Federal Reserve, is not a department of state functions, but several private banks operated by the private sector, and that these private banks are loyal to the ubiquitous Rothschild family.

On June 4, 1963, President Kennedy signed an executive order, which, as an amendment to Executive Order 10289, delegated the authority to issue silver certificates (notes convertible to silver on demand) to the Secretary of the Treasury. Song says the direct consequence was that the Federal Reserve lost its monopoly to control money.

The book looks back at history and argues that fiat currency itself is a conspiracy; it sees in the abolition of representative currency and the installment of fiat currency a struggle between the "banking clique" and the governments of the western nations, ending in the victory of the former. It advises the Chinese government to keep a vigilant eye on China's currency and instate a representative currency.

Reception
The book has achieved bestseller status in China. Although acknowledging the book's huge popularity in China, the Financial Times described it as only passably entertaining and its thesis as far-fetched.
Fred Hu, managing director of Goldman Sachs Group, said the currency wars were "non-existent". He uses in his review words as "a simple out of line, outrageous distortion", "many errors, out of context, far-fetched, exaggerated, or simply speculate, uncertain", and the conclusion to this book as a "melted mixed the ultra-left trend of thought, far-right tendencies, populism, isolationism, anarchism".

According to Zhang Jiayi, it could be argued that the "currency wars" series of books' goal in promoting the conspiracy theory is precisely to meet the angry psychology of youth.

The book has been criticized in the New York Times for promoting antisemitic conspiracy theories. The book says that Jews have been conspiring to covertly influence historical events ranging from the Battle of Waterloo to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, with the intention of increasing their wealth and influence. In this respect, the Orthodox Jewish press postulated that the material echoes traditional antisemitic conspiracy theories such as The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, The International Jew, and Nazi propaganda like Der Stürmer., although this interpretation has been considered unfair by some Chinese journalists who claim the allegations made in the text are true and that China generally has no history of antisemitism.

Several Chinese-American scholars also gave the first book negative reviews. Chen Zhiwu (Yale University) affirmed the reference values of the details the book provided, such as "what the Rothschild family did, how impacts the financial sector has on a country's development, etc".  However, he finds the author, by that time the structured finance department manager of Hong Yuan securities, lacks financial expertise to be qualified to prescribe China with future directions. Zhang Xin (University of Toledo/Ohio) finds the book rich in historical knowledge, of which many he would not be able to analyse, but as a currency and financial system researcher, he believes the framework of the book is completely wrong and criticizes the book as lacking in "common sense".

The author responded to these comments by saying "While many scholars have voiced their objections to this book, they are aimed at the details of the book, not its logic or structure."

Sequels

In July 2009, the book was followed by a sequel, Currency Wars 2: World of Gold Privilege (), published by China Industry and Commerce Publishing House (), which the Financial Times reported as being one of the most popular books in China by late 2009. More than two million copies have been sold. In this book, Song predicted that by 2024, the world's single currency system will mature. He believes that if China cannot be dominant in this system, it should not participate, but should be self-hill, have their own sphere of financial influence.

In May 2011, a second sequel, Currency Wars 3: Financial High Frontier (), was published by Yuan-Liou Publishing (). It discusses more specifically modern Chinese history, from Chiang Kai-shek to the depreciation trend of the U.S. dollar in the long term, seen from a currency war perspective. It pushes towards an isolationist financial policy.

See also
 Antisemitism in China
 Death by China
 Monetary reform
 Petrodollar warfare

References

External links
Official blog of 'Currency War' (Chinese)
Chinese buy into conspiracy theory
Review of Currency Wars
Review of Currency War 2
Mr Song's interview about "Currency War 2" on Sina channel (Chinese)
Detailed Table of Contents of Currency War (Chinese)
Detailed Table of Contents of Currency War 3 (Chinese)

2007 non-fiction books
2009 non-fiction books
Antisemitic publications
Antisemitism in China
Finance books


Francis Henry Taylor (14 June 1890 – 6 December 1963) was an English Cricketer who played for Derbyshire County Cricket Club between 1908 and 1911.

Taylor was born at Wirksworth, Derbyshire the son of Walter Taylor of Fern House and his wife Alice. His father was a manufacturer of artificial fertilizer.

Taylor made his debut for Derbyshire in the 1908 season, in a match against Lancashire, when batting in the middle order he made 10 in his first innings. He played again in 1908 and in one match in the 1909 season. He played four matches in the 1910 season,  and completed his career with a single match in the 1911 season. After his first game, he almost invariably scored a duck in his first innings and a double figure score in his second innings, his last, 18 against Lancashire in 1911, being his top score. Taylor was a right-hand batsman who played 16 innings in 8 first-class matches. His top score was 18 and his average 6.33.

Taylor died at California, Derby at the age of 73.

Taylor's brother William Taylor also played cricket for Derbyshire although they never played in the same game.

References

1890 births
1963 deaths
Derbyshire cricketers
English cricketers
People from Wirksworth
Cricketers from Derbyshire


Matthew Scott "Matt" Besler (; born February 11, 1987) is an American former professional soccer player. A left-sided central defender with the ability to play left-back. Besler spent the majority of his career in MLS with Sporting Kansas City. From 2013 to 2017, Besler represented the United States national team, including at the 2014 FIFA World Cup.

Youth and college
Besler was a four-year All-Conference player at Blue Valley West High School in Overland Park within Johnson County, Kansas. He led Blue Valley West to the Kansas 5A State Championship as a senior, scoring 23 goals with 19 assists, and holds the season and career marks in total points (124), goals (40) and assists (44) at Blue Valley West. He was also a member of the KCFC Alliance club team and a key member of the Region II Olympic Developmental Program (ODP) which competed in the 2004 ESP All-Star game.

Besler played college soccer at the University of Notre Dame, playing in 90 games (73 starts) and scoring 5 goals during his college career. He received All-American and Academic All-American honors as a senior, was named the NSCAA 2008 Senior College Men's Scholar All-America Player of the Year, and was named to the All Big East Team three times. He helped Notre Dame gain four straight berths in the NCAA championship, including the program's first two trips to the quarterfinals in 2006 and 2007.

Professional career
Besler was drafted in the first round (eighth overall) in the 2009 MLS SuperDraft by the Kansas City Wizards. He made his professional debut on March 28, 2009, as an 87th-minute substitute during a 2–1 loss at the Colorado Rapids. He scored his first professional goal on March 26, 2011, in a 3–2 loss to the Chicago Fire. Besler was added to the 2011 MLS All-Star team via the fan text message vote.
In 2012, Besler anchored the top defense in MLS with Sporting Kansas City and helped the club win the U.S. Open Cup by converting his attempt after the game against the Seattle Sounders went into penalty kicks. He also was named 2012 MLS Defender of the Year and part of the MLS Best XI.

On December 12, 2012, Besler re-signed with Sporting Kansas City on a three-year deal, passing up trial offers from Queens Park Rangers, Southampton, and Birmingham City.

Besler was voted into the 2013 All-Star Fan XI.

He was included in the roster for the July 2016 MLS All-Star Game.

Throughout the 2018 season, Besler became the all-time leader in each of the club's longevity categories, overtaking club legends such as Davy Arnaud and Kerry Zavagnin for games played, games started, and minutes played both in MLS play and in all competitions.
Kansas City opted not to renew Besler's contract following their 2020 season.

On January 6, 2021, Besler signed as a free agent with Austin FC ahead of their inaugural season in MLS. Following the 2021 season, Besler announced his retirement from playing professional soccer.

International career
On August 23, 2012, Besler was called up to the United States team by head coach Jürgen Klinsmann for a friendly against Mexico, but he did not appear in the match.
Besler made his debut appearance for the United States on January 29, 2013, in a friendly match against Canada.

Besler became the regular starting left-center back for the United States under head coach Jürgen Klinsmann. He was rated the top performer during the 2014 CONCACAF World Cup Qualifying matches.

On March 26, 2013, Besler made his debut World Cup qualifying appearance in a 0–0 draw at Mexico. On June 2, Besler started as the United States defeated Germany 4-3 in an international friendly played at RFK Stadium. Subsequently, Besler started in the World Cup qualifying wins against Jamaica, Panama, and Honduras.

After being left off of the initial roster for the 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup so that the team could evaluate other players, Besler was added to strengthen the squad after the United States qualified for the knockout round.

Besler was selected for U.S. national team 23-man roster for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He started all three games of the group stage and their Round of 16 games, helping the U.S. make it through the group stage for consecutive World Cups. Following his strong performance in the World Cup, several European outfits placed offers and expressed interest in signing Besler, including Freiburg, Fulham and Sunderland. Besler reportedly declined the offers and decided to stay in Kansas City.

He scored his debut national team goal on September 2, 2016, with an assist from Sporting Kansas City teammate Graham Zusi. This was the same day his first child was born.

Besler was a part of the U.S. national team that won the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup. Besler made four appearances in the tournament, including a start in the final as the U.S. beat Jamaica 2-1 on a late goal from Jordan Morris as Besler lifted his second international title.

International goals
Scores and results list United States' goal tally first.

Personal

Besler is known throughout his hometown of Kansas City for his willingness to give back to the community. On March 1, 2012, he joined forces with the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society (LLS) during the months of March, April and May for the Man of the Year campaign, raising funds for blood cancer research. In April 2012, Besler was named W.O.R.K.S. Humanitarian of the month by Major League Soccer.

He is a fan of his hometown Kansas City Chiefs and Royals. On July 5, 2013, he threw out the first pitch before the Kansas City Royals vs. Oakland Athletics baseball game.

His younger brother, Nick, was drafted by the Portland Timbers 5th overall in the 2015 MLS SuperDraft, and currently plays for fellow MLS club Real Salt Lake. He is currently represented by US & Asia-based agency, Libero Sports LLC.

Besler is Catholic. He was raised in a religious family; his father was Catholic and his mother converted from Methodism. Besler regularly attends church and is known to pray the rosary before each game. His favorite religious figures are Saint Christopher and Blessed Pier Giorgio Frassati. Besler married his wife, Amanda, at Visitation Catholic Church in December 2013, just two weeks after Besler led Sporting KC to their second ever MLS Cup title.

Career statistics

Honors
Sporting Kansas City
 U.S. Open Cup: 2012, 2015, 2017
 MLS Cup: 2013

United States
 CONCACAF Gold Cup: 2013, 2017

Individual
 Sporting Kansas City Defensive Player of the Year: 2011
 MLS Defender of the Year: 2012
 MLS Breakout Player of the Year: 2012
 MLS Best XI: 2012, 2013
 MLS All-Star: 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015

References

External links

1987 births
Living people
American men's soccer players
Notre Dame Fighting Irish men's soccer players
Sporting Kansas City players
Austin FC players
Sportspeople from Overland Park, Kansas
Soccer players from Kansas
Major League Soccer players
Major League Soccer All-Stars
Designated Players (MLS)
United States men's under-20 international soccer players
United States men's international soccer players
Sporting Kansas City draft picks
2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Copa América Centenario players
2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
CONCACAF Gold Cup-winning players
Men's association football defenders
All-American college men's soccer players
Catholics from Kansas


The Army of the Interior (Armée de l'Intérieur) was a name given to two field armies of the French Revolutionary Army.

1792
The first formation of this name was initially formed on 4 September 1792 under Anne François Augustin de La Bourdonnaye within the Army of the North and the Army of the Centre - he held its command until 22 September that year. It was reorganised on 21 October 1792 to assist the 'camp sous Paris', suppressed the day before, and given général Berruyer as its new commander. It became the armée de Réserve on 1 March 1793 (when command of its right wing retained by Berruyer and command of its subordinate left wing given to général  Beaufranchet d'Ayat) then the armée des côtes de la Rochelle on 30 April the same year, whilst retaining the same organisation and commanders - général Leigonyer and d'Ayat commanded its right and left wings respectively from 29 April to 27 May as interim commanders. Armand Louis de Gontaut-Biron commanded the unit from 28 May until 16 July 1793. It then had no commander until Jean Antoine Rossignol's appointment on 31 July - for those two weeks général Pilotte commanded its right division and Alexis Chalbos its left division.

Rossignol held command for the rest of the unit's existence, barring 25 to 30 August 1793, when he was temporarily replaced by Antoine Joseph Santerre. On 2 October 1793 the French Convention decreed the merger of the army of Mayence with the part of the armée des côtes de la Rochelle operating in the Loire-Inférieure department - this new formation was named the Army of the West.

1795-1796
The second formation of this name was raised on 12 July 1795 using the forces of the 17th military division of Paris, augmented by those of the Somme, Seine-Maritime and Eure departments. Its main purpose was to keep order in Paris and its region. Its first commander was Jacques-François Menou, previously commander of the 17th Division. It was ordered to gather in a camp just outside Paris by the French Convention on 24 July.

Menou was replaced as commander on 5 October the same year by Paul Barras, with Napoleon Bonaparte as his second in command - on that date it put down the Royalist insurrection of 13 Vendémiaire. The formation was also used to suppress the revolt in the Grenelle camp and supported the French Directory during its Coup of 18 Fructidor. Bonaparte took over its command from Barras on 26 October 1795, holding it until he was put in command of the Army of Italy on 2 March 1796. Bonaparte still remained in command of the Army of the Interior for a few more days and the Directory were unable to replace him until he departed for his new command on 10 March - his replacement was Jacques Maurice Hatry. It was disbanded by decree of 25 August 1796, effective on 22 September.

References

Interieur
Interior


The eighth legislative assembly election for Tamil Nadu was held on 24 December 1984. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) won the election and its general secretary, incumbent M. G. Ramachandran (M.G.R) was sworn in as Chief Minister, for the third time. The election victory was mainly attributed to the sympathy wave created by Indira Gandhi's assassination and M.G.R's illness coupled with Rajiv Gandhi's popularity. This is the last election M.G.R contested as he died in office in 1987. This is also the only General Election which M. Karunanidhi did not contest since 1957 until his death. As of 2023, this is the last election where the ruling party gained seats.

Background
Indira Gandhi was assassinated on 31 October 1984. During the same time, M. G. Ramachandran was diagnosed with kidney failure and admitted in a hospital in New York City. Rajiv Gandhi assumed office immediately. Rajiv Gandhi felt that his Government required a fresh mandate from the people, and dissolved the Lok Sabha a year before its actual end of term, for fresh general elections. At the same time, Chief minister of Tamilnadu, M.G.R recommended dissolution of Tamil Nadu State Assembly a year ahead of end of term, to use the sympathy wave of Congress, and also check his popularity. Indian National Congress (Indira) and All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam formed an alliance and  contested both general elections.

Parties
National parties Bharatiya Janta Party, Communist Party of India, Communist Party of India (Marxist), Indian National Congress and Janata Party, state parties All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, Indian Congress (J), and registered unrecognised parties Ambedkar Kranti Dal, Gandhi Kamaraj National and Tamil Nadu Congress (K) contested the election.

Seat allocation
The allocation of seats were done what was later dubbed, "The M.G.R formula". Where the regional party would contest 70% of the assembly seats and the national party would be given 70% of the Lok Sabha seats.
This would be the last election M.G.R contested, due to his death during his chief ministership.

Campaigning
M. G. Ramachandran was confined to the hospital. Video coverage of M.G.R recuperating in hospital along with Indira Gandhi's assassination were stitched together by AIADMK man in charge of campaigning R. M. Veerappan. The video was distributed and played across all over Tamil Nadu. Rajiv Gandhi visited cyclone-hit areas in Tamil Nadu which also boosted the alliance. The sympathy wave created by Indira's assassination, M.G.R's illness and Rajiv Gandhi's charisma helped the alliance sweep the election. DMK leader M. Karunanidhi did not contest this election, due to the fact that the AIADMK founder M.G.R was admitted to a hospital in the U.S. and Indira Gandhi being assassinated.

Seat allotments

AIADMK Front

DMK Front

Voting and results

Results by Pre-Poll Alliance

|-
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;" |Alliance/Party
!style="width:4px" |
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Seats won
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Change
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Popular Vote
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Vote %
! style="background-color:#E9E9E9;text-align:right;" |Adj. %‡
|-
! style="background-color:#009900; color:white"|AIADMK+ alliance
! style="background-color:" |
| 195
| +29
| 11,681,221
| style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;" colspan=2 | 53.9%
|-
|AIADMK
! style="background-color:" |
| 132
| +3
| 8,030,809
| 37.0%
| 54.3%
|-
|INC
! style="background-color:" |
| 61
| +30
| 3,529,708
| 16.3%
| 54.5%
|-
|GKC
! style="background-color: teal" |
| 2
| -4
| 120,704
| 0.6%
| 40.4%
|-
! style="background-color:#FF0000; color:white"|DMK+ alliance
! style="background-color: " |
| 34
| -25
| 8,021,293
| style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;" colspan=2 | 37.0%
|-
|DMK
! style="background-color: " |
| 24
| -13
| 6,362,770
| 29.3%
| 40.8%
|-
|CPI(M)
! style="background-color: " |
| 5
| -6
| 597,622
| 2.8%
| 39.6%
|-
|JNP
! style="background-color: " |
| 3
| +1
| 493,374
| 2.3%
| 36.4%
|-
|CPI
! style="background-color: " |
| 2
| -7
| 567,527
| 2.6%
| 35.5%
|-
! style="background-color:gray; color:white"|Others
! style="background-color:gray" |
| 5
| -4
| 1,983,959
| style="text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;" colspan=2 | 9.1%
|-
|IND
! style="background-color: " |
| 4
| -4
| 1,619,921
| 7.5%
| 7.9%
|-
|AKD
! style="background-color:"|
| 1
| –
| 47,212
| 0.7%
| 57.2%
|-
|TNC
! style="background-color: " |
| 0
| –
| 152,315
| 0.7%
| 34.9%
|-
|ICJ
! style="background-color:"|
| 0
| –
| 110,121
| 0.5%
| 3.2%
|-
|BJP
! style="background-color:"|
| 0
| –
| 54,390
| 0.3%
| 3.7%
|-
! style="text-align:center;" |Total
! style="background-color: " |
! 234
! –
! 21,686,473
! 100%
! style="text-align:center;" | –
|-
|}
‡: Vote % reflects the percentage of votes the party received compared to the entire electorate that voted in this election. Adjusted (Adj.) Vote %, reflects the % of votes the party received per constituency that they contested.
Sources: Election Commission of India

By constituency

M.G.R's third cabinet

After the General Elections held in December 1984, the Governor appointed Dr. M. G. Ramachandran as Chief Minister heading the new Government with effect from the forenoon of 10 February 1985. The Governor, on the advice of Hon. Chief Minister appointed 16 more Ministers on 14 February 1985.

Janaki's cabinet
 After MGR's death, VR Neduncheziyan was sworn in as Acting Chief Minister. But, one week later, the party majority led by R.M.Veerappan supported MGR's widow Janaki to become Chief minister and she was sworn in as Chief minister. Janaki doubled as the finance minister in her Cabinet. The Governor gave V. N. Janaki Ramachandran 30 days time to prove majority support in the house. This was a problem because, 30 MLAs of her own party were supporting J. Jayalalithaa to become the new Chief minister. Hence Janaki had the support of only 105 MLAs in the house of 234, as VR Neduncheziyan's 10 supporters chose to remain neutral and boycott the voting.

Hence, on the day of voting, Speaker PH pandiyan disqualified and dismissed 20 MLAs of opposition party DMK and 15 MLAs of AIADMK (Jayalalithaa faction ) from their MLA posts, due to demeaning behaviour in the house and thus announced that the majority was reduced to a mere 100, as the house then had only 199 members.

Before commencement of oral voting, violence erupted in the house and the speaker was injured. With bleeding head, he announced that Janaki had proved her majority with 105 MLAs and adjourned the house immediately. Then the members of the assembly were escorted out.

The Governor of state refused to accept this voting which was done under suspicious environment and recommended the Central government to dismiss the legislature and hold fresh general elections. The central government accepted the recommendation and the legislature was dissolved by the President.

See also
Elections in Tamil Nadu
Legislature of Tamil Nadu
Government of Tamil Nadu

Footnotes

External links
 Election Commission of India

State Assembly elections in Tamil Nadu
1980s in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu


Golfingia vulgaris is a marine invertebrate belonging to the phylum Sipuncula, the peanut worms. It is a cylindrical, unsegmented worm with a crown of tentacles around the mouth. It lives in burrows in shallow seas in various parts of the world.

Description
Like other sipunculans, the body is divided into a larger rear end known as the trunk and a narrower front end known as the introvert. The trunk is cylindrical and can reach 200 mm in length but is more commonly 20–50 mm. It varies in colour from grey to white to yellow-brown. The two ends of the trunk are often pigmented dark brown or black. The introvert can be retracted into the trunk by the retractor muscles of which there are usually four but occasionally three. The introvert bears many dark brown, slightly bent hooks. These are arranged irregularly unlike the similar species Golfingia elongata where the hooks are arranged in rings. Young specimens have a crown of around 20 small, finger-like tentacles arranged in a circle around the mouth. As the worm grows the number of tentacles can increase to over 150 and they are arranged in three or more circles. The entoproct Loxosomella phascolosomata often attaches itself to the worm.

Taxonomy
It was first described in 1827 by the French zoologist Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville who gave it the name Sipunculus vulgaris. It is now placed in the genus Golfingia which was created by the British zoologist E. Ray Lankester in 1885 and named to celebrate a golfing holiday in St Andrews, Scotland. The species is variable in appearance and has several synonyms. A varying number of subspecies are recognized.

Distribution and habitat
It has a widespread but patchy distribution around the world. It occurs in the eastern Atlantic Ocean from Greenland and Scandinavia south to West Africa and also occurs in the Mediterranean Sea, Adriatic Sea and Red Sea. It is found locally in the western Pacific Ocean and there is a record from the eastern Pacific off British Columbia. The subspecies G. v. herdmani is found in parts of the Indian Ocean and around Australia.

It is found in mud, sand and gravel at depths of 5–2000 m, mainly occurring in waters less than 500 m deep. There is also one record from 5,540 m down in the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench. G. v. herdmani occurs in warm, shallow water.

References

External links

 MarLIN image gallery

Sipunculans
Fauna of the Atlantic Ocean
Fauna of the Indian Ocean
Fauna of the Pacific Ocean
Animals described in 1827
Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville


William Hall is an  American actor, director, trainer and mask maker in San Francisco, California. He is the editor of The Playbook, Improv Games for Performers.

Hall first became involved in acting when he took a drama class while attending Maggie L. Walker High School in Richmond, Virginia. He went on to obtain a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Acting from Boston University, where he was classmates with Geena Davis. After graduation, Hall came to San Francisco to pursue theater.

He has appeared in film and television including The Right Stuff, Twisted, Howard the Duck and Midnight Caller. He was one of the Nazis in the final ark scene in Raiders of the Lost Ark.

Hall is one of the founding members of BATS Improv, an improvisational theatre, and the last remaining “OB” (original brother) of Fratelli Bologna.

Filmography

Notes
The Improv Playbook – 370 games for improv performers

External links

 Fratelli Bologna Official site
BATS Improv Official Site
The Improv Playbook – 370 games for improv performers
 The Power of Theater Games
How Well do Executives Trust Their Intuition - Chapter 10 co-authored with Rebecca Stockley

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American directors
American male film actors
American male television actors
Place of birth missing (living people)
Boston University College of Fine Arts alumni
Maggie L. Walker Governor's School for Government and International Studies alumni


The Army of the Rhine and Moselle () was one of the field units of the French Revolutionary Army. It was formed on 20 April 1795 by the merger of elements of the Army of the Rhine and the Army of the Moselle.

The Army of the Rhine and Moselle participated in two principal campaigns in the War of the First Coalition. Military planners in Paris formed armies based on specific strategic tasks, and the task of this Army was to secure the French frontier at the Rhine and to penetrate the German states, potentially threatening Vienna. The unsuccessful 1795 campaign concluded with the removal of General Jean-Charles Pichegru from command. In 1796, under the command of General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, the Army was more successful. After crushing the Reichsarmees elements at Kehl, the Army advanced into southwestern Germany.

Its success depended on the cooperation with France's Army of the Sambre and Meuse, commanded by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan. In 1796, the jealousies between Jourdan and Moreau, and among the subcommanders, complicated the efficient operations of both armies. After a summer of maneuver in which the Coalition force enticed the French deeper and deeper into German territory, the Habsburg commander Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen drubbed the French at Wurzburg and at second Wetzlar, and then defeated Jourdan's army at the Limburg-Altenkirchen. These battles destroyed any chance that Jourdan's force and Moreau's Army of the Rhine and Moselle could merge. Once Jourdan withdrew to the west bank of the Rhine, Charles could focus his attention on Moreau. By October they were fighting on the western slope of the Black Forest, and by December Charles had the French forces under siege at the principal river crossings of Kehl and Hüningen. By early 1797 the French had relinquished control of the bridgeheads over the Rhine. After an abbreviated German campaign in 1797, the French and Austrians agreed to the Treaty of Campo Formio and, on 29 September 1797, the Army of the Rhine and Moselle merged with the Army of the Sambre and Meuse to form the Army of Germany.

The Army of the Rhine and Moselle campaigns provided experience for a cadre of young officers. In his five-volume analysis of the Revolutionary Armies, Ramsey Weston Phipps called the Army of the Rhine and Moselle a "school for marshals", to emphasize the importance of experience under these conditions in training the future leadership of Napoleon's army.

Background

The rulers of Europe viewed the 1789 revolution in France as an internal matter between the French king and his subjects. In 1790, Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire; by 1791, the danger to his sister, Marie Antoinette and her children, alarmed him. In August 1791, in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia, Leopold's Declaration of Pillnitz articulated that the interests of the monarchs of Europe were as one with the interests of Louis and his family. He and his fellow monarchs threatened unspecified consequences if anything should happen to the royal family. French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter-revolution, and on 20 April 1792 the French National Convention declared war on Austria. In this War of the First Coalition (1792–1798), France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing its land or water borders, plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire.

Elements of the armies that were later formed into the Army of the Rhine and Moselle participated in the conquest of the Netherlands and the siege of Luxembourg. The various elements of the army won a victory at the Battle of Fleurus on 16 June 1794.  Shortly after Fleurus, the position of the First Coalition in Flanders collapsed and the French armies overran the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Republic in the winter of 1794–1795. French and Coalition military strategy subsequently focused on the Rhine river as the principle line of defense: for each side, control of the opposite bank or, at least, the river's principal crossings, was the basis of defensive strategy.

Purpose and formation

Military challenges
By 1792 the armies of the French Republic were in a state of disruption; experienced soldiers of the Ancien Régime fought side by side with volunteers. Recruits, urged on by revolutionary fervor from the special representatives—agents of the legislature sent to ensure cooperation among the military—lacked the discipline and training to function efficiently; frequently insubordinate, they often refused orders and undermined unit cohesion. After a defeat, they were capable of mutiny, as Théobald Dillon learned when his troops lynched him in 1792.

Military cohesion became more acute following the 1793 introduction of mass conscription, the levée en masse.  The basic unit of the army, the demi-brigade, mixed the men of the old army with the recruits from the levée en masse. Ideally, it was designed to include the regular infantry inherited from the old Royal regiments, who were relatively well-trained and equipped, dressed in white uniforms and wearing tarleton helmets, with the national guard units, who were less well-trained or equipped, with blue uniforms, and the  fédéré volunteer battalions, who were poorly trained and equipped, with no uniform other than a red phrygian cap and a cockade of France.

Disruption reached the upper echelons of the army. French commanders walked a fine line between the security of the frontier and the Parisian clamor for victory. Commanders were constantly under suspicion from the representatives of the new regime and sometimes from their own soldiers. Failure to achieve unrealistic expectations implied disloyalty and the price of disloyalty was an appointment with Madame guillotine: several of the highest ranking generals, including the aged Nicolas Luckner, Jean Nicolas Houchard, Adam Philippe Custine, Arthur Dillon and Antoine Nicolas Collier, were killed. Francisco de Miranda's failure to take Maastricht landed him in La Force Prison for several years. Many of the old officer class had emigrated, forming émigré armies; the cavalry in particular suffered from their departure and the Hussards du Saxe and the 15éme Cavalerie (Royal Allemande) regiments defected en masse to the Austrians. The artillery arm, considered by the old nobility to be an inferior assignment, was less affected by emigration and survived intact.

By 1794-95, military planners in Paris considered the upper Rhine Valley, the south-western German territories and Danube river basin of strategic importance for the defense of the Republic. The Rhine offered a formidable barrier to what the French perceived as Austrian aggression and the state that controlled its crossings controlled the river and access into the territories on either side. Ready access across the Rhine and along the Rhine bank between the German states and Switzerland or through the Black Forest, gave access to the upper Danube river valley. For the French, control of the Upper Danube or any point in between, was of immense strategic value and would give the French a reliable approach to Vienna. The planners also understood the importance of moving the French army out of France and into the territories of other polities. Theirs was an army entirely dependent for support upon the countryside it occupied. Parisian revolutionaries and military commanders alike believed an assault into the German states was essential, not only in terms of war aims, but also in practical terms: the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself and did not budget for the payment or feeding of its troops.  Although this solved some of the problems of feeding and paying the army, it did not solve them all. Until April 1796, soldiers were paid in an increasingly worthless paper currency called the Assignat; after April, pay was made in metallic value, but pay was still in arrears. Throughout the spring and early summer, the soldiers were in almost constant mutiny: in May 1796, in the border town of Zweibrücken, a demi-brigade revolted. In June, pay for two demi-brigades were in arrears and two companies rebelled.

Formation

In late 1794, military planners in Paris reorganized the army into task forces. The right flank of the Armies of the Center, later called the Army of the Moselle, the entire Army of the North and the Army of the Ardennes were combined to form the Army of the Sabre and Meuse, which was stationed on the west bank of the Rhine north of the junction of the Main and the Rhine rivers.

The remaining units of the former Army of the Center and the Army of the Rhine were united, initially on 29 November 1794, and formally on 20 April 1795, under command of Jean-Charles Pichegru.  These troops were stationed further south, in a line that stretched on the west bank of the Rhine from Basel to the Main River.

At Basel, where the river makes a wide, northerly turn at the Rhine knee, it enters what the locals call the Rhine Ditch (Rheingraben). This forms part of a rift valley some  wide bordered by the mountainous Black Forest on the east (German side) and the Vosges mountains on the west (French side). At the far edges of the eastern flood plain, tributaries cut deep defiles into the western slope of the mountains. Further to the north, the river became deeper and faster, until it widened into a delta where it emptied into the North Sea.

Campaign of 1795

The  Rhine Campaign of 1795 (April 1795 to January 1796) opened both French armies attempted to cross the Rhine and capture the Fortress of Mainz. The French Army of the Sambre and Meuse, commanded by Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, confronted Count Clerfayt's Army of the Lower Rhine in the north, while the French Army of Rhine and Moselle under Pichegru lay opposite Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser's army in the south. From April until August, both sides engaged in a waiting game until, in August, Jourdan crossed and quickly seized Düsseldorf. The Army of the Sambre and Meuse advanced south to the Main River, completely isolating Mainz. Pichegru's Army of the Rhine and Moselle surprised the Bavarian garrison of Mannheim; by mid-month, both French armies held significant footholds on the east bank of the Rhine. The French fumbled away the promising start to their offensive. Pichegru bungled at least one opportunity to seize Clerfayt's supply base in the Battle of Handschuhsheim, with resultant significant losses. With Pichegru unexpectedly inactive, Clerfayt massed against Jourdan, beat him at Höchst in October, and forced most of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse to retreat to the west bank of the Rhine.

These maneuvers left the Army of the Rhine and Moselle isolated.  When Wurmser sealed off the French bridgehead at Mannheim, the Army of the Rhine and Moselle was trapped on the east bank. The Austrians defeated the left wing of the Army of Rhine and Moselle at the Battle of Mainz and moved down the west bank. In November, Clerfayt defeated Pichegru at Pfeddersheim and successfully wrapped up the siege of Mannheim. In January 1796, Clerfayt concluded an armistice with the French, sending the Army of the Rhine and Moselle back to France, and retaining a large portions of the west bank.

Campaign in 1796

The opening of the Rhine Campaign of 1796 began with Jean-Baptiste Kléber's attack south of his bridgehead at Düsseldorf. After Kléber won sufficient maneuver room on the east bank of the Rhine River, Jean Baptiste Jourdan was supposed to join him with the remainder of the Army of the Sambre and Meuse. At the first battles of Altenkirchen (4 June 1796) and  Wetzlar, two Republican French divisions commanded by Kléber attacked a wing of the Habsburg army led by Duke Ferdinand Frederick Augustus of Württemberg. A frontal attack combined with a flanking maneuver forced the Austrians to retreat. Three future Marshals of France played significant roles in the engagement at Altenkirchen: François Joseph Lefebvre as a division commander, Jean-de-Dieu Soult, as a brigadier and Michel Ney, as leader of a flanking column. Altenkirchen is located in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate about  east of Bonn. Wetzlar was located in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel,  north of Frankfurt. Altenkirchen was only a distraction to entice the Austrian commander to move troops from the south to strengthen his force in the middle Rhine; Moreau lent credence to this distraction by seeming to move part of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle north from Strasburg. When Archduke Charles moved troops north to oppose what looked to be a crossing in force, Moreau reversed to Kehl and crossed the river. Kléber carried out his part of the scheme to perfection.

The opposition armies of the First Coalition included  imperial (Reichsarmee) contingents and the infantry and cavalry of the various states, amounting to about 125,000 (including the three autonomous corps), a sizeable force by eighteenth century standards but a moderate force by the standards of the later Revolutionary wars. In total, though, Imperial and Habsburg troops stretched in a line from Switzerland to the North Sea and Wurmser's troops stretched from the Swiss-Italian border to the Adriatic; furthermore, a portion of the troops in Fürstenberg's corps were pulled in July to support Wurmser's activities in Italy. Habsburg troops comprised the bulk of the army, but the thin white line of Habsburg infantry could not cover the territory from Basel to Frankfurt with sufficient depth to resist the pressure of the opposition. In spring 1796, drafts from the free imperial cities, and other imperial estates, augmented the Habsburg force with perhaps 20,000 men at the most. It was largely guesswork where they would be placed, and Archduke Charles, commander of the Reichsarmee and the Habsburg forces, did not like to use the militias, which were poorly trained and unseasoned.  Compared to French coverage, Charles had only half the number of troops extended over a 211-mile front, stretching from Basel to Bingen. Furthermore, Charles had concentrated the bulk of his force, commanded by Count Baillet Latour, between Karlsruhe and Darmstadt, where the confluence of the Rhine and the Main river made an attack most likely, as it offered a gateway into eastern German states and ultimately to Vienna, with sturdy bridges crossing the relatively well-defined river bank. To the north, Wilhelm von Wartensleben’s autonomous corps stretched in a thin line between Mainz and Giessen.

On 22 June, the Army of the Rhine and Moselle executed simultaneous crossings at Kehl and Hüningen. At Kehl, Moreau's advance guard, 10,000 men, preceded the main force of 27,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry directed at a mere several hundred Swabian pickets on the bridge.  The Swabians were hopelessly outnumbered and could not be reinforced. Most of the Imperial Army of the Rhine was stationed further north, by Mannheim, where the river was easier to cross. Neither Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé's Army of Condé in Freiburg nor Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg's force in Rastatt could reach Kehl in time to relieve the Swabian troops. Consequently, within a day, Moreau had four divisions across the river. Unceremoniously thrust out of Kehl, the Swabian contingent reformed at Rastatt by 5 July, which they held until reinforcements arrived.  Furthermore, at Hüningen, near Basel, Ferino executed a full crossing, and advanced east along the German shore of the Rhine with the 16th and 50th Demi-brigades, the 68th, 50th and 68th line infantry, and six squadrons of cavalry that included the 3rd and 7th Hussars and the 10th Dragoons.  The Habsburg and Imperial armies were in danger of encirclement.

With Ferino's quick movements to encircle him, Charles executed an orderly withdrawal in four columns through the Black Forest, across the Upper Danube valley, and toward Bavaria. By mid-July, the French forces maintained persistent pressure on Charles' force.  Two imperial columns encamped near Stuttgart were surrounded and surrendered, leading to a general armistice with the Swabian Circle. The third column, which included the Condé's Corps, retreated through Waldsee to Stockach, and eventually Ravensburg. The fourth Austrian column, the smallest (three battalions and four squadrons), under General Wolff, marched the length of the Bodensee's northern shore, via Überlingen, Meersburg, Buchhorn, and the Austrian city of Bregenz.

Given the size of the attacking force, Charles had to withdraw far enough into Bavaria to align his northern flank with Wartensleben's autonomous corps. As he withdrew, his own line compressed, making his army stronger; his opposition's flanks extended, making their line weaker.  In the course of this withdrawal, most of the Swabian Circle was abandoned to the Army of the Rhine and Moselle, which enforced an armistice and extracted sizeable reparations; in addition, the French occupied several principal towns in southwestern Germany, including Stockach, Meersburg, Constance, Überlingen  am Bodensee, Ulm, and Augsburg. As Charles withdrew further east, the neutral zone expanded, eventually encompassing most of southern German states and the Ernestine duchies.

Summer of 1796
By mid-summer, the strategic goals of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle appeared to have succeeded; Jourdan or Moreau seemed on the brink of flanking Charles and Wartensleben, forcing a wedge between the two; inexplicably, Wartensleben continued to withdraw to the east-north-east, despite Charles' orders to unite with him. At the Battle of Neresheim on 11 August, Moreau crushed Charles' force and at last, however, Wartensleben recognized the danger; he changed direction, moving his corps to join at Charles' northern flank. At the Battle of Amberg on 24 August, Charles inflicted another defeat on the French, but that same day, his commanders lost a battle to the French at Friedberg, when the French army, which was advancing eastward on the south side of the Danube, isolated an Austrian infantry unit, Schröder Infantry Regiment Nr. 7, and the French Army of Condé. In the ensuing clash, the Austrians and Royalists were cut to pieces.

The tide now turned in the Coalition's favor. Both French Armies had overstretched their lines, moving far into the German states, and were separated too far from each other for one to offer the other aid or security. The Coalition's concentration of troops forced a wider wedge between the two armies of Jourdan and Moreau, what the French had tried to do to Charles and Wartensleben.  Despite Charles' instructions to withdraw northward toward Ingolstadt, Maximilian Anton Karl, Count Baillet de Latour retreated eastward to protect the borders of Austria.  Moreau did not seize the opportunity to place his army between the two Austrian forces (Wartensleben's and Charles').  As the French withdrew toward the Rhine, Charles and Wartensleben pressed forward. On 3 September at Würzburg, Jourdan attempted unsuccessfully to halt the retreat; at the Battle of Limburg, Charles pushed him back to the Rhine.

Once Moreau received word of Jourdan's defeat, he initiated his withdrawal from southern Germany. Retreating through the Black Forest, with Ferino supervising the rear guard, he claimed one more victory: an Austrian corps commanded by Latour drew too close to Moreau at Biberach and lost 4,000 prisoners, some standards and artillery; Latour followed at a more sensible distance. Both sides were hampered by heavy rains; the ground was soft and slippery, and the Rhine and Elz rivers had flooded.  This increased the hazards of mounted attack, because the horses could not get a good footing.  Archduke's force pursued the French, although carefully.  The French attempted to slow their pursuers by destroying bridges, but the Austrians  repaired them and crossed the swollen rivers despite the high waters.  Upon reaching a few miles east of  Emmendingen, the Archduke split his force into four columns. Friedrich Joseph, Count of Nauendorf's column, in the upper Elz, had eight battalions and 14 squadrons, advancing southwest to Waldkirch; Wartensleben had 12 battalions and 23 squadrons advancing south to capture the Elz bridge at Emmendingen. Latour, with 6,000 men, was to cross the foothills via Heimbach and Malterdingen, and capture the bridge of Köndringen, between Riegel and Emmendingen, and Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg's column held Kinzingen, about  north of Riegel. Frölich and Condé (part of Nauendorf's column) were to pin down Ferino and the French right wing in the Stieg valley. Nauendorf's men were able to ambush St.-Cyr's advance; Latour's columns attacked Beaupuy at Matterdingen, killing the general and throwing his column into confusion.  Wartensleben, in the center, was held up by French riflemen until his third (reserve) detachment arrived to outflank them; the French retreated across the rivers, destroying all the bridges.

After the shambles at Emmendingen, the French withdrew to the south and west, and formed for battle by Schliengen. There, Moreau established his army along a ridge of hills, in a  semi-circle on heights that commanded the terrain below. Given the severe condition of the roads at the end of October, Archduke Charles could not flank the right French wing. The French left wing lay too close to the Rhine, and the French center was unassailable. Instead, he attacked the French flanks directly, and in force, which increased casualties for both sides. The Duc d'Enghien led a spirited (but unauthorized) attack on the French left, cutting their access to a withdrawal through Kehl.  Nauendorf's column marched all night and half of the day, and attacked the French right, pushing them further back. In the night, while Charles planned his next day's attack, Moreau began the withdrawal of his troops toward Hüningen. Although the French and the Austrians both claimed victory at the time, military historians generally agree that the Austrians achieved a strategic advantage. However, the French withdrew from the battlefield in good order and several days later crossed the Rhine River at Hüningen.

After Schliengen, both the French and the Coalition sought to control the Rhine river crossings at Kehl and Hüningen.  At Kehl, 20,000 French defenders under Louis Desaix and the overall commander of the French force, Jean Victor Marie Moreau, almost upset the siege when they executed a sortie that nearly captured the Austrian artillery park; the French managed to capture 1,000 Austrian troops in the melee. On 9 January the French general Desaix proposed the evacuation to General Latour and they agreed that the Austrians would enter Kehl the next day, on 10 January at 16:00.  The French immediately repaired the bridge, rendered passable by 14:00, which gave them 24 hours to evacuate everything of value and to raze everything else. By the time Latour took possession of the fortress, nothing remained of any use: all palisades, ammunition, even the carriages of the bombs and howitzers, had been evacuated. The French insured that nothing remained behind that could be used by the Austrian/Imperial army; even the fortress itself was but earth and ruins. The siege concluded 115 days after its investment, following 50 days of open trenches, the point at which active fighting began.

At Hüningen Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg's force initiated the siege within days of the Austrian victory at the Battle of Schliengen. Most of the siege ran concurrently with the siege at Kehl, which concluded on 9 January 1797.  Troops engaged at Kehl marched to Hüningen in preparation for a major assault, but the French defenders capitulated on 1 February 1797.  The French commander, Jean Charles Abbatucci, was killed in the early days of the fighting, and replaced by Georges Joseph Dufour. The trenches, opened originally in November, had refilled with winter rain and snow in the intervening weeks. Fürstenberg ordered them opened again, and the water drained out on 25 January. The Coalition force secured the earthworks surrounding the trenches. On 31 January the French failed to push the Austrians out.  Archduke Charles arrived that day and met with Fürstenberg at nearby Lörrach.  The night of 31 January to 1 February was relatively tranquil, marred only by ordinary artillery fire and shelling.  At mid-day 1 February 1797, as the Austrians prepared to storm the bridgehead, General of Division Dufour pre-empted what would have been a costly attack for both sides, offering to surrender the position. On 5 February, Fürstenberg finally took possession of the bridgehead.

Following the losses in 1796 and early 1797, the French regrouped their forces on the west side of the Rhine.  An abbreviated campaign in late spring of 1797 led to Austrians and the French to agree to the Treaty of Campo Formio, ending the War of the First Coalition. The subsequent armistice at Leoben led to long term negotiations for peace between Revolutionary France and Austria. On 29 September 1797, the Army of the Rhine and Moselle merged with the Army of the Sambre and Meuse to form the Army of Germany.

Organizational and command problems
Excruciating command challenges plagued the Army of the Rhine and Moselle in its early operations. The campaign of 1795 had been entirely a French failure and the difficulties the Army of the Rhine and Moselle faced, especially in 1795, had much to do with Pichegru's own situation: his competition with both Moreau and Jourdan and his disaffection with the direction in which the revolution was headed. Originally a dedicated Jacobin, by 1794, his own intrigues had placed him in command after he had undermined Lazare Hoche the previous year, insuring his own appointment as commander of this army. As the revolution waxed and waned in its ardency, however, so did Pichegru to its principles: by late 1794, he was leaning heavily toward the royalist cause. The Directory replaced him with Desaix, and later Moreau.  Undeniably a capable, possibly brilliant, and popular commander, Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the Meuse on 18 October. After taking Nijmegen, he drove the Austrians across the Rhine. Then, instead of going into winter quarters, he prepared his army for a winter campaign, always a difficult proposition in the eighteenth century. Several brilliant actions in the winter established Pichegru's position. Pichegru's actions sometimes seemed inexplicable: although an associate, even a friend, of the recently executed Saint-Just, Pichegru offered his services to the Thermidorian Reaction; after having received the title of Sauveur de la Patrie ("Saviour of the Fatherland") from the National Convention, he subdued the sans-culottes of Paris during the bread riots of 1 April 1795. As a hero of the Revolution captured Mannheim but inexplicably he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be defeated; throughout 1796, his machinations in Paris complicated the conduct of operations in Germany by undermining the senior command confidence.

In the field in 1796, competition between generals, not ideology, caused command problems. Jealousies between Jourdan and Moreau further complicated the success of the Army of the Rhine and Moselle by refusing to unite their fronts.  Moreau moved rapidly into Bavarian and toward Vienna, as if he commanded the only French army in the German states. Frustration created rivalries between and among subcommanders.  Ferino continued his seemingly random maneuvers along the border with Switzerland, and through the Swabian Circle, as if he too were operating autonomously. These problems were not limited to Moreau's army; in the Army of the Sambre and Meuse, Jourdan had a spat with his wing commander Kléber and that officer suddenly resigned. Two generals from Kléber's clique, Bernadotte and Colaud, also made excuses to leave  immediately. Faced with this mutiny, Jourdan replaced Bernadotte with General Henri Simon and divided Colaud's rebellious units among the other divisions.

School for marshals
The campaigns in which the Army of the Rhine and Moselle participated also provided exceptional experience for a cadre of extraordinary young officers. In his five-volume analysis of the Revolutionary Armies, Ramsey Weston Phipps emphasized the importance of experience under these trying conditions of manpower shortage, poor training, equipment and supply shortage, and tactical and strategic confusion and interference. Phipps's objective was to show how the training received in the early years of the war varied not only with the theater in which they served but also with the character of the army to which they belonged.  The experience of young officers under the tutelage of such experienced men as Pichegru, Moreau, Lazar Hoche, Lefebvre, and Jourdan provided young officers with valuable experience.

Phipps' analysis is not singular, although his lengthy volumes address in detail the value of this "school for marshals."  In 1895, Richard Phillipson Dunn-Pattison also singled out the French Revolutionary army as "the finest school the world has yet seen for an apprenticeship in the trade of arms. The resurrection of the Ancien Régime civil dignity of the marchalate allowed Emperor Napoleon I to strengthen his newly-created power. He could reward the most valuable of his generals or soldiers who had held significant commands during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Army of the Rhine and Moselle (and its subsequent incarnations) included five future Marshals of France: Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, its commander-in-chief, Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr, and Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier.  François Joseph Lefebvre, by 1804 an old man, was named an honorary marshal, but not awarded a field position.  Michel Ney, in the 1795–1799 campaigns an intrepid cavalry commander, came into his own command under the tutelage of Moreau and Massena in the south German and Swiss campaigns. Jean de Dieu Soult had served under Moreau and Massena, becoming the latter's right-hand man during the Swiss campaign of 1799–1800. Jean Baptiste Bessieres, like Ney, had been a competent and sometimes inspired regimental commander in 1796.  MacDonald, Oudinot and  Saint-Cyr, participants in the 1796 campaign, all received honors in the third, fourth and fifth promotions (1809, 1811, 1812).

Commanders

Order of Battle in 1796
The Army included 66 battalions and 79 squadrons, totaling 65,103 men, including 56,756 infantry, 6,536 cavalry and 1,811 artillery on 1 June 1796:

Commander in Chief (1796) Jean Victor Marie Moreau
Chief of Staff:  Jean Louis Ebénézer Reynier
Commander of Artillery : Jean-Baptiste Eblé
Commander of Engineers: Dominique-André de Chambarlhac

Notes, citations and references

Notes

Citations

References

 Alison, Archibald. History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Restoration of the Bourbons, Volume 3. Edinburgh, W. Blackwood, 1847.
 The Annual Register: World Events 1796.. London, FC and J Rivington.  1813. Accessed 4 November 2014.
Blanning, Timothy. The French Revolutionary Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
 Beevor, Antony. Berlin: The Downfall 1945. New York, Viking-Penguin Books, 2002.
 Bertaud, Jean Paul and R.R. Palmer (trans). The Army of the French Revolution: From Citizen-Soldiers to Instrument of Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988.
 Bodart, Gaston. Losses of Life in Modern Wars, Austria-Hungary. London, Clarendon Press, 1916.
  Charles, Archduke of Austria (unattributed). Geschichte des Feldzuges von 1796 in Deutschland. France, 1796.
  Charles, Archduke of Austria, Grundsätze der Strategie: Erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs von 1796 in Deutschland, [Vienna], Strauss, 1819.
  Clerget, Charles. Tableaux des armées françaises: pendant les guerres de la Révolution. R. Chapelot, 1905.
 Cuccia, Phillip. Napoleon in Italy: The Sieges of Mantua, 1796–1799, Tulsa, University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
 Dodge, Theodore Ayrault. Warfare in the Age of Napoleon: The Revolutionary Wars Against the First Coalition in Northern Europe and the Italian Campaign, 1789–1797. USA: Leonaur Ltd., 2011 .
 Dunn-Pattison, Richard Phillipson. Napoleon's Marshals, Wakefield,  EP Pub., 1977 (reprint of 1895 edition).
 Durant, Will and Ariel Durant, The Age of Napoleon. New York, Simon and Schuster, 1975.
  Ebert, Jens-Florian  "Feldmarschall-Leutnant Fürst zu Fürstenberg," Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleon Online: Portal zu Epoch. Markus Stein, editor. Mannheim, Germany. 14 February 2010 version. Accessed 28 February 2010.
 Ersch, Johann Samuel. Allgemeine encyclopädie der wissenschaften und künste in alphabetischer folge von genannten schrifts bearbeitet und herausgegeben. Leipzig, J. F. Gleditsch, 1889.
Graham, Thomas, 1st Baron Lynedoch. The History of the Campaign of 1796 in Germany and Italy. London, (np) 1797.
 Knepper, Thomas P. The Rhine. Handbook for Environmental Chemistry Series, Part L. New York: Springer, 2006. .
 La Bédoyère, Charles Angélique François Huchet, Memoirs of the Public and Private Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. nl, G. Virtue, 1828.
 Lievyns, A., Jean Maurice Verdot, Pierre Bégat, Fastes de la Légion-d'honneur: biographie de tous les décorés accompagnée de l'histoire législative et réglementaire de l'ordre, Bureau de l'administration, 1844.
  Lühe, Hans Eggert Willibald von der. Militär-Conversations-Lexikon:Kehl (Uberfall 1796) & (Belagerung des Bruckenkopfes von 1796–1797), Volume 4. C. Brüggemann, 1834.
 Malte-Brun, Conrad. Universal Geography, Or, a Description of All the Parts of the World, on a New Plan: Spain, Portugal, France, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and Holland.. A. Black, 1831.
 McLynn, Frank. Napoleon: A Biography. New York, Arcade Pub., 2002.
 Mechel, Christian von, Tableaux historiques et topographiques ou relation exacte.... Basel, 1798.
 Millar, Stephen. Austrian infantry organization. Napoleon Series.org, April 2005. Accessed 21 Jan 2015.
  "Pichegru." Brockhaus Bilder-Conversations-Lexikon, Band 3. Leipzig, 1839, pp. 495–496.
 Philippart, John. Memoires etc. of General Moreau. London, A. J. Valpy, 1814.
 Phipps, Ramsey Weston, The Armies of the First French Republic: Volume II The Armées du Moselle, du Rhin, de Sambre-et-Meuse, de Rhin-et-Moselle. Pickle Partners Publishing, 2011 reprint (original publication 1923–1933)
 Relation de l'assassinat de M. Théobald Dillon, Maréchal-de-Camp, Commis à Lille, le 29 avril 1792. Imprimerie de Mignaret (4 May 1792).
 Rickard, J., Battle of Emmendingen; Ettlingen; Siege of Huningue, 26 October 1796 – 19 February 1797; Ettlingen. History of war.org. Accessed 18 November 2014.
 Rogers, Clifford, et al. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010.  .
Rothenberg, Gunther E. (2007). Napoleon’s Great Adversaries: Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army, 1792–1914. Stroud, (Gloucester): Spellmount.
 Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Habsburg Army in the Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815)". Military Affairs, 37:1 (Feb 1973), 1–5.
 Rotteck, Carl von. General History of the World, np: C. F. Stollmeyer, 1842.
 Schama, Simon. Patriots and Liberators. Revolution in the Netherlands 1780–1813. New York, Vintage books, 1998.
 Sellman, R. R. Castles and Fortresses. York (UK), Methuen, 1954.
 Smith, Digby. Napoleonic Wars Data Book, NY: Greenhill Press, 1996.
 Vann, James Allen. The Swabian Kreis: Institutional Growth in the Holy Roman Empire 1648–1715. Vol. LII, Studies Presented to International Commission for the History of Representative and Parliamentary Institutions. Bruxelles, Les Éditions de la Librairie Encyclopédique, 1975.
  Volk, Helmut. "Landschaftsgeschichte und Natürlichkeit der Baumarten in der Rheinaue." Waldschutzgebiete Baden-Württemberg, Band 10, pp. 159–167.
 Walker, Mack. German Home Towns: Community, State, and General Estate, 1648–1871. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1998.
 Wilson, Peter Hamish. German Armies: War and German Politics 1648–1806. London: UCL Press, 1997.

Other useful sources

 Blanning, Timothy. The French Revolution in Germany. New York, Oxford University Press, 1983.
 Dyke, Thomas, Jr. Traveling Memoirs during a Tour through Belgium, Rhenish Prussia, Germany. Volume 1. London: Longman, 1834.
History of the Wars of the French Revolution: Including Sketches of the Civil History of Great Britain and France, from the Revolutionary Movements, 1788, to the Restoration of a General Peace. 1815, Kuhl, France, 1820.
 Jomini, Antoine-Henri (Baron). The Art of War,Wilder Publications, 2008, p. 173. Originally published in English in 1862.
 Sloane, W.M. Life of Napoleon. France, 1896 (reprint, 1910).

Rhin
Military units and formations established in 1795
Field armies of France
French Revolutionary Wars
War of the First Coalition
Military units and formations disestablished in 1797


Rampart Airport  is a state owned, public use airport located one nautical mile (2 km) east of the central business district of Rampart, in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area of the U.S. state of Alaska. Commercial service was subsidized by the Essential Air Service program until October 2016.

As per Federal Aviation Administration records, the airport had 224 passenger boardings (enplanements) in calendar year 2008, 159 enplanements in 2009, and 224 in 2010. It is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011–2015, which categorized it as a general aviation airport.

Facilities and aircraft
Rampart Airport has one runway designated 11/29 with a gravel surface measuring 3,520 by 75 feet (1,073 x 23 m). For the 12-month period ending December 31, 2005, the airport had 350 aircraft operations, an average of 29 per month: 71% air taxi and 29% general aviation.

Airlines and destinations

References

Other sources

 Essential Air Service documents (Docket OST-2008-0201) from the U.S. Department of Transportation:
 90-Day Notice (June 26, 2008): from Warbelow's Air Ventures, Inc. of its intent to terminate essential air service ("EAS") between Fairbanks and Rampart, Alaska (unable to operate this service economically without a subsidy).
 Order 2008-7-7 (July 3, 2008): the Department is prohibiting Warbelow's Air Ventures, Inc., from suspending service at Rampart, Alaska, and requesting proposals by July 31 from carriers interested in providing replacement essential air service.
 Order 2008-9-20 (September 16, 2008): selecting Warbelow's Air Ventures, Inc., to provide subsidized essential air service at Rampart, Alaska, for the two-year period from September 24, 2008, through September 30, 2010, at an annual rate of $86,701.
 Order 2010-7-10 (July 15, 2010): re-selecting Warbelow's Air Ventures, Inc., to provide essential air service (EAS) at Rampart, Alaska, at an annual subsidy rate of $97,679 from October 1, 2010, through September 30, 2012.
 Order 2012-10-14 (October 11, 2012): re-selecting Warbelow's Air Ventures, Inc., to provide Essential Air Service (EAS) at Rampart, Alaska, for $76,416 annually for two nonstop round trips per week to Fairbanks with Piper Navajo equipment through October 31, 2014.

External links
 Topographic map from USGS The National Map
 FAA Alaska airport diagram (GIF)

Airports in the Yukon–Koyukuk Census Area, Alaska
Former Essential Air Service airports


Kathleen Clarice Groom (née Cornwell; 11 March 1872 – 29 April 1954) was a British writer of short-stories and novels from 1907 to 1952, she signed under different pen names: Clarice Klein, Kit Dealtry, C. Groom, Mrs. Sydney Groom, and K. C. Groom (playing with her different names and surnames).

She started a dynasty of popular writers; her eldest son Adrian Bernard Klein, changed his name to Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, and became an artist, who wrote books on photography and cinematography, her daughter Denise Naomi Klein also followed in her footsteps and became the popular romance writer Denise Robins, who was the first president of the Romantic Novelists' Association (1960–1966), and her granddaughter Patricia Robins (aka Claire Lorrimer), who is Denise Robins' daughter, is also a popular romance writer.

Biography

Personal life
Groom was born Kathleen Clarice Louise Cornwell on 11 March 1872 in Melbourne, Australia, the daughter of Jemima Ridpath, and her husband George Cornwell, married in 1850.

On 19 February 1890, at 17, Kathleen Clarice became the second wife of Herman Klein (1856–1934), an English musical author, teacher and critic, who was 16 years older than she was. He had a daughter Sibyl Klein, from a previous marriage, and they had two sons: Adrian Bernard Klein (1892–1969) and Daryl Klein (1894) and a daughter Denise Naomi Klein (1897–1985). During her marriage with Klein, she began an affair with a young man, Herbert Arthur Berkeley Dealtry (1878–1915), who was a Worcestershire Regiment officer. When Herman Klein became aware of it he filed a petition for divorce, which was granted in December 1901. After the divorce Kathleen Clarice married with Dealtry in 1902. The marriage was going through financial difficulties and Dealtry had to declare bankruptcy in 1905, and they left for America with her daughter, Denise Naomi.

Some years later, Kathleen Clarice returned to London, and in 1918, she married for a third time with Sydney H. Groom, while her daughter Denise married for the first time and also started to write.

Kathleen Clarise started a saga of popular writers; her eldest son Adrian Bernard Klein, changed her name to Adrian Cornwell-Clyne, and became an artist, who wrote books on photography and cinematography, her daughter Denise Naomi Klein also followed in her footsteps and became the popular romance writer Denise Robins, who was the first president of the Romantic Novelists' Association (1960–1966), and her granddaughter Patricia Robins (aka Claire Lorrimer), who is Denise Robin's daughter, is also a popular romance writer.

Kathleen Clarise died in the Hove area, Brighton on 29 April 1954, aged 82.

Writing career
Kathleen Clarise started writing very young short stories; later wrote several serial thrillers for a Scottish newspaper. She wrote several short stories in Magazines and novels under different pseudonyms (playing with her different names and surnames). She is known as a prolific writer and screenwriter, but it is difficult to know how many pennames she used and how many books she wrote. She wrote as Kit Dealtry (her second married name) at least four short stories by the All-Story Magazine (1907–1908) and two novels (1908–1909). As C. Groom (her third married name), she wrote at least two novels (1918–1919). She signed at least four novels as Mrs. Sydney Groom (1920–1924). And some of her latest tree novels were signed as K. C. Groom (1947–1952).

Bibliography

As Clarice Klein

Short story collection
The Paving of Hell (Perth, Scotland: Cowan & Co., 1895) and (London: Dean & Co., 1895)

As Kit Dealtry

Short stories in magazines
"The Voice in the Dark" in The All-Story Magazine (1907/May)
"The Cipher Skull" in The All-Story Magazine (1907/Aug)
"Shadowed" in The All-Story Magazine (1908/Feb)
"Pearls and Perfidy" in The All-Story Magazine (1908/Dec)

Novels
Under the Mistletoe Bough (1908)
Ill-Gotten Gain (1909)

As C. Groom

Novels
Love in the Darkness (1918)

As Mrs. Sydney Groom

Novels
Shadows of Desires (1919)
The Mystery of Mr Bernard Brown (1920)
Greatheart (1921)
The Knight Errant (1922)
Sylvia Shale, Detective (1924)

K. C. Groom

Novels
Phantom Fortune (1945)
The Folly of Fear (1947)
The Recoil (1952)

See also
List of people with surname Groom

References and sources

British romantic fiction writers
1872 births
1954 deaths
People from Hove
Australian emigrants to the United Kingdom


Latinobarómetro Corporation is a private non-profit organization, based in Providencia, Chile. It is responsible for carrying out Latinobarómetro, an annual public opinion survey that involves some 20,000 interviews in 18 Latin American countries, representing more than 600 million people. It observes the development of democracies, economies and societies, using indicators of attitude, opinion and behavior.

See also
Afrobarometer
Eurobarometer
World Values Survey

References

External links
 Website
 Latinobarómetro Survey 1996-2000

Public opinion research companies
Non-profit organisations based in Chile
Latin American studies
Statistical data sets
Companies of Chile