Decree 770 was a decree of the communist Romanian government of Nicolae Ceaușescu, signed in 1967. It restricted abortion and contraception, and was intended to create a new and large Romanian population. The term  (from the Romanian language word , meaning "decree"; diminutive ) is used to refer to those Romanians born during the time period immediately following the decree.

Origin of the decree
Before 1968, the Romanian abortion policy was one of the most liberal in Europe. Because the availability of contraceptive methods was poor, abortion became the foremost method of Romanian family planning.

Through a combination of Romania's postwar modernization, high participation of women in the workforce, and a low standard of living, the number of births significantly decreased after the 1950s, reaching its lowest recorded level in 1966. Romanian leaders interpreted the decreasing number of births to be a result of the 1957 decree that legalized abortion.

To counter this sharp decline in the birth rate, the Communist Party decided that the country's population should be increased from 20 million to 30 million inhabitants. In October 1966, Decree 770 was personally sanctioned by Ceaușescu. Abortion and contraception were declared illegal, except for:
 women over 45 (later lowered to 40, then raised again to 45).
 women who had already borne four children (later raised to five).
 women whose life would be threatened by carrying to term, due to medical complications.
 women who were pregnant through rape and/or incest.

Enforcement
To enforce the decree, society was strictly controlled.  Contraceptives were removed from sale and all women were required to be monitored monthly by a gynecologist. Any detected pregnancies were followed until birth. The secret police kept a close eye on hospital procedures.

Sex education was refocused primarily on the benefits of motherhood, including the ostensible satisfaction of being a heroic mother who gives her homeland many children.

The direct consequence of the decree was a huge baby boom. Between 1966 and 1967 the number of births almost doubled, and the estimated total fertility rate (TFR) increased from 1.9 to 3.7. The generation born in 1967 and 1968 was the largest in Romanian history. Thousands of nursery schools were built. As the children got older, their needs were not properly met. There were cases where lectures were shortened to enable three school shifts. In schools, a student–teacher ratio of over 40 children per class became frequent. When, after the revolution, lots of business closed or shrank their workforce, the latest hires were fired preferentially.

The decree was abolished on 26 December 1989, days after the Romanian Revolution.

Circumvention and mortality
In the 1970s, birth rates declined again. Economic pressure on families remained, and people began to seek ways to circumvent the decree. Wealthier women were able to obtain contraceptives illegally or to bribe doctors to give diagnoses which made abortion possible. Especially among the less educated and poorer women there were many unwanted pregnancies. These women could only use primitive methods of abortion, which led to infection, sterility or even their own death. The mortality among pregnant women became the highest in Europe during the reign of Ceaușescu. While the childbed mortality rate kept declining over the years in neighboring countries, in Romania it increased to more than ten times that of its neighbors.

Many children born in this period became malnourished, were severely physically disabled, or ended up in care under grievous conditions, which led to a rise in child mortality.

Romanian orphans

A consequence of Ceaușescu's natalist policy is that large numbers of children ended up living in orphanages, because their parents could not cope with looking after them. The vast majority of children who lived in the state-run orphanages were not actually orphans, like the name implies, but simply children whose parents could not afford to look after them.

Romanian revolution
In their book Freakonomics, authors Steven Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner discuss the Legalized abortion and crime effect: the argument that children who are born after their mothers are refused an abortion are much more likely to commit crimes or refuse to recognize authority when they reach adulthood. They further argue that the Decreței are exactly the same people who spearheaded the Romanian revolution where Ceaușescu's regime was violently overthrown in 1989. In that year, the oldest  would have been 22 years old, in the general age range of most revolutionaries. Levitt and Dubner note that Romania was the only east-European communist country with strict anti-abortion and anti-contraception laws at the time, and also the only country whose ruler was violently overthrown and killed at the end of the Cold War. Most other such countries experienced a tumultuous, but peaceful, transition. There were however other aspects of totalitarian rule that would promote violent reaction instead of peaceful transition, including a lack of associational life and legal gatherings, a more extensive system of informants and special police than any state other than East Germany, and a cult of personality built up around the leader. The actual violence of the revolution can be attributed to divisions among the ruling and military/secret police and the vacuum of power that resulted. Revolutions are often observed to come in waves, and it is believed by some authors that Romania would have experienced violent revolution no matter its demographic situation.

Abortion after 1990

Although in the early 1990s, shortly after abortion was legalized, the abortion rate was very high, it decreased strongly as more couples started using contraception, and the economy also started to improve after the instability of the transition. The chart presented shows data from the National Institute of Statistics for years between 1990 and 2010 and from Eurostat for data between 2011 and 2018.

In film
 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days is a 2007 film directed by Cristian Mungiu (born in 1968 under the decree). It follows two unmarried students who try to abort a pregnancy.

See also
 Natalism
 Abortion in Romania
 Tales from the Golden Age
 Tax on childlessness
 Legalized abortion and crime effect

References

Sources
This article, or a previous version, was translated from the article "Decreet 770" on the Dutch Wikipedia. This Dutch article used the following sources:
 Children of the decree (Das Experiment 770: Gebären auf Befehl), German movie from 2004 by Florin Iepan
 "The 1966 law concerning prohibition of abortion in Romania and its consequences - the fate of one generation", Manuela Lataianu, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw

External links

Abortion law
Demographics of Romania

Romanian words and phrases
Natalism
Legal history of Romania
Abortion in Romania
1967 in Romania
770


Host Master and the Conquest of Humor is a free Flash adventure game, written by Klint Honeychurch and game developer Tim Schafer, with gameplay and art by Honeychurch and music by Bert Chang. The game was published by Double Fine Productions, of which Schafer is president, and was originally playable on their website.

Gameplay
Both the plot and gameplay of Host Master feature substantial amounts of metagaming.  The style is a direct pastiche of the Lucasarts SCUMM adventure games, of which Schafer was one of the principal creators. The game uses Schafer himself as the protagonist, placing him backstage at the Game Developers Choice Awards, which he hosted in 2009. Schafer is unprepared for the event, and must scour his dressing room in an attempt to find jokes for his speech, a search which becomes increasingly implausible and comedic over the course of the game. The player can voluntarily finish the game at will; ending the game with most or all of the jokes found has the Award ceremony go well; ending with few or no jokes found has the award ceremony go so poorly that a riot breaks out which spreads into the downfall of civilization.

Footage of the game was screened before Schafer's actual appearance at the awards. The graphics, interface, puzzles and sense of humour are all directly modelled upon Schafer's own Lucasarts games, which include Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle, and Full Throttle, as well as writing credits on the Monkey Island series. The dialogue in particular is notable, featuring Schafer's trademark wit and clever asides.

Reception
Due to its association with Schafer, as well as the Game Developers Conference, Host Master received substantially more media attention than is usual for an online Flash game.  It was reported on by Boing Boing's gaming subpage Offworld, GameSpot, GameSpy and Jay Is Games, with GameSpot remarking that 'although the graphic adventure genre has fallen into a rather small niche, Schafer and developer Klint Honeychurch clearly remember how to do the format justice'

References

External links

2009 video games
Adventure games
Double Fine games
Flash games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 2009
Video games set in San Francisco


Thirunalloor Karunakaran (8 October 1924 – 5 July 2006) was a poet, scholar, teacher and leftist intellectual of Kerala, India.

Biography

Early life
Thirunalloor (variously spelled in English as Thirunelloor, Thirunellur and Thirunallur) Karunakaran was born in the village of Perinad in Kollam (Quilon) district in Kerala to P. K. Padmanabhan and N. Lakshmy. He started learning Sanskrit in the traditional way before joining primary school and he associated with the working-class political movement early in his life. He published his first book, the Malayalam translation of a poem by Oliver Goldsmith, while in school. He wrote several poems while he was a student, as well as lyrics and articles in various periodicals. He made his mark during the Pink Decade in Malayalam poetry. By the time he began college, his close contacts with Communist leaders like R. Sugathan and M. N. Govindan Nair made him a staunch sympathiser of the Communist Party of India.

Career
After earning his Bachelor of Arts degree in history from S. N. College in Kollam, he worked as a tutor there for a brief period. Soon he joined a University college in Trivandrum for post-graduate studies in Malayalam, where he completed some advanced study of Kerala history under Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, a historian and scholar who was a major influence on Thirunalloor's intellectual life. After completing his Master of Arts in Malayalam, he joined the government service as a college lecturer and taught at Government Arts College and University College. He served as a member of the Kerala Public Service Commission for 6 years. Later, he worked as the editor of Janayugam, a weekly cultural magazine of the Communist Party of India. In 1973, he visited the Soviet Union as a member of the delegation of Indian writers who participated in the Afro-Asian Writers Conference held in Kazakhstan.

Awards conferred on him include the Asan Award (1984), Vayalar Award (1988), Muloor Award (1992), Abudabi Shakthi Award, and the Kerala Sahitya Academy Award for lifetime contributions (2000).

Final years
Though he lived in the city of Trivandrum for more than three decades, Thirunalloor chose to spend the rest of his life in his native village of Perinad on the banks of Ashtamudi lake, which had been a constant source of inspiration for his poetry. He died on 5 July 2006 at his residence in Quilon. He was buried without any customary religious rites or ceremonies, as he had wished. During his final years, he was engaged in writing a long poem titled 'Seetha' (Sita), reinterpreting the Ramayana legend.

A three-day-long cultural festival called 'Thirunalloor Kavyolsavam' is held every year from 1 May (International Workers' Day) on the banks of the Ashtamudi lake in Quilon to perpetuate his memory.

Writings and philosophy
Having studied Marxism and Indian philosophy in depth, Thirunalloor, worked to combine the best aspects of both; this vision is a central theme in all of his poems. In many of his poems, he depicts the physical and spiritual experience of collective human labour as a creative process of self-assertion and the self-emancipation of mankind. Tharisu nilangalilekku (To the barren fields), Parayudappukar(The Granite crushers), Adyathe Theevandi (The First Train), and Kayamkulam Kayal(Kayamkulam Lake) all bear the stamp of this vision.

The Ashtamudi lake and life on its shores was a key source of inspiration for his writings, and his poetry abounds with varied themes, characters, and imagery taken from this environment. He wrote also wrote short lyrics dealing with soft transitory feelings and moods, as well as long narrative poems that contain diverse characters and complex social situations.

Several of his works, like lyrics written for various media and art forms like Kadhaprasangam and stageplays, as well as marching songs, articles, and writings in Sanskrit, are yet to be compiled. This includes the Sanskrit translation of Kumaran Asan's Chandala Bhikshuki and studies in Indian aesthetics.

Thirunalloor was an atheist, who believed that Indian philosophy is essentially materialistic and areligious. He strongly called for a critical evaluation of the Bhagavad Gita and the philosophy of Shankaracharya (Adi Shankara) to expose their darker sides. He said that Shankaracharya was a supporter of the caste system and the Bhagavad Gita was an open sanction of violence.

Publications

Poetry and plays
"Samagamam" (Long poem)
Manjuthullikal (Collection of poems)
"Premam Madhuramanu Dheeravumanu" (Long narrative poem)
Soundaryathinte padayalkal (Collection of poems)
"Rani (Long narrative poem)
"Rathri" (Long narrative poem)
Anthi Mayangumbol (Collection of lyrics)
"Tashkent" (Long narrative poem)
Thirunalloor Karunakarante Kavithakal (Collection of poems)
"Vayalar" (Long narrative poem)
Greeshma sandhyakal (Collection of poems)
Puthumazha (Collection of poems for children)
Meghasandesam (Translation of Meghaduta by Kalidasa )
Omarghayyaminte Gadhakal (Translation of Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam )
Gypsikal (Translation of Gypsies by Alexander Pushkin)
AbhijnanaShakunthalam (Translation of Abhijnanasakuntalam by Kalidasa )

Prose
Malayalabhashaparinamam Sidhanthangalum Vasthuthakalum (A study on the origin and evolution of Malayalam language )
Oru Mahayudhathinte Paryavasanam (The Mahabharata retold through an independent angle)
Praacheena Bharathathile Bhouthikavaadam (Translation of In Defence of Materialism in Ancient India by Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya)
Anusmaranangal (Collection of articles)

See also

Rani (poem)
Marxist aesthetics
Malayali

Further reading
 -Frontline;April 11–24 ,1998
Malayalam Poetry Today; Edited by K.M.Tharakan;Kerala Sahithya Academy,Trichur

Notes

References

External links

-Honouring a poet differently
-Thirunalloor flays Parameswaran's comments
-A pioneer in translating classics
t&type=Archive- Thirunalloor for movement to spread 'real Indian culture'
-Poetic Obituaries
-Thirunalloor laid to rest
-www.kerala.gov.in
-Call to shun superstitions
-Interview:G.Aravindan
-Fete in memory of poet Thirunellur
-Kavyotsavam in Quilon from May 1
-Labour Revolution and Literature;P. Govinda Pillai
-www.devaragam.com
-thatsmalayalam.oneindia.in

Indian male poets
Scholars from Kerala
Indian materialists
Malayalam poets
Indian atheists
Malayali people
Poets from Kerala
Malayalam-language writers
Malayalam-language lyricists
Indian Marxist writers
Indian Sanskrit scholars
Indian Communist poets
Communist Party of India politicians from Kerala
Translators of Kalidasa
Translators of Omar Khayyám
Sree Narayana College, Kollam alumni
Translators of Alexander Pushkin
University College Thiruvananthapuram alumni
Academic staff of the University College Thiruvananthapuram
Writers from Kollam
People from Kollam district
1924 births
2006 deaths
20th-century Indian translators
20th-century Indian poets


The Bonville–Courtenay feud of 1455 engendered a series of raids, sieges, and attacks between two major Devon families, the Courtenays and the Bonvilles, in south west England, in the mid-fifteenth century. One of many such aristocratic feuds of the time, it became entwined with national politics due to the political weight of the protagonists. The Courtenay earls of Devon were the traditional powerbrokers in the region, but by this time a local baronial family, the Bonvilles, had become more powerful and rivalled the Courtenays for royal patronage. Eventually this rivalry spilled over into physical violence, including social disorder, murder, and siege.

The Bonville–Courtenay feud is often given as an example of the degree to which law and order and respect for the king had broken down in the provinces. As a result, modern historians have often considered it a cause of the later Wars of the Roses; and indeed, the course of the feud often closely followed the sectarian politics of the day. The feud is perhaps most well known for culminating in an armed encounter at Clyst (called the fight, or sometimes the battle, of Clyst), near Exeter, which resulted in loss of life.

The events at Clyst resulted in government intervention in the politics of the West Country. This was unusual, as the government did not have a good track-record of settling local disputes among the nobility. However, it is likely that this was done for reasons of higher politics; William Bonville was by 1455 a Yorkist, and Richard, Duke of York, had been made Lord Protector. Although in the short term it resulted in Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon's, incarceration, the Bonville–Courtenay feud did not come to an effective end until the protagonists were all killed in the early years of the civil wars.

Background

The mid-fifteenth century suffered greatly from the private feuds of the nobility, and the Wars of the Roses in general. Devonshire, whilst experiencing none of the pitched battles, was still ravaged by a private feud. This was between Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon, whose family had been earls of that county since 1335 and William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville. Their feud became inextricably tied to the national political scene, but originated in regional Devon society. In 2003, historian Martin Cherry agreed that the south west was to a great degree lawless at this time. However, he suggested that the Bonville–Courtenay feud, whilst being the best-known, is not the sole example of political upheaval in the region, which was common throughout the century.

National context

In 1966, historian R. L. Storey suggested that the civil wars which racked England for much of the fifteenth century had their origins in the breakdown of both the king's ability to govern, and law and order in the localities, and gave the Courtenay–Bonville feud as one such example. The king, Henry VI, had been incapacitated by mental illness in August 1453. This led to the recall to court of the recalcitrant Richard, Duke of York, his closest adult relative and a potential claimant to the throne. York had been banished to his estates after a failed rebellion in 1452. The following year, with the king still incapacitated, York was appointed Lord Protector and First Councillor of the realm, for the duration of the king's illness. He used this position to move against his chief rival, the hitherto dominant Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, who was imprisoned. By Christmas of 1454, King Henry had recovered from his illness, removing the basis for York's authority. Henry and a select council of nobles decided to hold a great council at Leicester. York and his closest allies, his brother-in-law Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury and Salisbury's son Richard, Earl of Warwick, anticipated that charges might be brought against them at this assembly. They gathered an armed retinue and marched to stop the royal party from reaching Leicester, intercepting them at St Albans. Both militarily and politically it was a complete victory for York and the Nevilles. On 22 May 1455, at the First Battle of St Albans they captured the king and retook their places in government, while York's and the Nevilles' rivals, the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland, and Lord Clifford were killed. Among the royalists wounded were the Duke of Buckingham and Somerset's son the Earl of Dorset, the Earl of Devon, and the king's half-brother Jasper Tudor. York was appointed Protector of England, for the second time, by parliament a few months later.

Professor Ralph A. Griffiths places the fault for the feud between the Courtenays and Bonvilles firmly in the lap of King Henry VI, through whose "thoughtless liberality and government carelessness ... personal jealousies in the west country had been exacerbated." However, more recently, Martin Cherry warned against seeing the feud as the same as the later civil wars writ small; they were, he says, "qualitatively" different, resulting in the ultimate disintegration of the earl's affinity, rather than symptomatic of his violence. Michael Hicks has pointed out that although there were many other regional feuds at this time (including the Lisle-Berkeley dispute, also waged in the west country), they did not have the same causes, or were necessarily caused by weak government at all: for instance, whereas the Bonville–Courtenay feud had territorial domination at its root, others, such as the Berkeley–Lisle dispute, were begun over contested inheritances. Cherry has also suggested that the main cause of the Bonville–Courtenay dispute was the desperation of the earl to "gain access to crown patronage for himself and his clients" – something he was gradually failing to do in the face of competition.

Local politics

As noted, the feud between the Bonvilles and Courtenays was rooted in local Devonshire politics. The rivalry between them stemmed from the fact that they were major estate holders in the south west, and further, because both had claims to crown patronage. For example, William Bonville had fought in the Hundred Years' War for both Henry VI and his father, Henry V, whilst Devon through his wife was the king's cousin. Although the earl was both the greatest landowner and the highest ranking nobleman in the county, he had in recent years seen members of the lesser gentry and nobility (such as William Bonville) receive advancement in his stead. Bonville had also furthered his own advancement by successively marrying into the lower nobility (a daughter of the Lord Grey of Ruthin) and then to an aunt of the Earl of Devon himself. The main royal office in the area – and therefore the main source of royal patronage – was the stewardship of the highly profitable Duchy of Cornwall. Both men had held the office alternately over recent years. Tensions between the two have been traced back to 1437, when the stewardship was taken from Courtenay and granted to William Bonville. Courtenay did receive a royal grant of £100 per annum life annuity at this time. But, says Griffiths, this is unlikely to have made up for loss of the main royal office in the county. Certainly, within two years, severe attacks were being launched on Bonville's property, and by 1440, relations between the two were, Griffiths says, "at breaking point." This tension became apparent in open manifestations of military strength; manifestations worrying enough to government to lead to them both being summoned before council. In 1441 the stewardship was returned to the Earl of Devon, although Radford questions whether Bonville actually ever physically surrendered the office, as in November that year an arbitration took place between them to "end all [of their] differences."

There followed a four-year period of peace; but this could simply be accounted for by the fact that Bonville spent that time in service in Gascony, which, it has been suggested, may have been one of the conditions of the arbitration. It was, though, only a temporary peace for the region as by 1449 the earl besieged Bonville (now promoted to the baronage in recognition of his success in France) in his castle of Taunton for a year. Courtenay supported Richard, Duke of York in his 1452 rebellion at Dartford, even joining him in the field against the king. This treason resulted in him forfeiting his royal offices in the south west, including not only the stewardship of the duchy – which was finally granted to Bonville for life – but Lydford Castle, the Forest of Dartmoor, and the Water of Exe. Hence, as his ally the duke was eclipsed in government, Courtenay was eclipsed by Bonville in the south west. Courtenay had – in imitation of his ally – waged a local war against Bonville and Bonville's ally, James Butler, Earl of Wiltshire, between 1451–5. Raising an army of 5–6,000 men, he forced Wiltshire to desert his manor of Lackham, and then returned to the siege of Taunton. The siege was only lifted when the Duke of York arrived unannounced three days later, and took the castle into his own hands, forcing a peace upon the two parties.

Bonville had, then, by April 1455, received much royal favour, including all the offices the earl had lost, as well as the constableship of Exeter Castle. He was – as one historian has called him – "the King's lieutenant in the west." The Earl of Devon had already reacted against this hegemony during the Duke of York's first protectorate (1454–5) and joined the royal council. However, it appears that even the council itself did not trust him to keep the King's peace, as they placed him under a bond of £1,000 to do so. This he had disregarded, and commenced another campaign against Bonville. This time, the Earl of Devon was accompanied by his sons, and, bringing a force of men into Exeter in April 1455, he attempted to ambush Bonville. This resulted in further government-imposed undertakings of good behaviour between the two parties. As the government was now headed by Courtenay's old ally, the Duke of York, it is likely that it was now that the earl decided to reject his alliance with York and give his support to the crown. He fought (and was wounded) at St Albans on 22 May that year, on the side of the king. Bonville, meanwhile, through his wife, was related to the Harrington family of Hornby, Lancashire, who had close links to the Nevilles – his father-in-law was Thomas Harrington, a feoffee and retainer to the Earl of Salisbury. Bonville's new-found Yorkist sympathies seem to have driven the Earl of Devon to even greater violence in the county.

The murder of Nicholas Radford

From October 1455, Devon and his sons were committing acts of social disorder, seemingly intending to disrupt the administrative machinery of the county (of which Bonville, of course, was a part), for instance by preventing the local justices of the peace from holding quarterly sessions by force; they then proceeded to raise a small army at Tiverton under the leadership of Devon's eldest son, Thomas Courtenay. It was this force that was to be guilty of what R. L. Storey has called "the most notorious private crime of the century," due not only to the violence involved but the fact that it was "so obviously premeditated." This force made its way to Upcott on 23 October 1455, the home of Nicholas Radford, a close associate and legal advisor to Bonville, and a respected member of the community who had previously been recorder of the city of Exeter and member of parliament. Storey has suggested that being an experienced lawyer, he was most probably targeted by Devon and his sons for the very reason that he had aided Bonville's escape from Devon's litigation in the past; and in January 1455 he had enfeoffed Bonville (and others) for land valued at £400.

Thomas Courtenay's force attacked Radford's manor that night; they set fire to the wall and gates to draw him out. On their word, including Courtenay's solemn promise to do him no harm if he would speak with them, Radford let them in – although apparently he commented upon their large number. Whilst Radford and Devon's son drank wine, the latter's followers "ransacked" Radford's house, stealing goods up to the value of 1,000 marks, including all his horses and the sheets off his invalid wife's bed. On a pretext of meeting his father the earl, Courtenay persuaded Radford to accompany him when his force withdrew; however, he abandoned Radford on the road a short distance from the house, and six of Courtenay's men killed him. Devon subsequently dispatched a force to the chapel where Radford's body was; they performed, says Storey, a "mock inquest, one of them acting as coroner and others, with assumed names, as jurors. They brought in a verdict of suicide." They then forced Radford's servants to convey his corpse as if he had been a heretic to the graveyard, where it was deposited unceremoniously into an open grave; the stones laid ready to build his memorial were then dropped on the body, crushing it. By making recognition of the body impossible, this prevented an official inquest being held into Radford's death.

Following the murder
The murder of Nicholas Radford, says R. L. Storey, was only "the curtain raiser" for further military activities. Devon proceeded to raise a force and occupy Exeter – "as if they were the city's lawful garrison" – until just before Christmas, seizing the keys of the city; various houses in the city belonging to Bonville and his supporters were ransacked, and members of the Cathedral were arrested and forced to buy their freedom. In one case, a man was bodily removed from the choir whilst celebrating Mass. Both Bonville and Courtenay had 'extensive relations' with the Cathedral, dating back to the 1430s, but the Courtenays had greatly contributed to its expansion in the previous century. Their actions in 1455 were probably inspired by the fact that Radford had entrusted much of his wealth to the safe-keeping of the church, and Devon saw an opportunity to enrich himself; possibly, says Storey, he was forced to take such action to be able to pay his men. Martin Cherry has pointed to the lack of references to any martial expenses on the earl's behalf in the extant accounts, as indicating that his campaign effectively paid for itself.

During the same period, Devon, "in warlike fashion and like an insurrection" also besieged Powderham Castle, which belonged to his distant cousin and Bonville ally, Sir Philip Courtenay; the latter resisted, and Bonville came to his assistance. Prior to doing this, however, he raided the Earl of Devon's house at Colcombe Castle and proceeded to ransack it. Bonville attempted to lift the siege at Powderham on 19 November, but was repulsed by Devon, and lost two men in the fight, which may have involved up to a thousand men. Meanwhile, Devon continued his attempts to persuade the city of Exeter to raise a force on his behalf – which they refused to do – before leaving Exeter on 15 December, as Bonville approached, on his way to Powderham. The two forces met at Clyst, just south west of Exeter.

The fight at Clyst

Devon marched from Exeter to encounter Bonville at Clyst Heath; there are very few extant sources for the event, and only one chronicler provides any details, saying he "departed out of the city with his people into the field of Clyst, and there bickered and fought with the Lord Bonville and put them to flight, and so returned again that night into the city." Many bones were discovered when the site was excavated in 1800, although some, Storey points out, must belong to those killed in the 1549 engagement on the same site. Although difficult to assess the extent to which the engagement can be described as a battle (one chronicler estimated the dead at twelve men) it does appear to have been decisive in Devon's favour. The earl returned to Exeter, where the mayor had "tactfully" laid on a celebration. Hannes Kleineke has described the mayor's decision to illuminate the city walls on the earl's return as "pragmatic", whilst Cherry explains the mayor's behaviour as being due to the fact that the earl, "in his peculiar manner, [had behaved] punctiliously" to the mayor.

The earl subsequently sent a sortie led by Thomas Carrew to attack Bonville's manor at Shute where they faced no resistance and pillaged freely, stealing Bonville's cattle, furnishings, and food. The weeks preceding the battle had been accompanied by what has been called "exchange[s] of formal declarations of war disguised in the chivalric mode of challenges to a duel." Michael Hicks has suggested that, in spite of the earl's clear superiority in numbers, it was Bonville who "goaded the earl into a fair fight," and that "in the spirit of chivalry" the confrontation at Clyst was his fault. Cherry too has suggested that Bonville and Courtenay of Powderham deliberately attempted to recruit members of the earl's historical tenantry, further poisoning relations, and also that, although doubtless the earl has deserved the 'universally bad press' he has received from modern historians, he was still "reluctant to go to war," and that he did so "only after all other methods of achieving his aims ... had failed."

Response from government

However decisive the Earl of Devon's victory had been, it had also drawn the attention of the government. This was still under the control of Bonville's allies, York, Salisbury, and Warwick, but had up until that point the Yorkists had failed to intervene in this local feud. The feud has been described as an example of local activities influencing parliament itself, and Griffiths said it was used as "a pretext for demanding York's appointment as protector." When parliament reassembled on 12 November it was presented with reports that Devon was leading an army of about 4,000 men and including 400 cavalry to London. The king was still incapacitated. Unable to manage the situation; the Duke of York used the immediate necessity for intervention as a mechanism for being formally appointed Protector. He did not immediately hasten to the south west to punish the Earl of Devon, though. The earl was merely dismissed from his role on the commission of the peace in early December. Soon after, the local gentry were ordered to be ready to assist York. The duke did not set out until news was received of the Clyst confrontation. One chronicler states that following his defeat, Bonville "fled, and came to Grenewiche to the kyng, and the kyng sent him agayne to the lord protectour;" although it is also possible that he was committed to the Fleet Prison for a short time. When finally York left for the south west, he summoned the Earl of Devon to Shaftesbury where the earl was arrested and sent to the Tower of London.

Aftermath
The Earl of Devon remained imprisoned for only a few months. It is possible that an attempt was made to bring him to trial in February, but if so, it was probably – in Storey's words – "countermanded." This could have been, he suggests, indicative of York's "waning" position, as the protectorate was soon to come to an end: Cherry has said that the king's resumption of personal power in February 1456 must have come as "a considerable relief" to the earl. He seems to have taken the Yorkists' eclipse as a further opportunity to continue the feud, which provoked governmental admonishment in March, when his son John Courtenay, with 500 armed men, again prevented the Exeter justices of the peace from sitting, and evicted them. Commissions of oyer and terminer were issued in August, being led by Bonville's ally the Earl of Wiltshire. Although Bonville presented a long list of offences committed by Devon to the council (whilst mitigating his own involvement), the crown "was obviously unimpressed" by this, and eventually not only restored Devon to commission of the peace (12 September 1456) but also pardoned him and his sons for any involvement in the murder of Radford, eventually even appointing him to the lucrative office of keeper of the forest and park of Clarendon. The region subsequently remained quiet; Bonville was of advanced age and Devon was possibly unwell, as he died in Abingdon within eighteen months. His will was executed by some of the most important men on the Queen's council.

The region took no active part in the ensuing civil wars until the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471, but both parties to the feud were killed in the civil wars over the next few years. The new Earl of Devon, who had killed Radford, was a thorough supporter of the Lancastrian regime. After the Yorkist victory at the Battle of Northampton in June 1460, he took his troops northwards to Margaret of Anjou in York, where, in April 1461, he was executed by the new king, Edward IV after the Battle of Towton. Bonville's son and grandson had been killed with the Duke of York and the Earl of Salisbury at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460, and Bonville himself, captured after the Second Battle of St Albans was summarily beheaded – probably, so the chroniclers tell us, after a mock trial directly instigated by the Earl of Devon.

References

Bibliography

Cokayne, G.E. & Gibbs, V.,(ed.), The Complete Peerage of Great Britain and Ireland, 16 vols, rev. (London, 1916).
Goodman, A., The Wars of the Roses: Military Activity and English Society, 1452–97 (London, 1981)

Storey, R.L., The End of the House of Lancaster (Guildford, 1966).

External links

 A genealogical survey of the peerage of Britain as well as the royal families of Europe

1455 in England
Exeter Cathedral
Feuds
History of Devon
History of Exeter
House of Lancaster
House of York
People of the Wars of the Roses
Wars of the Roses


Robert Francis Taft  (January 9, 1932 – November 2, 2018) was an American Jesuit priest, first in the Russian Greek Catholic Church and later an archimandrite of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. An expert in Oriental liturgy, he was a professor at the Pontifical Oriental Institute from 1975 to 2011 and its Vice-rector from 1995 to 2001.

Biography
Taft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, into the Taft family notable for their contribution to American politics. Taft entered the novitiate of the Society of Jesus on August 14, 1949. He did his initial spiritual and academic training in philosophy at the former Weston College in Weston, Massachusetts. During his period of regency that followed, he taught for three years at Baghdad Jesuit College. He returned to the United States in 1959 and pursued a graduate degree in Russian at Fordham University. He was ordained a priest of the Russian Greek Catholic Church on June 7, 1963.

Developing an interest in Eastern liturgical traditions and, with his background in Russian, Taft undertook studies at the Pontifical Oriental Institute of Rome in 1970. He completed his doctoral thesis under Jesuit professor Juan Mateos on the Great Entrance of the Divine Liturgy in 1975. The work was published as The Great Entrance and immediately hailed as a classic in the field.

A professor at the Oriental institute of Rome from 1975 to 2011, and a recurring visiting professor at the University of Notre Dame over the course of two decades beginning in 1974, Taft guided innumerable doctoral theses. His expertise gained him recognition from the many Eastern churches, including the Ukrainian and Armenian Catholic Churches in Europe, the Chaldean Catholic Church in the Middle East and the Syro-Malabar and Syro-Malankara Catholic Churches in India. From 1972 to 1976, he was director of the specialized journal Orientalia Christian Periodica and from 1987 to 2004 was editor of the collection Orientalia Christiana Analecta. Consultor of several ecclesiastical dicasteries and the Vatican Congregation for the Oriental Churches, he was founder of the Societas Orientalium Liturgiarum.

In 1998, Taft, who helped to found the Ukrainian Catholic University of Lviv, was elevated to the rank of mitered archimandrite by the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, granting him the use of a miter and crosier.

Taft was an outspoken observer. He called "the height of asininity" the argument that the use of Latin in the Tridentine Mass is an approach to mystery better than the use of the vernacular language in the modern Mass. He was a supporter of the synodal form of church administration, followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches, for the entire Catholic Church.

When the issue of possible full communion with the Assyrian Church of the East was being considered, a problem arose regarding their liturgy's lacking the exact formulation of the words of consecration considered essential by the Catholic Church. Working with Taft's analysis of the situation, the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity issued a decree in 2001 which now allows members of both churches to receive communion from each other's clergy in case of emergency.

Fr. Taft was a great support and a great friend of the Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky Institute of Eastern Christian Studies. Taft was on the International Advisory Board Of LOGOS: A Journal of Eastern Christian Studies from the earliest years.

In 2011 Taft left Rome, and the library desk at the Oriental Institute which he occupied for 46 years. He lived at Campion Center, in Weston, the site of his college studies, now a retreat and conference center, and a retirement facility of the USA Northeast Province of the Jesuits. Taft died on November 2, 2018, after which numerous scholarly and ecclesiastical communities both Catholic and Orthodox made official statements in mourning and organized academic conferences and publications to commemorate his passing.

Honors
Among the many honors he received, Taft was awarded multiple honorary doctorates; twice a senior research fellow at Dumbarton Oaks (1996–1998; 1999–2001); in his second fellowship he was Chair of Dumbarton Oaks. In 2001, Taft was elected Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy, the highest honor the Academy confers on non-British academics in recognition of scholarly distinction. Five other Jesuits have held this distinction; Taft is the only American Jesuit thus far to have been so honored.

In 2013, Taft was honored by his students with a celebration of the 50th year of his ordination, and was presented with a book that enumerated his over-800 publications.

Writings
Taft's numerous publications, particularly on the history of Byzantine Liturgy, can be found in a variety of specialized journals. Among his books noteworthy are the following:
 The Liturgy of the Hours in East and West, 1986 (received the ‘Best book in Theology’ prize of the American Catholic Press Association).
 The Byzantine Rite: A Short History, Collegeville 1999 (translated in several languages).
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (6 vols), Orientalia Christiana Analecta, Rome, 1978–2008.
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom: Vol. II, The Great Entrance: A History of the Transfer of Gifts and Other Preanaphoral Rites, 1975 (2nd revised ed., 1978; new material 4th ed., 2004).
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom: Vol. III, forthcoming.
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom: Vol. IV, The Diptychs, 1991.
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom: Vol. V, The Precommunion Rites, 2000.
 A History of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom Vol. VI: The Communion, Thanksgiving, and Concluding Rites, 2008.

References

External links

1932 births
2018 deaths
Taft family
Clergy from Providence, Rhode Island
Writers from Providence, Rhode Island
20th-century American Jesuits
21st-century American Jesuits
Fordham University alumni
Eastern Catholic priests
Russian Eastern Catholics
Liturgists
American historians of religion
American people of English descent
American people of Scotch-Irish descent
Pontifical Oriental Institute alumni
Academic staff of the Pontifical Oriental Institute
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy


Erich Pasch (sometimes listed as Hans-Erich Pasch, born 8 November 1946) is a West German sprint canoeist who competed in the 1970s. He won silver medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships (K-1 10000 m: 1975, K-4 1000 m: 1971, K-4 10000 m: 1973).

Pasch competed in two Summer Olympics, earning his best finish of fifth in the K-4 1000 m event at Munich in 1972.

References

1946 births
Canoeists at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Canoeists at the 1976 Summer Olympics
German male canoeists
Living people
Olympic canoeists for West Germany
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak


Vincent Trevor Ranson (29 March 1912 – 6 October 1996) was an Australian rules footballer who played for Launceston and Scottsdale in the Northern Tasmanian Football Association (NTFA) and St Kilda in the Victorian Football League (VFL). He was inducted into the Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame in 2005.

Ranson appeared in the opening two rounds of the 1934 VFL season before succumbing to a knee injury. He then returned to his original club, Launceston, where he participated in seven premiership teams. A NTFA representative, Ranson also represented Tasmania at the 1933 Sydney Carnival. He played as a defender and won Launceston's 'Best and Fairest' award in 1937. Ranson captain-coached them to the 1945 premiership, and later joined Scottsdale as their inaugural captain-coach in 1948.

Ranson also served in the Australian Army during World War II.

References

External links

1912 births
1996 deaths
St Kilda Football Club players
Launceston Football Club players
Launceston Football Club coaches
Scottsdale Football Club players
Scottsdale Football Club coaches
Australian rules footballers from Tasmania
Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame inductees
People from Scottsdale, Tasmania


In psychoanalysis, the primal scene () is the theory of the initial unconscious fantasy of a child of a sex act, between the parents, that organises the psychosexual development of that child.

The expression "primal scene" refers to the sight of sexual relations between the parents, as observed, constructed, or fantasized by the child and interpreted by the child as a scene of violence. The theory suggests that the scene is not understood by the child, remaining enigmatic but at the same time provoking sexual excitement.

Freud's views

Evolution
The term appeared for the first time in Freud's published work apropos of the "Wolf Man" case (1918b [1914]), but the notion of a sexual memory experienced too early to have been translated into verbal images, and thus liable to return in the form of conversion symptoms or obsessions, was part of his thinking as early as 1896 [as witnessed in his letter of May 30 of that year to Wilhelm Fliess, where he evokes a "surplus of sexuality" that "impedes translation" (1950a, pp. 229–230)]. Here Freud is already close to the model of the trauma and its "deferred" effect. The following year, in his letter to Fliess of May 2, Freud uses the actual term Urszene for the first time; and gives the approximate age when in his estimation children were liable to "hear things" that they would understand only "subsequently" as six or seven months (SE 1, p. 247). The subject of the child's witnessing parental coitus came up as well, albeit in an older child, with the case of "Katharina," in the Studies on Hysteria (1895d), and Freud evoked it yet again in The Interpretation of Dreams, with the fantasy of the young man who dreamed of watching his parents copulating during his life in the womb (1900a [addition of 1909], pp. 399–400).

Fantasy or reality?
Freud persistently strove to decide whether the primal scene was a fantasy or something actually witnessed; above all, he placed increasing emphasis on the child's own fantasy interpretation of the scene as violence visited upon the mother by the father. He went so far, in "On the Sexual Theories of Children" (1908c, p. 221), as to find a measure of justification for what he called the "sadistic concept of coitus", suggesting that, though the child may exaggerate, the perception of a real repugnance towards sexual intercourse on the part of a mother fearful of another pregnancy may be quite accurate. In the case of "Little Hans," however, the violence was explained in terms of a prohibition: Hans deemed it analogous to "smashing a window-pane or forcing a way into an enclosed space" (1909b, p. 41).

The case history of the Wolf Man gave Freud the opportunity not only to pursue the issue of the reality of the primal scene, but also to propose the idea that it lay at the root of childhood (and later adult) neurosis: the sexual development of the child was "positively splintered up by it" (1918b [1914), pp. 43–44).  In his Introductory Lectures, however, he argued for the universality of the fantasy of the primal scene (like the sexual theories of children): it may be encountered in all neurotics, if not in every human being (Freud, 1915f), and it belongs in the category of "primal" fantasies. It appears, however, not to have the same force for all individuals.  Freud would later assign a central place to the primal scene in his analysis of Marie Bonaparte, although in her case the scene took place between her nanny and a groom (Bonaparte, 1950–53).

Looked upon as an actual event rather than as a pure fantasy reconstructed in a retrospective way (as with Carl Jung's zurückphantasieren), the primal scene had a much more marked traumatic impact, and this led Freud to insist on the "reality" of such scenes, thus returning to the debate over event-driven (or "historical") reality versus psychic reality. Beyond the issue of the scene itself, however, it was the whole subject of fantasy that was thus raised (in chapter five of the Wolf Man case-history [1918b, pp. 48–60]), discussed in terms that would be picked up by Freud again later in Constructions in Analysis (1937d).

It was not merely, in Freud's view, that the technique of psychoanalysis demanded that fantasies be treated as realities so as to give their evocation all the force they needed, but also that many "real" scenes were not accessible by way of recollection, but solely by way of dreams. Whether a scene was constructed out of elements observed elsewhere and in a different context (for example, animal coitus transposed to the parents); reconstituted on the basis of clues (such as bloodstained sheets); or indeed observed directly, but at an age when the child still had not the corresponding verbal images at its disposal; did not fundamentally alter the basic facts of the matter: "I intend on this occasion," wrote Freud, "to close the discussion of the reality of the primal scene with a non liquet" (1918b, p. 60).

Kleinian interpretations

Melanie Klein's view of the primal scene differed from Freud's, for where Freud saw an enigmatic perception of violence, she saw the child's projective fantasies. Klein considered that a child's curiosity was first provoked by the primal scene, and that typically the child felt both excited and excluded by the primal scene. The sexual relationship between the parents, fantasized as continuous, is also the basis of the "combined-parent figure", mother and father seen as locked in mutual (but excluding) gratification.

Where Klein laid emphasis on the way the infant projected hostile and destructive tendencies onto the primal scene, with the mother pictured therein as just as dangerous for the father as the father is for her, later Kleinians like John Steiner have stressed the creative aspect of the primal scene; and the necessity in analysis of overcoming a splitting of its image between a loving couple on the one hand, and a combined parent figure locked in hate.

General characteristics

The primal scene is inseparable from the sexual theories of childhood that it serves to create. This disturbing representation, which at once acknowledges and denies the familiar quality of the parents, excludes the child even as it concerns them, as witness the libidinal excitement the child feels in response. Otto Fenichel has stressed the traumatic nature of the excess excitement felt by the child, which they are unable to process — what he called the "overwhelming unknown".

The particularity of the primal scene lies in the fact that the subject experiences in a simultaneous and contradictory way the emergence of the unknown within a familiar world, to which they are bound by vital needs, by expectations of pleasure, and by the self-image that it reflects back to them. The lack of common measure between the child's emotional and psychosexual experience and the words that could give an account of the primal scene creates a gulf that the sexual theories of childhood attempt to bridge. A sadistic reading of the scene combines the child's curiosity about both the origin and the end of life in a representation in which death and life are indeed fused.

Ph.D. dissertations on primal scene began to appear since 1970s. M.F. Hoyt's Ph.D. dissertation entitled 'The primal scene: A study of fantasy and perception regarding parental sexuality' was submitted to the Yale University. Based on the approximately 400 college student samples, Hoyt inferred that approximately 20% of respondents reported actually witnessing (by sight and/or sound) their parents engaging in sexual relations. The conclusion of this study indicated that primal scene experience per se is not necessarily deleterious; the traumatic or pathogenic effects usually occur only within the context of general brutality or disturbed family relations. A segment of Paul Okami's doctoral dissertation to the University of California Los Angeles in 1990s, was published in the Journal of Sex Research in 1995.

Other claims to phrase "primal scene"

Intertextual readings
Ned Lukacher has proposed using the term in literary criticism to refer to a kind of intertextuality in which the ability to interpret one text depends on the meaning of another text. It is "the interpretive impasse that arises when a reader has good reason to believe that the meaning of one text is historically dependent on the meaning of another text or on a previously unnoticed set of criteria, even though there is no conclusive evidential or archival means of establishing the case beyond a reasonable doubt."

Cultural examples
Maynard Solomon interprets four recorded dreams of Beethoven as all being centered on the primal scene, with the composer either as participant or as impotent by-stander.

See also

References

Further reading
 Bonaparte, Marie. (1950–53). Five copy-books. Translated by Nancy Procter-Gregg. London: Imago.
 Freud, Sigmund. (1900a). The interpretation of dreams. Part I, SE, 4: 1-338; Part II, SE, 5: 339-625.

——. (1908c). On the sexual theories of children. SE, 9: 205-226.

——. (1909b). Analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy. SE, 10: 1-149.

——. (1915f). A case of paranoia running counter to the psycho-analytic theory of the disease. SE, 14: 261-272.

——. (1918b [1914]). From the history of an infantile neurosis. SE, 17: 1-122.

——. (1937d). Constructions in analysis. SE, 23: 255-269.

——. (1950a [1887-1902]). Extracts from the Fliess papers. SE, 1: 173-280.

 Freud, Sigmund, and Breuer, Josef. (1895d). Studies on hysteria. SE, 2: 48-106.
 Hoyt, M.F. (1978). Primal scene experiences as recalled and reported by college students. Psychiatry, 41, 57-71.
 Hoyt, M.F. (1979). Primal scene experiences: Quantitative assessment of an interview study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 8, 225-245.
 Klein, Melanie. (1961). Narrative of a child analysis. The conduct of the psychoanalysis of children as seen in the treatment of a ten-year-old boy. New York: Basic Books.
 Laplanche, Jean. (1989). New foundations for psychoanalysis (David Macey, Trans.). Oxford: Blackwell.
 Mijolla-Mellor, Sophie de. (1999). Les Mythes magicosexuelles sur l'origine et sur la fin. Topique, 68.
Paul Okami (1995). Childhood exposure to parental nudity, parent-child co-sleeping, and 'primal scenes': a review of clinical opinion and empirical evidence. Journal of Sex Research, 32(1), 51-64.
Paul Okami, Richard Olmstead, Paul R. Abramson and Laura Pendleton, "Early childhood exposure to parental nudity and scenes of parental sexuality ('primal scenes'): an 18-year longitudinal study of outcome," Archives of Sexual Behavior 27.4 (1998) 361–84, preview available.

 Arlow, Jacob A. (1980). The revenge motive in the primal scene. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 28, 519-542.
 Aron, Lewis. (1995). The internalized primal scene. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 5, 195-238.
 Greenacre, Phyllis. (1973). The primal scene and the sense of reality. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 42, 10-41.

Human sexuality
Psychoanalytic terminology
Freudian psychology


Robert Balfour of Balbirnie (1698–1766), from Fife, Scotland, was Member of Parliament for Midlothian (also known as Edinburghshire) from 1751 to 1754.

After his marriage to Ann Ramsay in 1736, he was styled Robert Balfour-Ramsay.  Robert was a son of George Balfour of Balbirnie and Agnes Lumsdaine.

His wife Ann was the daughter of Sir Andrew Ramsay, 4th Baronet, of Whitehill. Their surviving children were:
John Balfour, 5th of Balbirnie (1739–1813); married Mary Gordon
George Balfour, later Ramsay (1740–1806), of Whitehill
Andrew Balfour, later Ramsay (1741–1814), of Whitehill
Robert Balfour (1742–1807) of Balcurvie
General James Balfour (1743–1823), of Whitehill
Elizabeth Balfour; married Captain William Wardlaw
William Balfour (1755–1793) of the Honourable East India Company
Ann Balfour (ca. 1757–1826)

References

1698 births
1766 deaths
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for Scottish constituencies
British MPs 1747–1754
People from Glenrothes
Robert, 4th of Balbirnie


Kazimierz Nikin is a Polish sprint canoeist who competed in the mid-1970s. He won a bronze medal in the K-1 10000 m event at the 1975 ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships in Belgrade.

References

Living people
Polish male canoeists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak


Pater Noster is a Swedish lighthouse and the name of a small archipelago in Bohuslän on the Swedish west coast.

History
There were plans to build a lighthouse on the island in the 1750s, but a light was instead placed on the fortification of Carlsten in Marstrand. That light was replaced by Pater Noster in 1868. The lighthouse is of engineer Nils Gustaf von Heidenstam's typical iron design.

Pater Noster originally had a large first order Fresnel lens in its lantern and the flame originally ran on colza oil. A paraffin lamp was installed in 1887. The lighthouse was automated in 1964 and the large lens replaced by a small 4th order lens. In 1977 Pater Noster lighthouse was deactivated in favor of the modern lighthouse Hätteberget placed in open water. Pater Noster started to fall out of repair as the salt water made the iron construction rusty and weak.

Restoration
In 2002, a large restoration project began. The lighthouse was transported to the town of Uddevalla, and later to Gothenburg. The tower was very rusty and overall in bad condition; consequently, restoration took much longer than originally planned, mostly because of insufficient funding. But many local companies and persons volunteered to complete the work. In the summer of 2007, the lighthouse was shipped back to Hamneskär. In the autumn it was reactivated.

In 2015, the lens room was renovated and equipped with a high standard kitchen by the furniture design company Marbodal, as a part of their PR-campaign.

In 2020 during the pandemic, a lottery called "The Isolated Cinema" was announced by the Gothenburg Film Festival, with the prize of visiting the lighthouse for looking at movie premieres for one person alone in the lens room the whole festival week. The lottery got worldwide attention, with over 12,000 attenders from more than 45 countries. The winner was an emergency nurse from Sweden.

Also in 2020, the accommodation of the previous lighthouse keepers was renovated and since then, a hotel and conference centre named "Ett Hem vid Horisonten" (transl. 'A Home on the Horizon') is kept in the building. The business has become internationally famous and in 2022, the hotel won the eminent Global New Concept Award by AHEAD Awards that year.

Gallery

See also
 List of lighthouses and lightvessels in Sweden

References

External links

 Sjofartsverket
 The Swedish Lighthouse Society
 Leuchtturm Pater Noster
 Pater Noster hotel
 Pater Nosters Vänner

Lighthouses completed in 1868
Lighthouses in Sweden
Buildings and structures in Västra Götaland County


Jilin Provincial Experimental School () is a coeducational public middle school for both boarding and day students from grades 7 to 12 (ages 12 to 18).  Founded in 1948, the school was originally located in Jilin City of Jilin, Northeast China. In 1955, along with the Provincial Government, the School moved to the new capital city Changchun. It is a key high school in Jilin Province and is listed the Top 100 Chinese High Schools

History

Academics

Notable alumni
Yi Sha, Chinese mainland actor ().

References

Official Website of Jilin Provincial Experimental School

High schools in Jilin


John Hoyland (1783 – 18 January 1827) was an English organist and composer. He was the son of a cutler in Sheffield and studied with William Mather, organist of St. James Church, Sheffield. In 1808 he replaced his master as organist there. In 1819 he moved to Louth in Lincolnshire, initially as a teacher but soon as organist there. His son William Hoyland was organist of the same church from 1829 until his death in 1857.

References

1783 births
1827 deaths
English organists
British male organists
English composers
19th-century English musicians
19th-century British male musicians
19th-century organists


Florida () is a Barcelona Metro station, in the L'Hospitalet de Llobregat municipality of the Barcelona metropolitan area, and named after the nearby La Florida neighbourhood. The station is served by line L1.

The station is located below the Avinguda Catalunya, between the Carrer Ceravalls and Carrer Mimoses. It has two entrances, from the Placa Blocs Florida and the Avinguda Masnou, which serve an underground ticket hall. The two  long side platforms are at a lower level.

The station opened in 1987, when line L1 was extended from Torrassa station to Avinguda Carrilet station.

See also
List of Barcelona Metro stations
Transport in L'Hospitalet de Llobregat

References

External links

Barcelona Metro line 1 stations
Railway stations in Spain opened in 1987
Railway stations in L'Hospitalet de Llobregat
Railway stations located underground in Spain


István Fábián is a Hungarian sprint canoeist who competed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. He won two medals in the K-1 10000 m event at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with a silver in 1977 and a bronze in 1981.

References

Hungarian male canoeists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak
20th-century Hungarian people


Women's ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1998. Eight goaltenders and fifty-three skaters have played for Canada.

Men's ice hockey had been introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics, and added to the Winter Olympic Games in 1924. In July 1992, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to approve women's hockey as an Olympic event first to be held at the 1998 Winter Olympics. Until 1998, Canada's national team had domonated women's hockey. Canadian teams had won every World Championship; however, by 1997, the American team had improved and was evenly matched with Canada. In thirteen games played between the two teams in 1997, Canada won seven and the United States won six. Canada and the United States dominated the preliminary round of the 1998 tournament, and in their head-to-head match up, the United States won 7–4. The two teams met in the gold medal final, which the United States won 3–1. The Canadian and American teams continued their rivalry, and in a rematch between the two at the 2002 Winter Olympics, Canada won 3–2. In 2006, the Canadian team started the tournament by outscoring opponents 36–1 over three games. American defenceman Angela Ruggiero accused the team of running up the score and warned that the event's Olympic status could be called into question due to a perceived lack of competitive teams. In the final, Canada beat Sweden to claim their second consecutive gold medal. In 2010, the Canadian and American teams outscored opponents in the preliminary round by 41-2 and 31-1 margins, respectively. This brought on more criticism about uneven competition. René Fasel said the IIHF would consider adding a mercy rule to future tournaments. In the gold medal game, Canada defeated the American team 2-0 to win their third consecutive gold. In 2014, the talent disparity had gotten smaller, with Canada and the United States only outscoring their opponents 11-2 and 14-4 in the preliminary round, respectfully. Nevertheless, Canada and the United States once again faced off in the gold medal game. Canada, on the shoulders of two goals from Marie-Philip Poulin came back from a 3-2 deficit late in the 3rd period to claim the gold medal for the fourth consecutive time. In 2018, the United States had their own come-from-behind victory, winning their first gold medal in 20 years. The deciding goal came in a shootout on a beautiful move by American forward Jocelyne Lamoureux.

Canada has won four gold medals and two silver medals in women's hockey.  The Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame has inducted the 2002 and 2006 gold medal winning teams. Cassie Campbell was the first female hockey player inducted into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame or any national hall of fame in 2007. Hayley Wickenheiser will be inducted into the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) Hall of Fame in May 2019. Two women have participated in five tournaments and won five medals (four gold and one silver)—Jayna Hefford, and Hayley Wickenheiser. Wickenheiser is the all-time leading scorer in the women's tournament at the Olympics, with 18 goals, 33 assists and 51 points.

Key

Goaltenders

Skaters

See also

List of Olympic men's ice hockey players for Canada
List of Olympic women's ice hockey players for Finland
List of Olympic women's ice hockey players for the United States

Notes

References

External links
 Hockey Canada - Official website
 2010 Olympic Team - Hockey Canada
 Olympic Review and Revue Olympique - LA84 Foundation

Canada
Canada

Canada women's national ice hockey team
Oly

ice hockey
Ice hockey
Lists of Canadian sportswomen
Canada


Lectionary 42, designated by siglum ℓ 42 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering). It is a Greek manuscript of the New Testament, on parchment leaves. Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 10th-century.

Description

The codex contains lessons from the Gospels of John, Matthew, Luke lectionary (Evangelistarium), with lacunae at the beginning, on 224 parchment leaves (). The text is written in one column per page, in 20 lines per page, in Greek uncial letters.
Two hands appear. The earlier leaning a little to the right.

History

Formerly the manuscript belonged to Hurtado de Mendoza. It was examined by Moldenhawer, the chief librarian at the Royal Danish Library in Copenhagen 1788-1823, Emmanuel Miller, and Wilhelm Regel, Professor in Petersburg.

Currently the codex is located in the Escorial (X. III. 13) in San Lorenzo de El Escorial.

The manuscript is not cited in the critical editions of the Greek New Testament (UBS3).

One leaf of the codex with Luke 8:20-1.26-34 is housed in the Royal Danish Library in Copenhagen.

See also

 List of New Testament lectionaries
 Biblical manuscript
 Textual criticism

Notes and references

Greek New Testament lectionaries
10th-century biblical manuscripts


Skagsudde, is a Swedish lighthouse. It was built to replace to old light station Skag located on the island Gråklubben nearby.

History
Skag lighthouse was designed by engineer Nils Gustaf von Heidenstam and lit in 1877 and is now relocated complete with a Fresnel lens as a tourist attraction outside the town of Piteå.

The modern tower is of typical 1950's functionalistic design and its top holds many antennas and communications gear. Skagsudde is frequently reported as a weather station in shipping news by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. It is owned and remote-controlled by the Swedish Maritime Administration. It is the main lighthouse to reach the ports of Örnsköldsvik and Husum.

Climate
Skagsudde has a humid continental climate due to recent mildening of the climate. It retains strong maritime influence, resulting in cool summers and  milder winters than in surrounding interior low-lying areas. As typical of east coast maritime stations in Sweden, precipitation is generally low even though the climate is humid.

See also

 List of lighthouses and lightvessels in Sweden

References

External links

 Sjofartsverket
 The Swedish Lighthouse Society

Lighthouses completed in 1957
Lighthouses in Sweden


Nikolay Stepanenko (born 1956, Gomel Oblast, Belarus) is a Soviet sprint canoeist who competed in the late 1970s. He won three medals in the K-1 10000 m event at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with a silver (1978) and two bronzes (1977, 1979).

References

Living people
Soviet male canoeists
Belarusian male canoeists
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak
1956 births


The Zenne Group () is a group of rock strata in the subsurface of central and northwest Belgium. The group consists of three formations, all from the Ypresian and Lutetian ages (early Eocene, 50 to 40 million years old). These formation have their shallow marine facies in common.

The three formations are:
the Aalter Formation, greenish sands and clays, found in East Flanders and West Flanders.
the Brussel Formation, marls and sands, found in Flemish and Walloon Brabant, Hainaut and Namur.
the Lede Formation, calcareous sands, found in almost all central Belgium.

Stratigraphically on top of the Zenne Group are the late Eocene sands and clays of the Maldegem Formation, which is not divided into a group. The Zenne Group is almost everywhere found on top of the early Eocene Ieper Group.

References
 (eds.); 2001: Paleogene and Neogene lithostratigraphic units (Belgium), Geologica Belgica 4(1-2), p. 135-152

Geologic groups of Europe
Geologic formations of Belgium
Lithostratigraphy of Belgium
Eocene Series of Europe