Al Barkow (born 1932) is an American journalist, author, editor, lecturer, historian and golfer.

College
Barkow was born in Chicago, Illinois. He attended Western Illinois University for three years, later graduating from Roosevelt University, Chicago, where he received a B.A. degree in 1960. He was a member of the NAIA national championship college golf team (Western Illinois Univ., 1959); and qualified and competed in the U.S. Amateur (1971).

Journalism
The main focus of Barkow's journalistic work has been as a golf writer, although Barkow has written on subjects beside golf - tennis, boxing, baseball - and on food. He has published hundreds of articles over a 46-year career in numerous leading publications. He has contributed hundreds of articles on golf, in magazines, newspapers, and more recently as an internet writer.

Publications
Barkow has made significant journalistic contributions to the following publications:
The New York Times, Sports Illustrated, The Wall Street Journal, Golf Magazine, Golf Digest, Golf World, Sport, Senior Golfer, Golf Monthly (UK), USGA Golf Journal, Travel & Leisure, The Boston Globe Sunday Magazine, Signature, Diversion, Golf Journal, Links Magazine, The Majors Series, Golfiana, Golf Tips Magazine, The GolfWeb, IDV/Sports.

Editor
Barkow was editor-in-chief of Golf Magazine (1970–72) and Golf Illustrated (1985–90; 1994–1996). He is currently Contributing Writer Golf World. He produced his own golf newsletter, Al Barkow's Golf Report (1991–92), and was the editor of The Journal of the Shivas Irons Society (2005–07).

Author
Barkow's books include histories - Golf's Golden Grind: the History of the Tour (1974- Reprinted, 2000); Gettin' to the Dance Floor: an Oral History of American Golf (1986-Reprinted, 2000) The History of the PGA Tour (1989); The Golden Age of Golf: How America Came to Dominate the Old Scotsgame (2000); and Gene Sarazen and Shell's Wonderful World of Golf (2004). Gettin' to the Dance Floor was the winner of the inaugural USGA International Golf Book of the Year Award (1986). A collection of his articles entitled That's Golf: The Best of Barkow was published in 2002 by Burford Books. His biography of Sam Snead, entitled Sam, The One and Only Sam Snead, was first published in 2005, and in paperback in 2010. His current books include: "Golf's Firsts, Most, Leasts...and a Few Nevers" (2011), and "The Upset: Jack Fleck's Incredible Defeat of Ben Hogan for the U.S. Open." (2011)

Golf instructional books
Barkow has also written a number of golf instructional books in collaboration with golf professionals. They include: The Good Sense of Golf (with Billy Casper, 1980); The Venturi Analysis (with Ken Venturi, 1982); The Venturi System (with Ken Venturi, 1983); The Master of Putting (with George Low, 1983- Reprinted, 1997); Play Lower Handicap Golf (with Phil Rodgers, 1986); Getting Set for Golf (with Carl Lohren, 1995); Dave Stockton’s Putting Secrets: The Final Word on Putting (with Dave Stockton), 2009.

Television and radio
Barkow got his start in golf journalism in 1963, when he landed the job of golf writer on the Emmy Award-winning television program, Shell's Wonderful World of Golf television show. His first assignment was working on the famous "Hogan vs Snead" match at the Houston Country Club.
Barkow became the chief writer and associate producer for the Shell's Wonderful World of Golf series from 1963-69. Barkow eventually became a co-producer of the show.

Barkow worked as an on-camera commentator for "Inside the PGA Tour", and "The Senior PGA Tour" Shows (1986–1999). Barkow also worked as a "play-by-play" radio broadcaster and anchor of PGA, Senior PGA and LPGA Tour events for "Sportsband", and "One-on-One Sports" (1986–92);  And, he contributed commentary on Sports Illustrated'''s Golf Plus radio broadcasts (1998).

Awards
Barkow, a member of the Golf Writers Association of America (GWAA) since 1969, has won writing awards given by the GWAA, second and third Place, GWAA magazine division (1983–95); he was also awarded the 2003 Journalism Honoree at the Memorial Tournament; 2004 ING Non-Fiction book for Sarazen/Shell’s Wonderful World of Golf; 2005 PGA of America Lifetime Achievement-Journalism; 2007 Linc Werden/Metropolitan Golf Writers Assohociation (NY) Golf Journalism Award; and the USGA's International Golf Book of the Year award in 1986 for Gettin’ to the Dance Floor, an Oral History of American Golf''.

External links
 Al Barkow
 Al Barkow Chat Online
 Books by Barkow
 on Golf Observer
 "The one and only Sam Snead"
 Golf Podium
 Golf Digest
 Golf World
 Golf Vacations
 Instruction
 Shivas Irons
 Borders
 Black History

Golf writers and broadcasters
American male golfers
Golfers from Chicago
Western Illinois Leathernecks
Roosevelt University alumni
1932 births
Living people


Art in Embassies, an office within the U.S. Department of State, promotes cultural diplomacy through exhibitions, permanent collections, site-specific commissions and two-way artist exchanges in more than 200 U.S. Embassies and Consulates around the world. Through art, international audiences gain a sense of the quality, scope, and diversity of American and host country art and culture. Initiated by President Kennedy in 1963, the program is funded by the U.S. Department of State.

Exhibition planning
The amount of money allotted for art in each building is calculated with a formula based on the gross square footage. AIEP's curatorial team develops thematic exhibitions in collaboration with each ambassador, taking into account the host country's artistic traditions and cultural mores. They recommend artists and works of art, negotiate all loans, and propose placement of the art within the embassy residences. After all loans are secured and the art insured, AIE's registrars coordinate with professional art handlers for the assembly, packing, crating and safe shipment of each exhibition to post. Since 1963, approximately 10,000 pieces of art have been placed in ambassador residences, embassies, and consulates throughout the world, including work by Maya Lin, Jeff Koons, Ellsworth Kelly, Martin Puryear, Louise Bourgeois, Joel Shapiro, Benjamin Abramowitz and other prestigious artists. The total value of art on loan to the embassy program is estimated at $200 million.

Artist exchanges / Residency programs
Initiated in 2002, the American Artists Abroad program was created to extend Art In Embassies' exhibitions beyond the walls of U.S. diplomatic residences into local communities. Participating American artists travel to countries where their work is exhibited and engage in a series of public cultural programming activities, such as lectures, workshops, and studio visits.

References

External links

1963 establishments in the United States
American art
United States Department of State
Visual arts exhibitions
United States diplomatic programs


Matt Matheny (born February 11, 1970) is an American college basketball coach who most recently served as the men's head coach at Elon University. He replaced Ernie Nestor in March 2009.

Matheny led the Phoenix to a 21-12 record in 2012-13, the most victories in a single season by the program at the Division I level and most since the 1973-74 season. Matheny helped Elon win the Southern Conference North Division title in 2013, the program's first division crown since 2006. Matheny also helped Elon to its first postseason appearance at the Division I level, as the team earned an invitation to the CollegeInsider.com Postseason Tournament (CIT) in 2013. He was a finalist for the Hugh Durham Award, which is presented annually to the nation's top mid-major coach by CollegeInsider.com. Matheny was named the 2012-13 Southern Conference Coach of the Year.

Prior to accepting the job at Elon, Matheny spent 16 seasons, beginning in 1993, as an assistant coach at Davidson College, his alma mater. In 1992, Matheny graduated from Davidson College. He attended North Iredell High School and lived in Statesville, North Carolina.

Head coaching record

References

1970 births
Living people
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
Basketball coaches from North Carolina
Basketball players from North Carolina
College men's basketball head coaches in the United States
Davidson Wildcats men's basketball coaches
Davidson Wildcats men's basketball players
Elon Phoenix men's basketball coaches
People from Shelby, North Carolina


The UFC Hall of Fame is a hall of fame which honors mixed martial artists and MMA personalities, established and maintained by the U.S.-based mixed martial arts promotion Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). In addition to the Ultimate Fighting Championship, the UFC Hall of Fame recognizes accomplishments from Pride Fighting Championships, World Extreme Cagefighting and Strikeforce; all of which are former mixed martial arts promotions that have been bought-out by the UFC and its parent corporations.

History
It was officially established on November 21, 2003 at UFC 45 with its home being Las Vegas, and the first inductees being inaugural UFC competitors Royce Gracie and Ken Shamrock.

In 2015, the UFC announced a significant reboot of its Hall of Fame. The Hall was split into four categories, or wings, and a new class of legends would henceforth be inducted every July at a gala event during the UFC's annual International Fight Week in Las Vegas.

The wings are:
 Modern Wing – celebrating champions who made their pro-debuts in the age of the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, which went into effect at UFC 28, November 28, 2000.
 Pioneers Wing – commemorating the original innovators of MMA, who competed in professional bouts before the adoption of the Unified Rules.
 Fight Wing – recognizing the greatest, most memorable, and historically important bouts.
 Contributors Wing – recognizing outstanding contributions outside of active competition.
 Forrest Griffin Community Award – recognizing a UFC athlete for their volunteer and charity work and the impact their efforts have on the community.

The new Hall of Fame was a passion project of former UFC executive Anthony Evans, who pitched UFC President Dana White on the four-wing structure several times before finally getting White's permission in 2015.

The UFC Hall of Fame is located in the UFC Performance Institute on the walls of the first and second floor staircase.

Inductees

Pioneers wing

Modern wing

Contributors wing

Fight wing

Forrest Griffin Community Award

References

External links
 Hall of Fame FAQs
 UFC Hall of Fame

Awards established in 2003
Halls of fame in Nevada
Sports halls of fame
Ultimate Fighting Championship


Pete Rodriguez (born April 16, 1932) is an American pianist and bandleader born in The Bronx, New York, to Puerto Rican parents.

Biography
Rodriguez's band, Pete Rodríguez y Su Conjunto, specializes in Latin boogaloo. Their most successful song, "I Like It Like That" (1967), made it to the national Billboard charts and has since been covered several times, including by the Blackout All-Stars for the soundtrack of the 1994 movie I Like It Like That. It received renewed exposure as the soundtrack to the main ident at Odeon Cinemas from 1998–2003. It featured in the soundtrack of the video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories on the fictitious Latin music radio station "Radio Espantoso". It, along with "Oh, That's Nice!" (1967), was then sampled in the 2018 song "I Like It" recorded by Cardi B, Bad Bunny, and J Balvin. "I Like It Like That" was also used in film Chef (2014).
"Oye Mira" was sampled in the 2021 song "Vielen Dank" recorded by the German hip-hop band 187 Strassenbande. It hit the #5 spot on Germany's Offizielle Deutsche Chart on May 28, 2021.

Discography
At Last! (1964)
The King of The Boogaloo (1965)
Ese Pete Si Está En Algo…! (1966)
I Like It Like That (A Mi Me Gusta Así) (1966)
Latin Boogaloo (1966)
Christmas Boogaloo (Boogaloo Navideño) (1967)
Oh, That's Nice! (Ay, Qué Bueno!) (1967)
Hot & Wild (Yo Vengo Soltando Chispas) (1968)
Latin Soul Man (1969)
Now! (1970)
De Panamá a Nueva York (1970)
Right On! (¡Ahí Na' Ma'!) (1971)
El Rey del Boogaloo! (2003)

References

American bandleaders
Musicians from the Bronx
1932 births
Living people
Hispanic and Latino American musicians
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
21st-century American pianists
American musicians of Puerto Rican descent
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians


Oscar Peterson Plays Count Basie is a 1956 album by Oscar Peterson, of music associated with Count Basie.

Track listing
 "Lester Leaps In" (Lester Young) – 3:58
 "Easy Does It" (Sy Oliver, Young) – 6:28
 "9:20 Special" (William Engvick, Earle Warren) – 3:40
 "Jumpin' at the Woodside" (Count Basie) – 5:42
 "Blues for Basie" (Oscar Peterson) – 3:34
 "Broadway" (Billy Bird, Teddy McRae, Henri Woode) – 4:31
 "Blue and Sentimental" (Basie, Mack David, Jerry Livingston) – 2:29
 "Topsy" (Edgar Battle, Eddie Durham) – 4:22
 "One O'Clock Jump" (Basie) – 5:49
 "Jive at Five" (Basie, Harry "Sweets" Edison) – 4:11

Personnel

Performance
 Oscar Peterson – piano
 Ray Brown – double bass
 Herb Ellis - guitar
 Buddy Rich - drums

References

1956 albums
Oscar Peterson albums
Albums produced by Norman Granz
Clef Records albums
Count Basie tribute albums


Sean Casey (born February 1, 1972) is an American professional wrestler who wrestles on the Southeast independent circuit. He has made appearances in World Championship Wrestling, the World Wrestling Federation, and in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. He also appeared in the magazine Playgirl in 1997.

Professional wrestling career
Casey began his career in 1995, making appearances in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) under the names Steve Casey and K.C. Sunshine. He did not become well known till he posed for Playgirl in 1997. In 1998 he wrestled a few matches for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) on WWF Shotgun Saturday Night against Too Much. Casey then signed a contract with the WWF and began working in their developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW).

Then in 2003, he worked a few matches for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) on TNA Xplosion. In 2005 he regularly worked for Blue Water Championship Wrestling, Ultimate Championship Wrestling, and Ohio Championship Wrestling. He then began wrestling in Showtime All-Star Wrestling and United States Wrestling Organization in Tennessee.

Presently, he tours with and is a founding member of the 5 Most Wanted.

Personal life
Sean has 1 adult daughter and is presently single. He resides on Cincinnati's east side with his dog, Amiga.

Championships and accomplishments
304 Wrestling
304 Championship (2 times)
304 Tag Team Championship (2 time) - with Buff Bagwell & with Brian Masters
Blue Water Championship Wrestling
BWCW Cruiserweight Championship (1 time)
BWCW Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
Frontier Elite Wrestling
2009 Total Elimination Champion(2 time)
FEW Championship (2 time)
Future Great Wrestling
FGW Championship (1 time)
Heartland Wrestling Association
HWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Brian Taylor
NWA Circle City Wrestling
NWA CCW Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Rob Conway
Northern Wrestling Federation
NWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Chris Harris
Ohio Championship Wrestling
OCW Heavyweight Championship (2 times, first)
OCW United States Championship (1 time)
Ohio Valley Wrestling
OVW Light Heavyweight Championship (3 times)
Showtime All-Star Wrestling
SAW Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Chris Michaels
Universal Championship Wrestling
UCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Vendetta Pro Wrestling
Vendetta Pro Wrestling Heavyweight Championship (1 time, Inaugural)
Vendetta Pro Wrestling International Tag Team Championship (1 time, current) - with Cody Hawk
Casino Royal Royal Rumble (2014)
Cauliflower Alley Cup (2014)
World Class Professional Big Time Wrestling
WCPBTW Ohio State Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Bobby Fulton

References

External links
Online World of Wrestling Profile
Sean Casey Bio

1972 births
American male professional wrestlers
Living people


This page shows the results of the archery competition at the 1995 Pan American Games, held from March 11 to March 26, 1995, in Mar del Plata, Argentina.

Men's competition

Recurve

Recurve 30 m

Recurve 50 m

Recurve 70 m

Recurve 90 m

Recurve Teams

Women's competition

Recurve

Recurve 30 m

Recurve 50 m

Recurve 60 m

Recurve 70 m

Recurve Teams

Medal table

See also
Archery at the 1996 Summer Olympics

References
 Sports 123

P
1995
Events at the 1995 Pan American Games


The second Nations Cup tournament was played at Appleby College, Oakville, Canada, in August 2009. An Under-20 version also took place in England a month before. The second tournament again included Canada, England and the USA, but these nations were joined by France for the first time.

Under 20 Nations Cup 2009 (Brunel University, London)

Final table

Points scoring
4 points awarded for a win, 2 points for a draw, no points for a loss. 1 bonus point awarded for scoring four or more tries and 1 bonus point for losing by less than 7 points.

Results

Third place

Final

Nations Cup 2009 (Appleby College, Oakville, Canada)

Final table

Results

See also
Women's international rugby

External links
U20 Nations Cup website

2009
International women's rugby union competitions hosted by Canada
International women's rugby union competitions hosted by England
2009 rugby union tournaments for national teams
2009 in Canadian rugby union
2009 in South African rugby union
2009 in American rugby union
2008–09 in English rugby union
2008–09 in Welsh rugby union
2008–09 in French rugby union
2009 in women's rugby union
rugby union
rugby union
rugby union
rugby union
Nations Cup
Nations Cup
Nations Cup


Erik Otto Larsen (1931 – January 2008) was a Danish novelist, who was active as a visual artist before starting as a writer. He received the Glass Key award in 1995 for the crime novel Masken i spejlet (1994).

Selected bibliography
Pondus sidste sag (1988)
Så længe jeg lever (1989)
Manden der holdt op med at smile (1990)
Frihedens skygge (1990)
Masken i spejlet (1994)
En kat fortræd (1996)

References

1931 births
2008 deaths
Danish male novelists
Danish artists
20th-century Danish novelists
20th-century Danish male writers


Matti Rönkä (born 9 September 1959) is a Finnish TV journalist and novelist. He received the Glass Key award in 2007 for the crime novel Ystävät kaukana and the Deutscher Krimi Preis third prize in 2008 for the German translation of his novel Tappajan näköinen mies (2002) (). He has been the anchor of the daily news program 20:30 National Report since 2003 on Yle, thus inheriting the nickname "Suomen ääni" (English: "The Voice of Finland") from the program's old host Arvi Lind.

Bibliography
 2002 Tappajan näköinen mies; English translation: A Man with a Killer's Face, 2017
 2003 Hyvä veli, paha veli
 2005 Ystävät kaukana
 2007 Mies rajan takaa, an anthology comprising the three above
 2008 Isä, poika ja paha henki
 2009 Tuliaiset Moskovasta
 2011 Väärän maan vainaja

References

1959 births
Living people
Finnish male novelists
Finnish crime writers
21st-century Finnish novelists
21st-century male writers


Dave Bennett (born November 25, 1963) is an American software engineer. Most recently, he was the CTO of Axway, as well as a board member of Axway NA.

Education
Bennett graduated from DeVry Institute in 1985 with a BS in Computer Science.

Career
Bennett started his career in Okinawa, Japan, as a software engineer at Bank of America, where he integrated several core banking systems using specialized communications protocols. In 1987, he was named Assistant Vice President, Regional Banks & Item Processing.

In 1989, Bennett joined Gateway Data Sciences, Inc., a startup in Tempe, Arizona, as the System Engineering Services Director. In 1992, he became the company's Engineering/Technical Executive and developed the first IP-based wireless receiving solution for supply chain execution and store receiving. After the company's IPO in 1996, Bennett founded B2B technology company Cyclone Commerce, Inc., where he served as the CTO and pioneered business-to-business collaborations and partner management, and authored or co-authored several standards and patents for B2B technologies.

In 2006, Axway acquired Cyclone Commerce, Inc. Bennett was named CTO and joined the board of Axway NA. In 2009, he joined the MIT Enterprise Forum Phoenix Board to support business development in Arizona. In 2011, Bennett assisted Axway in their initial public offering.

Bennett joined Orionhealth in 2013.

Notes

References
"UK employees continue to send physical documents despite knowing data loss risks." 17 December 2008. IT Backbones.
King, Leo. "Businesses 'fail to learn' from HMRC data loss disaster." 15 December 2008. Computerworld.
Schooff, Peter. "Axway Acquires Tumbleweed: A Live Podcast With Dave Bennett." 10 June 2008. ebizQ.
Winograd, Jeanne. "Cyclone founders whip up security for Internet users." 19 November 2004. Phoenix Business Journal.
Songini, Marc L. "Cyclone Commerce Helps McKesson Hook Up With Suppliers." 23 September 2002. Computerworld.
"W3C Message Delivery." 13 April 2004. W3C.

1965 births
American chief technology officers
21st-century American engineers
Living people


TravelPost was founded in February 2004 by Sam Shank, a graduate  scholar of the Kellogg School of Management.

It was initially launched as a travel blogging site, where users could register and set up their own blog area, which acted as an online travel journal where people could write about their travels or hotels, and upload various photos. They were one of the first travel sites to allow people to plot where they'd traveled onto an online map, before the advent of Google Maps made this practice ubiquitous on travel sites. (Now other sites like WhereIveBeen.com and the Cities I've Visited feature on TripAdvisor do this.)

In 2005, they licensed hotel review data from Market Metrix and raised a $1M Series A led by Amicus Capital  and various angel investors including members of the North Bay Angels and Ron Conway.

This partnership evolved the location into a hotel reviews site that allowed for filtering of reviews by reviewer demographic.

SideStep acquired TravelPost in October 2006. The founder continued to operate the site for 15 months while at SideStep. He has since founded DealBase.com.

Kayak.com later acquired SideStep in December 2007 and took over the operations of the site.

In March 2009, Kayak.com relaunched TravelPost as a hotel information site, with hotel reviews and rates for hotels aggregated from several travel sites. This was regarded as an entry to a niche dominated by another hotel-reviews site, TripAdvisor.

In Spring 2010, KAYAK.com sold TravelPost to one of its board members Greg Slyngstad.  The two companies continue to work very closely together.

References

External links
 TravelPost
 DealBase

American travel websites


Nalcor Energy is a defunct provincial energy corporation which was headquartered in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. A provincial Crown corporation under the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Nalcor Energy was created in 2007 to manage the province's energy resources. The company has distinct business lines comprising Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro, the Churchill Falls Generating Station, the Lower Churchill Project, energy marketing, oil and gas development, and The Bull Arm Fabrication Site.

On June 23, 2021, Premier Andrew Furey announced Nalcor Energy would be dismantled and folded into Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro.

Hydro

Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro, commonly shortened to "Hydro", is the Nalcor subsidiary that generates and delivers electricity for Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as parts of Quebec and the north-eastern United States.  It also delivers voice and data telecommunications services to customers in some areas.

Hydro itself is the parent company of the Hydro Group of Companies, which comprises
 Churchill Falls Labrador Corporation Limited (CFLCo)
 Lower Churchill Development Corporation Limited (LCDC)
 Gull Island Power Company Limited (GIPCo)
 Twin Falls Power Corporation Limited (TwinCo)

The Upper Churchill Falls Generating Station

The Churchill Falls Generating Station is one of the largest underground powerhouses in the world. The plant has 11 turbines with a rated capacity of 5,428 megawatts. Nalcor controls a 65.8% share of the Churchill Falls Labrador Corporation Limited, the owner of the Churchill Falls station while Quebec's government-owned utility, Hydro-Québec, owns the remaining shares.

Lower Churchill Project

The Lower Churchill Project is a planned project to develop the remaining 35 per cent of the Churchill River, that has not already been developed by the Upper Churchill Falls Generating Station. The Lower Churchill's two installations at Gull Island and Muskrat Falls will have a combined capacity of over 3,000 MW.

Oil and Gas
Nalcor Energy's Oil and Gas division holds and manages oil and gas interests in the Newfoundland and Labrador onshore and offshore oil developments. The company is currently a partner in three offshore developments - the Hebron oil field, the White Rose Growth Project and the Hibernia Southern Extension. A $20 million onshore drilling exploration program in Parsons Pond in western Newfoundland is also being operated by Nalcor - Oil and Gas.

Bull Arm Fabrication
The Bull Arm Fabrication site was developed in the early 1990s and is Atlantic Canada's largest industrial fabrication site. The site is located 150 kilometers west of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. The Hibernia oil field's gravity base structure was constructed at the site, as well work on the two Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) vessel's for the Terra Nova oil field and the White Rose oil field were done here.

References

External links

Crown corporations of Newfoundland and Labrador
Energy companies of Canada
Oil companies of Canada
Companies based in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
2007 establishments in Newfoundland and Labrador
2021 disestablishments in Newfoundland and Labrador
Canadian companies established in 2007
Energy companies established in 2007
Canadian companies disestablished in 2021


Irish cuisine encompasses the cooking styles, traditions and recipes associated with the island of Ireland. It has evolved from centuries of social and political change and the mixing of different cultures, predominantly with those from nearby Britain and other European regions. The cuisine is founded upon the crops and animals farmed in its temperate climate and the abundance of fresh fish and seafood from the surrounding waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Chowder, for example, is popular around the coasts.

The development of Irish cuisine was altered greatly by the Tudor conquest of Ireland in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, which introduced a new agro-alimentary system of intensive grain-based agriculture and led to large areas of land being turned over to grain production. The rise of a commercial market in grain and meat altered the diet of the Irish populace by redirecting traditionally consumed products (such as beef) abroad as cash crops instead. Consequently, potatoes were widely adopted in the 18th century and essentially became the main crop that the Irish working class (which formed a majority of the population) could afford.

By the 21st century, much traditional Irish cuisine was being revived. Representative dishes include Irish stew, bacon and cabbage, boxty, soda bread (predominantly in Ulster), coddle, and colcannon.

History

There are many references to food and drink in Irish mythology and early Irish literature, such as the tale of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Salmon of Knowledge. They contain many references to banquets involving the heroes' portion and meat cooked in cauldrons and on spits. Irish mythology is a Celtic Indo-European tradition and shares many foods with other cultures' stories. For example, honey has always been valued and was used in the making of mead, a drink featured in many ancient Indo-European myths and rituals, from Ireland to India.

Prehistoric Ireland

Mesolithic period (8000–4000 BC)
Prior to the Neolithic period in Ireland and advances in farming technology, archaeological evidence such as the discovery of stone tools, bone assemblages, archeobotanical evidence, isotopic analysis of human skeletal remains, and dental erosion on the remains of human teeth indicate the Mesolithic Irish were a hunter-gatherer society that ate a diet of varied floral and faunal sources. Discoveries of food byproducts such as bone fragments and sea shells are key indicators of the dietary habits of the Mesolithic Irish, as immediate food products have long since decomposed —especially in the presence of Ireland's largely acidic soils. However, available archeological evidence of food remains, together with discoveries of Mesolithic food-harvesting tools and the relationship of local environments with settlement sites, provide an understanding of what may have eaten. Settlement sites, in particular, have supported notable insight into the dietary habits of the Mesolithic Irish. For example, the proximity of Mesolithic settlements to water systems point to groups or individuals who ate marine species. The predominant location of Mesolithic Irish settlements are close to water systems, and therefore suggests a diet rich in vegetation, marine life, and smaller mammals, as distinct from their British and Native American contemporaries whose settlements further inland influenced a diet more substantive with meat. For example, deer features minimally in archeological discoveries, thought to be particularly due to the infrequent presence of deer along coastal regions, bays, and estuaries.

The deliberate positioning of such settlements also suggests a cultural preference for particular foods. Also unique to settlements positioned close to water systems are large mounds of bivalve shells known as middens, which provide concrete evidence that shellfish played a role in the dietary practices of the Mesolithic Irish. Shell middens are frequent Mesolithic discoveries in Ireland, which for their majority, were predominantly composed of oyster and limpet shells. The coastal town name of Sligo (in Irish Sligeach) which means "abounding in shells", references the area's historic plenitude of shellfish in the river and its estuary, as well as the middens common to the area.

Additionally, Ireland's position as an island and thus the unique composition of biodiversity and geography suggests its Mesolithic people enjoyed a somewhat dissimilar diet to their proximal contemporaries. For example, prehistoric Ireland's paucity of small mammals, and its absences of species important to other Mesolithic communities, such as red deer, wild cow, and elk would have contributed to unique dietary habits and nutritional standards. The persistent evidence of certain species, such as boar in contrast with the scarcity and/or uncooked nature of other animal remains such as bear and birds of prey (remains of which have been found in Mesolithic bone assemblages, but are otherwise absent in isotopic analysis of human bones) suggests a particular understanding of certain animals as sources of food, others that served symbolic or medicinal purposes (as they were in other parts of Europe), while others still, such as dog, which are not supposed to have been consumed at all.

Due to Ireland's geography and the locations of Mesolithic settlements, the variety of food sources available to the Mesolithic Irish was consequently unique. Outside of boar, large predators including the wolf, the brown bear, and lynx are scarce in archaeological assemblages, and understood to have been generally avoided as a source of food, as they were in most contemporary Mesolithic Europe. Likewise, while cereals were unlikely to have been yet consumed due to the processing required to make them digestible, fungi, roots, leaves, stems, flowers, nuts, seeds, berries and fruits were all otherwise simple to harvest and eat and would have substantiated the Mesolithic diet with nutritional variety and a diversity of flavour.

This in combination with the prevalence of settlements along waterways suggests key dietary staples of the Mesolithic Irish were marine and floral sources of food. Additionally, that boar was brought to Ireland by early Mesolithic colonists and features frequently in archeological assemblages of faunal bones, points to another noteworthy staple in the Mesolithic Irish diet. Despite the scarcity of plant-based artifacts in light of Ireland's wet weather and acidic soil, biochemical assessments of human bone have been used to provide evidence for a variety of floral sources, including apples, crowberries, raspberries, blackberries, water-lily seeds, tubers, and hazelnuts.

The sizable presence of hazelnuts in many archaeological assemblages in both Mesolithic Ireland and Britain suggests the nut was important, and may have even been used as a form of currency, as acorns were for Native Americans of California during the same period. There is an indication that these nuts, in particular, were stored underground during the winter months. Elm bark is also suspected to have been a prized source of food for being particularly rich in nutrients, as well as featuring in the diets of other northern Mesolithic European communities, the Scandinavian in particular.

Despite Ireland's coastal geography, there is no evidence of seaweed collection among the Mesolithic Irish in archaeological remains, as well as little evidence of deep-water ocean species. However, the presence of shellfish and in-shore fish—particularly salmonids—in the Irish Mesolithic diet is impressive. The absence of evidence for seal is a notable contrast with Mesolithic Scotland, where archaeological sites demonstrate the significant exploitation of seals.

Though the Mesolithic Irish were a hunter-gatherer people, such assemblages as middens, discoveries of lithic tools and technologies, and seasonal organization of animal remains alludes to understandings of environmental management to meet subsistence needs. For example, the transportation and management of boar through selective hunting and culling techniques suggests a food source potentially purposefully semi-domesticated, as well as a species important to the Mesolithic communities of Ireland. Research into the composition of middens, as well, suggests that these Irish communities understood tidal behaviours, and optimal harvest periods for respective marine species. Different species of shellfish require different environmental conditions, such as intertidal flats for mussels and cockles, and rocky shorelines for limpets so different harvesting strategies would have been required to harvest and profit from different varieties of shellfish. As well, that freshwater, coastal, and in-shore marine life features greater than deep-sea species in archaeological evidence of the Irish Mesolithic diet inherently points to the use of in-shore fishing techniques such as traps and nets, in lieu of off-shore or deep-sea hunting techniques.

The recovery of stone tools in specific sites and vogue technologies of the period such as blade-and-flake likewise suggests their roles in the construction and maintenance of basic food procurement technologies like fish traps. There is even some suggestion of the Mesolithic Irish being actively engaged in land snail farming.

The fundamentally seasonal nature of the Mesolithic diet and the various seasonally-conscripted food-gathering activities affected the time and social organization of the Mesolithic Irish during the year. Such activities would have consisted the hunting and foraging of seasonal plants and animals when they were at their most abundant, as well as storage-related activities such as preserving meat and seafood through smoking, and caching nuts and seeds. As various plants are fertile only biannually, and the migratory patterns of animals can change over time, these food-gathering activities would have been significantly varied and as such, would have required attention and understanding of environmental and animal behaviours.

While most foods would have been eaten raw and out-of-hand, archaeological evidence has provided insight into Mesolithic food processing techniques, such as crude forms of butchery, the soaking of seeds, and thermal processing to directly heat or smoke foods. At a site in Kilnatierney where ash, burnt shells, fish, and pig bones were discovered in a dug-out depression, the diminutive size of the fish bones suggests they were cooked on skewers or directly on hot rocks. The presence of burnt mounds of stones indicate cooking methods likely focused on direct heating methods such as roasting on spits constructed on tripods over open flames, and in earthen hearths.

Neolithic period (4000-2500 BC)
Understanding the details about the foodways of the prehistoric Irish can be difficult to capture, especially given the island's temperate climate and prevalence of wet, acidic soils that are quick to erode organic material, but thanks to extensive evaluation of biochemical and isotopic signatures recovered from human bone and pottery sherds, there is insight into Neolithic dietary habits. Biomarkers such as lipid and plant residues preserved in the clay matrix of pottery vessels observe a diversity of plant- and animal-life in the diet of the Neolithic Irish, including berries, leafy vegetables, tubers, legumes, meats, seafoods, and nuts. These in combination with the agricultural developments of the Neolithic period such as field systems, farming tools, and animal husbandry begin to describe the dramatic changes in the dietary practices and eating behaviours of the prehistoric Irish people, distinct from their Mesolithic ancestors.

The cultivation and processing of cereals, as well as the maintenance of livestock in farming scenarios saw the significant consumption of new foods, particularly emmer wheat, barley, beef, pig, and goat, which coincided with a steep decline in the consumption of marine life. Emmer wheat was assumed to be a preferred crop for its resilience to wet Irish weather and soil, but evidence of other cereals such as rye, einkorn and barley have been recovered, albeit at a lesser degree. Sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and dryland grasses were introduced to Ireland in only recent centuries, and were therefore absent from the diet of Neolithic Irish. Likewise, although the remains of oat were discovered, their minimal quantity at sites indicate that it was a wild plant, and not yet cultivated. New domestic livestock including beef and sheep are understood to have been brought to the island from continental Europe, in addition to red deer, which marked new and increasingly significant species in the Irish diet. For example, evidence of enclosures couching large assemblages of charred cattle bones suggests the cooking and consumption of large quantities of beef, potentially during large communal gatherings. As they were during the Mesolithic period, hazelnuts were still prevalent discoveries at many Neolithic sites, though their presence declines toward the Bronze Age.

The introduction of agricultural management greatly influenced new dietary staples of the Irish communities. While attention on farming crops witnessed a decline in the consumption of wild forage, changes in the landscape also offered new foraging opportunities for wild plant life which would have thrived along the edges of cleared agricultural land.

While radiocarbon dating of Neolithic fish nets and weirs suggests the consumption of marine life, what archeological evidence of food has been recovered points to a sharp decline in the consumption of aquatic species, converse to the notable consumption of marine life by the Mesolithic Irish. The advancements of farming during the Neolithic period are assumed to have influenced this decline, in tandem with the heightened consumption of farmed animals, cereals, and the very influential introduction of dairying, which coincided similar advancements in other Neolithic societies.

Approaches to agriculture, like those elsewhere across northwestern Europe, were focused on long-term plot management rather than rotational methods, and implemented manure as fertilizer. The emergence of new technologies in cooking, water, and waste management is evidenced by an increasing frequency of crescent-shaped mounds of burnt stones, called fulachtaí fia in Irish, that are understood to be the remnants of burning and/or cooking sites. Yet, despite all such advancements, there was a noticeable absence in the presence of cutlery, cooking, or other eating implements among recovered archeological artifacts.

Bronze Age (2000-500 BC)
It is understood that both direct and indirect cooking methods were important features of Irish cuisine during the Bronze Age (2000—600BCE). The former used open fires to cook foods supported by ceramic vessels, spits, or surface griddles, while the latter used methods to heat surrounding mediums of earth, air, or water to cook foods within. Radiocarbon dating of crescent-shaped mounds of burnt stones, called fulachtaí fia in Irish, are understood to be the remnants of cooking sites in Ireland that emerged in the early Neolithic Period but came to prominence during the Bronze Age. While the word fulacht in medieval texts refers to the direct cooking of food on a spit, it is thought that its origins reside in such Neolithic sites that may have been chiefly used for indirect cooking methods involving hot stones, suggesting at least that the term and its derivatives refer to the activity of cooking.

Contrary to Mesolithic sites featuring burnt mounds, post-Mesolithic sites are significant for featuring significant remnants of flint, charred mounds of stones in close proximity to the remains of domesticated livestock, in addition to being accompanied by pits understood to have held water. Stones belonging to these mounds, the majority of which are large pieces of sandstone, are understood to have been heated and then submerged into these pits of water or buried underground as heat conductors used to boil, steam or bake food.

While burnt mounds of similar natures have been discovered around Europe, Ireland hosts the greatest number of these sites, which suggests that indirect cooking methods were significant in Irish cuisine during the time. These mounds tend to feature a notable amount of stones, thought to be due to their repeated use over hundreds of years, and for the volume of stones needed to heat water to adequate cooking temperatures. Such technology could likely have facilitated a dual purpose for the use in building steam lodges, which were common in parts of Europe at the time, but fulachtaí fia typically feature significant assemblages of charred faunal remains, which argues they were used predominantly as cooking sites. It has been considered that these sites were impromptu cooking locations used particularly by hunters, but most fulachtaí fia were established in low-lying agricultural lands and similar environments not supportive of optimal hunting conditions. As well, the faunal remains recovered from such sites are typically feature the long, upper limb bones of domesticated livestock, archeologically associated with animal exploitation for meat, and also suggestive of animals being previously processed, or slaughtered, butchered, and eaten on site.

As fulachtaí fia emerged alongside developments in animal husbandry in Upper Palaeolithic Europe, pyrolithic technology emerged in response to the newfound importance of livestock. This is further compounded by the scarcity of game animal remains throughout all sites, and otherwise prevalence of sheep, pig, and cattle bones. This is not to discredit the lesser though still significant presence of red deer bones. Likewise, the absence of marine life at fulachtaí fia, also suggests a greater consumption of domestically farmed animals, and might also imply fish were cooked differently or respective of livestock. Many sites feature indications of stake-hole clusters that may have once supported tripods and spits used for draining the blood from- or cooking recently killed animals.

Archeobotanical evidence from the Bronze Age is hard to recover due in part to Ireland's temperate weather and acidic soils, but fossilized hazelnut shells have survived at sites, as well as evidence of elm bark, which is supposed to have been used as feed for livestock and people alike.

There is thought that hazelnuts were used to produce oil, whereupon the nuts would have been boiled in the heated waters of fulachtaí fia for the purpose of extracting their natural oils which would have accumulated atop the water's surface, then skimmed and used or stored. Boiling is thought to have been a choice cooking method during the Bronze Age; the method provided good retention of calories in foods. Boiling meat, for example, is thought to have been a preferred cooking application for both helping to retain moisture in lean meats, for rendering fatty deposits in coarser cuts, as well as extracting marrow from bones.

The aforementioned long, shallow pits that accompany most fulachtaí fia are typically found lined with insulating materials like stone, timber, and other organic materials, and divided with partitions suspected to have been intended to separate the hot stones from edible materials, or to divide different types of foods. It is thought that the use of clean, fresh water was a preferred medium given the placement of troughs over or near natural springs, and for their close proximity to irrigation channels carved into the earth which could have assisted in draining the pit after it was used. Other pits, such as those dug into sand or removed from water sources, are thought to have been used as subterranean ovens.

The typically large scale of these mounds and their perpetuity in the landscape not only suggests that individual fulachtaí fia were returned to and used often, but that they were fixtures of social gatherings both large and small. This is furthered by the presence of large assemblages of animal bones, as well as the mounds' notable distance from developed settlements, and the substantive size of the troughs—expected to have held large quantities of food. The laborious nature of preparing food, in addition to that of building these hearths would likely have required multiple actors working over long periods of time to finalize a meal, which suggests that cooking food would have been a social activity, likely with roles of responsibility distributed among the workers and hence a social structure.

As ritual sites were often marked by the production and display of commemorative items, the suggestion that these sites were sometimes spaces of notable communal gathering is further substantiated by the discoveries of monuments, stone circles, and other non-funerary artifacts. Likewise, that fulachtaí fia are structures made principally to facilitate the indirect cooking of food—methods significantly slower and longer than direct heating applications—provides further reasoning that these mounds were places for special occasions where people chose to spend long periods of time eating and communing together.

Gaelic Ireland

Customs and equipment
Hospitality was compulsory on all free landowners to welcome kings, bishops, or judges into their homes, with a wider superstitious fear held by the Irish of the consequences of turning away anyone. Much evidence for early Irish food exists in the law texts and poetry which were written down from the 7th and 8th century AD onwards. The arrival of Christianity also brought new influences from the Middle East and Roman culture.

The main meal was eaten in the afternoon or evening. A daytime meal was termed díthat. A meal at night, and especially a celebratory one, was called a feis and was often accompanied by beer. The main cooking utensil was the cauldron (coire) in which a variety of broths and stews were made.

Meals consisted of a staple of bread, fresh milk, or a fermented variety such as bainne clabhair, yoghurt or cheese accompanied by an anlann or tarsunn (relish, condiment) usually of vegetables, salted meat or honey, but could be any variety of seasonal foods. At the public guesthouses (bruiden) a person of high rank was entitled to 3 tarsunn, a lesser person only one.

Grains

Until the arrival of the potato in the 16th century, grains such as oats, wheat and barley, cooked either as porridge or bread, formed the staple of the Irish diet. The most common form of bread consisted of flatbread made from ground oats. These flatbreads could be wafer-thin, like chapati, or thicker like the oatcakes still popular in Scotland.

Household equipment included a kneading trough lasat, a kneading slab lecc, a griddle lann and a griddle turner lainnéne. While oats were the most commonly used grain, bread made from wheat was regarded as a luxury of the aristocratic class. Bread and milk formed the staple of the Irish diet for millennia. From Latin came tortine meaning a small loaf.

Traditional porridge was cooked from oats, barley or wheat meal mixed with water, buttermilk or new milk and cooked to a smooth consistency. This was accompanied by either heavily salted butter, fresh butter or honey.

A fermented mixture of cracked wheat and heated milk was prepared as some form of frumenty or product similar to Turkish tarhana or Middle Eastern kashk. This could have other ingredients added such as egg yolks making a highly nutritious food that could also be dried and stored over winter.

Another grain preparation known as menedach was made by kneading grains and butter together into a type of paste and was known for its medicinal qualities, especially for monks on strict penitential diets. It may have been an early form of roux or perhaps a type of polenta. It could be spread on bread. It is described in the 12th century Icelandic saga Landnamabok in which Irish slaves prepare the food claiming that it will cure thirst. "The Irish thralls found the expedient of kneading meal and butter and said it would quench the thirst. They called it minapak".

Meat

The meat was generally cooked fresh and unspiced, or salted and was boiled in a cauldron. Sometimes it was flavored with honey, sometimes supplied at the table in a dish for dipping. There are many descriptions of meat boiled in a cauldron in a form of stew. One recipe appears to have used "purple berries" to color the meal. There are also descriptions of meat being parboiled and then roasted over a fire on wooden spits somewhat similar to shish kebab.

Consumption of meat was forbidden twice a week on Wednesday and Friday and during Lent. Céadaoin, the name for Wednesday in Irish, means first fast and Aoine the name for Friday, means fast. Orthodox Christian churches still maintain this practice.

Deer were hunted for meat, being trapped in pits, or hunted with dogs.

Both domestic pig and wild boar were eaten. The pork was probably the most common meat consumed in Ireland. Pigs were fattened on acorns in the forests. The flitch of bacon suspended on a hook is frequently mentioned in sources. Sausages made of salted pork are mentioned. Two types of sausage known as maróc (from a Norse loanword) and indrechtán (a sausage or pudding) are mentioned.

The dominant feature of the rural economy was the herding of cattle. Cows were not generally slaughtered for meat unless old or injured, but male cattle, if not destined to be oxen, were often slaughtered at one or two years.

Salted beef was cooked in a cauldron where different forms of stew were commonly made. The meat was also barbecued on spits (bir) made of either wood or iron. The poem Aislinge Meic Con Glinne describes the roasting of pieces of beef, mutton, and ham on spits of whitebeam. The meat was marinated in salt and honey first.

Offal was used in various dishes, with tripe being mentioned the most.

Fish was also sometimes grilled on a spit or griddle over a fire.

In the Irish religious diet, horse and crane meat were forbidden. Fowl in general does not seem to have featured much in the diet. There is also evidence for taboos related to totem animals amongst certain groups or tribes for whom consumption of these animals was forbidden.

Dairy

Ireland, with grass growth ten months of the year and no need to shelter cattle in extreme winter conditions, has always produced quality dairy products. Dairy was an important part of the ancient Irish diet, and this is backed up by archaeological record.

Dairy products were known as bánbia (white foods) and milk, butter, curds, and cheese were staples of the diet. Táth was a form of pressed curds, perhaps similar to paneer or cottage cheese. Tánach referred to hard cheese, and mulchán was skimmed milk cheese. Milk or soft sweet-curd was heated with butter to make a sweet drink called milseán or millsén. Milk diluted with water was termed englas.

The practice of bleeding cattle and mixing the blood with milk and butter (similar to the practice of the Maasai people) was not uncommon. Black pudding is made from blood, grain (usually barley), and seasoning, and remains a breakfast staple in Ireland.

Honey seems to have been a precious but abundant commodity, with beekeeping particularly associated with the church and much used in medicine.

Bog butter was stored for safety and allowed to ferment by being buried in bogs which provides a stable temperature in an anaerobic environment facilitating the aging process. The end product may have been something similar to smen, a North African ingredient in many dishes.

Fruit and vegetables
Vegetables grown and eaten in Ireland included onions, chives, cabbage, celery, wild garlic and leeks. Fat-hen (Chenopodium album) is often found on pre Norman archaeological sites and appears to have been an important part of the diet, as it still is in Northern India. Skirret (Sium sisaram), in Irish cearrachán, appears to have been grown as a root vegetable, but this is no longer used. Watercress, sorrel, parsley, and nettles were picked wild and eaten raw or added to broth.

Apples, pears, cherries, and plums seem to have been the most commonly eaten fruits.

Pulses such as peas, broad beans, and lentils were grown and dried since early medieval times, becoming common with the Normans. Berries and nuts were extensively eaten. Hazelnuts were of great importance. Bilberries, known as fraochán in Irish, were traditionally picked on the festival of Lúghnasa in August. blackberries and other wild fruit were also picked and consumed.

Pepper has been known in Ireland since early Christian times, being an import from the Roman empire.

The fruit of the strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo), known as caithne in Irish, is associated with religious establishments and may have been used to make or flavour medicine.

Drinks

A four-handled wooden cup called a meadair was used, or a drinking horn for high-status individuals.

Fermented milk is an Irish drink.

Beer was a prerequisite of a noble's house and was usually brewed from barley, although a wheat beer was also made. Malting kilns are a common find in archaeological digs in Ireland and appear from early Christian times on.

Uisce beatha (water of life) or whiskey is an invention of the Gaelic world and was developed after the introduction of distilling in the 12th century.

Religious diets
Vegetarian diets were known among the strict monastic orders, but it was not compulsory. However, those that did eat meat were only permitted to eat wild pig or deer. Monks lived on a staple gruel made with water or milk and meal known as brothchán. This, on Sundays and festivals had seasonal fruits and nuts and honey added, and it has been suggested that brothchán may have been an early form of muesli.

The Pale
The Pale was the small area around Dublin in which English influence was strongest, where a hybrid food culture developed consisting of Norse, English and Irish influences.

Excavations at the Viking settlement in the Wood Quay area of Dublin have produced a significant amount of information on the diet of the inhabitants of the town. The main meats eaten were beef, mutton, and pork. Domestic poultry and geese as well as fish and shellfish were also common, as was a wide range of native berries and nuts, especially hazelnuts. The seeds of knotgrass and goosefoot were widely present and may have been used to make a porridge.

Ovens for baking were used in the towns. Evidence for cherries has been found in 11th-century Dublin. Bread was sometimes flavoured with aniseed.

The Normans
The Norman invasion brought new additions to the diet, introducing rabbits, fallow deer and pheasants in the 12th century. They may also have introduced some freshwater fish, notably pike.

The Norman invasion marked the beginning of both the English and French presence in the country which continued as a unique Hiberno-Norman culture developed in the Norman settled areas and towns. The Norman cuisine characteristically consisted of spicy meat and fowl along with potages and broths, roasts and sauces. The Normans may also have introduced the making of cider. Oysters and scallops were another favourite of the Normans.

Medieval Ireland (5th-15th century AD)
Distinct from preceding eras, the Middle Ages ushered the development of dense urban centers that dramatically affected preexisting food systems by changing both physical and societal infrastructures. The spread and increasing normalization of a new type of civilian who did not produce or hunt their own food and was thus reliant on foreign market trade and import from rural farms made the need for accessible and consistent sources of food vital.

Uniquely to Ireland, the emergence of Norse towns in the 9th and 10th centuries and their subsequent growth during the arrival of the Anglo-Normans in the 12th and 13th centuries ushered a population boom that brought with it new foods born of foreign trade and new methods of production. The Anglo-Normans in particular propagated a commercial economy that encouraged urban settlement and the steady trade of local and foreign commodities by holding festive market fairs and attracting settlers with offers of burgage plots replete with space for a house and garden.

Documentary data such as medieval law tracts, literature on the lives of saints, as well as early records of land holdings provide insight into how food was grown and distributed among society. As such documents were generally concentrated on the literate upper classes of Ireland, additional archeological data offers broader insight into food consumption habits of peasants, commoners, and Irish Medieval society as a whole. Together, these findings and records play a significant role in interpreting urban food consumption behaviors of Medieval Ireland.

During the Middle Ages in Ireland, laws were written to allow only certain foods to certain classes of people. As the accommodation of guests and its embedded acts of hospitality including the offering of food was a strong social convention of Ireland during this time, people entertained at the homes of others expected the service of specific foods. Consequently, if a guest was 'entitled' to a certain food and did not receive it during their accommodation, they could justly accuse their host of failing to meet their obligations of hospitality which was a punishable offense.

The law tracts articulating the designation of certain foods to certain classes generally focused on free male landowners with some minor attention to free married women, but they do not describe what foods were entitled to peasants. This is because peasants were considered only semi-free (accommodated and thus 'owned' by their landlords) and were therefore not entitled to hospitable offers of food or beverage. There is some description of a 'poor diet' which references what was permitted to criminals and monks.

The specificity of these foods was precise and provided such laws that decided, for example, to whom individual sections of beef were entitled, or in what quantities food was expected to be given and to what kind of person. These 7th- and 8th-century law texts describe 7 grades of commoners and 3 grades of semi-free peasants—with these grades often further subdivided—in order to help guide judges through cases based on customary law. As it was often difficult to distinguish one's class based on looks alone, food was used as a social cue so people could distinguish another's social position, and therefore accommodate them with the appropriate reception.

Prescribing class status to certain foods consequently constructed the perspective of certain foods as being luxurious, and others as being common, but also created distinct nutritional staples for different levels of this stratified society. For example, the lowest-class free commoner was liberally entitled to barley, oats, and dairy products, whereas then penultimate low-class commoner was allowed this in addition to baked breads, though neither were permitted to goods derived of rye or wheat as such cereals were rare in Ireland (and thus privileged only to upper classes of people). Venison and other game meats were likewise considered low-class foods as wild animals derived from ungoverned lands were considered accessible to all classes and thus common. This was contrary to cattle which belonged to the lands of respective lords and made beef a privatized, restricted, and thus more coveted food. The same was said for wild fish, as any commoner was entitled to a fish net or trap, albeit modestly-sized ones.

Based on dietetic rationale, certain foods could travel between ranks under special conditions, such as during injury, pregnancy, menstruation, and illness, when individuals were understood to require more substantial nutrition. All free people during sickness were, for example, permitted garden herbs and small amounts of butter. Free married women were generally entitled to half of what their husbands were entitled to, but it was considered a punishable offense to deny a pregnant woman of any food she craved. This was thought to have been designed in part to protect women from miscarriage. Further dietetic rationale within these laws deemed only soft foods permissible to feed children, including soft eggs, porridge, curds and whey, and garnished only with ingredients (such as honey or butter) that their father's class was permitted to eat.

As religious doctrine heavily influenced these law tracts, Sundays were observed with greater leniency and some foods typically reserved for higher classes were shared with those of lower status. Cow, goat, and sheep milks were staple foods in all classes, from the lowest free commoner to the highest-ranking nobleman, though cow and goat milk were considered higher-ranking milks than sheep's. Common and small birds were afforded to be eaten by commoners, whereas larger or rarer birds such as swans were reserved for royalty (queens, particularly, in the case of swans). Larger eggs of larger birds species were also permitted only to high class individuals for the basic reason that things of greater quantity or volume were given first to people of higher class status.

As written records generally focused on storehouse inventories and staple commodities, archeobotanical remnants recovered from urban cesspits offer further insight into less-common foods such as wild forage, foreign imports, and garden-grown goods that supplemented the diets of upper-class people, and substantiated those of whom could not afford food from the market.

Both written record and archeological data indicate that sheep, cow, and goat milks made for the staple source of protein for most people, while oat, barley, and rye cereals comprised the typical source of carbohydrate, consumed usually as ale, in pot-based dishes, and breads.

As beer-making would only surface later in Ireland during the 14th century, and because ale had a short shelf-life that did not import or export well, ale-brewing was a significant industry in urban centers for providing what was then valued as a nutritious dietary staple. Cheap and widely available, oat was the preferred grain for this industry up until the 14th century until it was replaced by barley which was considered superior, though not as good as wheat.

Wheat was difficult to grow in Ireland's wet, acidic soils, but the Anglo-Normans nonetheless worked to intensify its production as it was a coveted grain to the upper-classes, and vital in the creation of the Catholic sacramental Host; a thin, white wafer. This monastic bread was typically made from barley, oat, and pulse flours baked on ashes or dried into biscuits, but the making of a special wheat-based wafer was reserved for Sundays. As a sacred and rare food, wheat production was a heavily monitored and controlled operation, and wheat products were sometimes used as currency.

Contrarily, while highly-accessible oats were considered 'poor' food, they were also valued as nutritious and easily-digestible, and thus made a staple for children, as well as cheap fuel for horses. Oat gruel, however, was considered inferior in quality and was thus unacceptable to share with travelers. Likewise, pulses, legumes and flours made from them were generally reserved for animal feed and for times of food scarcity. Beans, typically a food of the poorer classes, were often eaten in sweet puddings, according to recipe books of the 13th and 14th centuries. Pulses and legumes also did not grow well in wet, acidic soil, and were generally avoided as a crop, but the arrival of the Anglo-Normans, their new method of crop-rotation, and the coinciding increase of pulse production in Ireland at the time signals the growing of pulses as a means to improve conditions for wheat crops (a crop which thrives in the nitrogen-rich soils left over by a previous crop of pulses or legumes).

Quickly-perishable foods, and those not grown at a commercial scale, such as fruits, nuts, and vegetables are underrepresented in historical records, but archeological evidence suggests such foods were nonetheless important seasonal supplements to the Irish diet. As evidence suggests most urban dwellings were furnished with gardens, the growth and harvest of a variety of fresh fruits, herbs, and vegetables would have provided variety of the diets of urban dwellers.

Fragile plant life erodes and disappears quickly compared to grain chaff that fossilizes easily, what evidence is recovered may present a distorted assessment of what ratio of cereals to plant life was consumed at the time only because there is no empirical data of such eroded materials. The presence of vegetables, in particular, is therefore minimal in archeological assemblages, but fruit—via fossilized seeds and pits—consequently features more frequently, with evidence of cherry, strawberry, sloe, rowan, blackberry, bilberry, apple, and haws as present in Medieval cesspits. Apples are frequently mentioned in Medieval texts of various kinds, particularly in reference to sweet varieties as valuable and rare offerings to nobles and lords, and sour breeds as used to make cider, verjus, vinegar, and medicine. That theological and dietetic discourse affected these texts also affected the corresponding behaviors by which certain foods were consumed—to eat apples raw, for example, was frowned upon by medieval physicians and so apples were generally cooked into puddings, or fermented into drinks.

Fruit and herb consumption in the medieval period was particularly encapsulated in a medicinal fervour as unique fruits were prescribed and avoided for reasons concerning health.

The perishable nature of fruits and vegetables also changed the ways in which they were consumed by challenging consumers to develop methods of preserving them. Cooking and fermenting are already examples, but fruits were also commonly dried, pickled, or made into relishes using brine and honey. Their omnipresence consequently precipitated the convention of eating many sweet and savory foods with jams, jellies, chutneys, and relishes.

An herbal broth called brothchán, made with oatmeal and herbs served to sick was one such dish accompanied by a fruit relish, notably on Sundays. The recovery of several fruit presses also suggests that fruits were pressed into juices, though only at a domestic scale.

Hazelnuts, having been an important Irish food from prehistory, were still common in the medieval era, and ground into a meal called maothal.

There is also documentation of a wine trade between Ireland and Biscay from the 7th century, as well as early Irish texts that reference a wine imported from Bordeaux specifically for church feasts, bolstering substantial evidence of wine trade between Ireland, France and England between the 12th and 15th centuries.

Post-Medieval Ireland
The situation changed for the poor, who made up 75 percent of the population of around nine million by 1840. Potatoes formed the basis of many Irish dishes and were eaten both by the Anglo-Irish gentry and the mass of the people.

This was unusual as the potato was shunned in most of Europe for centuries after its introduction, particularly by the elites.

The potato was first introduced into Ireland in the second half of the 16th century, initially as a garden crop. It eventually came to be the main food crop of the poor. As a food source, the potato is extremely valuable in terms of the amount of energy produced per unit area of crop. The potato is also a good source of many vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C when fresh. Potatoes were widely cultivated, but in particular by those at a subsistence level. The diet of this group in this period consisted mainly of potatoes supplemented with buttermilk.

At this time Ireland produced large quantities of salted (corned) beef, almost all of it for export . The beef was packed into barrels to provision the navy, army, and merchant fleet. Corned beef became associated with the Irish in America where it was plentiful and used as a replacement for the bacon in bacon and cabbage. However, it was not traditional fare in Ireland.

Fresh meat was generally considered a luxury except for the most affluent until the late-19th century. A pig was often kept for bacon and was known as the "gentleman that pays the rent". Potatoes were also fed to pigs, to fatten them prior to their slaughter at the approach of the cold winter months. Much of the slaughtered pork would have been cured to provide ham and bacon that could be stored over the winter.

Chickens were not raised on a large scale until the emergence of town grocers in the 1880s allowed people to exchange surplus goods, like eggs, and for the first time purchase a variety of food items to diversify their diet.

The over-reliance on potatoes as a staple crop meant that the people of Ireland were vulnerable to poor potato harvests. The first Great Famine of 1739 was the result of extreme cold weather, but the famine of 1845–1849 (see Great Irish Famine) was caused by potato blight which spread throughout the Irish crop which consisted largely of a single variety, the Lumper. During the famine approximately one million people died and a million more emigrated.

Tea was introduced during Ireland's time as part of the United Kingdom and became increasingly popular, especially during the 19th century. Irish people are now amongst the highest per capita tea drinkers in the world. Tea is drunk hot and with milk at all times of the day. Slightly stronger varieties are preferred than in England.

Great Famine
In 1845, the Great Famine began when many potato crops in Ireland had been infected with the mold that causes potato blight. This had turned their potatoes diseased and useless, putting many who are already in poverty into deeper poverty. The crop had failed due to potato blight in 1845–46, had little success in 1847, and failed once again in 1848.

The starving people tried eating the potatoes, and became extremely sick from eating them. They began eating a diet of eggs, birds, and plants like nettles and chickweed. Many farmers bled their cattle out and fried the blood rather than eat their meat. With the cattle as malnourished as the people, the meat was not fit for consumption, so they resorted to using the blood mixed with herbs, garlic, oats and butter, to use as a subsistence meal. The extremely desperate and malnourished ate rats and worms found off the street.

Post-Famine migration
After the famine, many Irish women migrated to America to escape poverty, and were exposed to new ingredients and foods not common in Ireland, such as a greater variety of meats and produce. Entering domestic service in America, they had to adapt their cooking to please the upper-class in America.

This was problematic at first due to Irish women clinging to foods and ingredients common in Ireland. This caused much prejudice towards Irish women and many would mock the Irish's lack of cooking skills without considering the famine and poverty Irish women grew up with.

Newspapers, including the Women's Journal, published articles which contained prejudice towards Irish women for seemingly being unable to know how to cook.

Irish women in domestic service later gained the experience with ingredients abundant in America and altered Irish cuisine to be foods for pleasure. In Ireland food was designed based on caloric intake, instead of for pleasure, such as foods in America. Traditional Irish dishes started to include more meat and fruit and allowed for Irish food to stray from the stigma of being bland.

Modern era

In the 21st century, the modern selection of foods familiar in the West has been adopted in Ireland. Common meals include pizza, curry, Chinese food, Thai food, and lately some Central European-Eastern European (especially Polish) dishes have been making an appearance, as ingredients for these and other cuisines have become more widely available.

In tandem with these developments, the last quarter of the 20th century saw the emergence of a new Irish cuisine based on traditional ingredients handled in new ways. This cuisine is based on fresh vegetables, fish (especially salmon and trout), oysters, mussels and other shellfish, traditional soda bread, the wide range of cheeses that are now being made across the country, and, of course, the potato.

Traditional dishes, such as Irish stew, coddle, the Irish breakfast, and potato bread have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity. Chef and food writer Myrtle Allen—an early protagonist of such attitudes and methods—went on to play a crucial role in their development and promotion. Schools like the Ballymaloe Cookery School have emerged to cater for to associated increased interest in cooking.

Fish and chips take-away is popular. A fish and chip in Ireland is most commonly referred to as a chipper. The first fish and chips were sold in Dublin in the 1880s by an Italian immigrant from San Donato Val di Comino, Giuseppe Cervi. His wife Palma would ask customers "Uno di questa, uno di quella?" This phrase (meaning "one of this, one of the other") entered the vernacular in Dublin as "one and one", which is still a common way of referring to fish and chips in the city.

In much of Ulster (especially Northern Ireland and County Donegal), fish and chips are usually known as a "fish supper". The restaurant from which the food is purchased and the food itself is often referred to as a "chippy" throughout many northern regions of the country.

The proliferation of fast food has led to increasing public health problems, including obesity, and it was reported in 2012 that as many as 327,000 Irish children had become obese or overweight, and in response the Irish government considered introducing a fast-food tax. Government efforts to combat obesity have also included television advertising campaigns and educational programmes in schools.

Common foods
 Dairy: butter, milk, buttermilk, cheese
 Grains: barley, oats, wheat
 Freshwater fish: pollan, trout, salmon, smoked salmon, smoked trout
Seafood: mackerel, cod, hake, haddock, smoked haddock, mussels, oysters, lobster, crab, sea vegetables (seaweeds), dillisk
 Meat: beef, chicken, duck, lamb, pork, turkey, goose, offal
 Vegetables: curly kale, potatoes, carrots, onions, cabbage, rhubarb
 Fruits: apple, pear, plum, blackberry, strawberry, raspberry, tomatoes
 Herbs: parsley, thyme, rosemary, chives.
 Spices: cinnamon, nutmeg, mixed spice, black pepper.

Traditional foods

Breads
 Barmbrack—a kind of currant cake which contains a golden ring. Traditionally eaten around Halloween.
 Blaa—a doughy, white bread bun
 Goody—a dessert
 Oatcake
 Potato bread
 Soda bread—a yeast-free bread
 Soda farl—a traditional food in Ulster, especially in East Donegal, Inishowen and Northern Ireland
 Veda bread (popular in Ulster)
 Wheaten bread

Pork dishes

 Bacon and cabbage
 Black pudding—a traditional dish made from pig's blood, barley and seasoning
 Coddle—main ingredients: pork sausage, back bacon and potato
 Crubeens—pig's trotters
 Skirts and kidneys—a kind of pork stew
 White pudding—suet, oatmeal or barley, pork meat or liver

Potato dishes

 Boxty—a potato pancake
 Champ—main ingredients: mashed potato, scallions, butter and milk
 Colcannon—main ingredients: mashed potato, kale or cabbage, and butter
 Shepherd's pie/cottage pie—main ingredients: mashed potato, minced lamb/beef, and vegetables

Seafood
The consumption of seafood, despite Ireland's enormous coastline, is not as common as in other maritime countries. Irish people eat seafood well below the European average. It may have been more common in the past but declined markedly in the last few centuries.

Irish-owned shipping was severely restricted under English governance from the late 16th century on. Ireland was traditionally a cattle-based economy and fish was associated with religious fasting. It was the traditional food of fast on Fridays, in common with other Catholic countries. Also, seafood—particularly shellfish—became associated with the poor and the shame of colonisation. However, seafood has remained an important part of the diet in coastal communities, and the consumption of fresh fish and seafood is now undergoing a resurgence all over Ireland.

In Dublin, the fish seller is celebrated in the traditional folk song Molly Malone, and in Galway the international Galway Oyster Festival is held every September. An example of a modern Irish shellfish dish is Dublin Lawyer (lobster cooked in whiskey and cream). Salmon and cod are perhaps the two most common types of fish eaten. Carrageen moss and dulse (both types of red algae) are commonly used in Irish seafood dishes.

Seaweed, by contrast, has always been an important part of the Irish diet and remains popular today. Two popular forms are dillisk (known in Ulster as dulse; Palmaria palmata) and Irish moss (carageen moss, Chondrus crispus, Mastocarpus stellatus).

Others
 Breakfast roll
 Drisheen—a kind of black pudding
 Irish breakfast
 Irish stew—lamb and mutton stew
 Porridge
 Spice bag

Traditional beverages

Alcoholic
 Whiskey (particularly pure pot still whiskey) such as Jameson Irish Whiskey, Paddy Whiskey, and Bushmills
 Porter or stout such as Guinness, Murphy's Irish Stout, and Beamish stout
 Irish red ale such as Smithwick's
 Lager
Irish coffee, made with strong black coffee, whiskey, sugar, and whipped cream
 Irish cream such as Baileys
 Irish Mist
 Mead
 Poitín, a very strong (often homemade) spirit made from potatoes or barley
 Cider, such as Magners / Bulmers

Non-alcoholic

 Brown lemonade (usually only found in Ulster)
 Red lemonade
 Cavan Cola
 McDaid's Football Special (usually only found in the west of Ulster)
 Irish breakfast tea
 Cidona
 Tanora
 Club

Irish chefs

 Myrtle Allen
 Darina Allen
 Rachel Allen
 Anna Haugh
 Neven Maguire
 Catherine Fulvio
 Clodagh McKenna
 Derry Clarke
 Richard Corrigan
 Denis Cotter
 Trish Deseine
 Kevin Dundon
 Dylan McGrath
 Dan Mullane
 Paul Rankin
 Kevin Thornton
 Dónal Skehan

See also

 List of Irish dishes
 European cuisine
 Galway International Oyster Festival
 Northern Irish cuisine
 St. Patrick's Day

References

Notes

Sources

 Mitchell, Frank and Ryan, Michael. Reading the Irish landscape (1998).
 National Museum of Ireland. Viking and Medieval Dublin: National Museum Excavations, 1962 – 1973. (1973).

Further reading
 Broadway, Michael. "Implementing the Slow Life in Southwest Ireland: A Case Study of Clonakilty and Local Food." Geographical Review 105.2 (2015): 216–234.
 Danaher, Pauline. "From Escoffier to Adria: Tracking Culinary Textbooks at the Dublin Institute of Technology 1941–2013." M/C Journal 16.3 (2013).
 Lucas, Anthony T. "Irish food before the potato." Gwerin: A Half-Yearly Journal of Folk Life 3.2 (1960): 8-43.
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. (2004) "The history of seafood in Irish cuisine and culture,'" History Studies, Vol. 5, University of Limerick pp. 61–76. (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/106)
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. (2008) "Searching for Chefs, Waiters and Restaurateurs in Edwardian Dublin: A Culinary Historian's Experience of the 1911 Dublin Census Online" in Petits Propos Culinaires 86. pp. 92–126. (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/1/)
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. and P. Gallagher (2009) "The Potato in Irish Cuisine and Culture" in Journal of Culinary Science and Technology Vol. 7, Issues 2–3, pp. 1–16 (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/3/)
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. (2010) "The Pig in Irish Cuisine and Culture" in MC Journal – the Journal of Media and Culture, Vol. 13, No. 5. (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/2/)
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. (2010) "Irish Corned Beef: A Culinary History" in Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, Vol. 9, No. 2. (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/23/)
 Mac Con Iomaire, M. (2011) "The Changing Geography and Fortunes of Dublin's Haute Cuisine Restaurants 1958-2008," in Food, Culture & Society: An International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, Vol. 14, No. 4. pp. 525–545. (http://arrow.dit.ie/tfschafart/112/)

 Mac Con Iomaire, Máirtín. (2013) "Public dining in Dublin: The history and evolution of gastronomy and commercial dining 1700-1900." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 25.2 (2013): 227–246.

External links

Cuisine


The Center for Microbial Oceanography (C-MORE) is a research and education organization established in 2006 as a National Science Foundation funded Science and Technology Center.

Objectives
It has been said that more is known about the surface of the Moon than about the Earth’s oceans. C-MORE was designed to explore the largely unknown world of microorganisms in the sea and to educate the public and other scientists about these organisms. The motto of the center is “From genomes to biomes” meaning that the researchers want to look at how the diversity of microbes in the ocean influences the structure and function of the world’s largest biome, the ocean.

Background
The center was initially proposed, and is now directed by Professor David Karl, of the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. C-MORE has affiliated researchers working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute, Oregon State University, the University of California, Santa Cruz, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.  C-MORE is the only one of NSF’s 17 Science and Technology Centers that focuses on microbial oceanography.

Research
C-MORE scientists want to understand biological processes that begin at microscopic scales and are expressed in vitally significant issues such as climate change. Areas of research range from genomic surveys, to studies of the genetic basis of marine microbial biogeochemistry to building ecosystem models. One of the strengths of the Center is its seagoing capability, as well as the long term studies that have been conducted by the Hawaii Ocean Time-series (HOT) Program in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. In addition to extensive laboratory experimentation, C-MORE also stages cruises to examine marine microbes in their environment. One example was the SUPER HI-CAT cruise, which was the first effort to study the microbiology associated with the plastic particles in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

Education
C-MORE is active in increasing scientific literacy about microbial oceanography among the general population, as well as training microbial oceanographers. C-MORE has undergraduate internships  as well as a summer graduate training course (the Agouron Course). C-MORE also provides resources for K-12 educators, such as training workshops, science kits, and a teacher at sea program.

References

External links
Cmore.soest.edu: C-MORE—Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education website — based at SOEST, UH Manoa.
 Soest.edu: SOEST—School of Ocean and Earth Science Technology website  — at UH Manoa.
Soest.edu: Agouron Institute, Microbial Oceanography (summer course) —  at UH Manoa.

2006 establishments in Hawaii
2006 establishments in the United States
Research institutes in Hawaii
Oceanographic organizations
Biological oceanography
Education in Honolulu
Environmental microbiology
Genetics or genomics research institutions
Microbiology organizations
National Science Foundation
University of Hawaiʻi
Research institutes established in 2006
Massachusetts Institute of Technology research institutes
Oregon State University
University of California, Santa Cruz
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution


Khemdarra is a village in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. It is located at 34°48'0N 72°15'0E with an altitude of 1047 metres (3438 feet). Neighbouring settlements include Kabbal and Dagai.

References

Villages in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa


2010 Olympics torch relay may refer to:
 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay, part of the 2010 Winter Olympics held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
 2010 Winter Olympics torch relay route, the route taken by the torch relay
 2010 Summer Youth Olympics torch relay, part of the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics held in Singapore


Nymphaion () can refer to:

Non-municipal objects
 Nymphaeum, a type of monument in Antiquity
 Nymphaeum, the name of Aristotle's Macedonian school at Mieza
 Nymphaeum (Olympia), the name of a structure for distributing water from an aqueduct to the entire site of ancient Olympia
 Nymphaion (fire sanctuary), the name given to the sanctuary of the eternal fire in Illyria
 Nymphaion (cave), a cave where worshipers of Pan went.

Municipal objects
 Nymphaeum, alternate name of Daphne Mainomene, an ancient town on the Bosphorus
 Nymphaeum (Bithynia), a town on the Black Sea coast of ancient Bithynia
 Nymphaeum (Caria), an inland town of ancient Caria
 Nymphaeum (Cilicia), a town on the Mediterranean coast of ancient Cilicia
 Nymphaeum (Illyria), an ancient Greek colony in Illyria
 Nymphaion (Crimea), an ancient Greek colony in the Crimea
 Nymphaion (Ionia), an ancient Greek colony in western Anatolia
 Nymphaeum (Laconia), an ancient Greek town in Laconia
 Nymfaio, a village in Florina regional unit, Greece


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USS Metivier (DE-582) was a Rudderow-class destroyer escort in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was sold for scrapping in 1969.

Namesake
Joseph Erene Henry Metivier was born on 25 February 1920 in Plainfield, Connecticut. He enlisted in the Navy at New Haven, Connecticut on 17 September 1940. He was on board the  when it intercepted German blockade runner Karin in the South Atlantic on 10 March 1943. One of a 14‑man boarding party from Eberle attempting to salvage the ship, he was killed when demolition charges set by the Germans exploded. Coxswain Metivier was posthumously awarded the Silver Star.

 Construction and service Metivier was laid down by Bethlehem-Hingham Shipyard, Inc., Hingham, Massachusetts, 24 November 1943; launched 12 January 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Joseph Metivier, mother of Coxswain Metivier; and commissioned 7 April 1944.Metivier departed Boston Navy Yard 3 June for Norfolk, Virginia, arriving 2 days later for schoolship duty. On the 23rd the escort got underway from Norfolk escorting a convoy of 91 ships to North Africa, arriving off Bizerte, Tunisia, 14 July. In August she returned to the east coast, entering Norfolk channel the 31st. On 1 September she began another voyage to the Mediterranean Sea, ending at New York City 17 October.

Assigned to the 7th Fleet, Metivier steamed from New Jersey, 3 November for New Guinea, via the Panama Canal; Bora Bora, Societies; and Guadalcanal, Solomons, reaching Hollandia on 11 December. She then began 8 months of escort, supply, patrol, and screen duty. The escort ship supported the landings at Lingayen Gulf (9 January) and Subic Bay (29 January) in the Philippines and the invasion of Okinawa beginning 4 May, among other operations in the South Pacific ultimately leading to the Japanese surrender 14 August.

Detached from the Philippine Sea Frontier 31 August, Metivier got underway with Task Group 70.3 for Okinawa, reporting at Buckner Bay 5 September for escort service to and from Jinsen (now Incheon), Korea. In late October, she steamed for the west coast, via Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, arriving San Diego, California on 8 November.

That same day she reported to the 16th (Inactive Reserve) Fleet there. She decommissioned 1 June 1946 and in January 1947 entered the Pacific Fleet at San Diego. By 1 January 1959 Metivier had moved to the berthing area at Stockton, California. On 30 June 1968, Metivier was struck from the Naval Register and was prepared to be sold for scrap.Metivier'' received three battle stars for World War II service.

References

External links

Photo gallery at Navsource.org

Rudderow-class destroyer escorts
1944 ships


Sirsanai, also spelt Sarsinai, is a village in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is located at 34°49'0N 72°17'0E with an altitude of 911 metres (2992 feet). Neighbouring settlements include Khemdarra and Kabbal.

References

Villages in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa


William Coward (1657?–1725) was an English physician, controversial writer, and poet. He is now remembered for his sceptical writings on the soul, which Parliament condemned as blasphemous and ordered to be burned in his presence.

Life
He was born at Winchester in 1656 or 1657. His mother was sister of John Lamphire, principal of Hart Hall, Oxford. In May 1674 Coward was admitted as a commoner of Hart Hall; and in 1675 a scholar of Wadham College. He proceeded B.A. in 1677, and in January 1679-1680 was elected fellow of Merton College.

In 1682 he published a Latin version of John Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel (1681). It was eclipsed by a contemporary version published by Francis Atterbury, and Coward was ridiculed. In 1683 Coward became M.A., in 1685 M.B., and in 1687 M.D. He practised in Northampton; and in 1693 or 1694 settled in Lombard Street, London, having to leave Northampton in consequence of immorality, according to Thomas Hearne.
Coward left London about 1705, and in 1718 was residing at Ipswich, whence in 1722 he wrote to Sir Hans Sloane, offering to submit an epitaph upon the Duke of Marlborough to the duchess, who was said to have offered 500l. for such a performance. He was admitted a candidate of the College of Surgeons on 5 July 1695, and remained in that position till 1725, when the absence of his name from the lists proves that he must have been dead.

Controversial writings
In 1702 Coward published, under the pseudonym "Estibius Psychalethes", Second Thoughts concerning Human Soul, demonstrating the notion of human soul as believed to be a spiritual, immortal substance united to a human body to be a plain heathenish invention ... the ground of many absurd and superstitious opinions, abominable to the reformed churches and derogatory in general to true Christianity. His argument was possibly suggested by John Locke's speculation as to the possibility that a power of thinking might be 'superadded' to matter. He maintains, partly upon scriptural arguments, that there is no such thing as a separate soul, but that immortal life will be conferred upon the whole man at the resurrection.

Replies were made in William Nichols's Conference with a Theist, John Turner's Vindication of the Separate Existence of the Soul, and John Broughton's Psychologia. Locke, in letters to Anthony Collins, speaks contemptuously both of the Psychologia and of Coward's next work, The Grand Essay; or a Vindication of Reason and Religion against Impostures of Philosophy, to which was appended an Epistolary reply to the Psychologia. After the publication of this, a complaint was made in the House of Commons, 10 March 1704. A committee was appointed to examine Coward's books. Coward was called to the bar and professed his readiness to recant anything contrary to religion or morality.

The house voted that the books contained offensive doctrines, and ordered them to be burnt by the common hangman. The proceeding increased the notoriety of Coward's books; and in the same year he published another edition of the Second Thoughts. In 1706 (apparently) appeared The Just Scrutiny; or a serious enquiry into the modern notions of the soul.

Henry Dodwell's Epistolary Discourse, &c. in support of the natural mortality of the soul, appeared in 1706, and led to a controversy with Samuel Clarke and Anthony Collins. Coward distinguishes his own position from Dodwell's and attacks Clarke.

In 1706 Coward also published his Ophthalmoiatria, chiefly medical, but in which he ridicules the Cartesian notion of an immaterial soul residing in the pineal gland. Sir Hans Sloane corrected the proofs, and that in spite of Sloane's remonstrances Coward declined to conceal his opinions. Jonathan Swift and other contemporaries frequently ridicule Coward in company with John Toland, Collins, and other deists.

Other works
Coward published two poetical works, The Lives of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, an heroic poem (1705), which seems to have disappeared; and Licentia Poetica discussed ... to which are added critical observations on . . . Homer, Horace, Virgil, Milton, Cowley, Dryden, &c. (1709). Commendatory verses by Aaron Hill and John Gay are prefixed. It is a didactic performance in the taste of the day, with an apparatus of preface, notes, and political appendix. His medical works are : 1. De Fermento volatili nutritivo conjectura rationis, &c. (1695)). 2. Alcali Vindicatium (1698). 3. Remediorum Medicinalium Tabula (1704). 4. Ophthalmoiatria, &c. (1706).

Notes

References

Further reading
Ann Thomson, Bodies of Thought: Science, Religion, and the Soul in the Early Enlightenment, 2008

1657 births
1725 deaths
17th-century English medical doctors
18th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of Merton College, Oxford


Guljabba is a village in Swat [Swat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa] . It is located at 34°48'0N 72°17'30E with an altitude of 880 metres (2890 feet). Neighbouring settlements include [Hazara, in Swat] and [Kabbal].Guljaba is represented by Angar Football Club Guljaba in tournaments in and around Swat Valley

References

Populated places in Swat District


John Ward Knowles (1838–1931) was a prominent British York-based stained-glass manufacturer, and commentator on local art and music.

Family
Knowles may have been related to the civil engineer George Knowles (c. 1776-1856june23: will 1856aug13,  ref PROB 11/2237/206), who designed Scarborough's spa promenade and South Cliff Gardens. His brother was William Knowles (1846nov3-1908sep7).

His son John Alder Knowles (1881-1961) continued the craft traditions but also moved with the times. He spent some time studying glass manufacturing methods in the USA before the First World War. Enthused by the work of Tiffany, he attempted an English version of the famous lamps, but charming though his prototypes were, they lacked the delicacy of the originals and failed to catch on.

Career
After training in art, Knowles dabbled in photography. In 1869 John Ward Knowles took the premises at No.41, (The Star Inn) previously the house of Mr Robinson, Hosier. According to his notes he moved there in 1869 and he is shown there in the 1871 & 1872 Directories. His granddaughter, Jill Murray, thinks he was there about 5 years. She mentions that he did a lot of work on the house and took a room over one of the stables in the yard and turned it into a painting room.  He removed into No.23 (The Sign of the Bible, now No.35), almost opposite on Stonegate, on his marriage to Jane Annakind in 1874. It then became a Knowles family home for the next one hundred and twenty years. He renovated the building which became a hub of artistic endeavour with workshops producing not only stained glass but all kinds of ecclesiastical decoration including beautiful embroideries and tapestry work produced by the Knowles daughters.

The building still retains much of Knowles' work, installed when he lived here including a collection of priceless late Victorian and Edwardian stained glass.

Knowles continued to live and work here until his death at the age of 93 and his sons continued the business up to 1953. The building remained in the Knowles family until 1999 when it was purchased by Jonathan Cainer to become the world's first psychic museum.

Works

 Knowles archives at Borthwick Institute
 Knowles papers at York City Archives.
 "Splendour by the seaside" in Scarborough
 York Minster

Sheriff Hutton church

English stained glass artists and manufacturers
1838 births
1931 deaths


Events in the year 1799 in Norway.

Incumbents
Monarch: Christian VII

Events
  The coffee manufacturer Friele is established in Bergen.

Arts and literature

Births
28 October - Ole Gabriel Gabrielsen Ueland, politician (d.1870)
14 November - Ole Edvard Buck, politician (d.1843)

Full date unknown
Jens Henrik Beer, politician
Peter Bøyesen, businessperson and politician (d.1867)
Borger Christophersen Hoen, politician
Peder Rasmus Lyng, politician
Ole Christensen Walstad, politician

Deaths

See also


Ghojalai is a village in Swat District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It is at an altitude of . The village is located  north of the capital, Islamabad. Neighbouring settlements include Kabbal and Ghamjaba.

References

Populated places in Swat District