The Electra Havemeyer Webb Memorial Building is an exhibit building located at the Shelburne Museum in Shelburne, in the U.S. state of Vermont. It was built as a memorial to the museum's founder, Electra Havemeyer Webb, and her husband, James Watson Webb II. It is home to the museum's European Paintings Collection. The collection is shown in six period rooms relocated from Electra and J. Watson Webb's 1930s New York City apartment at 740 Park Avenue.

History
In 1960, Electra Havemeyer Webb's children erected the Electra Havemeyer Webb Memorial Building in honor of the museum founder. Completed in 1967, the Memorial Building's silhouette duplicates that of the 1843 Wilcox-Cutts House in Orwell, Vermont. The Memorial Building represents the architectural idiom known as Greek Revival. It was a style pervasive in the United States, gaining prominence in the second quarter of the 19th century and reaching its peak of popularity by 1850.

Drawing inspiration from Grecian temples, Greek Revival architects adopted the rectangular structure of colonial houses and reoriented it so that the triangular gables would run parallel, rather than perpendicular, to the road. Anchoring the pedimented facade with a heavily columned, often two-storied porch, and sometimes flanking the main gable with mirroring wings, such as in the Memorial Building, architects achieved the proportion and symmetry of the ancient structures that inspired them.

Collections

Bronze sculptures
The Shelburne Museum's bronze collection focuses on small decorative bronzes. Bronze castings of exotic animals by French artist Antoine-Louis Barye can be seen in the Electra Havemeyer Webb Memorial Building. His small sculptures of elephants, crocodiles and lions are displayed in the library. Barye spent hours at the Paris zoo sketching the anatomy of animals to accurately reproduce them in bronze. His sculpture elephant and driver, located in the foyer captures the rough skin of an elephant and the contrasting soft cloth costume of his driver.

On the first floor, there are two Edgar Degas bronzes. The horse and rider combinations were originally modeled in wax and later cast in bronze (after the artist's death in 1917). Degas' studies of horses and jockeys was a way to explore the effects of form, space, and motion.

In the basement of the Electra Havemeyer Webb Memorial Building there is a collection of 19th and 20th century American bronzes. It features work by such western artists as Charles Marion Russell and Harry Jackson; these artists, who often served as cowhands and guides of the western plains, modeled their work after real people and personal experiences. Their bucking broncos, cowboys, and portraits of Native Americans are romantic interpretations of a vanishing American west.

European paintings
The Shelburne Museum's collection of fine art includes objects originally in the collection of Henry O. Havemeyer and Louisine Elder Havemeyer, parents of Electra Havemeyer Webb who inherited the collection from them. The European painters still represented by the collection include Rembrandt van Rijn, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Mary Cassatt. The Havemeyers were among the first American collectors of French Impressionist painting and amassed one of the most important collections of Old Masters and Impressionist paintings on American soil.

The French artist Édouard Manet (1832–1883) felt strongly that keen observation made a great painter. A brilliant technician who used broad strokes of paint as comfortably as he did minute dabs of color, Manet explored ideas about light that set the stage for the Impressionist movement. He completed Blue Venice while touring Italy in 1874. His dashes of paint create the effect of sunlight sparkling on water; on the gondolier, Manet used multiple strokes of color to create a three-dimensional effect.

Claude Monet (1840–1926), a prominent leader of the Impressionist movement, stressed the importance of working outdoors and letting art illustrate the color and movement of the natural environment. Five landscapes by Monet are included in the museum's collection. In the 1880s and 1890s Monet captured the changing effects of natural light by creating series of paintings of the same subject in different weather and light conditions. His Haystacks in the Snow is part of a series of over thirty paintings of haystacks.

Pastels, soft, colorful chalks, were perfected by the French in the 19th century. Edgar Degas is considered one of the founders of Impressionism though he preferred to be considered a Realist. Degas's work differed from other Impressionists; while Monet concentrated on the effects of light and shadow, Degas focused on unusual perspectives and complex formal structures. The Shelburne Museum has seven Degas works in the collection, which can be seen in the Electra Havemeyer Webb Memorial Building.

Mary Cassatt, the one American Impressionist in the collection, had close ties to the Havemeyer and Webb families. Louisine Elder Havemeyer, Electra Havemeyer Webb's mother, was a close friend to Cassatt, who played a large role in shaping the Havemeyers' French Impressionist collection. The Memorial Building includes a Cassatt portrait of the museum's founder, Electra Havemeyer Webb, and her mother Louisine Elder Havemeyer.

Furniture
The Shelburne Museum's furniture collection represents the different styles and tastes of 18th and 19th century America. It includes examples of the most sophisticated urban furniture produced in the nation as well as many simpler pieces made by country cabinetmakers for use in rural homes. These country pieces include one of the greatest strengths of the museum – its collection of paint-decorated furniture.

During the American industrial revolution (ca. 1865-1900) the furniture industry, like every other major industry, was mechanized. Individual craftspeople and designers like Louis Comfort Tiffany, whose work can be seen in the Memorial Building, continued to work for upper class patrons, but inexpensive, factory-made chairs, tables, beds, and stands flooded an eager market of middle-class Victorians. The popularity of carved decoration and elaborate upholstery, characteristic of the period, can be seen on the furniture displayed in the parlor of the Lighthouse and on the promenade deck of the Ticonderoga steamboat.

References

 Hamlin, Talbot and Sarah Hull Jenkins Simpson Hamlin. Greek Revival Architecture in America. 1964.
 Kemmedy, Roger G. Greek Revival America. AIA, 1992.
 Shelburne Museum website
 National Register of Historic Places

Shelburne Museum
Greek Revival houses in Vermont
Buildings and structures completed in 1967


Roger William Smith (born 19 February 1945) is an English former footballer and football manager.

A versatile player, he played 92 league games in a five-year career in the English Football League with Walsall and Port Vale, spending the 1965–66 season with Vale either side of two spells with Walsall. He then went to make 286 appearances over the course of six seasons in the Southern League with Nuneaton Borough. He later played for Atherstone Town, before briefly taking the management reins at Tamworth between April 1986 and February 1987.

Playing career

Walsall and Port Vale
Smith began his career with Walsall after leaving Tamworth Grammar School. Bill Moore's "Saddlers" were relegated out of the Second Division in 1962–63, and struggled to avoid the relegation zone of the Third Division in 1963–64 and 1964–65. He scored twice in 53 appearances for the Fellows Park side. He dropped down to the Fourth Division when he joined Port Vale in July 1965. He was a first team regular at Vale Park throughout the 1965–66 season until he suffered an ankle injury in March 1966. He was released by manager Jackie Mudie in July 1966, having scored six goals in 33 league and cup games for the "Valiants", and immediately returned to former club to Walsall. Under the stewardship of Ray Shaw, the club posted a 12th-place finish in the Third Division in 1966–67. He then left the club for a second time.

Nuneaton Borough
Nuneaton Borough secretary-manager Dudley Kernick won his signature, having approached the player unsuccessfully the previous year. He settled in well at the club and the goal he scored in a 2–0 home win over Dover on 11 March 1968 was "one of the best seen at Manor Park for a long time" as he took the ball from the half-way line to strike the ball into the net from  out. He scored five goals from 50 appearances in the 1967–68 season as "Boro" posted a 15th-place finish in the Southern League Premier Division. A versatile player, able to play full-back, on the wings or as a forward, he scored three goals in 49 games in the 1968–69 campaign as Nuneaton moved up to 11th in the league. However he missed the last six weeks of the season after being diagnosed with jaundice. He returned to fitness in October 1969 and returned to his now familiar full-back role, ending the 1969–70 season with 20 appearances and two goals; Nuneaton finished in the relegation zone but were handed a reprieve. He was switched to midfield for the 1970–71 season, where he made a total of 59 appearances, scoring two goals and coming second in the club's Player of the Year vote. He featured in a remarkable 67 games in the 1971–72 campaign, scoring four goals. He was given a testimonial match in the summer, along with Alan Jones, the opponents being the Nuneaton Borough team of 1966–67. He played 41 times in the 1972–73 season, before manager David Pleat organised a cash-plus-swap deal with Atherstone Town for John Flannagan.

Management career
He served West Midlands (Regional) League club Tamworth as manager between April 1986 and February 1987.

Career statistics
Source:

References

1945 births
Living people
Footballers from Tamworth, Staffordshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Men's association football wingers
Men's association football forwards
Walsall F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Nuneaton Borough F.C. players
Atherstone Town F.C. players
English Football League players
Southern Football League players
English football managers
Tamworth F.C. managers


Phú Hiệp may refer to several commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam, including:

Phú Hiệp, Huế, a ward of Huế
Phú Hiệp, An Giang, a commune of Phú Tân District, An Giang Province
Phú Hiệp, Đồng Tháp, a commune of Tam Nông District, Đồng Tháp Province

See also
Hiệp Phú, a ward of District 9, Ho Chi Minh City
Tuy Hòa Base Camp also known as Phú Hiệp Army Airfield


The 1962 CONCACAF Youth Tournament was the first international association football championship tournament for youth national teams in the CONCACAF region, North and Central America and the Caribbean. This tournament is the forerunner of the current CONCACAF Under-20 Championship. The tournament took place in Panama City, Panama and was won by Mexico.

Teams
The following teams entered the tournament:

First round

Group A

Group B

Final round

Results

See also

 CONCACAF Under-20 Championship

References

External links
 1962 CONCACAF Youth Tournament at CONCACAF.com
 Results by RSSSF

1962 in CONCACAF football
1962
1962
1962 in youth association football
March 1962 sports events in North America


Phu Thanh may refer to several commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam, including:

Phú Thành
 Phú Thành, Hòa Bình, a commune of Lạc Thủy District
 Phú Thành, An Giang, a commune of Phú Tân District, An Giang Province
 Phú Thành, Vĩnh Long, a commune of Trà Ôn District
 Phú Thành, Nghệ An, a commune of Yên Thành District

Phú Thanh
Phú Thanh, Đồng Nai, a commune of Tân Phú District, Đồng Nai
Phú Thanh, Thanh Hóa, a commune of Quan Hóa District
Phú Thanh, Thừa Thiên-Huế, a commune of Phú Vang District

Phú Thạnh
Phú Thạnh, Tân Phú, a ward of Tân Phú District, Ho Chi Minh City
Phú Thạnh, Phú Yên, a ward of Tuy Hòa
Phú Thạnh, An Giang, a commune of Phú Tân District, An Giang Province
Phú Thạnh, Đồng Nai, a commune of Nhơn Trạch District
Phú Thạnh, Tiền Giang, a commune of Tân Phú Đông District

See also
The communes of Phú Thành A and Phú Thành B in Tam Nông District, Đồng Tháp Province


In computing, compiler correctness is the branch of computer science that deals with trying to show that a compiler behaves according to its language specification.  Techniques include developing the compiler using formal methods and using rigorous testing (often called compiler validation) on an existing compiler.

Formal verification

Two main formal verification approaches for establishing correctness of compilation are proving correctness of the compiler for all inputs and proving correctness of a compilation of a particular program (translation validation).

Compiler correctness for all input programs

Compiler validation with formal methods involves a long chain of formal, deductive logic.  However, since the tool to find the proof (theorem prover) is implemented in software and is complex, there is a high probability it will contain errors.  One approach has been to use a tool that verifies the proof (a proof checker) which, because it is much simpler than a proof-finder, is less likely to contain errors.

A prominent example of this approach is CompCert, which is a formally verified optimizing compiler of a large subset of C99.

Another verified compiler was developed in CakeML project,
which establishes correctness of a substantial subset of Standard ML programming language using the HOL (proof assistant).

Another approach to obtain a formally correct compiler is to use semantics-directed compiler generation.

Translation validation: compiler correctness on a given program

In contrast to attempting to prove that a compiler is correct for all valid input programs translation validation

aims to automatically establish that a given input program is compiled correctly. Proving correct compilation of a given program is potentially easier than proving a compiler correct for all programs, but still requires symbolic reasoning, because a fixed program may still work on arbitrarily large inputs and run for arbitrarily long amount of time.
Translation validation can reuse an existing compiler implementation by generating, for a given compilation, a proof that the compilation was correct.
Translation validation can be used even with a compiler that sometimes generates incorrect code, as long as this incorrect does not manifest itself for a given program. Depending on the input program the translation validation can fail (because the generated code is wrong or the translation validation technique is too weak to show correctness). However, if translation validation succeeds, then the compiled program is guaranteed to be correct for all inputs.

Testing

Testing represents a significant portion of the effort in shipping a compiler, but receives comparatively little coverage in the standard literature.  The 1986 edition of Aho, Sethi, & Ullman has a single-page section on compiler testing, with no named examples.  The 2006 edition omits the section on testing, but does emphasize its importance: “Optimizing compilers are so difficult to get right that we dare say that no optimizing compiler is completely error-free!  Thus, the most important objective in writing a compiler is that it is correct.”
Fraser & Hanson 1995 has a brief section on regression testing; source code is available.
Bailey & Davidson 2003 cover testing of procedure calls
A number of articles confirm that many released compilers have significant code-correctness bugs.
Sheridan 2007 is probably the most recent journal article on general compiler testing. For most purposes, the largest body of information available on compiler testing are the Fortran and Cobol validation suites.

Further common techniques when testing compilers are fuzzing (which generates random programs to try to find bugs in a compiler) and test case reduction (which tries to minimize a found test case to make it easier to understand).

See also
 Compiler
 Verification and validation (software)
 Correctness (computer science)
 CompCert C compiler—Formally verified C compiler
 Reflections on Trusting Trust

References

Compiler construction
Compiler theory


Tân Trung may refer to several rural communes in Vietnam, including:

Tân Trung, Tiền Giang, a commune of Gò Công
Tân Trung, Cà Mau, a commune of Đầm Dơi District
Tân Trung, Bến Tre, a commune of Mỏ Cày Nam District
Tân Trung, An Giang, a commune of Phú Tân District, An Giang
Tân Trung, Bắc Giang, a commune of Tân Yên District


Agnes Douglas, Countess of Argyll (1574 – 3 May 1607) was a Scottish noblewoman and the first wife of Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll. She was the mother of three of his children, including his heir, Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, the de facto head of the government in Scotland throughout most of the conflict known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Lady Agnes was considered so beautiful that she was described as a "pearl of Lochleven".

Family
Lady Agnes Douglas was born at Lochleven Castle, Scotland, in 1574, one of the eleven children of Sir William Douglas, 6th Earl of Morton, and Agnes Leslie. She had four brothers and six sisters. Lady Agnes and her sisters were so famed for their beauty throughout Scotland that they were known as the "pearls of Lochleven".

Her paternal grandparents were Sir Robert Douglas and Margaret Erskine, a former mistress of King James V of Scotland, and her maternal grandparents were George Leslie, 4th Earl of Rothes, and Margaret Crichton, an illegitimate daughter of Princess Margaret, the youngest sister of King James III. Her half-uncle was James Stewart, Earl of Moray, Regent of Scotland, and the illegitimate son of her grandmother, Margaret, from the latter's liaison with King James V. He was assassinated in 1570.

Before Agnes's birth, from June 1567 until her escape in May 1568, Mary, Queen of Scots, was a prisoner at Lochleven Castle, where her father served as custodian and her mother was the queen's closest female companion. The queen escaped from Lochleven with the aid of George Douglas, Agnes's uncle, and Willy Douglas, a cousin who was resident at the castle.

Her father succeeded to the Earldom of Morton in 1588 as the 6th earl upon the death of his kinsman, Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Morton. The title had been forfeited in 1581 when James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, regent of Scotland, was executed and attainted for his part in the murder of Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley, in 1567. It was restored to the Douglas family in 1586.

Marriage and children
On 24 July 1592 at Dalkeith Palace, she married, as his first wife, Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll, the son of Colin Campbell, 6th Earl of Argyll, and Agnes Keith. Agnes, who was a Roman Catholic, was instrumental in her husband's later decision to convert to the Catholic faith in 1618, eleven years after her death. Despite Agnes's religion, he commanded the royal troops which fought against the Catholic rebels led by George Gordon, 1st Marquess of Huntly, in the Battle of Glenlivet on 3 October 1594. Argyll's forces were defeated by the numerically smaller forces of Huntly.

The marriage produced three children:
 Lady Annabel Campbell (died 1652), married Robert Kerr, 2nd Earl of Lothian, by whom she had two daughters.
 Lady Anne Campbell (died 14 June 1638), married George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Huntly, by whom she had seven children.
 Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll (April 1607 – 27 May 1661), de facto head of government in Scotland during most of the conflict known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, and the most influential member of the Covenanter movement during the English Civil War. In 1626 married Lady Margaret Douglas (1610–1678), by whom he had four children, including his heir, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll. He was executed in 1661 by the orders of King Charles II of England on charges of High Treason. His head was exposed on top of the Tolbooth.

In January 1600 she imprisoned Thomas Alexander of Balruidy in Castle Campbell, who her lawyer and John Archibald, Captain of Castle Campbell, claimed was a sheep rustler.

Agnes died on 3 May 1607, a month after the birth of her only son, Archibald.

She was buried at Kilmun Parish Church. Her husband married secondly, on 30 November 1610, Anne Cornwallis, by whom he had three more children.

Agnes Douglas in art
In 1599, when she was twenty-five years old, Agnes's portrait was painted by Flemish artist Adrian Vanson. It is displayed in the National Gallery of Scotland.

Ancestors

Notes

References
 Antonia Fraser, Mary, Queen of Scots, Dell Publishing Co., Inc., New York, March 1971; originally published by Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1969

 Historical Records, Family of Leslie 1067- 1868–69, printed by R. Clark for Edmonston and Douglas, Edinburgh, retrieved on 25 March 2009

1574 births
1607 deaths
Scottish countesses
Scottish Roman Catholics
Burials at the Argyll Mausoleum
16th-century Scottish people
16th-century Scottish women
17th-century Scottish people
17th-century Scottish women
Daughters of Scottish earls


Ángel Martín González (born 28 April 1964) is a Spanish former footballer who played mostly as a defensive midfielder.

Playing career
Born in Madrid, Martín González was brought up in the Real Madrid youth system, and would subsequently represent Spain at various youth levels. Having been almost exclusively associated with the club's reserves during his spell, he was loaned to fellow La Liga side CA Osasuna in January 1986. He only appeared in five matches in his first season in Navarre but was instrumental in helping the team to avoid relegation in the last round at the expense of Valencia CF, following a 1–1 home draw against Atlético Madrid.

Martín González became an undisputed starter from the 1988–89 campaign onwards. Alongside namesake Martín Domínguez, he helped to a fourth-place finish in 1990–91 – playing all but one of the games – with the subsequent qualification for the UEFA Cup.

After a final season with Osasuna, filled with injuries and spent in the Segunda División, Martín González returned to the capital in summer 1995 with lowly Rayo Vallecano, for a further two top-flight years, being relegated in his second. He retired in June 1997, at age 33.

Post-retirement
Immediately after retiring, Martín González returned to Osasuna as an assistant coach and director of football (accumulating in some seasons). He was briefly fired in October 2003 but later returned, now in only the latter capacity; he occupied that position for several years, leaving the El Sadar Stadium in August 2013.

Martín González was appointed at Real Zaragoza of the second tier on 30 July 2014, still as a sporting director. In December 2015, he left the club.

In the following years, in the same role, Martín González worked with Real Oviedo, Getafe CF and SD Huesca.

References

External links

1964 births
Living people
Spanish men's footballers
Footballers from Madrid
Men's association football midfielders
La Liga players
Segunda División players
Real Madrid Castilla footballers
Real Madrid CF players
CA Osasuna players
Rayo Vallecano players
Spain men's youth international footballers
Spain men's under-21 international footballers
Real Oviedo non-playing staff


Robert Reach (August 28, 1843 – May 19, 1922) was an American professional baseball player born in Brooklyn, New York.  He played shortstop in three games during a two season span in the National Association, from 1872 to 1873.  Reach had previously played for the 1869 Olympics, and the 1868 Philadelphia Keystones teams when they were in the amateur National Association.  He played two games for the 1872 Washington Olympics, collecting two hits in eight at bats, and scored one run.  Then, in 1873, he played one game for the Washington Blue Legs, collecting one hit in five at bats, while scoring one run.  In total, he batted 13 times, had three hits, scored two runs, and had a .231 batting average.

His brother, Al Reach, played five seasons for the Philadelphia Athletics of the National Association.  It is very likely that Reach was an American Civil War veteran.  Reach died in Springfield, Massachusetts at the age of 78, and is interred at Oak Grove Cemetery.

References

External links

1843 births
1922 deaths
Baseball players from New York (state)
Major League Baseball shortstops
Philadelphia Keystones (NABBP) players
Washington Olympics (NABBP) players
Washington Olympics players
Washington Blue Legs players
Baseball players from Brooklyn
19th-century baseball players


Underground Productions, Inc. is a Boston, Massachusetts, United States, based music production company that has been operating since 1990.

The company was founded by Dow Brain and Brad Young whose credits include writing and producing five Billboard certified Platinum and Gold albums and singles. Their work also includes writing and producing the number one selling single “Summer Girls”, recorded by LFO on Arista Records.

Underground's publishing arm B.U.M.P. has had over 500 music placements in films and television series. Selected television credits include: The Sopranos, America's Funniest Videos, Melrose Place, The District, MTV's Making the Band, The Oprah Winfrey Show, Scrubs and Weeds. Selected film credits include: Amreeka, Funny Money, Soul Men and Marci X.

Notes

Companies based in Boston
Music production companies
American music industry


The Prentis House, built in 1773 in Hadley, Massachusetts, by the Dickinson family, is typical of the indigenous style of saltbox architecture that developed in New England during the Colonial period and remained in use, particularly in rural areas, through the American Revolution. The Prentis House was relocated to the Shelburne Museum in Shelburne, Vermont, and furnished with 17th and 18th century period furniture and decorative arts.

Saltbox architecture developed as builders devised a simple way to enlarge a two-story frame building. The term "saltbox" refers to the structure's characteristic asymmetrical roofline that extends on one side from the peak of the roof to the first floor, thus resembling the profile of an early wooden salt container. Builders would typically position a saltbox structure so that the extended roof faced north, diminishing the impact of winter winds, while the façade windows faced south, collecting warmth from the sun.

Typical of the style, Prentis House is built around a massive central chimney. Seven flues meet on the second floor in a huge beehive-shaped formation before the chimney narrows again at the roofline.

References

External links
 Shelburne Museum website

Shelburne Museum
Historic house museums in Vermont
Saltbox architecture in the United States
Houses in Chittenden County, Vermont
Relocated buildings and structures in Vermont
Houses completed in 1773
1773 establishments in the Province of Massachusetts Bay


Jeong Jun-yeon (; born 30 April 1989) is a South Korean footballer who plays as a defender for FC Anyang.

Club career statistics

External links

1989 births
Living people
Footballers from South Jeolla Province
Men's association football defenders
South Korean men's footballers
South Korea men's under-20 international footballers
Jeonnam Dragons players
Gwangju FC players
Gimcheon Sangmu FC players
K League 1 players
K League 2 players


Tân Hưng is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Long Hưng may refer to several commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam, including:

Long Hưng, Cần Thơ, a ward of Ô Môn District
Long Hưng, An Giang, a ward of Tân Châu, An Giang
Long Hưng, Biên Hòa, a commune of Biên Hòa
Long Hưng, Gò Công, a commune of Gò Công in Tiền Giang Province
Long Hưng, Bình Phước, a commune of Phú Riềng District
Long Hưng, Hưng Yên, a commune of Văn Giang District
Long Hưng, Sóc Trăng, a commune of Mỹ Tú District
Long Hưng, Châu Thành, a commune of Châu Thành District, Tiền Giang Province

See also
The communes of Long Hưng A and Long Hưng B in Lấp Vò District, Đồng Tháp Province


Tân Hưng Đông is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Hưng Mỹ is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Bình Mỹ is a rural commune () of Củ Chi District in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

References

Communes of Vietnam
Populated places in Ho Chi Minh City


Phú Lộc may refer to several places in Vietnam:

Phú Lộc District, a rural district of Thừa Thiên-Huế Province
Phú Lộc, Sóc Trăng, a township and capital of Thạnh Trị District
Phú Lộc, Thừa Thiên–Huế, a township and capital of Phú Lộc District
Phú Lộc, An Giang, a commune of Tân Châu, An Giang
Phú Lộc, Đắk Lắk, a commune of Krông Năng District
Phú Lộc, Đồng Nai, a commune of Tân Phú District, Đồng Nai
Phú Lộc, Hà Tĩnh, a commune of Can Lộc District
Phú Lộc, Ninh Bình, a commune of Nho Quan District
Phú Lộc, Phú Thọ, a commune of Phù Ninh District
Phú Lộc, Thanh Hóa, a commune of Hậu Lộc District
Phú Lộc, Vĩnh Long, a commune of Tam Bình District


Phú Hưng, Cà Mau is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Tân Hiệp may refer to several places in Vietnam, including:

Tân Hiệp District, a rural district of Kiên Giang Province
Tân Hiệp, Biên Hòa, a ward of Biên Hòa in Đồng Nai Province
Tân Hiệp, Tân Uyên, a ward of Tân Uyên, Bình Dương
Tân Hiệp, Kiên Giang, a township and capital of Tân Hiệp District
Tân Hiệp, Tiền Giang, a township and capital of Châu Thành District, Tiền Giang
Tân Hiệp, Hóc Môn, a commune of Hóc Môn District in Ho Chi Minh City
Tân Hiệp, Quảng Nam, a commune of Hội An
Tân Hiệp, Bắc Giang, a commune of Yên Thế District
Tân Hiệp, Phú Giáo, a commune of Phú Giáo District in Bình Dương Province
Tân Hiệp, Bình Phước, a commune of Hớn Quản District
Tân Hiệp, Long Thành, a commune of Long Thành District in Đồng Nai Province
Tân Hiệp, Long An, a commune of Thạnh Hóa District
Tân Hiệp, Tây Ninh, a commune of Tân Châu District, Tây Ninh
Tân Hiệp, Trà Vinh, a commune of Trà Cú District

See also
Ngã Bảy town of Hậu Giang Province was named Tân Hiệp from its creation in 2005 to late 2006
The communes of Tân Hiệp A and Tân Hiệp B in Tân Hiệp District


Đông Thới is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Thành Trung is a rural commune () of Bình Tân District in Vĩnh Long Province, Vietnam.

References

Communes of Vinh Long province
Populated places in Vĩnh Long province


The John Olness House is a house in Kragnes Township, Clay County, Minnesota, just north of Moorhead on U.S. Route 75. The house is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as an example of a link between the farm communities and the farm-related businesses in Clay County. The architecture shows influences of the Queen Anne style, which stands out in Clay County because most buildings were in the local vernacular style. The owner, John Olness, was a successful farmer, and he also owned several businesses in the nearby community of Kragnes, including the local grain elevator and lumber yard.

The house received media attention during the 2009 Red River Flood. On March 24, 2009, owner Jeremy Kuipers discovered that the floodwaters had overcome a dike along a county road and surrounded the house. Dozens of volunteers filled sandbags and built a dike around the house. The floodwaters are expected to threaten the house for the next two weeks before subsiding.

References

External links
 A Friend's House, the current owner of the property

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Minnesota
Queen Anne architecture in Minnesota
Houses completed in 1902
Neoclassical architecture in Minnesota
Houses in Clay County, Minnesota
National Register of Historic Places in Clay County, Minnesota
1902 establishments in Minnesota


Lương Thế Tân is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Hoà Mỹ is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


A monolithic HPLC column, or monolithic column, is a column used in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).  The internal structure of the monolithic column is created in such a way that many channels form inside the column.  The material inside the column which separates the channels can be porous and functionalized.  In contrast, most HPLC configurations use particulate packed columns; in these configurations, tiny beads of an inert substance, typically a modified silica, are used inside the column. Monolithic columns can be broken down into two categories, silica-based and polymer-based monoliths. Silica-based monoliths are known for their efficiency in separating smaller molecules while, polymer-based are known for separating large protein molecules.

Technology overview
In analytical chromatography, the goal is to separate and uniquely identify each of the compounds in a substance. Alternatively, preparative scale chromatography is a method of purification of large batches of material in a production environment. The basic methods of separation in HPLC rely on a mobile phase (water, organic solvents, etc.) being passed through a stationary phase (particulate silica packings, monoliths, etc.) in a closed environment (column); the differences in reactivity among the solvent of interest and the mobile and stationary phases distinguish compounds from one another in a series of adsorption and desorption phenomena. The results are then visually displayed in a resulting chromatogram. Stationary phases are available in many varieties of packing styles as well as chemical structures and can be functionalized for added specificity. Monolithic-style columns, or monoliths, are one of many types of stationary phase structure.

Monoliths, in chromatographic terms, are porous rod structures characterized by mesopores and macropores. These pores provide monoliths with high permeability, a large number of channels, and a high surface area available for reactivity. The backbone of a monolithic column is composed of either an organic or inorganic substrate in, and can easily be chemically altered for specific applications. Their unique structure gives them several physico-mechanical properties that enable them to perform competitively against traditionally packed columns.

Historically, the typical HPLC column consists of high-purity particulate silica compressed into stainless steel tubing. To decrease run times and increase selectivity, smaller diffusion distances have been pursued. To achieve smaller diffusion distances there has been a decrease in the particle sizes. However, as the particle size decreases, the backpressure (for a given column diameter and a given volumetric flow) increases proportionally. Pressure is inversely proportional to the square of the particle size; i.e., when particle size is halved, pressure increases by a factor of four. This is because as the particle sizes get smaller, the interstitial voids (the spaces between the particles) do as well, and it is harder to push the compounds through the smaller spaces.  Modern HPLC systems are generally designed to withstand about  of backpressure in order to deal with this problem.

Monoliths also have very short diffusion distances, while also providing multiple pathways for solute dispersion. Packed particle columns have pore connectivity values of about 1.5, while monoliths have values ranging from 6 to greater than 10. This means that, in a particulate column, a given analyte may diffuse into and out of the same pore, or enter through one pore and exit through a connected pore. By contrast, an analyte in a monolith is able to enter one channel and exit through any of 6 or more different venues. Little of the surface area in a monolith is inaccessible to compounds in the mobile phase. The high degree of interconnectivity in monoliths confers an advantage seen in the low backpressures and readily achievable high flow rates.

Monoliths are ideally suited for large molecules; although the purification of larger molecules can be very time-consuming. As mentioned previously, particle sizes are decreasing in an attempt to achieve higher resolution and faster separations, which led to higher backpressures. When the smaller particle sizes are used to separate biomolecules, backpressures increase further because of the large molecule size. In monoliths, where backpressures are low and channel sizes are large, small molecule separations are less efficient. This is demonstrated by the dynamic binding capacities, a measure of how much sample can bind to the surface of the stationary phase. Dynamic binding capacities of monoliths for large molecules can be an order of ten times greater than that for particulate packings.

Monoliths exhibit no shear forces or eddying effects. High interconnectivity of the mesopores allows for multiple avenues of convective flow through the column. Mass transport of solutes through the column is relatively unaffected by flow rate. This is completely at odds to traditional particulate packings, whereby eddy effects and shear forces contribute greatly to the loss of resolution and capacity, as seen in the vanDeemter curve. Monoliths can, however, suffer from a different flow disadvantage: wall effects. Silica monoliths, especially, have a tendency to pull away from the sides of their column encasing. When this happens, the flow of the mobile phase occurs around the stationary phase as well as through it, decreasing resolution. Wall effects have been reduced greatly by advances in column construction.

Other advantages of monoliths conferred by their individual construction include greater column to column and batch to batch reproducibility. One technique of creating monolith columns is to polymerize the structure in situ. This involves filling the mold or column tubing with a mixture of monomers, a cross-linking agent, a free-radical initiator, and a porogenic solvent, then initiating the polymerization process under carefully controlled thermal or irradiating conditions. Monolithic in situ polymerization avoids the primary source of column to column variability, which is the packing procedure.

Additionally, packed particle columns must be maintained in a solvent environment and cannot be exposed to air during or after the packing procedure. If exposed to air, the pores dry out and no longer provide adequate surface area for reactivity; the column must be repacked or discarded. Further, because particle compression and packing uniformity are not relevant to monoliths, they exhibit greater mechanical robustness; if particulate columns are dropped, for example, the integrity of the column may be corrupted. Monolithic columns are more physically stable than their particulate counterparts.

Technology development

The roots of liquid chromatography extend back over a century ago to 1900, when Russian botanist Mikhail Tsvet began experimenting with plant pigments in chlorophyll. He noted that, when a solvent was applied, distinct bands appeared that migrated at different rates along a stationary phase. For this new observation, he coined the term “chromatography,” a colored picture. His first lecture on the subject was presented in 1903, but his most important contribution occurred three years later, in 1906, when the paper “Adsorption analysis and chromatographic method. Applications on the chemistry of chlorophyll,” was published. Rivalry with a colleague who readily and vocally denounced his work meant that chromatographic analysis was shelved for almost 25 years. The great irony of the matter is that it was his rival's students who later took up the chromatography banner in their work with carotins.

Greatly unchanged from Tswett's time until the 1940s, normal phase chromatography was performed by passing a gravity-fed solvent through small glass tubes packed with pellicular adsorbent beads. It was in the 1940s, however, that there was a great revolution in gas chromatography (GC). Although GC was a wonderful technique for analyzing inorganic compounds, less than 20% of organic molecules are able to be separated using this technique. It was Richard Synge, who in 1952 won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work with partition chromatography, who applied the theoretical knowledge gained from his work in GC to LC. From this revolution, the 1950s also saw the advent of paper chromatography, reversed-phase partition chromatography (RPC), and hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC). The first gels for use in LC were created using cross-linked dextrans (Sephadex) in an attempt to realize Synge's prediction that a unique single-piece stationary phase could provide an ideal chromatographic solution.

In the 1960s, polyacrylamide and agarose gels were created in a further attempt to create a single-piece stationary phase, but the purity of and stability of available components did not prove useful for implementation in the HPLC. In this decade, affinity chromatography was invented, an ultra-violet (UV) detector was used for the first time in conjunction with LC, and, most importantly, the modern HPLC was born. Csaba Horvath led the development of modern HPLC by piecing together laboratory equipment to suit his purposes. In 1968, Picker Nuclear Company marketed the first commercially available HPLC as a “Nucleic Acid Analyzer.” The following year, the first international symposia on HPLC was held, and Kirkland at DuPont was able to functionalize controlled porosity pellicular particles for the first time.

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a renewed interest in separations media with reduced interparticular void volumes. Perfusion chromatography showed, for the first time, that chromatography media could support high flow rates without sacrificing resolution. Monoliths aptly fit into this new class of media, as they exhibit no void volume and can withstand flow rates up to 9mL/minute. Polymeric monoliths as they exist today were developed independently by three different labs in the late 1980s led by Hjerten, Svec, and Tennikova. Simultaneously, bioseparations became increasingly important, and monolith technologies proved beneficial in biotechnology separations.

Though industry focus in the 1980s was on biotechnology, focus in the 1990s shifted to process engineering. While mainstream chromatographers were using 3μm particulate columns, sub-2μm columns were in research phase. The smaller particles meant better resolution and shorter run times; there was also an associated increase in backpressure. In order to withstand the pressure, a new field of chromatography came into being: UHPLC or UPLC- ultra high pressure liquid chromatography. The new instruments were able to endure pressures of up to , as opposed to conventional machines, which, as previously state, can hold up to . UPLC is an alternative solution to the same problems monolithic columns solve. Similarly to UPLC, monolith chromatography can help the bottom line by increasing sample throughput, but without the need to spend capital on new equipment.

In 1996, Nobuo Tanaka, at the Kyoto Institute of Technology, prepared silica monoliths using a colloidal suspension synthesis (aka “sol-gel”) developed by a colleague. The process is different from that used in polymeric monoliths. Polymeric monoliths, as mentioned above, are created in situ, using a mixture of monomers and a porogen within the column tubing. Silica monoliths, on the other hand, are created in a mold, undergo a significant amount of shrinkage, and are then clad in a polymeric shrink tubing like PEEK (polyetheretherketone) to reduce wall effects. This method limits the size of columns that can be produced to less than 15 cm long, and though standard analytical inner diameters are readily achieved, there is currently a trend in developing nanoscale capillary and prep scale silica monoliths.

Technology life cycle
Silica monoliths have only been commercially available since 2001, when Merck began their Chromolith campaign. The Chromolith technology was licensed from Soga and Nakanishi's group at Kyoto University. The new product won the PittCon Editors’ Gold Award for Best New Product, as well as an R&D 100 Award, both in 2001.

Individual monolith columns have a life cycle that generally exceeds that of its particulate competitors. When selecting an HPLC column supplier, column lifetime was second only to column-to-column reproducibility in importance to the purchaser. Chromolith columns, for example, have demonstrated reproducibility of 3,300 sample injections and 50,000 column volumes of mobile phase. Also important to the life cycle of the monolith is its increased mechanical robustness; polymeric monoliths are able to withstand pH ranges from 1 to 14, can endure elevated temperatures, and do not need to be handled delicately. “Monoliths are still teenagers,” affirms Frantisec Svec, a leader in the field of novel stationary phases for LC.

Industry evolution

Liquid chromatography as we know it today really got its start in 1969, when the first modern HPLC was designed and marketed as a nucleic acid analyzer.  Columns throughout the 1970s were unreliable, pump flow rates were inconsistent, and many biologically active compounds escaped detection by UV and fluorescence detectors. Focus on purification methods in the '70s morphed into faster analyses in the 1980s, when computerized controls were integrated into HPLC equipment. Higher degrees of computerization then led to emphasis on more precise, faster, automated equipment in the 1990s. Atypical of many technologies of the '60s and '70s, the emphasis in improvements was not on “bigger and better,” but on “smaller and better”. At the same time the HPLC user-interface was improving, it was critical to be able to isolate hundreds of peptides or biomarkers from ever decreasing sample sizes.

Laboratory analytical instrumentation has only been recognized as a separate and distinct industry by NAICS and SIC since 1987. This market segmentation includes not only gas and liquid chromatography, but also mass spectrometry and spectrophotometric instruments. Since first recognized as a separate market, sales of analytical laboratory equipment increased from about $3.5 billion in 1987 to more than $26 billion in 2004. Revenues in the world liquid chromatography market, specifically, are expected to grow from $3.4 billion in 2007 to $4.7 billion in 2013, with a slight decrease in spending expected in 2008 and 2009 from the worldwide economic slump and decreased or stagnant spending. The pharmaceutical industry alone accounts for 35% of all the HPLC instruments in use. The main source of growth in LC stems from biosciences and pharmaceutical companies.

Technology applications

In its earliest form, liquid chromatography was used to separate the pigments of chlorophyll by a Russian botanist. Decades later, other chemists used the procedure for the study of carotins. Liquid chromatography was then used for the isolation of small molecules and organic compounds like amino acids, and most recently has been used in peptide and DNA research. Monolith columns have been instrumental in advancing the field of biomolecular research.

In recent trade shows and international meetings for HPLC, interest in column monoliths and biomolecular applications has grown steadily, and this correlation is no coincidence. Monoliths have been shown to possess great potential in the “omics” fields- genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and pharmacogenomics, among others. The reductionist approach to understanding the chemical pathways of the body and reactions to different stimuli, like drugs, are essential to new waves of healthcare like personalized medicine.

Pharmacogenomics studies how responses to pharmaceutical products differ in efficacy and toxicity based on variations in the patient's genome; it is a correlation of drug response to gene expression in a patient. Jeremy K. Nicholson of the Imperial College, London, used a postgenomic viewpoint to understand adverse drug reactions and the molecular basis of human disesase. His group studied gut microbial metabolic profiles and were able to see distinct differences in reactions to drug toxicity and metabolism even among various geographical distributions of the same race. Affinity monolith chromatography provides another approach to drug response measurements. David Hage at the University of Nebraska binds ligands to monolithic supports and measures the equilibrium phenomena of binding interactions between drugs and serum proteins. A monolith-based approach at the University of Bologna, Italy, is currently in use for high-speed screening of drug candidates in the treatment of Alzheimer's. In 2003, Regnier and Liu of Purdue University described a multi-dimensional LC procedure for identifying single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in proteins. SNPs are alterations in the genetic code that can sometimes cause changes in protein conformation, as is the case with sickle cell anemia. Monoliths are particularly useful in these kinds of separations because of their superior mass transport capabilities, low backpressures coupled with faster flow rates, and relative ease of modification of the support surface.

Bioseparations on a production scale are enhanced by monolith column technologies as well. The fast separations and high resolving power of monoliths for large molecules means that real-time analysis on production fermentors is possible. Fermentation is well known for its use in making alcoholic beverages, but is also an essential step in the production of vaccines for rabies and other viruses. Real-time, on-line analysis is critical for monitoring of production conditions, and adjustments can be made if necessary. Boehringer Ingelheim Austria has validated a method with cGMP (commercial good manufacturing practices) for production of pharmaceutical-grade DNA plasmids. They are able to process 200L of fermentation broth on an 800mL monolith. At BIA Separations, processing time of the tomato mosaic virus decreased considerably from the standard five days of manually intensive work to equivalent purity and better recovery in only two hours with a monolith column. Other viruses have been purified on monoliths as well.

Another area of interest for HPLC is forensics. GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) is generally considered the gold standard for forensic analysis. It is used in conjunction with online databases for rapid analysis of compounds in tests for blood alcohol, cause of death, street drugs, and food analysis, especially in poisoning cases. Analysis of buprenorphine, a heroin substitute, demonstrated the potential utility of multidimensional LC as a low-level detection method. HPLC methods can measure this compound at 40 ng/mL, compared to GC-MS at 0.5 ng/mL, but LC-MS-MS can detect buprenorphine at levels as low as 0.02 ng/mL. The sensitivity of multidimensional LC is therefore 2000 times greater than that of conventional HPLC.

Industry applications

The liquid chromatography marketplace is incredibly diverse. Five to ten firms are consistently market leaders, yet nearly half of the market is made up of small, fragmented companies. This section of the report will focus on the roles that a few companies have had in bringing monolith column technologies to the commercial market.

In 1998, start-up biotechnology company BIA Separations of Ljubljana, Slovenia, came into being. The technology was originally developed by Tatiana Tennikova and Frantisek Svec during a collaboration between their respective institutes. The patent for these columns was acquired by BIA Separations and Ales Podgornik and Milos Barut developed the first commercially available monolith column in the form of a short disc encapsulated in a plastic housing. Trademarked CIM, BIA Separations has since introduced full lines of reversed-phase, normal-phase, ion-exchange, and affinity polymeric monoliths. Ales Podgornik and Janez Jancar then went on to develop large scale tube monolithic columns for industrial use. The largest column currently available is 8L. In May 2008, LC instrumentation powerhouse Agilent technologies agreed to market BIA Separations’ analytical columns based on monolith technology. Agilent's commercialized the columns with strong and weak ion exchange phases and Protein A in September 2008 when they unveiled their new Bio-Monolith product line at the BioProcess International conference.

While BIA Separations was the first to commercially market polymeric monoliths, Merck KGaA was the first company to market silica monoliths. In 1996, Tanaka and coworkers at the Kyoto Institute of Technology published extensive work on silica monolith technologies. Merck was later issued a license from Kyoto Institute of Technology to develop and produce the silica monoliths. Promptly thereafter, in 2001, Merck introduced its Chromolith line of monolithic HPLC columns at analytical instrumentation trade show PittCon. Initially, says Karin Cabrera, senior scientist at Merck, the high flow rate was the selling point for the Chromolith line. Based on customer feedback, though, Merck soon learned that the columns were more stable and longer-lived than particle-packed columns. The columns were the recipients of various new product awards. Difficulties in production of the silica monoliths and tight patent protection have precluded attempts by other companies at developing a similar product. It has been noted that there are more patents concerning how to encapsulate the silica rod than there are on the manufacture of the silica itself.

Historically, Merck has been known for its superior chemical products, and, in liquid chromatography, for the purity and reliability of its particulate silica. Merck is not known for its LC columns. Five years after the introduction of its Chromolith line, Merck made a very strategic marketing decision. They granted a worldwide sublicense of the technology to a small (less than $100M in sales), innovative company well known for its cutting-edge column technology: Phenomenex. This was a superior strategic move for two reasons. As mentioned above, Merck is not well known for its column manufacturing. Furthermore, having more than one silica monolith manufacturer serves to better validate the technology. Having sublicensed the technology from Merck, Phenomenex introduced its Onyx product line in January 2005.

On the other side of monolith technologies are the polymerics. Unlike the inorganic silica columns, the polymer monoliths are made of an organic polymer base. Dionex, traditionally known for its ion chromatography capabilities, has led this side of the field. In the 1990s, Dionex first acquired a license for the polymeric monolith technology developed by leading monolithic chromatography researcher Frantisec Svec while he was at Cornell University. In 2000, they acquired LC Packings, whose competencies were in LC column packings. LC Packings/Dionex revealed their first monolithic capillary column at the Montreux LC-MS Conference. Earlier that year, another company, Isco, introduced a polystyrene divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) monolith column under the brand SWIFT. In January 2005, Dionex was sold the rights to Teledyne Isco's SWIFT media products, intellectual property, technology, and related assets. Though the core competencies of Dionex have traditionally been in ion chromatography, through strategic acquisitions and technology transfers, it has quickly established itself as the primary producer of polymeric monoliths.

Economic impact

Though the many advances of HPLC and monoliths are highly visible within the confines of the analytical and pharmaceutical industries, it is unlikely that general society is aware of these developments. Currently, consumers may witness technology developments in the analytical sciences industry in the form of a broader array of available pharmaceutical products of higher purity, advanced forensic testing in criminal trials, better environmental monitoring, and faster returns on medical tests. In the future, presumably, this may not be the case. As medicine becomes more individualized over time, consumer awareness that something is improving their quality of care seems more likely. The further thought that monoliths or HPLC are involved is unlikely to concern the general public, however.

There are two main cost drivers behind technological change in this industry. Though many different analytical areas use LC, including food and beverage industries, forensics labs, and clinical testing facilities, the largest impetus toward technology developments comes from the research and development and production arms of the pharmaceutical industry. The areas in which high-throughput monolithic column technologies are likely to have the largest economic impact are R&D and downstream processing.

From the Research and Development field comes the desire for more resolved, faster separations from smaller sample quantities. The only phase of drug development under direct control of a pharmaceutical company is the R&D stage. The goal of analytical work is to obtain as much information as possible from the sample. At this stage, high-throughput and analysis of tiny sample quantities are critical. Pharmaceutical companies are looking for tools that will better enable them to measure and predict the efficacy of candidate drugs in shorter times and with less expensive clinical trials. To this end, nano-scale separations, highly automated HPLC equipment, and multi-dimensional chromatography have become influential.

The prevailing method to increase the sensitivity of analytical methods has been multi-dimensional chromatography. This practice uses other analysis techniques in conjunction with liquid chromatography. For example, mass spectrometry (MS) has very much gained in popularity as an on-line analytical technique following HPLC. It is limited, however, in that MS, like nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) or electrospray ionization techniques (ESI), is only feasible when using very small quantities of solute and solvent; LC-MS is used with nano or capillary scale techniques, but cannot be used in prep-scale. Another tactic for increasing selectivity in multi-dimensional chromatography is to use two columns with different selectivity orthogonally; ie... linking an ion exchange column to a C18 endcapped column. In 2007, Karger reported that, through multi-dimensional chromatography and other techniques, starting with only about 12,000 cells containing 1-4μg of protein, he was able to identify 1867 unique proteins. Of those, Karger can isolate 4 that may be of interest as cervical cancer markers. Today, liquid chromatographers using multi-dimensional LC can isolate compounds at the femtomole (10−15 mole) and attomole (10−18 mole) levels.

After a drug has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the emphasis at a pharmaceutical company is on getting a product to market. This is where prep or process scale chromatography has a role. In contrast to analytical analysis, preparatory scale chromatography focuses on isolation and purity of compounds. There is a trade-off between the degree of purity of compound and the amount of time required to achieve that purity. Unfortunately, many of the preparatory or process scale solutions used by pharmaceutical companies are proprietary, due to difficulties in patenting a process. Hence, there is not a great deal of literature available. However, some attempts to address the problems of prep scale chromatography include monoliths and simulated moving beds.

A comparison of immunoglobulin protein capture on a conventional column and a monolithic column yields some economically interesting results. If processing times are equivalent, process volumes of IgG, an antibody, are 3,120L for conventional columns versus 5,538L for monolithic columns. This represents a 78% increase in process volume efficiency, while at the same time only a tenth of the media waste volume is generated. Not only is the monolith column more economically prudent when considering the value of product processing times, but, at the same time, less media is used, representing a significant reduction in variable costs.

References

External links
 “History of HPLC.” https://web.archive.org/web/20100410045845/http://kerouac.pharm.uky.edu/.

Chromatography
Scientific techniques


Phú Hiệp is a rural commune () of Tam Nông District in Đồng Tháp Province, Vietnam.

References

Populated places in Đồng Tháp province
Communes of Dong Thap province


Việt Thắng is a commune (xã) and village in Phú Tân District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Phú Thuận is a commune (xã) and village in Phú Tân District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Thạnh Phú is a commune (xã) and village in Cái Nước District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Captain Compass is a character in the DC Comics universe first appearing in 1948 in an issue of Star Spangled Comics, as a replacement for the original Robotman strip.

The early stories of naval detective Captain Compass were primarily detective fiction, but later stories included elements of the paranormal.

His design was created by artist Jimmy Thompson, though the writer who originally created him (if this was not also Thompson) is unknown.

Fictional biography
A former private detective, Mark Compass is hired by the Penny Steamship Lines shipping company as a troubleshooter. In his early appearances his adventures take places aboard the fictional SS Nautilus, but later stories have Compass in other settings. At various points in his career, he is depicted as being employed in different, generally naval contexts; for example, in one strip he is demoted to steamship captain. He fights criminals, pirates and people who live on lost islands.

Publication history
 Star Spangled Comics #83-130 (Aug. 1948 - July 1952)
 World's Finest Comics #63 (March/April 1953)
 Detective Comics #203-224 (Jan. 1954 - Oct. 1955)
 Detective Comics #500 (March 1981)

Early stories in Star Spangled Comics are almost exclusively detective fiction on the high seas. In later issues, an element of the supernatural is introduced. This first occurs in Star Spangled Comics #96, in which Captain Compass and his ship sail through a whirlpool to another dimension, or possibly time-travel. Other adventures include conflicts with mechanical whales and prehistoric dinosaurs. Though created by Jimmy Thompson, the regular penciller on these Compass strips was Paul Norris.

When Star Spangled Comics switched formats, the Captain Compass feature was replaced by one starring Doctor Thirteen The Compass feature was revived in World's Finest Comics the following year. After this, his features switches to Detective Comics, where it remained until its final entry, in Detective Comics #224 (Oct. 1955). His feature was replaced by one starring the new character Martian Manhunter.

Modern appearances
Captain Compass appeared alongside the Martian Manhunter / J'onn J'onnz when J'onnz signed onto Compass' ship to investigate the murder of a sea captain's daughter. Compass also aided the Justice League after the departure of Green Arrow.

Captain Compass appeared sporadically in subsequent issues of Detective Comics, including #500 (March 1981) where he joined forces with other detective characters such as Slam Bradley and the Human Target to solve one last case. After this issue, he appears in a DC Comics reprint set, Best of DC Digest in 1982. His grandson Martin Compass, a podcaster, appears in Detective Comics #1027 (Nov. 2020).

External links

References

Golden Age superheroes
Comics characters introduced in 1948
Fictional private investigators
Fictional sailors
Fictional United States Navy officers


Tân Phong may refer to several commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam, including:

Tân Phong, District 7, a ward of District 7, Ho Chi Minh City
Tân Phong, Biên Hòa, a ward of Biên Hòa
Tân Phong, Lai Châu, a ward of Lai Châu
Tân Phong, Thanh Hóa, a township and capital of Quảng Xương District
Tân Phong, Haiphong, a commune of Kiến Thụy District
Tân Phong, Bạc Liêu, a commune of Giá Rai
Tân Phong, Bến Tre, a commune of Thạnh Phú District
Tân Phong, Hải Dương, a commune of Ninh Giang District
Tân Phong, Sơn La, a commune of Phù Yên District
Tân Phong, Tây Ninh, a commune of Tân Biên District
Tân Phong, Thái Bình, a commune of Vũ Thư District
Tân Phong, Tiền Giang, a commune of Cai Lậy District
Tân Phong, Vĩnh Phúc, a commune of Bình Xuyên District


David Paulsen is an American television screenwriter, director and producer best known for his work on 1980s prime time soap operas Dallas (1980–1985, 1986–1988), Knots Landing (1980–1981, 1985–1986), and Dynasty (1988–1989). He also wrote and directed the slasher films Savage Weekend (1976) and Schizoid (1980).

References

External links

Living people
American male screenwriters
American soap opera writers
American television producers
American male television writers
American television writers
Year of birth missing (living people)


Việt Cường may refer to:

People
Viet Cuong (composer) (born 1990), U.S. composer

Places
Việt Cường may also refer to several commune-level subdivisions in Vietnam, including:

Việt Cường, Hưng Yên, a commune of Yên Mỹ District
Việt Cường, Yên Bái, a commune of Trấn Yên District

See also
Đoàn Việt Cường, a Vietnamese footballer


Thanh Tùng (commune)  is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
Communes of Cà Mau province


Gerard Thomas Corley Smith (30 July 1909 – 7 October 1997) is remembered chiefly for his work in protecting the unique environment of the Galápagos Islands and his support for the Charles Darwin Foundation, established in 1959. However, Corley Smith also had a long and distinguished career in Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service.

Education
The son of schoolmaster Thomas Smith of Bolton, Corley Smith was brought up in his native Lancashire. He was educated at Bolton School and attended Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a double first in modern languages. His younger brother was the author and journalist Denys Corley Smith.

Diplomat

Corley Smith joined the consular service in 1931 and was posted to Paris, Oran, Detroit, La Paz and Milan. During World War II he was in St Louis and New York, and was engaged in the effort to persuade Americans that Britain's lonely resistance to the Nazis was a grim battle for freedom that the United States should recognise to be in their interest to join.

The possibility of a full diplomatic career only opened up to Corley Smith and to others with no private means after the Eden reforms of the 1940s. He was appointed as labour attaché in Brussels in 1945, and caught the attention of Ernest Bevin, foreign secretary in the post-war Labour government. Bevin, keen to encourage closer ties with European trade unions, saw Corley Smith as well suited to work in this new area. He was posted to UN headquarters in 1949 as counsellor at the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations.

As Britain's EcoSoc representative, Corley Smith was chosen to present the case against the Soviet forced labour camps, or gulags, the existence of which was only then beginning to be revealed to the world. It was a task that predictably earned him the anger and disapproval of the Eastern Bloc delegations and their press. Much of his time in New York was taken up in drafting the UN Charter on Employment following the adoption of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Art.23), which stated inter alia: "Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment." Member states were unable to agree on the wording or the substance of the draft charter, and it was not adopted by the UN.

Corley Smith returned to Europe in 1952 and was awarded the CMG. He spent two years in Paris and five in Madrid before being appointed British ambassador to Haiti, which was ruled by François 'Papa Doc' Duvalier. With little he could do diplomatically in Haiti where, according to Graham Greene, "it was impossible to deepen the night", Corley Smith was able to develop his hobby of bird-watching.

Eventually, he was chosen as the spokesman for a number of foreign embassies to protest to Duvalier about the reign of terror and extortion by the Tonton Macoute, Duvalier's private mafia. The result was immediate denunciation as an "impertinent British colonialist", and a demand for his recall. Corley Smith regarded being thrown out of Haiti as an honour, and certainly a better fate than was usually meted out to critics of Duvalier's regime. Years later, he said: "I find it difficult to conceive of any solution to Haiti's problems. The country has been independent for two centuries now and it has never had a good leader."

His final posting was as ambassador to Ecuador, where he found many opportunities for ornithology in a country with a wide variety of climates from tropical Amazonia to the high Andes.

Evolution

In Ecuador, Corley Smith's expertise on high altitude humming-birds found on the Cotopaxi led him to become friends with Professor Jean Dorst, a French ornithologist who was also president of the newly formed Charles Darwin Foundation (CDF) for the Galápagos Islands, which Corley Smith went to visit. On the Royal Yacht Britannia he visited the islands again in 1964 with the Duke of Edinburgh, who later became patron of the foundation.

Corley Smith worked to establish a national park to protect the Galápagos environment under Ecuadorean control, and organised a British-financed study to recommend how the needs of conservation should be reconciled with the development of tourism to help the economy of the islands. Corley Smith left Ecuador in 1967, and the following year the new National Park Service of Ecuador came into existence. The newly retired ambassador was lured to join the CDF's executive council. The first council meeting he attended was in England, at Down House, Darwin's former home, where members saw in the tall, silver-haired and distinguished-looking former diplomat a remarkable likeness to the portrait there of T. H. Huxley.

In 1972, when Sir Thomas Barlow stepped down, Corley Smith took on the role of secretary-general of the foundation. It was a great coup for the ever-persuasive Jean Dorst. While the Charles Darwin Research Station (CDRS) on the islands was managed by a resident director, all the CDF administration and other international work – including the production of a bi-annual bulletin Noticias de Galápagos – were carried out from Corley Smith's home, Greensted Hall, in Essex.

He is credited with successfully promoting and maintaining a good working relationship between the national government and the international scientific body, which was seen by many in Ecuador as encroaching on their territory. "Most crucially," as Professor Dorst later wrote, "he perceived and understood the way the foundation had to meet and adapt to changing conditions in Ecuador."

On handing over the role in 1984, Corley Smith was awarded the Order of Merit by the Ecuadorean government, and continued to visit the Galápagos often – eight times in the next 12 years – and to travel widely round the world.

The extensive library at the CDRS, which holds the most complete collection of material on Galápagos anywhere in the world, is dedicated to the memory of Corley Smith.

Family
Corley Smith was predeceased by his wife, Joan Haggard, whom he married in August 1937. She was the daughter of diplomat Sir Godfrey Digby Napier Haggard and sister of actor Stephen Haggard. Upon his death in 1997 at age 88, Corley Smith was survived by a son and three daughters.

References

External links
 Obituary of Gerard Corley Smith reproduced by the Charles Darwin Foundation with permission of The Times (3 November 1997).

1909 births
1997 deaths
People from Bolton
People educated at Bolton School
Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Haiti
Ambassadors of the United Kingdom to Ecuador
British environmentalists


Quách Phẩm is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Quách Phẩm Bắc is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Trần Phán is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Billy Curtis Clark (December 19, 1928 – March 15, 2009) was an American author of 11 books and many poems and short stories, heavily influenced by his childhood growing up in poverty in Kentucky.

Biography
Clark was born December 29, 1928, and grew up in Catlettsburg in Eastern Kentucky during the Great Depression; He was a second cousin of writer Jesse Stuart. He had three brothers and four sisters, and was born to a mother who would wash clothes for extra income, while his father was a shoemaker who bragged of having made it to the second grade. He was living on his own by the time he was 11 years old, doing work to pay for high school, while living in a courthouse building. He would put out miles of trotlines and set traps to catch animals, drying the skins of the animals he caught on the courthouse's clock and selling the furs to make a living.

He enlisted in the military and served during the Korean War following his graduation from high school. After completing military service, he enrolled at the University of Kentucky, becoming the first member of his family to earn a college degree.

Writing
Clark claimed to have his first work published when he was 14 years old and a collaborative effort was underway at the time of his death to publish pieces he had written while in college together with the Jesse Stuart Foundation, to be called A Heap of Hills. The foundation has reissued eight of Clark's books that had been originally published by G. P. Putnam's Sons and Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Reviewer Hal Borland in The New York Times describes the "ballad-like quality" of his 1960 autobiographical book A Long Row to Hoe, that tells the story of his life up to age 19, growing up in a community that "had more than its share of 'river trash', drunks [and] derelicts" in which the developments of electric lights and indoor plumbing did not "put an end to frontier crudeness and backwater characters". The review laments the structure of the book, but describes it as a "good story, rich in character and details, larded with anecdote and legend". The book was selected by Time magazine as one of its best books of that year, describing it "as authentically American as Huckleberry Finn". Many colleges and universities use the book to introduce students to the culture of Appalachia and its culture and the Library of Congress selected it to be recorded on a talking record for the blind. Mark Daniel Merritt composed the score of River Dreams a musical adaptation of A Long Road to Hoe. The play was written by Betty Peterson, an English professor who had been a student of Clark's at Somerset Community College in Kentucky, where Clark taught for a few years.

Platt and Monk included his Trail of the Hunter's Horn in a 1964 anthology of 30 Greatest Dog Stories that also included    Call of the Wild by Jack London as well as John Steinbeck's Travels With Charley. The Book of the Month Club offered as a selection his book The Champion of Sourwood Mountain.

A mule named Kate would follow Clark and his friends to school. After the mule was arrested for trespassing, he and his classmates collected enough money to get the animal released on bail. Walt Disney Studios purchased the rights to his book about the mule, titled Goodbye Kate, which has yet to be made into a film by the time of Clark's death.

The University of Tennessee Press published his novel By Way of the Forked Stick in September 2000.

Clark was selected as writer-in-residence at Longwood University, after spending 18 years at the University of Kentucky in that role as a full professor. He was the founder and editor of Virginia Writing.

Personal
The Billy C. Clark Bridge, which crosses the Big Sandy River on U.S. Route 60 to connect Kentucky and Kenova, West Virginia, was named for him in 1992.

Clark died at age 80 on March 15, 2009, at his home in Farmville, Virginia.

References

1928 births
2009 deaths
American military personnel of the Korean War
American male poets
Longwood University faculty
People from Catlettsburg, Kentucky
University of Kentucky alumni
University of Kentucky faculty
Poets from Kentucky
20th-century American poets
20th-century American male writers


Tân Duyệt is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
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Tạ An Khương is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tạ An Khương Đông is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tạ An Khương Nam is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tân Đức is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tân Tiến is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Nguyễn Huân is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tân Thuận is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
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Ngọc Chánh is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
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The Settlers' House was built in 1845 in East Charlotte, Vermont. The house is set up at the Shelburne Museum in Shelburne, Vermont, to show visitors life in the 18th century. The barn situated next to the house was built as a working demonstration in 2001.

History
French Canadian lumberjacks probably built the Settlers' Cabin in East Charlotte in about 1800. Constructed of hand-hewn and dovetailed beech and pine timbers, Settlers' Cabin is typical of the type of structure that Vermont settlers, loggers, and trappers often built as temporary homes.

When the Shelburne Museum acquired the structure in 1955, clapboard facing obscured the log structure beneath. After moving the building's exterior walls to the grounds intact, the museum provided a new foundation, replaced the roof, and restored the cabin's single interior room, stone fireplace, and sleeping loft. The structure, in combination with the adjacent hay barn, which the museum constructed in 2001, now houses the museum's only living exhibition that reveals how early Vermont settlers lived.

In 1959 the museum constructed the sawmill adjacent to the Settlers' Cabin. In colonial America wood was needed to construct everything from sailing ships to storage kegs, and lumber, forested by loggers like the French Canadians who built the Settlers' Cabin, quickly emerged as the most important cash crop of 18th-century America. The museum's sawmill illustrates how this cash crop was prepared for market.

Swiftly moving water can create energy powerful enough to run machinery. While in operation, the water's motion forced the sawmill's saw blade up and down, enabling it to cut through logs directed into its path. At full speed, the saw cut two strokes per second, which allowed a sawyer to cut a  board in eight minutes.

Historically the term "sawmill" referred both to the mill building and to the machinery it contained. Shelburne's Sawmill was built to house equipment from a South Royalton, Vermont, sawmill that was operated by Jeremiah Trescott and his partner Captain Stevens from the late 18th century. The Shepard family, descendants of Trescott, continued to operate the mill until the early 20th century and later donated its contents to the museum.

References

External links
 Shelburne Museum website

Shelburne Museum
Historic house museums in Vermont
Houses in Chittenden County, Vermont
Relocated buildings and structures in Vermont
1845 establishments in Vermont


The Cerithioidea is a superfamily of marine, brackish water and freshwater gastropod containing more than 200 genera. The Cerithoidea are included unassigned in the subclass Caenogastropoda. The original name of this superfamily was Cerithiacea, in keeping with common superfamily endings at the time.

Ecology
Cerithioidea is a very diverse superfamily. Its species can be found worldwide mainly in tropic and subtropic seas on rocky intertidal shores, seagrass beds and algal fronds, but also in estuarine and freshwater habitats. The freshwater species are found on all continents, except Antarctica. They are dominant members of mangrove forests, estuarine mudflats, fast-flowing rivers and placid lakes.

Fossil record
Their fossil record of this superfamily can be traced back as far as the early Triassic but they began radiating mainly during the Cretaceous.

Taxonomy
The Cerithioidea are presumed to be monophyletic (one lineage). However the phylogenetic relationships between its families are still under investigation because mitochondrial recombinant DNA sequences failed to resolve these questions.

2005 taxonomy
According to the Taxonomy of the Gastropoda (Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005), the following families are included in Cerithioidea:
 Amphimelaniidae P. Fischer & Crosse, 1891
 Batillariidae Thiele, 1929 - monophyletic
 † Brachytrematidae Cossmann, 1906
 † Cassiopidae Beurlen, 1967
 Cerithiidae Fleming, 1822 - monophyletic
 Dialidae Kay, 1979
 Diastomatidae Cossman, 1894
 † Eustomatidae Cossmann, 1906
 † Ladinulidae Bandel, 1992
 † Lanascalidae Bandel, 1992
 Litiopidae Gray, 1847
 † Maoraxidae Bandel, Gründel, Maxwell, 2000
 Melanopsidae H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854 - freshwater snails, polyphyletic
 Modulidae P. Fischer, 1884
 Pachychilidae P. Fischer & Crosse, 1892
 Paludomidae Stoliczka, 1868
 Pelycidiidae Ponder & Hall, 1983
 Pickworthiidae Iredale, 1917
 Planaxidae Gray, 1850
 Pleuroceridae P. Fischer, 1885 (1863) - freshwater snails, polyphyletic
 † Popenellidae  Bandel, 1992
 Potamididae H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854 - monophyletic
 † Procerithiidae Cossmann, 1906 - If the genus Argyropeza is placed in the Procerithiidae, then this family is no longer exclusively a family of fossils.
 † Propupaspiridae Nützel, Pan & Erwin, 2002
 † Prostyliferidae Bandel, 1992
 Scaliolidae Jousseaume, 1912 - monophyletic
 Semisulcospiridae J. P. E. Morrison, 1952
 Siliquariidae Anton, 1838
 Thiaridae Gill, 1871 (1823) - freshwater snails, polyphyletic
 Turritellidae Lovén, 1847 - monophyletic
 Zemelanopsidae Neiber & Glaubrecht, 2019

(Extinct taxa indicated by a dagger, †.)

It is possible that a further detailed examination may show that the polyphyletic families Melanopsidae and Pleuroceridae are one family. There is also a close phylogenetic relationship between the families Modulidae and Potamididae and between the families Cerithiidae and Litiopidae.

2006 taxonomy
Bandel (2006) made numerous changes in Cerithioidea. He classified superfamily Cerithioidea in the clade Cerithimorpha.

Changes include:

superfamily Cerithioidea
 family Bittiidae Cossmann, 1906 - consider Bittiidae in its own family level. It was as subfamily Bittiinae within Cerithiidae by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005.
 family † Maturifusidae - moved to Cerithioidea from Hypsogastropoda
 family † Canterburyellidae - moved to Cerithioidea from unallocated Sorbeoconcha
 family † Prisciphoridae - moved to Cerithioidea from unallocated Sorbeoconcha
 family † Zardinellopsidae Bandel, 2006 - new family
 family Pachymelaniidae - considered as valid family. It was as synonym of Thiaridae.
 some Pyrguliferidae members (a synonym) are in Paludomidae and some are in Paramelaniidae (instead of Thiaridae)
 family Paramelaniidae at family level (instead of a synonym of Paludomidae)
 and some moves to other taxa

2009 taxonomy
 Subfamily Semisulcospirinae within Pleuroceridae was elevated to family level under the name Semisulcospiridae by Strong & Köhler (2009).

2017 Taxonomy
In the updated taxonomy by Bouchet et al. (2017)are listed below:
 Batillariidae
  † Brachytrematidae
 Cerithiidae
 Dialidae
 Diastomatidae
  † Eustomatidae
 Hemisinidae P. Fischer & Crosse, 1891
 † Ladinulidae
 Litiopidae
  † Maoraxidae
 Melanopsidae
  † Metacerithiidae
 Modulidae
 Pachychilidae
 Paludomidae
 Pelycidiidae
 Pickworthiidae
 Planaxidae
 Pleuroceridae
  † Popenellidae
 Potamididae
  † Procerithiidae
  † Propupaspiridae
  † Prostyliferidae
 Scaliolidae
 Semisulcospiridae
 Siliquariidae
 Thiaridae
 Turritellidae

Unassigned:
 Microstilifer Warén, 1980

The following two extinct families were moved out:
 Lanascalidae  †
 Metacerithiidae  †

References

External links
 Halder K. & Sinha P. (2014). "Some Eocene Cerithioids (Gastropoda, Mollusca) from Kutch, Western India, and Their Bearing on Palaeobiogeography of the Indian Subcontinent". Paleontology Journal 2014: Article ID 673469, 11 pp. .

Sorbeoconcha


Tân Trung is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tân Dân is a commune (xã) and village in Đầm Dơi District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Hàm Rồng is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Đất Mới is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Hàng Vịnh is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

References

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Communes of Cà Mau province


Hiệp Tùng is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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The River Raisin National Battlefield Park preserves the site of the Battle of Frenchtown as the only national battlefield marking a site of the War of 1812. It was established as the 393rd unit of the United States National Park Service under Title VII of the Omnibus Public Land Management Act, which was signed into law on March 30, 2009. The park is located in the city of Monroe in Monroe County, Michigan. It was designated as a Michigan Historic Site on February 18, 1956 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 10, 1982. The house at 1403 East Elm Avenue was added to the National Register listing in 2019. It officially began operation as a national park unit on October 22, 2010.

Background

The area was the site of the costly Battle of Frenchtown, in which 397 Americans were killed and 547 taken prisoner after surrender to the British Army and Native American coalition during the War of 1812. The fighting took place from January 18–23, 1813. The first engagement, sometimes referred to as the First Battle of the River Raisin, was a success for the American forces. Angered by their forced retreat, the British and Native Americans counterattacked the American forces four days later, on January 22, at the same location along the River Raisin. Many of the Americans were inexperienced troops from Kentucky; they were ill-prepared and unable to retreat.

During the Battle of Frenchtown, American brigadier general James Winchester reported that only 33 of his approximate 1,000 men escaped the battlefield. 397 were killed, and 547 were taken prisoner, which marked the deadliest conflict ever on Michigan soil and the worst single defeat the Americans suffered in the entire War of 1812. The day after the battle, dozens of captured Americans too wounded to walk were killed by the Native Americans, mostly Potawatomi, in apparent reprisal for atrocities the Kentuckians had committed against them. This is referred to as the River Raisin Massacre. Prisoners who could walk were marched toward Detroit.

Recent history

The River Raisin Battlefield Site was listed as a Michigan Historic Site on February 18, 1956, although the exact date at which the park was first organized is unknown. The location of the site is bounded by North Dixie Highway, the River Raisin, Detroit Avenue, and Mason Run Creek. The Battle of Frenchtown is so named because it took place in and surrounding the Frenchtown Settlement (1784), on the River Raisin's north bank and within the present-day city limits of Monroe. The area of conflict extended during the three days of battle several miles to the north and south of the current park site. After the battles, Frenchtown was gradually abandoned and the present-day city of Monroe developed from its downtown site 1.5 miles west and on the opposite bank of the River Raisin.  The current park area encompasses some 40 acres (16 ha) of undeveloped land on Monroe's east side approximately one-quarter mile (0.4 km) west of Interstate 75. The area contains houses on the outer fringe along East Elm Avenue, and much of the area is occupied by urban development. The River Raisin Paper Company built a large paper mill on the site around 1911, which operated under multiple owners until 1995.

The site was recognized nationally when it was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 10, 1982. It was officially listed as the River Raisin Battlefield Site (20MR227). In July 1990, the Monroe County Historic Commission and the Monroe County Historic Society opened the River Raisin Battlefield Visitor Center within the site at 1403 East Elm Avenue. The museum contains a few relics from the original battle that were discovered during archeological investigations. The park holds a memorial service every January to commemorate all the soldiers who fought in the Battle of Frenchtown, including the British and Indian soldiers who were allied against the Americans.

Expansion to the present-day park boundaries commenced in 1995 with closure of the paper mill, at which time the City of Monroe organized efforts to restore the entire battlefield site. The city, Historical Society, and property owner negotiated, acquired and facilitated clean up the former paper mill property and adjacent landfill area for future donation to the park service. In addition they transferred a large expanse of wetlands marsh to the State of Michigan for expansion of the adjacent Sterling State Park. Acquisitions were complete by 2006, the paper mill was demolished by 2009, the cleanup finished in 2010, and land transfers were completed in 2011.

Promotion to the National Park System

The River Raisin Battlefield Site was chosen to be included as a unit of the National Park System. The River Raisin National Battlefield Act (H.R. 401.IH), which was passed by the House of Representatives of the 111th Congress on January 9, 2009, said that the future national battlefield site would include land in both Monroe and Wayne counties that has been deemed significant to the Battle of Frenchtown.

The passing of the Omnibus Public Land Management Act on March 30, 2009, allocated the funding necessary to promote the site to the status of a National Battlefield Park. The park had been authorized as such but was not officially established until this bill was passed. It was included in the bill thanks to the work of Michigan natives and United States senators Carl Levin and Debbie Stabenow, as well as Congressman John Dingell, a history enthusiast. The site is only the fourth National Battlefield Park in the United States National Park System and is the only one commemorating the War of 1812. Battlefields, however, have been designated using various terms, even within the national park system. These include National Battlefield (without "Park" in the name), National Military Park, National Battlefield Site, National Historical Park, National Monument, and National Historic Site. River Raisin is the fifth national park unit in Michigan. Others include Isle Royale National Park, Keweenaw National Historical Park, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore; Father Marquette National Memorial is an affiliated unit.

The park is still being developed to meet National Park Service standards, with elements dependent on additional funding. The construction of and promotion of a national park typically takes eight years, which includes a variety of steps, such as land acquisition, funding, a management plan, and development of tourism facilities. However, since the county has already preserved and managed the battlefield site, this process took considerably less time. Some areas have yet to be restored to landscapes of the era of the battle.

The battlefield site is expected to generate a positive economic effect in tourism. Projected attendance to the park upon its completion was estimated to range from 20,000 to 25,000 visitors a year, but during FY 2012, the battlefield was visited by 52,027 people. The other three National Battlefield Parks, which all relate to the Civil War, receive more visitors, based on attendance figures from 2005: Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park (1,005,510), Manassas National Battlefield Park (715,622), and Richmond National Battlefield Park (68,438).

In 2010 the battlefield park was connected to the nearby Sterling State Park through a newly completed nature trail, which is expected to increase the number of visitors in both parks. The president of the Monroe County Historical Society, William Braunlich, hoped to complete elements in the park before the bicentennial celebration of the Battle of Frenchtown on January 22, 2013. The site began operations as a national park unit on October 22, 2010.

In 2014, the park expanded by adding a disconnected coastal parcel that includes a historic corduroy road, a remnant of Hull's Trace, a military road that connected Fort Detroit to Ohio. The Hull's Trace Unit at the beginning of West Jefferson Avenue in Brownstown Township, about 13 miles northeast of the battlefield park, had been managed by Wayne County Parks, and is now cooperatively managed by the National Park Service, the county, U.S. Silica, and the Michigan Departments of Natural Resources and Environmental Quality. It is an unstaffed site.

Spurred in part by planned construction of the Gordie Howe International Bridge between Detroit and Windsor, historic Fort Wayne in Detroit was studied in 2017 and 2018 as a possible addition to the national park system, including as a unit of River Raisin National Battlefield Park. The National Park Service had previously assisted in identifying ways to preserve Fort Wayne and draw visitors.

Historic markers

External links

 River Raisin National Battlefield Park, National Park Service

References

Landmarks of the War of 1812
Monroe, Michigan
National Park Service areas in Michigan
Archaeological sites in Michigan
Protected areas established in 2009
Museums in Monroe County, Michigan
Michigan State Historic Sites in Monroe County
Michigan in the War of 1812
Protected areas of Monroe County, Michigan
Military and war museums in Michigan
Museums of the War of 1812
Parks in Michigan
2009 establishments in Michigan
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
National Battlefields and Military Parks of the United States


Tam Giang is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tam Giang Đông is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Lâm Hải is a commune (xã) and village in Năm Căn District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Đất Mũi is a commune (xã) and village in Ngọc Hiển District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tam Giang Tây is a commune (xã) and village in Ngọc Hiển District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam. The commune covers an area of  and as of 2019 it had a population of 9157 people.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
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Tân Ân is a commune (xã) and village in Ngọc Hiển District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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Tân Ân Tây is a commune (xã) and village in Ngọc Hiển District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam. It is located on the southern coast of Vietnam.

Populated places in Cà Mau province
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Viên An Đông  is a commune (xã) and village in Ngọc Hiển District, Cà Mau Province, in Vietnam.

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