Cheng Yi (程异) (died May 21, 819), courtesy name Shiju (師舉), was a Chinese economist and politician of the Tang Dynasty, serving as a chancellor during the reign of Emperor Xianzong.  Like colleague Huangfu Bo, he was perceived to have risen to the chancellorship due to his ability to obtain revenues for the emperor, but unlike Huangfu, traditional accounts of his personal character were largely positive.

Background and early career
It is not known when Cheng Yi was born, but it was known that his family was from the Tang Dynasty capital Chang'an.  According to the table of the chancellors' family trees in the New Book of Tang, the Cheng family claimed ancestry from a Zhou Dynasty feudal state of the same name, but no detailed ancestral line of Cheng Yi's was known until his great-grandfather Cheng Sifeng (), who served as a prefectural prefect.  His grandfather Cheng Zigui () served as a consultant at the examination bureau of government (門下省, Menxia Sheng), while his father Cheng Xianke () served on the staff of a crown prince.

Cheng Yi became known for his filial piety for his service to his father during Cheng Xianke's illness.  He later passed the imperial examinations — but in the Mingjing () examinations, not the more prestigious Jinshi () examinations.  He later served as a secretary at Hailing County (海陵, in modern Taizhou, Jiangsu).  After he further passed a special examination in the rites of the Kaiyuan era (i.e., the rites that were promulgated during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong), he was made the sheriff of Zheng County (鄭縣, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi).  He was said to be capable in understanding and applying the regulations properly, and he did so without hesitation.  When Du Que () served as prefect of Tong Prefecture (同州, in modern Weinan) and then as the military governor (Jiedushi) of Hezhong Circuit (河中, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), Cheng served on his staff.

By the end of Emperor Dezong's Zhenyuan era (785-805), Cheng was serving as an imperial censor with the title Jiancha Yushi ().  He was then made the official in charge of the directory of salt and iron monopolies and grain supplies' facility at Yangzi (揚子, in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu).  Around that time, he also became an associate of Wang Shuwen, who was a close associate of then-crown prince Li Song, along with such other junior officials as Wei Zhiyi, Lu Chun (), Lü Wen (), Li Jingjian (), Han Ye (), Han Tai (), Chen Jian (), Liu Zongyuan, Liu Yuxi, and LIn Huai ().

During Emperor Shunzong's reign
Emperor Dezong died in 805, and Li Song, who was by that point himself seriously ill, became emperor (as Emperor Shunzong).  Due to Emperor Shunzong's illness, the government was, for a while, effectively run by Wang Shuwen, Wang Pi, Emperor Shunzong's concubine Consort Niu, and the eunuch Li Zhongyan ().  However, Wang Shuwen soon lost power later that year as power became concentrated in the hands of Emperor Shunzong's crown prince Li Chun.

During Emperor Xianzong's reign
Late in 805, Emperor Shunzong yielded the throne to Li Chun (as Emperor Xianzong).  Wang Shuwen and his associates were immediately purged from government and exiled.  In Cheng Yi's case, he was first made the prefect of Yue Prefecture (岳州, in modern Yueyang, Hunan), and then further demoted to be the military advisor to the prefect of Chen Prefecture (郴州, in modern Chenzhou, Hunan).

By Emperor Xianzong's edict, it was ordered that Wang's associates would not be allowed to move toward Chang'an even if there had been general pardons issued.  In 809, however, Li Sun () the director of salt and iron monopolies and grain supplies submitted a petition pointing out Cheng's talent and requested that he be allowed to put Cheng in charge of the facility at Yangzi.  Emperor Xianzong agreed.  He was eventually made the director of the two taxes for five circuits, including Huainan (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou).  It was said that Cheng spent much his effort in tax reform and was hard working, removing much of the problems that the taxation systems of the Yangtze River-Huai River region was experiencing at the time.  He was later recalled to Chang'an to serve as the deputy minister of trade (太府少卿, Taifu Shaoqing), then as minister of trade (太府卿, Taifu Qing), then as minister of armory supplies (衛尉卿, Weiwei Qing), also serving as deputy director of the monopolies and supplies.

As of 817, when Emperor Xianzong was conducting a campaign against the warlord Wu Yuanji, who controlled Zhangyi Circuit (彰義, headquartered in modern Zhumadian, Henan), Cheng was sent out to the Yangtze-Huai region to seek additional revenue.  He reviewed the finances of the regions and collected taxes, as well as requested the governors of the region to submit their surplus revenues.  It was said that he did so without unduly extracting money from the people.  He was thereafter made the director of the monopolies and supplies  After Wu was defeated, it was said that Emperor Xianzong became to live wastefully, and that both Cheng and Huangfu Bo the director of finances were finding ways to get him money to allow his lifestyle and thus were favored by him.  In 818, Emperor Xianzong made both Cheng and Huangfu chancellors de facto with the title Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (), and also made Cheng the deputy minister of public works (工部侍郎, Gongbu Shilang), over the strenuous objections of the chancellors Pei Du and Cui Qun.  Pei, ashamed of serving with Huangfu and Cheng, offered to resign in a petition that attacked Cheng but was much harsher in his attack of Huangfu.  Emperor Xianzong did not accept his arguments or his resignation.  Still, it was said that Cheng knew that the popular sentiment at the time opposed his ascension, and therefore behaved humbly, and for more than a month did not dare to exercise chancellor authorities.

Meanwhile, Cheng knew that the defenses on the northwest borders with Huigu and Tufan were then poorly run, and he suggested that an official be sent to tour the borders to review the situation.  When Emperor Xianzong asked him for a recommendation of someone to send, Cheng volunteered himself.  Before the proposal could be finalized, however, Cheng died in 819 without apparent illnesses.  He was given posthumous honors and the posthumous name Gong (恭, "respectful").  It was said that he was self-restrained and frugal, and when he died, he did not leave savings for his family, and therefore was much praised.

Notes and references

 Old Book of Tang, vol. 135.
 New Book of Tang, vol. 168.
 Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 236, 237, 240, 241.

8th-century births
819 deaths
Chancellors under Emperor Xianzong of Tang
Economists from Shaanxi
Politicians from Xi'an
Tang dynasty economists


Timothy Training Institute (TTI) is a non-denominational Christian mission, equipping church leaders with thorough Biblical knowledge and life-application studies, to enable them to better serve their communities and lead their congregations.

History
Timothy Training Institute was founded in 1986 by Christians, representing various Christian organizations, from several countries across Africa, including South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Angola etc. when they received the vision (with the emphasis on "Christian leadership training") to equip church leaders, as many church leaders across Africa have no formal training.

Timothy Training Institute, then known as Project Timothy, began to formally train church leaders in Mozambique, in 1986.  The training became popular and soon a large number of church leaders began to implement their newly acquired knowledge and skills in their communities.

In the early 1990s, after the success of the training in Mozambique, Timothy Training Institute began conducting classes in South Africa. The training was very successful and soon classes were offered in all of the provinces of South Africa; the Timothy Training Institute also received more requests from various SADC countries.

References
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Christian missions


Leonard F. Jarrett (born in England in 1921) served as Director of Administration of the World Scout Bureau in London, England, in Ottawa, Canada, and in Geneva, Switzerland from 1955 to 1981, and as a consultant for the World Scout Bureau from 1981 to 1986. Jarrett, a Canadian citizen, was the World Organizer of Jamboree on the Air (JOTA) for 30 years, from 1958 to 1988.

In 1973, Jarrett was awarded the Bronze Wolf, the only award bestowed by the World Organization of the Scout Movement, by the World Scout Committee at the 24th World Scout Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, in recognition of outstanding service to the World Scout Movement.

In 1983, The Scout Association awarded Jarrett the Silver Acorn, in recognition of specially distinguished service, at the 29th World Scout Conference in Dearborn, Michigan. At the same conference, he was presented with the
Silver World Award by the Boy Scouts of America, for noteworthy and extraordinary service to youth on an international basis.

Jarrett wrote a history of the Jamboree on the Air, entitled "The JOTA Story, 35 years of Scouting's Worldwide Jamboree-on-the-Air", from its inception in 1958 until 1993. Jarrett co-authored, along with the founder of JOTA, and the current JOTA World Organizer, a history of the first 50 years of the Jamboree on the Air, entitled "CQ Jamboree, 50 years of Scouting's Jamboree-
on-the-Air".

Books published
Len Jarrett, "The JOTA Story, 35 years of Scouting's Worldwide Jamboree-on-the-Air", World Scout Bureau, 1994
Len Jarrett, Les Mitchell, and Richard Middelkoop "CQ Jamboree, 50 years of Scouting's Jamboree-on-the-Air", World Scout Bureau, February 2008

References

Recipients of the Bronze Wolf Award
Year of death missing
Scouting and Guiding in Canada
1921 births
Amateur radio people
British expatriates in Canada
British expatriates in Switzerland


This is a list of all astronauts who have engaged in an EVA by partly or fully leaving a spacecraft, exclusive of extravehicular activity on the lunar surface.  It is ordered chronologically by the date of first spacewalk.

For a list of astronauts who have performed lunar EVA ("moonwalks") see List of Apollo astronauts who walked on the Moon. For the 2017 docudrama film about Alexei Leonov, see The Spacewalker.

The following 11 countries have flown spacewalkers: United States of America 129, Russia (formerly Soviet Union) 66, China 11, Canada, France, Japan 4, Germany 3 , Italy, Switzerland, Sweden and Great Britain 1 each. There have been 16 women who have taken part in an EVA.

List

See also
 List of cumulative spacewalk records
 List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999
 List of spacewalks 2000–2014
 List of spacewalks since 2015

References

External links

Spacewalkers
Spacewalkers
Spacewalkers


Mohamed Abdulkhalek El Sayed Hassouna () (28 October 1898 – 20 January 1992) was an Egyptian-Palestinian diplomat who served as the second Secretary-General of the Arab League

Life and career
Born in Cairo in 1898, Abdel-Khalek Hassouna was the grandson of Al-Azhar Grand Sheikh Hassouna El-Nawawi. He obtained a degree in law in 1921. Hassouna Pasha as he was later known obtained his masters and doctorate degrees in economics and political science from the University of Cambridge in 1925, where he was a member of Magdalene College. He joined the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1926 and served at the Egyptian embassies in Berlin, Rome, Prague and Stockholm.

Hassouna was the undersecretary of state at the Ministry of Social Affairs between 1939 and 1942. He served as governor of Alexandria from 1942 to 1948, during which time the University of Alexandria was completed. He served as social affairs minister between 1949 and 1952 and then minister of education and foreign affairs in 1952.

He succeeded Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam at the Arab League in 1952  and served for the next 20 years. He was succeeded by Mahmoud Riad in 1972, and died on 20 January 1992.

Honour

Foreign honour
 Malaysia:
 Honorary Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm (PMN (K)) - Tan Sri (1965)

References

1898 births
1992 deaths
Alumni of Magdalene College, Cambridge
Diplomats from Cairo
Secretaries General of the Arab League
Honorary Commanders of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
Governors of Alexandria
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
20th-century Egyptian diplomats
20th-century Egyptian lawyers


Mitra papalis, common name the Papal/Pontifical Mitre, is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters.

Distribution
This marine species is present in India and in the western Indo-Pacific (China, Xisha Islands, Taiwan, Philippines, New Guinea, Fiji, New Caledonia and Guam).

Habitat
These sea snails live on coral reefs and under rocks, from the intertidal zone to a depth of about 30 m.
Rarely, specimens are known from tangle nets at around 600 ft. depth.

Description
Shells of Mitra papalis can reach a length of about . The form of these large shells is similar to a Papal mitre (hence the common name). They are elongate to ovate, fusiform and smooth but without axial streaks on the surface. Sutural coronations are present. The aperture is moderately wide, smooth within. The shell surface is white, with small white nodules under sutures and with several rows of irregular bright red-orange or purplish blotches.

This species is quite similar to Mitra stictica, but its body form is longer, with more adpressed sutures and wider nodules.

References

Bibliography
 Alan G. Hinton - Guide to Shells of Papua New Guinea
 Alan G. Hinton - Shells of New Guinea & Central Pacific
 Arianna Fulvo and Roberto Nistri (2005). 350 coquillages du monde entier. Delachaux et Niestlé (Paris) : 256 p. ()
 Cernohorsky W.O. (1976). The Mitridae of the World. Part I. The subfamily Mitrinae. Indo-Pacific Mollusca. 3(17): 273-528
 F. Springsteen and F. M. Leobrera - Shells of the Philippines

Mitridae
Gastropods described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus


Everard Digby (born c. 1550) was an English academic theologian, expelled as a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge for reasons that were largely religious. He is known as the author of a 1587 book, written in Latin, that was the first work published in England on swimming; and also as a philosophical teacher, writer and controversialist. The swimming book, De Arte Natandi, was a practical treatise following a trend begun by the archery book Toxophilus of Roger Ascham, of Digby's own college.

According to Eugene D. Hill, in Digby's Theoria Analytica of 1579,

Life

Born about 1550, he matriculated as a sizar of St John's College, Cambridge, 25 October 1567; was admitted a scholar 9 November 1570; proceeded B. A. 1570–1, M.A. 1574, and B.D. 1581; and became a Lady Margaret fellow on 12 March 1572–3, and senior fellow 10 July 1585. He was principal lecturer in 1584. Digby took part in the college performance of Thomas Legge's Richardus Tertius in 1580.

Before the end of 1587 he was deprived of his fellowship. In a letter to chancellor of the university Lord Burghley, William Whitaker, master of St John's College (4 April 1588), explained that this step had been rendered necessary by Digby's arrears with the college steward. He added that Digby had preached voluntary poverty, a 'popish position,' at St Mary's; had attacked Calvinists as schismatics; was in the habit of blowing a horn and hallooing in the college during the daytime, and repeatedly spoke of the master to the scholars with the greatest disrespect. Burghley and John Whitgift ordered Digby's restitution; but Whitaker stood firm, and with the support of the Earl of Leicester obtained confirmation of the expulsion.

Writings and controversy
Digby's best known book is a treatise on swimming, the earliest published in England. De Arte Natandi is illustrated with plates, and was translated into English by Christopher Middleton in 1595 as A Short Introduction for to Learne to Swimme. This biomechanics of swimming is considered the best swimming book for over 300 years. It deals with the specific weight of objects and humans.

Digby also wrote a work against Ramism and his own system, Theoria analytica, dedicated to Sir Christopher Hatton, 1579. William Temple of King's College, Cambridge, wrote, under the pseudonym of Franciscus Mildapettus, an attack on Digby's criticism of Petrus Ramus, to which Digby replied in 1580. Temple replied again in 1581.

As the productions of a predecessor of Francis Bacon, Digby's two philosophical books are notable, although clumsy in expression and overlaid with scholastic subtleties. Digby tried in his Theoria Analytica to classify the sciences, and elsewhere ventures on a theory of perception based on the notion of the active correspondence of mind and matter. Otherwise Digby is a disciple of Aristotle.

Digby was also author of Everard Digbie, his Dissuasive from taking away the Lyvings and Goods of the Church, with Celsus of Verona, his Dissuasive, translated into English, London, 1589, dedicated to Sir Christopher Hatton.

Notes

References

1550 births
Year of death missing
English philosophers
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
16th-century English writers
16th-century male writers
16th-century English theologians


Paper Biscuit is a comic book series written and published by Ronnie del Carmen, head of story at Pixar. It centers on Nina, a disorganized girl who has the unnatural ability to stay awake and think coherently in her dreams.

Plot summary
Nina is a young woman whose life is in disarray. She has trouble holding and finding jobs, difficulty with boyfriends, and is constantly on the verge of eviction due to unpaid rent. She has a strange condition which she likens to Alice in Wonderland, in which she is somehow able to stay awake and function rationally while in a dream state. While in her dream world she often tries to uncover clues for getting rich quickly, as it is revealed that in one dream several years ago she sang the numbers to a winning lottery ticket only to later disregard it as silly and thus miss out on a windfall.

In the second volume it is revealed that other people share the same dream world as Nina, and she can interact with them though they usually don't remember. Nina saves a small child having a nightmare from a scary monster, and then subliminally plants orders on a rich person to accidentally leave her an envelope filled with cash at her favorite diner.

Style
The comic has a  storyboard sketch-like style. All images are done in pencil and frequently left in their rough draft state. Rather than a consistent panel layout Paper Biscuit experiments with panel size, shape, and placement to assist in story telling. Dream panels tend to have stranger shapes, while waking life panels tend to be more rectangular and standard.

External links
Author's Blog
Ronnie Del Carmen IMDb Profile
Pixar's YouTube channel

Comics publications


The 2009 European Weightlifting Championships were held in Bucharest, Romania from 3 April to 12 April 2009. It was the 88th edition of the event, which was first staged in 1896.

Men's events

Women's events

Medals tables

Ranking by "Big" (Total result) medals

References

External links
 Official results
 IWF results
 IWF start list
 https://iwrp.net/component/cwyniki/?view=contest&id_zawody=81
 https://iwrp.net/component/cwyniki/?view=contest&id_zawody=80
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090405064238/http://www.ewf.sm/results.php?mnid=1&slyr=2009&short=BUCHAREST2009

E
European Weightlifting Championships
European Weightlifting Championships
European Weightlifting Championships


Mitra (Mitra) stictica, commonly known as the pontifical mitre,  is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the mitres.

Description
The length of an adult shell varies between .

Distribution
This species occurs in the tropical Indian Ocean off Aldabra, Chagos, the Mascarene Basin, Mauritius and Tanzania, and in the Pacific Ocean off Fiji, New Zealand, and the Solomons.

References

 Spry, J.F. (1961). The sea shells of Dar es Salaam: Gastropods. Tanganyika Notes and Records 56

 Drivas, J. & M. Jay (1988). Coquillages de La Réunion et de l'île Maurice

External links

Mitridae
Gastropods described in 1807


Russell Dismont (27 June 1913 – 7 October 2005) was from a respected black Bermudian family of the time. Despite racial discrimination typical of that period, his father Albert Hilgrove Dismont had become a successful businessman and was the first black man to own a property and business in the totally white-owned city of Hamilton, Bermuda's capital. In 1988, his other son Cecil became the first black Mayor of the city. In 2003, the road 'Dismont Drive' was named in his honour, in recognition of his service and the family's contribution to Bermuda.

Russell began his education at the Berkeley Preparatory School and the Excelsior Secondary School in his native Bermuda. He developed an early interest in literature, music, and art which he later pursued in the United States at the New York School of Art. A keen sportsman, he was a well-known tennis player and cricketer for St Georges Cricket Club (Bermuda), which he helped form. While studying law at the London School of Economics in England, he played for the University of London and once with Sir Garfield Sobers. During this period, he often socialised and talked politics with actors Earl Cameron and Sidney Poitier and the founding father of the Kenyan nation, Jomo Kenyatta.

Upon his return to Bermuda, he won many local tennis championships. Despite this, because of being "coloured", he was permitted to play at the island's tennis clubs only twice a year. Ignoring this rule, on one occasion, he and African-American tennis legend Althea Gibson were ordered off the court. They both faked deafness and continued their game. As a consequence, Mr Dismont was later refused access to the premises completely. In the 1950s, he, William E. R. Joell and others founded the All Bermuda Tennis Club for all people, irrelevant of their skin colour. To continue the interests of the black tennis players, the Somers Isle Lawn Tennis Association was created, of which Mr Dismont was a member.

He began his professional career as an educator and taught at the elementary level at the Central School and later Harrington Sound School. He subsequently became a businessman and operated a shop located in his father's A.H. Dismont Building.

He was becoming increasingly affected and concerned with the racial inequality on the island and was involved in a number of personal and group protests against the social injustices. In 1963, he was elected as one of the first six Members of Colonial Parliament for the newly created Bermudian Progressive Labour Party (PLP). The party was primarily concerned with those issues that affected the "coloured" population and the poor. It called for equitable taxation, the removal of racial discrimination, greater economic parity, the implementation of programmes for healthcare, insurance and pensions. In addition, it called for better housing, improved educational opportunities and electoral reform. During a temporary disenchantment with the Party, he started another – the Bermuda Democratic Party – but later returned and remained a staunch, lifelong supporter of the PLP. On 9 November 1998, the party achieved its ultimate goal and won its first General Election.

His interest in celebrating and preserving the island's culture led him to acquire the magazine Fame (Bermuda). It catered largely to the black community, who had been mostly ignored by other local publications. He remained the publisher and editor for many years.

He has two sons from two of his four marriages: Derek Dismont and Saul Dismont. While at university in Florida, United States, Derek was involved with the Black Panthers. Saul is the nephew of actor Leigh Lawson and Twiggy, and cousin of Crispian Mills, the singer of English rock group Kula Shaker. For a period, Saul was lead singer of the band under its previous name, The Kays. He was a successful club DJ in England (aka DJ Kemosabe) and is now a barrister in Bermuda.

References

Bibliography
 Royal Gazette newspaper article
 Bermuda Sun article
 Royal Gazette newspaper article
 Anabolic Info article
 Meredith Ebbin, "PLP pioneer, dead at 92, helped usher in modern politics", Bermuda Sun newspaper article (News from 2005-10-12 Edition).
 PLP website, history of the party
 Twiggy Lawson, Twiggy in Black and White: An Autobiography, 1998
 Boy George column
 http://www.house-music-inyourface.co.uk/neigh006.htm

1913 births
2005 deaths
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Progressive Labour Party (Bermuda) politicians
Members of the House of Assembly of Bermuda
People from Hamilton, Bermuda


The archery events at the 2012 Olympic Games in London were held over an eight-day period from 27 July to 3 August. Four events took place, all being staged at Lord's Cricket Ground in front of temporary stands built to accommodate up to 6,500 spectators.

South Korea was the most successful nation, topping the medal table with three golds and four medals in total.

Competition format

A total of 128 athletes competed across the four events: the men's individual, women's individual, men's team, and women's team.

All four events were recurve archery events, held under the FITA-approved 70-metre distance and rules. The competition started with an initial ranking round involving all 64 archers of each gender. Each archer shot a total of 72 arrows to be seeded from 1–64 according to their score.

The ranking round was also used to seed the teams from 1 to 12, by aggregating the individual scores for the members of each team.

Each event was then played in a single-elimination tournament format, except for the semi-final losers, who played-off to decide the bronze medal winner.

Individual events

In the individual events, all 64 competitors entered the competition at the first round, the round of 64. The draw was seeded according to the result of the ranking round so the first seed shot against the 64th seed in the first round.

Each match was the best-of-five sets, with three arrows per set. The winner of each set received two points, and if the scores in the set were tied then each archer received one point. If at the end of five sets the score was tied at 5–5, a single arrow shoot-off would be held and the closest to the centre would be declared the winner.

Team events
In the team events, the top four seeded teams from the ranking round received a bye to the quarter-final. The remaining eight teams, seeded 5th to 12th, competed for the remaining four places in the quarter-finals.

Each match consisted of 24 arrows from each team (eight from each team member) and the team with the highest score progressed. In the event of scores being tied, a three-arrow shoot-off would take place.

Schedule
All times are British Summer Time (UTC+01:00).

Qualification

Each National Olympic Committee (NOC) was permitted to enter a maximum of six competitors, three per gender. NOCs that qualified teams for a particular gender were able to send a three-member team to the team event and also have each member compete in the individual event. There were 12 team spots for each gender, thus qualifying 36 individuals through team qualification. All other NOCs may earn a maximum of one quota place per gender for the individual events.

Six places were reserved for Great Britain as the host nation, and a further six were decided by the Tripartite Commission. The remaining 116 places were then allocated through a qualification process, in which archers earned quota places for their respective NOCs, though not necessarily for themselves.

To be eligible to participate in the Olympic Games after the NOC has obtained a quota place, all archers must have achieved the following minimum qualification score (MQS):

Men: FITA round of 1230 or 70m round of 625
Women: FITA round of 1230 or 70m round of 600

The MQS must have been achieved between 2 July 2011 (starting at the 2011 World Outdoor Archery Championships) and 1 July 2012 at a registered FITA event.

Medal summary

Medal table

Medalists

Gallery
Gallery of some of the Olympic medalists in the archery competitions:

References

External links

2012 Summer Olympics events
Olympics
International archery competitions hosted by the United Kingdom
2012
Lord's


Shell shock is a word that originated during World War I to describe the type of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that many soldiers experienced during the war, before PTSD was officially recognized. It is a reaction to the intensity of the bombardment and fighting that produced a helplessness, which could manifest as panic, fear, flight, or an inability to reason, sleep, walk or talk.

During the war, the concept of shell shock was poorly defined. Cases of "shell shock" could be interpreted as either a physical or psychological injury. Although the United States’ Department of Veterans Affairs still uses the term shell shock to describe certain aspects of PTSD, it is mostly a historical term, and is often considered to be the signature injury of the war.

In World War II and beyond, the diagnosis of "shell shock" was replaced by that of combat stress reaction, which is a similar but not identical response to the trauma of warfare and bombardment.

Origin
During the early stages of World War I in 1914, soldiers from the British Expeditionary Force began to report medical symptoms after combat, including tinnitus, amnesia, headaches, dizziness, tremors, and hypersensitivity to noise. While these symptoms resembled those that would be expected after a physical wound to the brain, many of those reporting sick showed no signs of head wounds. By December 1914, as many as 10% of British officers and 4% of enlisted men were experiencing "nervous and mental shock".

The term "shell shock" was coined during the Battle of Loos to reflect an assumed link between the symptoms and the effects of explosions from artillery shells. The term was first published in 1915 in an article in The Lancet by Charles Myers. Some 60–80% of shell shock cases displayed acute neurasthenia, while 10% displayed what would now be termed symptoms of conversion disorder, including mutism and fugue.

The number of shell shock cases grew during 1915 and 1916 but it remained poorly understood medically and psychologically. Some physicians held the view that it was a result of hidden physical damage to the brain, with the shock waves from bursting shells creating a cerebral lesion that caused the symptoms and could potentially prove fatal. Another explanation was that shell shock resulted from poisoning by the carbon monoxide formed by explosions.

At the same time, an alternative view developed describing shell shock as an emotional, rather than a physical, injury. Evidence for this point of view was provided by the fact that an increasing proportion of men with shell shock symptoms had not been exposed to artillery fire. Since the symptoms appeared in men who had no proximity to an exploding shell, the physical explanation was clearly unsatisfactory.

In spite of this evidence, the British Army continued to try to differentiate those whose symptoms followed explosive exposure from others. In 1915 the British Army in France was instructed that:

However, it often proved difficult to identify which cases were which, as the information on whether a casualty had been close to a shell explosion or not was rarely provided.

Management

Acute
At first, shell-shock casualties were rapidly evacuated from the front line – in part because of fear over their frequently dangerous and unpredictable behaviour. As the size of the British Expeditionary Force increased, and manpower became in shorter supply, the number of shell shock cases became a growing problem for the military authorities. At the Battle of the Somme in 1916, as many as 40% of casualties were shell-shocked, resulting in concern about an epidemic of psychiatric casualties, which could not be afforded in either military or financial terms.

Among the consequences of this were an increasing official preference for the psychological interpretation of shell shock, and a deliberate attempt to avoid the medicalisation of shell shock. If men were 'uninjured' it was easier to return them to the front to continue fighting. Another consequence was an increasing amount of time and effort devoted to understanding and treating shell shock symptoms. Soldiers who returned with shell shock generally could not remember much because their brain would shut out all the traumatic memories.

By the Battle of Passchendaele in 1917, the British Army had developed methods to reduce shell shock. A man who began to show shell-shock symptoms was best given a few days' rest by his local medical officer. Col. Rogers, Regimental Medical Officer,  4th Battalion Black Watch wrote:

If symptoms persisted after a few weeks at a local Casualty Clearing Station, which would normally be close enough to the front line to hear artillery fire, a casualty might be evacuated to one of four dedicated psychiatric centres which had been set up further behind the lines, and were labelled as "NYDN – Not Yet Diagnosed Nervous" pending further investigation by medical specialists.

Although the Battle of Passchendaele generally became a byword for horror, the number of cases of shell shock were relatively few. 5,346 shell shock cases reached the Casualty Clearing Station, or roughly 1% of the British forces engaged. 3,963 (or just under 75%) of these men returned to active service without being referred to a hospital for specialist treatment. The number of shell shock cases reduced throughout the battle, and the epidemic of illness was ended.

During 1917, "shell shock" was entirely banned as a diagnosis in the British Army, and mentions of it were censored, even in medical journals.

Chronic treatment
The treatment of chronic shell shock varied widely according to the details of the symptoms, the views of the doctors involved, and other factors including the rank and class of the patient.

There were so many officers and men with shell shock that 19 British military hospitals were wholly devoted to the treatment of cases. Ten years after the war, 65,000 veterans of the war were still receiving treatment for it in Britain. In France it was possible to visit aged shell shock victims in hospital in 1960.

Physical causes
Research by Johns Hopkins University in 2015 found that the brain tissue of combat veterans who had been exposed to improvised explosive devices (IEDs) exhibited a pattern of injury in the areas responsible for decision making, memory and reasoning.  This evidence has led the researchers to conclude that shell shock may not only be a psychological disorder, since the symptoms exhibited by affected individuals from the First World War are very similar to these injuries. Immense pressure changes are involved in shell shock. Even mild changes in air pressure from weather have been linked to changes in behavior.

There is also evidence to suggest that the type of warfare faced by soldiers would affect the probability of shell shock symptoms developing. First-hand reports from medical doctors at the time note that rates of such conditions decreased once the war was mobilized again during the 1918 German offensive, following the 1916–1917 period where the highest rates of shell shock can be found.  This could suggest that it was trench warfare, and the experience of siege warfare specifically, that led to the development of these symptoms.

Cowardice

Some men with shell shock were put on trial, and even executed, for military crimes including desertion and cowardice.  While it was recognised that the stresses of war could cause men to break down, a lasting episode was likely to be seen as symptomatic of an underlying lack of character. For instance, in his testimony to the post-war Royal Commission examining shell shock, Lord Gort said that shell shock was a weakness and was not found in "good" units. The continued pressure to avoid medical recognition of shell shock meant that it was not, in itself, considered an admissible defence. Although some doctors or medics did take procedure to try to cure soldiers' shell shock, it was first done in a brutal way. Doctors would provide electric shock to soldiers in hopes that it would shock them back to their normal, heroic, pre-war self. While illustrating cases of mutism in his book Hysterical Disorders of Warfare, therapist Lewis Yealland describes a patient who had, over the course of 9 months, been subjected unsuccessfully to numerous treatments for his mutism; these included strong application of electricity to his throat, lit cigarette ends applied to the tip of his tongue, and "hot plates" placed in the back of his mouth.

Executions of soldiers in the British Army were not commonplace. While there were 240,000 Courts Martial and 3080 death sentences handed down, in only 346 cases was the sentence carried out. In total, 266 British soldiers were executed for "Desertion", 18 for "Cowardice", 7 for "Quitting a post without authority", 5 for "Disobedience to a lawful command", and 2 for "Casting away arms".  On 7 November 2006, the government of the United Kingdom gave them all a posthumous conditional pardon.

Committee of Enquiry report
The British government produced a Report of the War Office Committee of Enquiry into "Shell-Shock" which was published in 1922. Recommendations from this included:

Part of the concern was that many British veterans were receiving pensions and had long-term disabilities.

War correspondent Philip Gibbs wrote:

One British writer between the wars wrote:

Development of psychiatry
At the beginning of World War II, the term "shell shock" was banned by the British Army, though the phrase "postconcussional syndrome" was used to describe similar traumatic responses.

Society and culture
Shell shock has had a profound impact in British culture and the popular memory of World War I. At the time, war writers like the poets Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen dealt with shell shock in their work. Sassoon and Owen spent time at Craiglockhart War Hospital, which treated shell shock casualties. Author Pat Barker explored the causes and effects of shell shock in her Regeneration Trilogy, basing many of her characters on real historical figures and drawing on the writings of the First World War poets and the army doctor W. H. R. Rivers.

Modern cases of shell shock
Although the term "shell shocked" is typically used in discussions of WWI to describe early forms of PTSD, its high-impact explosives-related nature provides modern applications as well. During their deployment in Iraq and Afghanistan, approximately 380,000 U.S. troops, about 19% of those deployed, were estimated to have sustained brain injuries from explosive weapons and devices. This prompted the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to open up a $10 million study of the blast effects on the human brain. The study revealed that, while the brain remains intact immediately after low-level blast effects, the chronic inflammation afterwards is what ultimately leads to many cases of shell shock and PTSD.

See also
 Combat stress reaction

References

Sources
Coulthart, Ross. The Lost Diggers, Sydney: HarperCollins Publishers, 2012.
Jones, E, Fear, N and Wessely, S. "Shell Shock and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury:  A Historical Review". Am J Psychiatry 2007; 164:1641–1645
Hochschild, Adam. To End all Wars – a story of loyalty and rebellion, 1914–1918 Mariner Books, Houghton, Mifflin Harcourt, Boston & New York, 2011.
Horrocks, J. (2018). The limits of endurance: Shell shock and dissent in World War one. The Journal of New Zealand Studies, (NS27). https://doi.org/10.26686/jnzs.v0ins27.5175
Leese, Peter. Shell Shock. Traumatic Neurosis and the British Soldiers of the First World War, Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. .

Myers, C.S.  "A contribution to the study of shell shock". Lancet, 1, 1915, pp. 316–320
Shephard, Ben. A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists, 1914–1994. London, Jonathan Cape, 2000.
Wessely, S. "The Life and Death of Private Harry Farr" Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol 99, September 2006

External links

Shell Shock during World War I, by Professor Joanna Bourke - BBC
An Address on the Repression of War Experience, by W.H. Rivers, 4 December 1917

1910s neologisms
Obsolete terms for mental disorders
Military medicine in World War I
Military psychology
Post-traumatic stress disorder


The cycling competitions at the 2012 Olympic Games in London took place at five venues between 28 July and 12 August. The venues were the London Velopark for track cycling and BMX, and Hadleigh Farm, in Essex, for mountain biking. The road races took place over a course starting and ending in The Mall in central London and heading out into Surrey, while the time trials started and finished at Hampton Court Palace in Richmond upon Thames. Eighteen events were contested and around 500 athletes participated.

Cycling events have been contested in every Summer Olympics programme since the first modern Olympiad in 1896 alongside athletics, artistic gymnastics, fencing and swimming. Compared to the cycling at the 2008 Olympics, there were many changes in the Olympic track cycling programme. The men's and women's individual pursuit and points race, and the men's Madison were removed. Team sprint, team pursuit and keirin were added to the women's programme, while Omnium was a new race for both men and women. Countries were restricted to one entry per track event, a restriction which seemed to be directed at preventing the British team from double-medalling in the same event as they had in four events in 2008, thus lowering their medal chances.  However, similar to the 2008 Beijing Games, the cycling events were dominated by the British team, which, with a haul including eight gold medals, was the only nation to win more than a single gold medal.

Venues
The road racing at the Olympics and Paralympic Games was originally scheduled to take place in Regent's Park and on Hampstead Heath. Instead, the Olympic road races started and finished on The Mall in central London and headed out in a south-westerly direction to include loops around Box Hill in Surrey. Road racing in the Paralympics took place at Brands Hatch. The Olympic mountain bike event took place at Hadleigh Farm after the UCI labeled the course at Weald Country Park "too easy" in July 2008. It was touted that the course could be created in Wales. A location in Kent was also considered.

Qualification

Participating nations

Cyclists from 74 nations participated at the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Competition schedule

M = Morning session, A = Afternoon sessionFL = Flying Lap, PR = Points Race, ER = Elimination Race, IP = Individual Pursuit, SR = Scratch Race, TT = Time Trial

Medal table

Road cycling

Track cycling

Men

Women

Mountain biking

BMX

Broken records

References

External links

2012 Summer Olympics events
2012
Olympics
Olympics
International cycle races hosted by the United Kingdom


Charles Whitworth, 1st Baron Whitworth (14 October 1675 – 23 October 1725) was an English peer, politician and diplomat who served as the British ambassador to Russia from 1707 to 1712.

Early life
Whitworth was possibly born at Blore Pipe, near Eccleshall, Staffordshire. He entered Westminster School as a Queen's Scholar in 1690, and then entered Trinity College, Cambridge in 1694. He graduated with a BA in 1699 and became a Fellow the next year.

Diplomatic career
Whitworth entered diplomatic service in 1700 as secretary to George Stepney, envoy at Berlin. In November 1701 he was appointed as British aide to Cardinal Lamberg, the Holy Roman Emperor's chief commissary at the Congress of Regensburg. He also deputised at Vienna for Stepney, when he was absent from the embassy there.

In 1704, Whitworth was appointed as Ambassador Extraordinary to Russia.  His initial role was to regularise the position of the Russia Company which had mismanaged the tobacco monopoly granted it in 1698. He succeeded in this between 1707 and 1711, but not in the wider object of obtaining a commercial treaty. He also had to handle Russian sensibilities over the arrest for debt in 1708 of the emperor's envoy Andrey Matveyev, sent to London to seek British mediation in the Great Northern War.  He remained accredited in Russia until 1712, but was increasingly absent on diplomatic business elsewhere in eastern Europe.  He was charged by Queen Anne to discover and evaluate high-level Russian strategies.  He closely observed public events and noted the changing the power status of key leaders. He cultivated influential and knowledgeable persons at the royal court, and befriended foreigners in Russia's service, and in turn they provided insights into high-level Russian planning and personalities, which he summarized and sent in code to London.  He wrote an Account of Russia as it was in the Year 1710, which (though not published until 1758) influenced British views of Russia for much of the century.

In December 1713, he was appointed as one of the commissaries to treat with the French concerning the Treaty of Navigation and Commerce concluded at Utrecht.  In April 1714 he was sent to Augsburg to observe negotiations between the emperor and France, taking place at Baden that summer.  This was followed by his appointment as British minister to the Eternal Imperial Diet at Regensburg.

In August 1716, when he was appointed envoy at Berlin, but was seconded to The Hague, to try to persuade the Netherlands to conform to the British embargo on Sweden.

Death

Whitworth returned to Berlin in 1719, where the following year, he married the comtesse de Vaulgremont (died 1734), the daughter of a government official in French-speaking Flanders.  He was raised to the Irish peerage as Baron Whitworth, of Galway, in 1721.  In 1722, he became Member of Parliament for Newport, Isle of Wight. He died childless in 1725, upon which his barony became extinct. Whitworth was buried at Westminster Abbey, his grave is in the South choir aisle.

References

1675 births
1725 deaths
Ambassadors of Great Britain to Poland
Ambassadors of Great Britain to Russia
Ambassadors of Great Britain to the Netherlands
Barons in the Peerage of Ireland
Peers of Ireland created by George I
Burials at Westminster Abbey
Fellows of Trinity College, Cambridge
People educated at Westminster School, London
Ambassadors of Great Britain to the Holy Roman Emperor
Members of Parliament for Newport (Isle of Wight)
Ambassadors to the Tsardom of Russia


The triathlon competition at the 2007 Pan American Games was held on July 15, 2007 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the fourth time the event had been held at the Pan American Games. The male and female winners qualified directly for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China.

Men's competition

Women's competition

References
Results

Pan American Games
2007
Events at the 2007 Pan American Games


Diamaré  is a department of Far North (Extreme-Nord) Province in Cameroon. The department covers an area of 4,665 km and at the 2005 Census had a total population of 642,227. The capital of the department is at Maroua.

Subdivisions
The department is divided administratively into 9 communes and in turn into villages.

Communes
 Bogo
 Dargala
 Gawaza
 Maroua I (urban)
 Maroua II (urban)
 Maroua III (urban)
 Meri
 Ndoukoula
 Petté

See also
Communes of Cameroon

References

Departments of Cameroon
Far North Region (Cameroon)


"Good Guys Only Win in Movies" is the last single by pop singer C. C. Catch from her third studio album Like a Hurricane. It was released in 1989 as a single by Hansa.

The song features dialogue lines sampled from various episodes of Star Trek: The Original Series:
 "...Computerized half-breed", "My mother was a teacher", "I was happy": This Side of Paradise
 "Including the captain" : Turnabout Intruder
 "Ahead warp factor one, Mister Sulu" : Shore Leave
 "I read no evidence of malfunction" : The Way to Eden

Track listing
Original versions
"Good Guys Only Win in Movies (Album Version)" – 5:42
"Good Guys Only Win in Movies (Radio Version)" – 3:48

References

1987 singles
C. C. Catch songs
Songs written by Dieter Bohlen
Song recordings produced by Dieter Bohlen
1987 songs
Hansa Records singles


This is the list of ancient architectural records consists of record-making architectural achievements of the Greco-Roman world from c. 800 BC to 600 AD.

Bridges

The highest bridge over the water or ground was the single-arched Pont d'Aël which carried irrigation water for Aosta across a deep Alpine gorge. The height of its deck over the torrent below measures 66 m.

The largest bridge by span was the Trajan's Bridge over the lower Danube. Its twenty-one timber arches spanned 50 m each from centreline to centreline.
The largest pointed arch bridge by span was the Karamagara Bridge in Cappadocia with a clear span of 17 m. Constructed in the 5th or 6th century AD across a tributary of the Euphrates, the now submerged structure is one of the earliest known examples of pointed architecture in late antiquity, and may even be the oldest surviving pointed arch bridge.
The largest rivers to be spanned by solid bridges were the Danube and the Rhine, the two largest European rivers west of the Eurasian Steppe. The lower Danube was crossed at least at two different crossing points (at Drobeta-Turnu Severin and at Corabia) and the middle and lower Rhine at four (at Mainz, at Neuwied, at Koblenz and at Cologne). For rivers with strong currents and to allow swift army movements, pontoon bridges were also routinely employed. Going from the distinct lack of records of solid bridges spanning larger rivers elsewhere, the Roman feat appears to be unsurpassed anywhere in the world until well into the 19th century.
The longest bridge, and one of the longest of all time, was Constantine's Bridge with an overall length of 2,437 m, 1137 m of which crossed the Danube's riverbed. Pont Serme in southern France reached a length of 1,500 m, but may be better classified as an arcaded viaduct. The second longest bridge was thus the acclaimed Trajan's Bridge further upstream from Constantine's. Erected 104–105 AD by the engineer Apollodorus of Damascus for facilitating the advance of Roman troops in the Dacian Wars, it featured twenty-one spans covering a total distance of between 1,070 and 1,100 m.  The longest existing Roman bridge is the sixty-two span Puente Romano at Mérida, Spain (today 790 m). The total length of all aqueduct arch bridges of the Aqua Marcia to Rome, constructed from 144 to 140 BC, amounts to 10 km.

The longest segmental arch bridge was the c. 1,100 m long Trajan's Bridge, whose wooden superstructure was supported by twenty concrete piers. The Bridge at Limyra in modern-day Turkey, consisting of twenty-six flat brick arches, features the greatest lengths of all extant masonry structures in this category (360 m).
The tallest bridge was the Pont du Gard, which carried water across the Gard river to Nîmes, southern France. The 270 m long aqueduct bridge was constructed in three tiers which measure successively 20.5 m, 19.5 m and 7.4 m, adding up to a total height of 47.4 m above the water-level. When crossing deeper valleys, Roman hydraulic engineers preferred inverted siphons over bridges for reasons of relative economics; this is evident in the Gier aqueduct where seven out of nine siphons exceed the 45 m mark, reaching depths up to 123 m. The tallest road bridges were the monumental Alcántara Bridge, Spain, and the bridge at Narni, Italy, which rose above the stream-level c. 42 m and 30 m, respectively.
The widest bridge was the Pergamon Bridge in Pergamon, Turkey. The structure served as a substruction for a large court in front of the Serapis Temple, allowing the waters of the Selinus river to pass unrestricted underneath. Measuring 193 m in width, the dimensions of the extant bridge are such that it is frequently mistaken for a tunnel, although the whole structure was actually erected above ground. A similar design was also executed in the Nysa Bridge which straddled the local stream on a length of 100 m, supporting a forecourt of the city theatre. By comparison, the width of a normal, free standing Roman bridge did not exceed 10 m.

The bridge with the greatest load capacity – as far as can be determined from the limited research – was the Alcántara Bridge the largest arch of which can support a load of 52 t, followed by the Ponte de Pedra (30 t), Puente Bibei (24 t) and Puente de Ponte do Lima (24 t) (all in Hispania). According to modern calculations, the Limyra Bridge, Asia Minor, can support a 30 t vehicle on one arch plus a load of 500 kp/m2 on the remaining surface of the arch. The load limit of Roman arch bridges was thus far in excess of the live loads imposed by ancient traffic.

Ratio of clear span against rise, arch rib and pier thickness:

The bridge with the flattest arches was the Trajan's Bridge, with a span-to-rise ratio of about 7 to 1. It also held several other important architectural records (see below). A number of fully stone segmental arch bridges, scattered throughout the empire, featured ratios of between 6.4 and 3, such as the relatively unknown Bridge at Limyra, the Ponte San Lorenzo and the Alconétar Bridge. By comparison, the Florentine Ponte Vecchio, one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the Middle Ages, features a ratio of 5.3 to 1.
The bridge with the most slender arch was the Pont-Saint-Martin in the Alpine Aosta Valley. A favourable ratio of arch rib thickness to span is regarded as the single most important parameter in the design of stone arches. The arch rib of the Pont-Saint-Martin is only 1.03 m thick what translates to a ratio of 1/34 respectively 1/30 depending on whether one assumes 35.64 m or 31.4 m to be the value for its clear span. A statistical analysis of extant Roman bridges shows that ancient bridge builders preferred a ratio for rib thickness to span of 1/10 for smaller bridges, while they reduced this to as low as 1/20 for larger spans in order to relieve the arch from its own weight.
The bridge with the most slender piers was the three-span Ponte San Lorenzo in Padua, Italy. A favourable ratio between pier thickness and span is considered a particularly important parameter in bridge building, since wide openings reduce stream velocities which tend to undermine the foundations and cause collapse. The approximately 1.70 m thick piers of the Ponte San Lorenzo are as slender as one-eighth of the span. In some Roman bridges, the ratio still reached one-fifth, but a common pier thickness was around one third of the span. Having been completed sometime between 47 and 30 BC, the San Lorenzo Bridge also represents one of the earliest segmental arch bridges in the world with a span to rise ratio of 3.7 to 1.

Canals

The largest canal appears to be the Canal of the Pharaohs connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea via the Nile. Opened by king Ptolemy II around 280 BC the waterway branched off the Pelusiac arm of the river running eastwards through the Wadi Tumalat to the Great Bitter Lake on a length of 55.6 km. There, it turned sharply south following the modern course of the canal and discharged into the Red Sea after altogether 92.6 km. The canal was 10 m deep and 35 m wide, with its sea entrance secured by a lock. Under Trajan the Ptolemaic canal was restored and extended for about another 60 km to the south where it now tapped the main branch of the Nile at Babylon. A particularly ambitious canal scheme which never came to fruition was Nero's Corinth Canal project, work on which was abandoned after his murder.

Columns

Note: This section makes no distinction between columns composed of drums and monolithic shafts; for records concerning solely the latter, see monoliths.

The tallest victory column in Constantinople was the Column of Theodosius, which no longer exists, with the height of its top above ground being c. 50 m. The Column of Arcadius, whose 10.5 m base alone survives, was c. 46.1 m high. The Column of Constantine may originally have been as high as 40 m above the pavement of the Forum. The height of the Column of Justinian is unclear, but it may have been even larger. The height of each of these monuments was originally even higher, as all were further crowned with a colossal imperial statue several times life-size.
The tallest victory column in Rome was the Column of Marcus Aurelius, Rome, with the height of its top above ground being c. 39.72 m. It thus exceeds its earlier model, Trajan's Column, by 4.65 m, chiefly due to its higher pedestal.
The tallest monolithic column was Pompey's Pillar in Alexandria which is 26.85 m high with its base and capital and whose monolithic column shaft measures 20.75 m. The statue of Diocletian atop "Pompey's" Pillar was itself approximately 7 m tall.
The tallest Corinthian colonnade, a style which was particularly popular in Roman monumental construction, adorned the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, reaching a height of 19.82 m including base and capital; their shafts measure 16.64 m high. The next two tallest are those of the Temple of Mars Ultor in Rome and of the Athenian Olympieion which are 17.74 m (14.76 m) respectively 16.83 m (14 m) high. These are followed by a group of three virtually identical high Corinthian orders in Rome: the Hadrianeum, the Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the Temple of Castor and Pollux, all of which are in the order of 14.8 m (12.4 m) height.

Dams

The largest arch dam was the Glanum Dam in the French Provence. Since its remains were nearly obliterated by a 19th-century dam on the same spot, its reconstruction relies on prior documentation, according to which the Roman dam was 12 m high, 3.9 m wide and 18 m long at the crest. Being the earliest known arch dam, it remained unique in antiquity and beyond (aside from the Dara Dam whose dimensions are unknown).
The largest arch-gravity dam was the Kasserine Dam in Tunisia, arguably the biggest Roman dam in North Africa with 150 m length by 10 m height by 7.3 m width. However, despite its curved nature, it is uncertain whether the 2nd century AD dam structurally acted by arching action and not solely by its sheer weight; in this case it would be classified as a gravity dam and considerably smaller structures in Turkey or the Spanish Puy Foradado Dam would move up in this category (see sortable List of Roman dams).
The largest bridge dam was the Band-e Kaisar which was erected by a Roman workforce on Sassanid territory in the 3rd century AD. The approximately 500 m long structure, a novel combination of overflow dam and arcaded bridge, crossed Iran's most effluent river on more than forty arches. The most eastern Roman civil engineering structure ever built, its dual-purpose design exerted a profound influence on Iranian dam building.
The largest multiple arch buttress dam was the Esparragalejo Dam in Spain, whose 320 m long wall was supported on its air face alternatingly by buttresses and concave-shaped arches. Dated to the 1st century AD, the structure represents the first and, as it appears, only known dam of its type in ancient times.
The longest buttress dam was the 632+ m long Consuegra Dam (3rd–4th century AD) in central Spain which is still fairly well preserved. Instead of an earth embankment, its only 1.3 m thick retaining wall was supported on the downstream side by buttresses in regular intervals of 5 to 10 m. In Spain, a large number of ancient buttress dams are concentrated, representing nearly one-third of the total found there.
The longest gravity dam, and longest dam overall, impounds Lake Homs in Syria. Built in 284 AD by emperor Diocletian for irrigation, the 2,000 m long and 7 m high masonry dam consists of a concrete core protected by basalt ashlar. The lake, 6 miles long by 2.5 miles wide, had a capacity of 90 million m3, making it the biggest Roman reservoir in the Near East and possibly the largest artificial lake constructed up to that time. Enlarged in the 1930s, it is still a landmark of Homs which it continues to supply with water. Further notable dams in this category include the little-studied 900 m long Wadi Caam II dam at Leptis Magna and the Spanish dams at Alcantarilla and at Consuegra.
The tallest dam belonged to the Subiaco Dams at the central Italian town of the same name. Constructed by Nero (54–68 AD) as an adjunct to his villa on the Aniene river, the three reservoirs were highly unusual in their time for serving recreational rather than utilitarian purposes. The biggest dam of the group is estimated to have reached a height of 50 m. It remained unsurpassed in the world until its accidental destruction in 1305 by two monks who fatally removed cover stones from the top. Also quite tall structures were Almonacid de la Cuba Dam (34 m), Cornalvo Dam (28 m) and Proserpina Dam (21.6 m), all of which are located in Spain and still of substantially Roman fabric.

Domes

The largest dome in the world for more than 1,700 years was the Pantheon in Rome. Its concrete dome spans an interior space of 43.45 m, which corresponds exactly to its height from floor to top. Its apex concludes with an 8.95 m wide oculus. The structure remained unsurpassed until 1881 and stills holds the title of the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world. The Pantheon has exercised an immense influence on Western dome construction to this day.
The largest dome out of clay hollowware ever constructed is the caldarium of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. The now ruined dome, completed in 216 AD, had an inner diameter of 35.08 m. For reduction of weight its shell was constructed of amphora joined together, a quite new method then which could do without time-consuming wooden centring.
The largest half-domes were found in the Baths of Trajan in Rome, completed in 109 AD. Several exedrae integrated into the enclosure wall of the compound reached spans up to 30 m.
The largest stone dome was the Western Thermae in Gerasa, Jordan, constructed around 150–175 AD. The 15 m wide dome of the bath complex was also one of the earliest of its kind with a square ground plan.

Fortifications

The longest city walls were those of Classical Athens. Their extraordinary length was due to the construction of the famous Long Walls which played a key role in the city's maritime strategy, by providing it with a secure access to the sea and offering the population of Attica a retreat zone in case of foreign invasions. At the eve of the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Thucydides gave the length of the entire circuit as follows: 43 stades (7.6 km) for the city walls without the southwestern section covered by others walls and 60 stades (10.6 km) for the circumference of the Peiraeus port. A corridor between these two was established by the northern Long Wall (40 stades or 7.1 km) and the Phaleric Wall (35 stades or 6.2 km). Assuming a value of 177.6 m for one Attic stade, the overall length of the walls of Athens thus measured about 31.6 km. The structure, consisting of sun-dried bricks built on a foundation of limestone blocks, was dismantled after Athens' defeat in 404 BC, but rebuilt a decade later. Syracuse, Rome (Aurelian Walls) and Constantinople (Walls of Constantinople) were also protected by very long circuit walls.

Monoliths

The largest monolith lifted by a single crane can be determined from the characteristic lewis iron holes (each of which points at the use of one crane) in the lifted stone block. By dividing its weight by their number, one arrives at a maximum lifting capacity of 7.5 to 8 t as exemplified by a cornice block at the Trajan's Forum and the architrave blocks of the Temple of Jupiter at Baalbek. Based on a detailed Roman relief of a construction crane, the engineer O'Connor calculates a slightly less lifting capability, 6.2 t, for such a type of treadwheel crane, on the assumption that it was powered by five men and using a three-pulley block.
The largest monolith lifted by cranes was the 108 t heavy corner cornice block of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek, followed by an architrave block weighing 63 t, both of which were raised to a height of about 19 m. The capital block of Trajan's Column, with a weight of 53.3 t, was even lifted to c. 34 m above the ground. As such enormous loads far exceeded the lifting capability of any single treadwheel crane, it is assumed that Roman engineers set up a four-masted lifting tower in the midst of which the stone blocks were vertically raised by the means of capstans placed on the ground around it.
The largest monoliths hewn were two giant building blocks in the quarry of Baalbek: an unnamed rectangular block which was only recently discovered is measured at c. 20 m x 4.45 m x 4.5 m, yielding a weight of 1,242 t. The similarly shaped Stone of the Pregnant Woman nearby weighs an estimated 1,000.12 t. Both limestone blocks were intended for the Roman temple district nearby, possibly as an addition to the trilithon, but were left for unknown reasons at their quarrying sites.
The largest monolith moved was the trilithon, a group of three monumental blocks in the podium of the Jupiter temple at Baalbek. The individual stones are 19.60 m, 19.30 m and 19.10 m long respectively, with a depth of 3.65 m and a height of 4.34 m. Weighing approximately 800 t on average, they were transported a distance of 800 m from the quarry and probably pulled by the means of ropes and capstans into their final position. The supporting stone layer beneath features a number of blocks which are still in the order of 350 t. The various giant stones of Roman Baalbek rank high among the largest man-made monoliths in history.
The largest monolithic columns were used by Roman builders who preferred them over the stacked drums typical of classical Greek architecture. The logistics and technology involved in the transport and erection of extra-large single-piece columns were demanding: As a rule of thumb, the weight of the column shafts in the length range between 40 and 60 Roman feet (c. 11.8 to 17.8 m) doubled with every ten feet from c. 50 over 100 to 200 t. Despite this, forty and also fifty feet tall monolithic shafts can be found in a number of Roman buildings, but examples reaching sixty feet are only in evidence in two unfinished granite columns which still lie in the Roman quarry of Mons Claudianus, Egypt. One of the pair, which was discovered only in the 1930s, has an estimated weight of 207 t. All these dimensions, however, are surpassed by Pompey's Pillar, a free-standing victory column erected in Alexandria in 297 AD: measuring 20.46 m high with a diameter of 2.71 m at its base, the weight of its granite shaft has been put at 285 t.
The largest monolithic dome crowned the early 6th century AD Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna, then capital of the Ostrogothic kingdom. The weight of the single, 10.76 m wide roof slab has been calculated at 230 t.

Obelisks

The tallest obelisks are all located in Rome, adorning its inner-city squares. The Agonalis obelisk on Piazza Navona stands highest at 16.54 m without pedestal, followed by the Esquiline, Quirinale (both 14.7 m), Sallustiano (13.92 m) and the somewhat smaller Pinciano obelisk. Only some of them were inscribed with hieroglyphs, while others remained blank. These five obelisks of Roman date complement a group of eight ancient Egyptian obelisks which were carried on imperial order by obelisk carriers from the Nile to the Tiber, elevating Rome to the city with the most ancient obelisks to this day.

Roads

The longest trackway was the Diolkos near Corinth, Greece, measuring between 6 and 8.5 km. The paved roadway allowed boats to be pulled across the Isthmus of Corinth, thus avoiding the long and dangerous sea trip around the Peloponnese peninsula. Working by the railway principle, with a gauge of around 160 cm between two parallel grooves cut into the limestone paving, it remained in regular and frequent service for at least 650 years. By comparison, the world's first overland wagonway, the Wollaton Wagonway of 1604, ran for c. 3 km.

Roofs

The largest post and lintel roof by span spanned the Parthenon in Athens. It measured 19.20 m between the cella walls, with an unsupported span of 11.05 m between the interior colonnades. Sicilian temples of the time featured slightly larger cross sections, but these may have been covered by truss roofs instead.
The largest truss roof by span covered the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian (81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the postulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting: Nine out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman architecture were bridged this way, the only exception being the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.

Tunnels

The deepest tunnel was the Tunnels of Claudius, constructed in eleven years time by emperor Claudius (41–54 AD). Draining the Fucine Lake, the largest Italian inland water, 100 km east of Rome, it is widely deemed as the most ambitious Roman tunnel project as it stretched ancient technology to its limits. The 5653 m long qanat tunnel, passing under Monte Salviano, features vertical shafts up to 122 m depth; even longer ones were run obliquely through the rock. After repairs under Trajan and Hadrian, the Claudius tunnel remained in use until the end of antiquity. Various attempts at restoration succeeded only in the late 19th century.
The longest road tunnel was the Cocceius Tunnel near Naples, Italy, which connected Cumae with the base of the Roman fleet, Portus Julius. The 1000 m long tunnel was part of an extensive underground network which facilitated troop movements between the various Roman facilities in the volcanic area. Built by the architect Cocceius Auctus, it featured paved access roads and well-built mouthes. Other road tunnels include the Crypta Neapolitana to Pozzuoli (750 m long, 3–4 m wide and 3–5 m high), and the similarly sized Grotta di Seiano.
The longest qanat was the 94 km long Gadara Aqueduct in northern Jordan. This recently discovered structure provided for hundreds of years water for Adraa, Abila and Gadara, three cities of the ancient Decapolis. Only 35 km long as the crow flies, its length was almost tripled by following closely the contours of the local topography, avoiding valleys and mountain ridges alike. The monumental work seemed to be carried out in seven stages of construction between 130 and 193 AD. The distance between the individual vertical shafts was on average 50 m. Probably the project was initiated by Hadrian, who had granted privileges to the cities during a longer stay in the Decapolis. The aqueduct remained operational until the Byzantines lost control of the region after the Battle of Yarmuk in 636.
The longest tunnel excavated from opposite ends was built around the end of the 6th century BC for draining and regulating Lake Nemi, Italy. Measuring 1600 m, it was almost 600 m longer than the slightly older Tunnel of Eupalinos on the isle of Samos, the first tunnel in history to be excavated from two ends with a methodical approach. The Albano Tunnel, also in central Italy, reaches a length of 1,400 m. It was excavated no later than 397 BC and is still in service. Determining the tunnelling direction underground and coordinating the advance of the separate work parties made meticulous surveying and execution on the part of the ancient engineers necessary.

Vaulting
The largest barrel vault by span covered the Temple of Venus and Roma, Rome. Built between 307 and 312 AD, the vaulted structure replaced the original timber truss roof from Hadrian's time.
The largest groin vault by span roofed the 25.01 m wide main nave of the Basilica of Maxentius on the Forum Romanum, built in the early 4th century AD.

Miscellaneous

The greatest concentration of mechanical power was the Barbegal water mill complex in southern France, constructed in the early 2nd century AD. Sixteen overshot water wheels fed by an arcaded aqueduct branch from the main conduit to Arles produced an estimated 4.5 t of flour per 24 hours – an output sufficient to feed 12,500 people or the majority of the population of Arles. Water mill batteries are also known from Amida in Asia Minor, the Janiculum hill in Rome, and a number of other places throughout the empire.
The longest spiral stair belonged to the 2nd century AD Trajan's Column in Rome. Measuring a height of 29.68 m, it surpassed its successor, the Column of Marcus Aurelius, by a mere 6 cm. Its treads were carved out ouf nineteen massive marble blocks so that each drum comprised a half-turn of seven steps. The quality of the craftsmanship was such that the staircase was practically even, and the joints between the huge blocks accurately fitting. The design of the Trajan's column had a profound influence on Roman construction technique, and the spiral stair became over time an establish architectural element.
The longest straight alignment was constituted by an 81.259 km long section of the Roman limes in Germany. The fortified line ran through hilly and densely wooded country in completely linear fashion, deviating in its entire length only once, for a distance of 1.6 km, to avoid a steep valley. The extraordinary accuracy of the alignment has been attributed to the groma, a surveying instrument which was used by the Romans to great effect in land division and road construction.

See also
Ancient Greek architecture
Greek technology
Ancient Roman architecture
Roman technology
Roman engineering

References

Sources

External links
Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public works
600 Roman Aqueducts – with 40 described in detail

List of ancient architectural records
 Architectural records
Ancient architectural records
Architecture records


Logone-et-Chari  is a department of Extreme-Nord Province in Cameroon. The department covers an area of 12,133 km and at the 2005 Census had a total population of 486,997. The capital of the department is at Kousséri. Most inhabitants of this department speak Chadian Arabic.

Subdivisions
The department is divided administratively into 10 communes and in turn into villages.

Communes
 Blangoua
 Darak
 Fotokol
 Goulfey
 Hile-Alifa
 Kousséri
 Logone-Birni
 Makary
 Waza
 Zina

Languages
Languages spoken include:
 Afade
 Chadian Arabic
 Jina
 Kuo
 Lagwan
 Majera
 Malgbe
 Maslam
 Masana
 Nzakambay

References

Departments of Cameroon
Far North Region (Cameroon)


Kevin O'Dwyer (born 1973 in Skibbereen, County Cork) is an Irish former Gaelic footballer. He played for his local club O'Donovan Rossa and was a member of the Cork senior inter-county team from 1995 until 2005.

References

1973 births
Living people
Cork inter-county Gaelic footballers
Gaelic football goalkeepers
Garda Síochána officers
Munster inter-provincial Gaelic footballers
O'Donovan Rossa (Cork) Gaelic footballers
Police officers from County Cork


Fernand Kashama (born February 26, 1985) is a former Canadian football defensive lineman who played in the Canadian Football League (CFL). He was drafted by the Calgary Stampeders in the second round of the 2008 CFL Draft. He played college football for the Western Michigan Broncos. He also played for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers.

Early years
Kashama was born on February 26, 1985, in Kinshasa, Congo and grew up in Brampton, Ontario. During his senior season in high school, he played both wide receiver and free safety. He recorded 30 catches for 700 receiving yards.

College career
Kashama was recruited by Boise State, Marshall, Rutgers and Western Michigan, before eventually choosing the latter. He enrolled at the university in January 2004. He redshirted in his true freshman season in 2004. During his redshirt freshman season in 2005, he started off on the offensive scout team before being activated. After playing at tight end for Western Michigan in 2005 and 2006, he converted to defensive lineman in 2007. In his first season at the position he played in all 12 games and recorded his first career sack against Temple on November 24. Overall in his junior and senior seasons which were spent playing on the defensive line, he had 14 tackles along with the one sack.

Professional career

Calgary Stampeders
Kashama was selected by the Calgary Stampeders in the 2008 CFL Draft with the 16th overall pick. He returned to Western Michigan in 2008 for his senior season before signing with Calgary on May 8, 2009. Kashama was originally listed as a linebacker when he joined Calgary but converted to fullback for the season.

Winnipeg Blue Bombers
On October 8, 2010, Kashama signed as a free agent with the Winnipeg Blue Bombers for the remainder of the 2010 season.

Personal
Kashama's older brother Alain, also plays for the Stampeders. His other brother Hakeem played for three CFL teams and his cousin Tim Biakabutuka played for the NFL's Carolina Panthers. Kashama also has a younger brother Bronley who will attend Eastern Michigan University starting in 2009.

References

External links
Just Sports Stats

1985 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Kinshasa
Canadian football linebackers
Western Michigan Broncos football players
Calgary Stampeders players
Black Canadian players of American football
Democratic Republic of the Congo emigrants to Canada
Democratic Republic of the Congo players of American football
Democratic Republic of the Congo players of Canadian football
Fernand
Canadian people of Democratic Republic of the Congo descent


The Church of St John the Baptist in Churchill, Somerset, England, was largely built around 1360 and is a Grade I listed building.

There was a Norman chapel on this site in 1180, from which the nave has survived into the present church.

The stone font dates from around 1200, although the wooden font cover was added in 1879 when there was a revival in gothic designs. The stained glass windows are from a variety of periods.

The tower has three stages with diagonal buttresses, moulded string courses, north-east polygonal higher corner stair turret with blind panelled embattled cap and pierced quatrefoil lozenge parapet with corner pinnacles and gargoyles. It is dated to c. 1360 by Poyntz Wright and after 1420 by Harvey.

See also

 List of Grade I listed buildings in North Somerset
 List of towers in Somerset
 List of ecclesiastical parishes in the Diocese of Bath and Wells

References

Church of England church buildings in North Somerset
Grade I listed churches in Somerset
12th-century church buildings in England
Grade I listed buildings in North Somerset


The Edificio Kronos (English: Kronos Building) is a residential building in Playa de Levante, Benidorm, Spain. It is 140 metres (476 feet) tall, has 41 floors, and overlooks the surrounding buildings and has views over Benidorm's bays and mountains.

External links

 Official website

Buildings and structures in Benidorm
Kronos


Mitra mitra, common name the episcopal miter, is a species of large predatory sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk in the family Mitridae, the miters.

Distribution
Widespread in the Indo-Pacific, from East Africa, including Madagascar and the Red Sea, to eastern Polynesia. North to southern Japan, Wake Island and Hawaii, and south to Australia.

Habitat
This species lives in intertidal and sublittoral zones, to a depth of around 80 m.

Feeding
Mitra mitra is known to be carnivorous, an active predator that feeds on smaller gastropods and bivalves.

Shell description
The maximum shell length for this species is 18 cm, usually to 14 cm.
Like in all Mitridae, the shell is elongate, somewhat fusiform, with a high spire. The aperture is elongate and narrow, and the outer lip is smooth and not lirate (grooved). Unlike other species of the genus Mitra, the spire is not strongly shouldered. The surface of the shell is smooth, with a few weak, spiral grooves towards the anterior end. The colour is white, with spiral rows of large irregular orange or red spots.

References

Further reading
 Cosel R. V. (1977). "First record of Mitra mitra (Linnaeus, 1758) (Gastropoda: Prosobranchia) on the Pacific coast of Colombia". Veliger 19: 422-424.

External links

Mitridae
Gastropods described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus


The Barbour family is an American political family of Scottish origin from Virginia. The progenitor of the Barbour family was James Barbour, who emigrated to Virginia from Scotland in the middle of the 17th-century.

Notable members
The Barbour family's more notable members included James Barbour (10 June 1775–7 June 1842), United States Senator, 18th Governor of Virginia, and 11th United States Secretary of War; John Strode Barbour, Sr. (8 August 1790–12 January 1855), Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia's 15th congressional district; John Strode Barbour, Jr. (29 December 1820–14 May 1892), Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia's 8th congressional district and United States Senator; and Philip P. Barbour (25 May 1783–25 February 1841), Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Virginia's 11th congressional district, 12th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, and Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

 James Barbour I (born 1681) m. Elizabeth Taliaferro
 James Barbour II (1707–1775) m. Elizabeth Todd (1730), m. Sarah Todd (1733)
 Richard Barbour
 James Barbour III (1734–1804) m. Frances Throckmorton (1762)
 Mordecai Barbour (1764–1846) m. Elizabeth Strode, m. Sally Haskell Byrne
 John Strode Barbour (1790–1855) m. Elizabeth A. Byrne
 John Strode Barbour, Jr. (1820–1892) m. Susan Sewell Daingerfield (1865)
 James Barbour (1828–1895) m. Fanny Thomas Beckham (1857)
 Ella B. Barbour Rixey (born 1858) m. John Franklin Rixey (1881)
 Mary B. Barbour Wallace (born 1860) m. Clarence B. Wallace (1890)
 James Byrne Barbour (1864–1926)
 John Strode Barbour (1866–1952) m. Mary B. Grimsley (1894)
 Edwin Barbour (1868–1902) m. Josie McDonald
 A. Floyd Barbour (born 1868)
 Fanny C. Barbour Beckham (born 1874) m. Benjamin Collins Beckham (1899)
 Alfred Madison Barbour (1829–1866) m. Kate Daniels (1858)
 Frances Barbour Minor m. Henry Minor
 Ann Barbour Gist m. Thomas Gist
 Maria Barbour Tillinghast Hogan m. (?) Tillinghast, m. J. B. Hogan
 Mordecai Barbour
 James Barbour
 Thomas Barbour m. Mary Taylor
 Richard Barbour m. Mary Moore
 Gabriel Barbour
 Philip Barbour m. Lucy Taylor, m. Eliza Hopkins
 Frances Barbour Moore m. John Moore
 Sarah Barbour Harrison m. John (James) Harrison
 Mary Barbour Walker m. David Walker
 Lucy Barbour Baylor m. Wythe Baylor
 Thomas Barbour (1735–1825) m. Mary Pendleton Thomas
 Richard Barbour
 James Barbour (1775–1842) m. Lucy Maria Johnson (1795)
 Lucy Maria Barbour Taliaferro (1797–1843) m. John Seymour Taliaferro (1822)
 Benjamin Johnson Barbour (1800–1820)
 James Barbour (died 1857)
 Benjamin Johnson Barbour (1821–1894) m. Caroline Homassel Watson (1844)
 Frances Cornelia Barbour Collins m. William Handy Collins
 Lucy T. Barbour
 Philip P. Barbour (1783–1841) m. Frances Todd Johnson (1804)
 Edmund Pendleton Barbour (1805–1851)
 Philippa Barbour (1807–1860)
 Elizabeth Barbour Ambler (1808–1857) m. John Jaquelin Ambler (1828)
 Quintus Barbour m. Mary Elizabeth Somerville (1833)
 Frances Todd Barbour Ewing m. D. B. Ewing
 Cornelia Barbour Somerville m. James Somerville
 Philip Barbour
 Jane Barbour
 Philip Pendleton Barbour
 Sextus Barbour (1813–1848)
 Septimus Barbour (1815–1816)
 Thomas Barbour (1810–1849)
 Nelly Barbour
 Mary Thomas Bryan m. Daniel Bryan
 Mariana Bryan Lathrop (1820–1893) m. Jedediah Hyde Lathrop
Bryan Lathrop (1844–1916)
Barbour Lathrop (1847–1927)
Caroline Huntington Lathrop (1853–1854)
Minna Byrd Lathrop (1857–1877)
Florence Lathrop Field Page (1858–1921) m. Henry Field (1883) m. Thomas Nelson Page (1893)
 Mary Caroline Wylie (1825—1896) m. Andrew Wylie
 Andrew Wylie (1847—1858)
 Pendleton Wylie (1858–1869)
 Horace Wylie (1868–1950)
 Andrew S. Wylie (1870–1871)
Thomas Barbour Bryan (1828–1906) m. Jennie Byrd Bryan (1850)
Daniel Page Bryan (????-1855)
Charles Page Bryan (1855–1918)
Jennie Byrd Bryan Payne (1857—1919) m. John Barton Payne (1913)
 Sally Barbour
 Philip Barbour m. (?)
 (?) Barbour
 Ambrose Barbour (born c. 1733) m. Catherine Thomas
 Philip Barbour
 James Barbour m. Letitia Green
 Catherine Barbour Vick m. J. Wesley Vick
 Lucinda Barbour Hardin m. Benjamin Hardin
 Richard Barbour
 Lucy Barbour Davis m. (?) Davis
 William Barbour
 Mary Barbour Harrison m. John Harrison
 Fanny Barbour Smith m. (?) Smith
 Betty Barbour Johnson m. Benjamin Johnson
 Lucy Johnson Barbour m. James Barbour (1795)
 Frances Todd Johnson Barbour m. Philip P. Barbour
 (?) Barbour Boyd m. James Boyd

References

Political families of the United States
American families of Scottish ancestry
Scottish families
Families from Virginia


185th Paratroopers Division "Folgore" () was an airborne division of the Royal Italian Army during World War II. The division was formed in Tarquinia near Rome on 1 September 1941. In July 1942 the division was sent to Libya to fight in the Western Desert Campaign and was destroyed during the Second Battle of El Alamein in early November 1942.

History

Origins

On 20 March 1938 the first Italian Parachuting School was activated by the Royal Italian Air Force in Italian Libya at Castel Benito air base. At the outbreak of World War II the school had raised two Libyan and one Italian paratroopers battalion. In July 1940 the school moved to al-Marj, where the school was overrun by British forces during Operation Compass.

On 15 October 1939 the Royal Italian Air Force activated the Royal Air Force Paratroopers School in Tarquinia near Rome, which trained the units for the Folgore division. On 10 November 1942 the Royal Air Force Paratroopers School in Viterbo was formed, which trained units for the 184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo" and the planned 183rd Paratroopers Division "Ciclone".

On 1 July 1940 the school in Tarquinia raised the I Paratroopers Battalion and on 15 July the Carabinieri Paratroopers Battalion. For order of precedence reasons the Carabinieri Paratroopers Battalion received the number I from the I Paratroopers Battalion, which was renumbered as II Paratroopers Battalion. On 1 April 1941 the I Carabinieri Paratroopers Battalion, the II, III, and IV paratrooper battalions, and the 1st Paratroopers Anti-tank Company entered the newly formed 1st Paratroopers Regiment. In July 1941 the I Carabinieri Paratroopers Battalion was transferred to Libya, where it participated in the Western Desert Campaign.

On 30 April 1941 the Italian paratroopers were deployed for the first time when a company of the II Paratroopers Battalion jumped onto Cephalonia during the Battle of Greece.

Paratroopers Division
On 1 September 1941 the 2nd Paratroopers Regiment and the Paratroopers Division were activated in Tarquinia. The division was intended to be used in Operation Hercules – the planned Axis invasion of Malta and was initially organized as follows:

 Paratroopers Division
 1st Paratroopers Regiment (activated on 1 April 1941)
 II Paratroopers Battalion
 III Paratroopers Battalion
 IV Paratroopers Battalion
 2nd Paratroopers Regiment (activated on 1 September 1941)
 V Paratroopers Battalion
 VI Paratroopers Battalion
 VII Paratroopers Battalion
 I Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 cannons, activated on 28 August 1941)
 1st Paratroopers Artillery Battery (47/32 anti-tank guns; former 1st Paratroopers Anti-tank Company)
 2nd Paratroopers Artillery Battery (47/32 anti-tank guns, former 2nd Paratroopers Anti-tank Company)
 Signal Company
 Engineer Company

In 1942 the division was further augmented: on 15 January the II Paratroopers Artillery Group was activated, followed by the III Paratroopers Artillery Group on 10 March. On the same date the Paratroopers Division Artillery Regiment was activated. The regiment took command of the three paratrooper artillery groups, which each fielded two batteries with four 47/32 anti-tank guns per battery. On 15 March 1942 the 3rd Paratroopers Regiment was activated in Tarquinia and took command of the VIII, IX, and X paratrooper battalions. The VIII Paratroopers Battalion was sent to the Central Engineering School in Civitavecchia, where the battalion's troops were trained as Sappers. In May 1942 the battalion was renamed as VIII Paratroopers Sapper Battalion and assigned to the Paratroopers Division.

185th Infantry Division "Folgore"
On 27 July 1942 the division's name was changed to 185th Infantry Division "Folgore" and its regiments were renumbered and renamed as well. The new structure was as follows:

 185th Infantry Division "Folgore"
 185th Infantry Regiment "Folgore" (former 1st Paratroopers Regiment)
 II Paratroopers Battalion
 III Paratroopers Battalion
 IV Paratroopers Battalion
 Paratroopers Support Weapons Company (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 186th Infantry Regiment "Folgore" (former 2nd Paratroopers Regiment)
 V Paratroopers Battalion
 VI Paratroopers Battalion
 VII Paratroopers Battalion
 Paratroopers Support Weapons Company (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 187th Infantry Regiment "Folgore" (former 3rd Paratroopers Regiment)
 IX Paratroopers Battalion
 X Paratroopers Battalion
 Paratroopers Support Weapons Company (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 185th Artillery Regiment "Folgore"
 I Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 II Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 III Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 Regimental Services Battery
 VIII Paratroopers Sapper Battalion

The division was sent to Libya to bolster Axis forces in the Western Desert campaign. However the 185th Infantry Regiment "Folgore" was detached from the division and ordered to remain in Italy to be the nucleus for the formation of the 184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo". Therefore the regiment ceded its II and IV battalions to the 187th Infantry Regiment "Folgore". When the division arrived in Africa it consisted of about 5,000 men. In Africa the division's three artillery groups of the 185th Artillery Regiment "Folgore" were merged into two artillery groups of three batteries each. An additionally seventh battery was formed with surplus materiel found by the division during its transfer to the front. This allowed the division to attached one battery to each of its seven paratroopers battalion.

After arriving in North Africa the division was sent to the extreme South of the Axis line between Deir el Munassib and Qaret el Himeimat, where the Qattara Depression began. From 30 August to 5 September 1942 the division participated in the failed Axis attempt to outflank the British Eighth Army at El Alamein in the Battle of Alam el Halfa.

On 15 September the 185th Infantry Regiment "Folgore" officially left the division and changed its name to 185th Infantry Regiment "Nembo".

After the Battle of Alam el Halfa the Folgore split into four tactical groupings named after their commanders. These four groupings were from North to South:

 185th Infantry Division "Folgore"
 Ruspoli - VII Paratroopers Battalion, VIII Paratroopers Sapper Battalion
 Bechi - II Paratroopers Battalion, IV Paratroopers Battalion
 Camosso - IX Paratroopers Battalion, X Paratroopers Battalion
 Tantillo - V Paratroopers Battalion, VI Paratroopers Battalion

On 29 September 1942 the British launched Operation Braganza against the paratroopers of the Folgore, who despite numerical inferiority managed to repulse the British attack. After Braganza the IX and X paratrooper battalions were merged as IX Paratroopers Battalion, which was then combined with the II Paratroopers Battalion and IV Paratroopers Battalion in one tactical grouping. The new grouping was sent together with the III Paratroopers Artillery Group to the north of the Folgore's line at Deir el Munassib, while the Ruspoli grouping moved to the center of the 15 km long line.

Second battle of El Alamein
On 23 October 1942 the British commenced the Second battle of El Alamein. On 23 and 24 October the Folgore's front was tested by British attacks, followed by an all out assault by three Allied divisions on 25 October. At 10:30am on that day the British 44th (Home Counties) Infantry Division, 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, 7th Armoured Division, together with the 1st Free French Brigade attacked the Folgore from three sides. The attack was repulsed by 3am of 26 October. On 26 and 29 October the Allied divisions attacked the Folgore again, but with less force than on the 25 of the month as the Allied focus had shifted to force a breakthrough in the other sectors held by X Army Corps with the 17th Infantry Division "Pavia" and 27th Brescia.

When the Folgore received the order to abandon its positions and retreat westwards on 2 November 1942 none of the division's positions had been lost to the British. The division began its retreat during the night of 2 to 3 November 1942, leaving behind 1,100 dead. During the retreat the division formed the Axis' rearguard. On 6 November the remnants of the division were overtaken and surrounded by motorized British forces and forced to surrender. On 25 November 1942 the Folgore was declared lost due to wartime events.

The few survivors who managed to escape were organized into the CLXXXV Paratroopers Battalion "Folgore", which fought in the Tunisian Campaign on the Mareth Line and was destroyed during the Battle of Takrouna on 20–21 April 1943.

Battle analysis

At El-Alamein, throughout several engagements, the Italian paratroopers were either able to resist the attacks made upon them or, when the Allied forces had been successful in completely wiping out the first line of Folgore outposts, to reform again, usually counterattacking. The main Allied effort during the battle was in the northern part of the Axis line. However, the four divisions attacking the Folgore positions in the south had also been given breakthrough objectives. The 7th Armoured Division had been ordered to spare their tanks, so their attacks were called off after the bloody fighting during the night of October 24/25. Thirty-one Allied tanks were destroyed or damaged during that night alone. At the end of the battle of El Alamein, Harry Zinder of Time magazine noted that the Italian paratroopers fought better than had been expected, and commented that: "In the south, the famed Folgore Paratroopers Division fought to the last round of ammunition".

Combat Group "Folgore"

On 24 September 1944 the Italian Co-Belligerent Army raised the Combat Group "Folgore" with soldiers and materiel from the disbanded 184th Paratroopers Division "Nembo". After the war the combat group became the Mechanized Division "Folgore", which was disbanded on 31 October 1986.

Paratroopers Brigade "Folgore"

On 1 January 1963 the Italian Army raised the I Paratroopers Brigade in Pisa, which received the name "Folgore" on 10 June 1967.

Organization

The division was sent to Africa and fought in the battles of El Alamein with the following structure:

 185th Infantry Division "Folgore"
 Command Company
 186th Infantry Regiment "Folgore"
 Command Company
 V Paratroopers Battalion
 VI Paratroopers Battalion
 VII Paratroopers Battalion
 186th Cannons Company (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 187th Infantry Regiment "Folgore"
 Command Company
 II Paratroopers Battalion (transferred from the 185th Infantry Regiment "Folgore")
 IV Paratroopers Battalion (transferred from the 185th Infantry Regiment "Folgore")
 IX Paratroopers Battalion
 X Paratroopers Battalionnote 1
 187th Cannons Company (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 185th Artillery Regiment "Folgore"
 Command Unit
 I Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 II Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns; disbanded in North Africa and batteries assigned to the I and III paratroopers artillery groups)
 III Paratroopers Artillery Group (47/32 anti-tank guns)
 2x Anti-aircraft artillery batteries (20/65 Mod. 35 anti-aircraft guns)
 Ammunition and Supply Unit
 CLXXXV Sappers Battalion (replaced by the VIII Paratroopers Sappers Battalion in May 1942)
 VIII Paratroopers Sappers Battalion (former VIII Paratroopers Battalion/ 187th Infantry Regiment "Folgore")
 185th Mortar Company (81mm Mod. 35 mortars; replaced by the 20th Mortar Company)
 20th Mortar Company (81mm Mod. 35 mortars; joined the division in North Africa)
 185th Telegraph and Radio Operators Company
 185th Engineer Company
 185th Transport Unit
 185th Medical Section
 20th Supply Section
 185th Carabinieri Section
 260th Field Post Office

Note 1: After suffering heavy losses the IX and X paratrooper battalions were merged as IX Paratroopers Battalion

Military honors
For their conduct during the Western Desert Campaign the President of Italy awarded on 26 March 1963 to the three regiments of the 185th Paratroopers Division "Folgore" Italy's highest military honor, the Gold Medal of Military Valour.

  185th Paratroopers Artillery Regiment "Folgore" on 26 March 1963
  186th Paratroopers Regiment "Folgore" on 26 March 1963
  187th Paratroopers Regiment "Folgore" on 26 March 1963

Commanding officers
The division's commanding officers were:

 Generale di Brigata Francesco Sapienza (1 September 1941 - 28 February 1942)
 Generale di Divisione Enrico Frattini (1 March 1942 - 25 November 1942, POW)

References

Further reading
 George F. Nafziger. Italian Order of Battle: An organizational history of the Italian Army in World War II (3 vol)
 Irving, David. La pista della volpe  Mondadori editore. Milano, 1978
 Krieg, E. La guerra nel deserto - vol. 2 - La battaglia di El Alamein. Edizioni di Crémille. Ginevra, 1969
 Petacco, Arrigo. L'armata nel deserto. (Capitolo: Folgore). Mondadori editore. Milano, 2001

Airborne divisions of Italy
Divisions of Italy in World War II
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations disestablished in 1943