In linguistics, speech or indirect discourse is a grammatical mechanism for reporting the content of another utterance  without directly quoting it. For example, the English sentence Jill said she was coming is indirect discourse while Jill said "I'm coming" would be direct discourse. In fiction, the "utterance" might amount to an unvoiced thought that passes through a stream of consciousness, as reported by an omniscient narrator.

In many languages, indirect discourse is expressed using a content clause or infinitival. When an instance of indirect discourse reports an earlier question, the embedded clause takes the form of an indirect question. In indirect speech, grammatical categories in the embedded clause often differ from those in the utterance it reports. For instance, the example above uses the third person pronoun "she" even though Jill's original utterance used the first person pronoun "I". In some languages, including English, the tense of verbs can also be changed following the sequence of tense. Some languages also have a change of mood. For instance Latin indirect speech uses the infinitive for statements and the subjunctive for questions.

Changes in form
In indirect speech, words generally have referents appropriate to the context in which the act of reporting takes place, rather than that in which the speech act being reported took place (or is conceived as taking place). The two acts often differ in a reference point (origo) – the point in time and place and the person speaking – and also in the person being addressed and the linguistic context. Thus when a sentence involves words or forms whose referents depend on these circumstances, they are liable to change when the sentence is put into indirect speech. In particular, this commonly affects:
personal pronouns, such as I, you, he, we, and the corresponding verb forms (in pro-drop languages the meaning of the pronoun may be conveyed solely by verb inflection).
demonstratives, such as this and that.
phrases of relative time or place such as now, yesterday and here.

There may also be a change of tense or other modifications to the form of the verb, such as change of mood. These changes depend on the grammar of the language in question  – some examples can be found in the following sections.

Indirect speech need not refer to a speech act that has actually taken place; it may concern future or hypothetical discourse; for example, If you ask him why he's wearing that hat, he'll tell you to mind your own business. Also, even when referring to a known completed speech act, the reporter may deviate freely from the words that were actually used, provided the meaning is retained. This contrasts with direct speech, where there is an expectation that the original words will be reproduced exactly.

Ambiguity
Some modal verbs (would, could, might, should, ought to) do not change in indirect speech. The indirect speech sentence is then ambiguous since it can be a result of two different direct speech sentences. For example:
I can get it for free.    OR    I could get it for free.
He said that he could get it for free.   (ambiguity)

However, in many Slavic languages, there is no change of tense in indirect speech and so there is no ambiguity. For example, in Polish (a male speaker, hence third person masculine singular):
Mogę mieć to za darmo.    (I can get it for free)
On powiedział, że może mieć to za darmo.    (literally: He said that he can get it for free.)

Examples

English
Some examples of changes in form in indirect speech in English are given below. See also Sequence of tenses, and .
It  raining hard.
She says that it  raining hard. (no change)
She said that it  raining hard. (change of tense when the main verb is past tense)
  the ceiling blue.
He said that   the ceiling blue. (change of  and )
I  to  party .
I said that I  to  party . (change of ,  and )
How  to live in  city?
I asked him how  to live in  city. (change of tense and , and of )
Please leave the room.
I asked them to leave the room. (use of infinitive phrase)
  a traitor...
You believe   a traitor... (use of infinitive phrase)

The tense changes illustrated above (also called backshifting), which occur because the main verb ("said", "asked") is in the past tense, are not obligatory when the situation described is still valid:

Ed  a bore.
She said that Ed  a bore. (optional change of tense)
  over to watch television.
Benjamin said that   over to watch television. (change of , optional change of )

In these sentences, the original tense can be used provided that it remains equally valid at the time of the reporting of the statement (Ed is still considered a bore; Benjamin is still expected to come over).

Ancient Greek
In Ancient Greek, statements and questions that are reported are sometimes quoted by using indirect statements and questions.

There are three types of indirect statements and one type of indirect question, but all are introduced with a verb of thought, belief, speaking, or questioning.

Verbs such as  require no additional introductory particle. The quoted speech is rendered with the following changes: the finite verb is transformed into the corresponding infinitive, and the nominative subject and the predicate are transformed into the accusative. The accusative object remains unchanged. Tense, voice, and number remain unchanged.
  (nom.)  (nom.) "This woman is pretty."
  (acc.)  (acc.) "The man says (that) this woman is pretty."

Verbs such as  require no additional introductory particle. However, the nominative subject, and the predicate, if present, are changed into the accusative case, and the finite verb, agreeing with them, is changed into the corresponding participle in the accusative case. The accusative object remains unchanged. Tense, voice, and number remain unchanged.
. "The man knows (that) this woman is pretty."

With the two species of indirect statements above, however, if the subject of the quoted speech is the same as its speaker, the subject is omitted and is understood in the nominative, and the predicate, if present, remains in the nominative case.

Verbs such as  require either  or  as an introductory particle. If the introductory verb is in a secondary tense, the finite verb of the / clause is usually changed from the indicative mood into the corresponding tense in the optative mood, but the indicative verb is sometimes retained for vividness.
. "The woman is beautiful."
 (present optative) / (present indicative) . "The man said that the woman was beautiful."

Latin

In Latin grammar, indirect speech is called  (direct speech is called ). An indirect statement or question can replace the direct object of a verb that is related to thought or communication.

An indirect statement is expressed by changing the case of the subject noun phrase from nominative to accusative and by replacing the main verb with an infinitive (as in the English phrase "You believe me to be a traitor" above). The voice remains unchanged, but the tense of the infinitive is controlled mostly by the temporal relationship between the time expressed by the matrix verb's tense and the time denoted by the infinitive. The present tense at the moment of utterance (a simultaneous state of affairs between the matrix verb and the infinitive) is expressed by the present infinitive. The past tense (the infinitive's state of affairs is before that of the matrix verb) is expressed by the perfect infinitive. The future tense (a time posterior after that of matrix verb) is expressed by the future infinitive.

Practically, six tenses of the indicative must be transformed into three available infinitival tenses. An accurate reproduction of the full temporal sense of direct speech is thus often impossible:

Amo libertatem. ("I love freedom")
Dicit se amare libertatem. ("He says that he loves freedom")
Rex dedit omnibus leges. ("The king gave laws to everyone")
Credo regem dedisse omnibus leges. ("I believe that the king gave laws to everyone")
Videbimus permulta cras. ("We shall see very many things tomorrow")
Speras nos visuros esse permulta cras. ("You hope that we shall see very many things tomorrow")
Tertium non datur. ("No third possibility is given")
Docuit philosophus tertium non dari. ("The philosopher taught that no third possibility is given")
In Senatu imperator interfectus est. ("The emperor was killed in the Senate")
Audivi imperatorem in Senatu interfectum esse. ("I heard that the emperor was killed in the Senate")

As is shown from the first example, even a coreferent subject must be expressed in the accusative if its clause is put into the infinitive. The accusative of reflexive pronouns is used in the corresponding person and number (singular: me, te, se; plural: nos, vos, se).

For predication by a copula (typically, esse), the case of the predicate adjective or noun changes from nominative to accusative. The same happens to any syntactic constituent that stood in the nominative case before it became indirect speech.

Sum felix. ("I am happy")
Dixit se esse felicem. ("He said that he was happy")
Cadam pugnans. ("I shall fall dead while fighting") (A participle in the nominative.)
Dicit se casurum esse pugnantem. ("He says that he will fall dead while fighting") (The participle is now in the accusative and agrees in case to the accusative agent, denoted by the pronoun se)

After passive verbs of speaking, reporting, thinking, or perceiving, the nominative with infinitive (Latin: Nominativus cum infinitivo) is generally preferred, especially after monolectic matrix verb types. That construction is called, in generative linguistics, subject-to-subject raising: the noun phrase (in the accusative) is detached from the infinitive and is raised as the nominative subject of the matrix passive verb:

Dicitur [Homerum caecum fuisse]. Impersonal construction: the infinitival clause serves as the subject of the verb dicitur.
Dicitur Homerus [caecus fuisse]. Personal construction: the noun Homerus in the nominative serves as the subject of the verb dicitur (and is implied also as the subject of the infinitive fuisse). The whole infinitival clause is said to serve now as the object of the verb dicitur (that is not exactly accepted by modern linguistic approaches to subject-to-subject raising phenomena).

If an imperfect or a pluperfect was initially used in direct speech, the perfect infinitive is normally used instead, as it  the only one capable of denoting a state of affairs earlier than the one denoted by the matrix verb that introduces the indirect speech.

Cogitabam/Cogitaveram aliquid. ("I was thinking/had thought something")
Dixit se cogita(vi)sse aliquid ("He said that he had been thinking/had thought something")

(Sometimes, the present infinitive is used as the representative of the imperfect indicative and so it is called, by some grammarians, the imperfect infinitive.)

The future perfect indicative, a tense denoting a state of affairs completed in the future and so later than another state of affairs in the future, becomes, according to at least some grammarians, the circumlocution fore ut + perfect of pluperfect subjunctive, in accordance to the sequence of tenses at hand, a sort of substantive consecutive clause serving as subject of the infinitive fore. In the passive, a form of the periphrastic infinitive -tus fore is normally used:

Cogitavero aliquid. ("I shall have thought something")
Dixit fore ut cogita(vi)sset aliquid ("He said that he should have thought something")
Urbs expugnata erit ("The city will have been captured")
Dixit urbem expugnatam fore ("He said that the city would have been captured")

A potential subjunctive is changed to some sort of periphrastic infinitive: a present subjunctive becomes -urum esse or posse, followed by the present infinitive; an imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive becomes -urum fuisse:

Urbem capiam ("I would/can/may capture the city.")
Dixit se urbem capturum esse/capere posse ("He said that he would/could/might capture the city.")
Urbem caperem ("I would/could/might be capturing the city; I could/might have captured the city (poetic).")
Dixit se urbem capturum fuisse ("He said that he would/could/might be capturing the city.")
Urbem cepissem ("I would/could/might have captured the city.")
Dixit se urbem capturum fuisse ("He said that he would/could/might have captured the city.")

An indirect question is expressed by changing the mood of the main verb from the indicative to the subjunctive. Some rhetoric questions change the verb to the accusative, followed by the infinitive, as if it were a real declarative statement in direct speech ). It is normally appropriate to retain the word that introduces the question, but a relative pronoun or adverb is occasionally used instead of one that is initially interrogative. The subjunctive tense is controlled by the Sequence of Tenses. Its sequence depends on the tense of the matrix verb of asking, perceiving etc. by which the indirect question is introduced:

1. The present indicative becomes the present subjunctive after a primary tense (present, future, future perfect of primary perfect), but it turns into the imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense (a past tense: imperfect, secondary perfect, pluperfect and, occasionally, historic present):

Quis hoc dubitat? ("Who doubts this?")
Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitet. ("He asks who doubts this.")
Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaret. ("He asked who was doubting this.")

2. The future indicative is turned into the periphrastic conjugation in -urus sim (the present periphrastic subjunctive is used as the future subjunctive) or -urus essem (the imperfect periphrastic subjunctive).

Quis hoc dubitabit? ("Who will doubt this?")
Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaturus sit. ("He asks who will doubt this.")
Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaturus esset. ("He asked who would doubt this.")

However, the use of present subjunctive after a primary tense and imperfect subjunctive after a secondary tense is also often attested, especially if the future reference is obvious from the context and for a passive verb (passives lack the periphrastic conjugation -urus sim).

3. The imperfect, perfect, pluperfect and future perfect indicative are turned into the perfect or pluperfect subjunctive after primary and secondary tenses respectively:

Quis hoc dubitabat/dubitavit/dubita(ve)rat/dubita(ve)rit? ("Who was doubting/doubted/had doubted/will have doubted this?")
Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubita(ve)rit. ("He asks who was doubting/had doubted/will have doubted this.")
Quaesivit quis (or: qui) hoc dubita(vi)sset. ("He asked who had been doubting/would have been doubting this.")

A deliberative subjunctive, always in the present tense in direct speech, is always retained in an indirect question. The tense of the direct form is unchanged unless the matrix verb had a secondary tense, when the present tense becomes imperfect. An initially secondary subjunctive, the imperfect, is retained, regardless of the tense into which the matrix verb is changed, primary or secondary:

Quid scribam? ("What am I to write?")
 Nescit quid scribat. ("He doesn't know what to write.")
 Nesciebat quid scriberet. ("He didn't know what to write.")
Quid scriberem? ("What do you think I ought to have done?")
 Nescit/nesciebat quid scriberet. ("He does/did not know what to write.")

The potential subjunctive is retained as well. Primary subjunctives are changed to the corresponding secondary subjunctives, which stay the same. The idea of possibility is often expressed by periphrases: by -urus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem and by a subjunctive tense of possum + present infinitive:

Quis hoc dubitet? ("Who can doubt this?")
Quaerit quis (qui) hoc dubitet/dubitare possit. ("He asks who can doubt this.")
Quaesivit quis (qui) hoc dubitaret/dubitare posset. ("He asked who could doubt this.")
Quis hoc dubitaret/dubita(vi)sset? ("Who could doubt/could have doubted this?")
Quaerit quis (or: qui) hoc dubitaret/dubita(vi)sset/dubitaturus fuerit. ("He asks who could doubt/could have doubted this.")

A dependent clause in the indicative is put into the subjunctive if it is changed to indirect speech. Almost all the rules stated above hold for indirect questions:

The simple present particular conditional becomes the present indicative in the protasis and the apodosis:
Si id credis, erras ("If you believe that, you are wrong.")
Dicit te, si id credas, errare ("He says that if you believe that, you are wrong.")
Dixit te, si id crederes, errare. ("He said that if you believed that, you were wrong.")

The unreal present conditional (an imperfect subjunctive in the protasis and the apodosis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive remains unchanged in the protasis; an unreal imperfect subjunctive becomes the infinitive -urum fuisse in the apodosis):
Si id crederes, errares. ("If you believed that, you would be wrong.")
Dicit/dixit te, si id crederes, erraturum fuisse. ("He says/said that if you believed that, you would be wrong.")

The vivid future conditional (a future perfect indicative in a protasis, a direct question with a future indicative in an apodosis; a protasis is changed to a perfect or pluperfect subjunctive, according to the rules of the sequence of tenses; an apodosis similarly is changed to an indirect question with the periphrastic -usus sim/essem):

Cur, si id credideris, errabis? ("Why, if you believe that, will you be wrong?")
Quaerit cur, si id credideris, erraturus sis. ("He asks why, if you believe that, you will be wrong.")
Quaesivit cur, si id credidisses, erraturus esses. ("He asked why, if you believed that, you would be wrong.")

Russian
In Russian and many other Slavic languages, indirect speech uses the same verb tense as the equivalent sentence in direct speech:

Я не люблю шоколад. ("I don't like chocolate")
Она сказала, что не любит шоколад. ("She said that she didn't like chocolate", literally, "She said that (she) doesn't like chocolate")

German

German indirect speech consists formally of dependent clauses depending on a verb of saying, holding, thinking or the like, but they may sometimes be elliptically left out and simply implied. Questions take their question-word, yes-no-questions take  ("whether"), and statements take  for the conjunction. Also, German indirect speech must be put into subjunctive mood. That is one of the primary uses for the non-periphrastical subjunctive.

 Hans states he practices sport daily. Michael consequently wants to know which kind of sports he prefers. Markus on the other hand is rather interested in [the question] whether he goes to a gym for doing so.

The conjunction "" can be left out. In that case, the indirect speech is put into main-clause word order (inflected verb at second place) even though it is still a dependent clause separated by a comma:

 Hans states he practices sport daily.

In longer segments of indirect speech, which, at least in written German, are as normal as they would be in Latin, only the first sentence or none of them has a "", and full-stops are put wherever they would have been put in direct speech.

 Hans states he practices sport daily. At first he began with jogging, but now he prefers team sports. He has started to play football in the club SC Oberhügelhausen and he is training hard so that they will add him to the first team soon; he has [according to him] good chances for that.

Shorter statements of indirect speech may be presented in the indicative if they are not doubted; however, it would be colloquial to do so but to leave the "" out:

 Hans states he practices sport daily.

Notes on the subjunctive:
 The German subjunctive is mostly regular even if the indicative is irregular such as sein "to be". The stem of the word (infinitive minus -en or -n) is followed by -e, -est, -e, -en, et, -en. Other than in the indicative, an -e- remains even the most colloquial speech be (the few exceptions still differentiate the indicative, such as "du seist" for "du seiest").
 If the direct speech is in the present, the present subjunctive is used. If the direct speech is the past, whether it is expressed by the perfect or by the preterite, the perfect subjunctive is used (not the imperfect subjunctive). If the direct speech is in the future, the future subjunctive is used; both of the latter are formed by adding the auxiliaries that form the perfect or future into the subjunctive.
 If the present subjunctive is the same as the present indicative, which can often happen other than in the third person-singular, whose the regular indicative ending is a -t, the second subjunctive, also known as irrealis, Konjunktiv II, or traditionally as the imperfect subjunctive, is used. The present subjunctive is identical to the preterite in weak verbs but has the same endings as the first subjunctive, which differentiate at least the first-person and the third-person singular in strong verbs, whose indicative does not end in -e. Strong verbs usually also add an umlaut (ich zog → ich zöge) or even use an older form to form the umlaut (ich stand, older ich stund → ich stünde).
 If the imperfect subjunctive is the same as the preterite indicative, shorter statements also use the periphrastic construction of the conjunctive for the actual irrealis (ich würde machen, etc.). However, the subjunctive can be left in place unchanged, which is almost always the case for longer segments.
 The second subjunctive is often used even when the first subjunctive form of a verb is unambiguous. Grammarians differ whether that is ever acceptable, such as when expressing a large amount of doubt.
 If the direct speech is in the pluperfect, the (otherwise-deprecated) "redoubled perfect" is accurate: "Er sagte, das Fußballspiel habe gestern nicht stattfinden können, weil ein Gewitter den Platz überschwemmt gehabt habe." (He said, the football match could not [lit. has not been able to] take place yesterday, because a thunderstorm had flooded [lit. has had flooded] the field.)

See also
Content clause
Free indirect speech
Propositional attitude
Quotation
Slifting

References

Semantic units
Semantics
Syntactic entities


Mary Nesbitt (born 1742/3 – died 1825) was an English upper class socialite and courtesan who mixed in the elevated circles of government and royalty in late 18th century Great Britain. Her home, Norwood House, in Upper Norwood, then Surrey, now South London, became a meeting place for the rich and powerful.

Life
She was born Mary Davis, in poverty and of unknown parentage. Her enemies later alleged that she had been born 'in a wheelbarrow' in Covent Garden.  She was also early on known as Polly Davis.

Her society career began as an artist's model for Sir Joshua Reynolds in 1764.  Through this connection she began her career as a courtesan. Simon Luttrell, nicknamed the King of Hell and later first Earl of Carhampton, was possibly her original seducer. Her association with Luttrell may be the origin of her later nickname of Hellfire Davies.

Through Luttrell she was introduced to Alexander Nesbitt (bap 1730 – d 1772), the youngest of three sons of Thomas Nesbitt, a merchant banker in the City of London.

Mary married Nesbitt, on 25 February 1768, at St Martin-in-the-Fields, with Luttrell as a witness. Nesbitt settled on her for life his house and estate at Upper Norwood in Surrey. The couple also had a residence at 10 Buckingham Street, London.

Alexander Nesbitt suffered a mental collapse and was confined in private lodgings near Blackfriars around 1769, he died in 1772. Mary's enemies, the news sheet Tête-à-tête and the anonymous Junius, attributed his insanity to her disrespectful treatment of him.

Around 1771 Mary became the mistress of the Hon. Augustus John Hervey (1724–1779), a naval officer, and second son of Lord Hervey of Ickworth (1696–1743). Hervey became third Earl of Bristol in 1775 and Mary and Augustus lived together, apparently faithfully, at Norwood House. They also had residences at 6 St James's Square, London and at Ickworth House, Suffolk. They were prevented from marrying when the earl's divorce petition was dismissed in 1779.

On Hervey's death in 1779 Mary received the manor of Evedon, other land in Lincolnshire, and £5000 from the sale of about  in Suffolk. She also received a share of the stock and furniture at 6 St James's Square and at Ickworth, valued at £7378 12s. 11d. She continued to live at her own house in Upper Norwood, which she enlarged.

Her salon at Norwood was frequented by men such as George Rose, secretary to the Treasury, and many young aspirants to political office. During the French Revolution she travelled in diplomatic circles on the continent. This may indicate that she had been recruited by prime minister William Pitt as a government agent in his covert attempts to restore the French monarchy. She now attracted public praise. On 25 September 1797, the Morning Chronicle acknowledged that "this celebrated woman", despite "the miscellany of her life", had "acquired an elevation ... which she has preserved with dignity", using "her influence with the great in favour of the unfortunate".

She was forced to let Norwood House due to reduced financial circumstances in the early 19th century. Mary then frequently lived abroad, where in 1808 she met Madame Tussaud and bought her a house in Crystal Palace. It is believed from there Tussaud took up her world-famous waxwork museum in 1821 at Montreuil-sur-Mer, Pas-de-Calais, France and in 1822 in Switzerland.

Nesbitt is believed to have died, aged eighty-two, in Paris, where she was buried on 4 November 1825.

References

Further reading

 Review by the Norwood Society

External links
Mary Nesbitt's portrait at the Wallace collection , London

1742 births
Year of birth uncertain
1825 deaths
English courtesans
English spies
English artists' models
People from Upper Norwood
British salon-holders
English socialites
18th-century English people
18th-century spies
18th-century English women


Walter Hus (born 2 July 1959) is a Belgian composer and musician.

He studied at the music conservatories in Ghent and Brussels. In 1984, he graduated with excellence (Diplôme supérieur) for piano with Prof. Dr. Robert Steyaert and soon became involved with new music in many different expressions. He performed improvised piano recitals (1984: LP Eight Etudes on Improvisation); occasionally flirted with free jazz (Belgisch Pianokwartet) and rock (Simpletones); collaborated with painters (Michel Thuns) and video artists (Walter Verdin, Marie André).

He wrote film scores for Suite Sixteen (Dominique Deruddere) and The Pillow Book (Peter Greenaway); toured the world with his ensemble Maximalist! and wrote and performed for theatre and ballet (amongst others Anne Teresa De Keersmaeker, Wim Vandekeybus, Roxanne Huilmand, Needcompany, Bud Blumenthal, Discordia, Beukelaars, Kortekaas, Ritsema).

From the nineties on, he appeared less on stage and concentrated on composition as his main interest.

He was commissioned by a number of music institutions and festivals, such as the , deSingel, the , , Festival van Vlaanderen, Antwerpen '93, Happy New Ears, Vooruit, Felix Meritis, Hebbel Theater and the .

Recent works include four String Quartets ("La Théorie", "Le Désir", "Le Miroir" and "La Folie") and their symphonic transcriptions; chamber music for various combinations of instruments; music for choir and wind-ensembles; one Violin Concerto; one Piano Concerto; solo pieces; two song cycle; a children's opera ("de Nacht"); "Orfeo", an opera

His trilogy of operas ("Meneer, de zot & tkint" / "Bloetwollefduivel" / "Titus Andonderonikustmijnklote"), lyrics by Jan Decorte, toured in Belgium and other European countries and were described as "masterpieces of stilistic venom [...] flawless little lessons in opera eshthetics"

He composed a cycle of twenty-four preludes and fugues in four volumes, for multiple combinations of instruments. In 2004 he performed Books II & III of Preludes and Fugues for 2 pianos with pianist/composer Frederic Rzewski.

In 2012, Hus created an opera based on Chris Ware's Lint (Acme Novelty Library #20).

Since 2004, Walter Hus is artist in residence at Namahn. Walter Hus' recording studio, featuring a Decap organ, is located in the Namahn spaces.

In recent years, Hus is best known for his work with the Decap organ. He started transcribing sheet music for Decap's new instruments in the early 2000s and "fell completely in love with the whole instrumentarium and saw far greater potential in it". Decap lent him an instrument, and Hus continues composing for and performing with the organ.

In 2010, Hus composed a Decap version of Universal Nation for the documentary The Sound of Belgium.

In 2015, he received the Ensor Award at the Oostende International Film Festival for his soundtrack to the film N-the madness of reason by Peter Krüger.

References

External links

 Walter Hus at the Living Composers Project

Belgian composers
Male composers
Belgian male musicians
1959 births
Living people
Factory Records artists


The 1976 Fischer-Grand Prix was a men's tennis tournament played on indoor hard courts at the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna in Austria that was part of the 1976 Commercial Union Assurance Grand Prix circuit. It was the second edition of the tournament and was held from 25 October through 31 October 1976. Fifth-seeded Wojciech Fibak won the singles title.

Finals

Singles

 Wojciech Fibak defeated  Raúl Ramírez 6–7, 6–3, 6–4, 2–6, 6–1
 It was Fibak's 10th title of the year and the 15th of his career.

Doubles

 Bob Hewitt /  Frew McMillan defeated  Brian Gottfried /  Raúl Ramírez 6–4, 4–0 (Gottfried and Ramírez retired)
 It was Hewitt's 4th title of the year and the 28th of his career. It was McMillan's 7th title of the year and the 33rd of his career.

References

External links
 ATP tournament profile
 ITF tournament edition details

Fischer-Grand Prix
Vienna Open


Louis-Henri Blais (June 9, 1827 – August 21, 1899) was a lawyer and political figure in Quebec. He represented Montmagny in the Legislative Assembly of Quebec from 1867 to 1871 as a Liberal.

He was born in Montmagny, Lower Canada, the son of Louis Blais and Marie-Madeleine Noël. Blais was educated at the Collège de Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pocatière, was called to the Quebec bar in 1851 and set up practice in Montmagny. He was president of the Agricultural Society for Montmagny County. Blais was married twice: to Marie-Anne-Hermélène Fournier in 1849 and to Eugénie Blais in 1872. He ran unsuccessfully to represent Montmagny in the legislative assembly for the Province of Canada in 1863. He died in Montmagny at the age of 72.

References

1827 births
1899 deaths
French Quebecers
Quebec Liberal Party MNAs
People from Montmagny, Quebec


Vijayan K Pillai (born  1948) is Professor, School of Social Work and PhD Program Director / Graduate Adviser at the University of Texas at Arlington.

He received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa in 1983, with a thesis on "Determinants of the first birth interval."    Prior to joining University of Texas at Arlington, Pillai taught at the University of North Texas, University of Iowa, and University of Zambia. He was the Zellerbach Visiting Professor, University of California, Berkeley, Fall 2004. He has Published nearly 100   papers and book chapters,  including 35 peer-reviewed journal articles, and authored/ co authored and edited 13 books/ monographs. His primary interests are in developing countries, human reproduction, gerontology and demography. He is a referee to over thirty international journals.

Publications

Books
Sunil, T. S., and Vijayan K. Pillai. Women's Reproductive Health in Yemen. Amherst, N.Y.: Cambria Press, 2010.
Review,   Reference & Research Book News May 2010
Littell, Julia H., Jacqueline Corcoran, and Vijayan K. Pillai. Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.  Held in 384 libraries according to
Review, Research on Social Work Practice v. 18 no. 5 (Sept. 2008).
Review, Children & Youth Services Review v. 31 no. 4 (Apr. 2009).
Crow, Thomas, and Vijayan K. Pillai. Designing a Teenage Pregnancy Prevention Program: The Behavioral Performance Theory. Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006.
Review,    SciTech Book News June 2006
Weinstein, Jay A., and Vijayan K. Pillai. Demography: The Science of Population. Boston, Mass: Allyn and Bacon, 2001.
Achola, Paul Pius Waw, and Vijayan K. Pillai. Challenges of Primary Education in Developing Countries: Insights from Kenya. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000.
 Pillai, Vijayan K., Lyle W. Shannon, and Judith L. McKim., eds.  Developing Areas: A Book of Readings and Research. Oxford: Berg, 1995.
Review   WorldViews: A Quarterly Review of Resources for Education and Action Jan 1996 v12 p6
Pillai, Vijayan K., and Guang-zhen Wang. Women's Reproductive Rights in Developing Countries. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 1999. .  In 316 libraries according to worldCat
Review Journal of Economic Literature Dec 1999 v37 i4 p1794
Review,   Reference & Research Book News Nov 1999 v14 p109
Review, CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries Oct 1999 v37 i2 p416(1)

Selected journal articles
His most-cited peer-reviewed journal articles are:
Pampel, Pillal, V.K.  "Patterns and determinants of infant-mortality in developed nations, 1950-1975", Demography   volume: 23   issue: 4   pages: 525-542   published: Nov 1986.
times cited: 35 .
 Pei XM, Pillai VK, "Old age support in China: The role of the state and the family" International Journal of Aging and Development  Volume: 49   Issue: 3   Pages: 197-212   Published: 1999
Times Cited: 13 (Web of Science)

References

External links
 Personal website

 Vijayan K. Pillai, UT Arlington professor in the School of Social Work, was recently quoted in The Economic Times, India and on the topic of opportunities and challenges for India and China in an era of global-ization, which appeared in India’s Daily News and Analysis

American sociologists
Living people
University of Iowa alumni
1940s births
Year of birth missing (living people)
University of Kerala alumni


"Põhjamaa" (Estonian for Northern/Nordic Land/Country), also "Laul Põhjamaast" (Estonian for Song of the Northern/Nordic Land/Country), is a song by Enn Vetemaa to a melody by Ülo Vinter, originally for an Estonian musical adaptation of Pippi Longstocking.  The song has been recurring in Estonian Song Festivals. "Põhjamaa" was considered by some to be a good candidate for the anthem of Republic of Estonia after it reestablished its independence but it was deemed unfitting as its subject was Sweden, not Estonia.

Lyrics

References
 Longstocking Music

External links
 Choral rendition at Youtube
 Movie rendition at Youtube
 Pan flute rendition at estmusic.com

Estonian songs


Le Dôme de Marseille is an indoor amphitheatre, located in Marseille, France. The capacity of the arena is 8,500 people.

The amphitheatre has hosted concerts by many famous artists, spanning many different genres. Toto recorded their live album Livefields there in 1999.

External links

Music venues in France
Amphitheaters
Buildings and structures in Marseille


Psychomotor may refer to:
 Psychomotor learning, the relationship between cognitive functions and physical movement
 Psychomotor retardation, a slowing-down of thought and a reduction of physical movements in an individual
 Psychomotor agitation, a series of unintentional and purposeless motions that stem from mental tension and anxiety of an individual


Queen Mary's School for Boys (QMSB) was a maintained (state funded) grammar school in Basingstoke, Hampshire, England for boys aged 11–18.  The school existed between 1556 and 1970 and was latterly funded by the Hampshire County Council Education Authority.

Foundation
Queen Mary's School for Boys, Basingstoke, owed its origin to Queen Mary in 1556, when the pre-existing Chantry Chapel of the Holy Ghost, Basingstoke, was reopened as the Holy Ghost School, with the priest able to teach ten boys of the town. The Chapel had previously been closed during the reign of King Edward VI. The Holy Ghost School survived the death of Queen Mary in 1558, remaining at the Chapel until a purpose-built structure was erected on Worting Road, Basingstoke, in 1870. The first Schoolmaster was endowed in 1559 (at 12 pounds a year), to be quickly replaced by numerous others. In 1592, after Queen Elizabeth I visited the Chapel, the school was more in the hands of these masters than of the priest, but the Chapel became Crown property. For centuries the school provided basic education in Latin and numerical skills to young boys from the town, and just a few dozen of them at a time. Until well into the 19th century, the town's population was only partially literate as schooling was not yet a legal requirement for all children.

New building

In 1938, the school moved to Vyne Road, Basingstoke, in a newly constructed building in the functional, modernist style of brick architecture of the period. A "Junior School" block, in a subsequent style was opened in 1965. In imitation of the independent schools, Queen Mary's School for Boys had Houses; pupils were assigned to Chapel, Sandys, White or Vyne, with Inter-House sports fixtures. House colours were as follows: Chapel – maroon with light blue, Sandys – scarlet with white, White – green with white, and Vyne – amber with black. Chapel house was named after the Holy Ghost Chapel where the school had originated. Sandys house was named after the Sandys local noble family. White house was named after Gilbert White, a noted local naturalist and writer and Vyne House drew its name from a nearby eponymous Elizabethan country estate.

Traditions

Uniform
The school uniform was a black blazer, grey trousers, and white shirt for Senior Boys and a grey shirt for Junior Boys, worn with the school tie which had broad pale blue and navy blue diagonal stripes. The school badge was a white dove descending on a black background, with the letters Q.M.S.B. beneath. A subfusc suit could also be worn in place of the blazer and grey trousers, but latterly the habit had declined. Boys in the lower school, up to 4th form, wore a black peaked cap with a silver emblem of the dove descending. Sub-prefects wore blue ties with a silver dove emblem and a cap trimmed with silver cord, while full prefects wore a blue tie with a gold dove emblem. Full prefects also had a silver tassel on their school caps.

Motto
The school motto was, Spiritum Nolite Extinguere, (Never extinguish the Spirit), which was also the title of the school song.

Activities
Not all boys at the school lived in Basingstoke. After World War II students came by bus from as far away as Whitchurch and Tadley.

For some years there was a Young Farmers' Club that attracted boys with a rural background.

During the winter and spring terms, the school played rugby, football,  hockey, and basketball; in summer, the sports were cricket, lawn tennis, and athletics, as well as swimming in the unheated open-air swimming pool.

There was a Combined Cadet Force, (CCF), with a small field gun and ex-British Army Lee–Enfield SMLE No.4 0.303 rifles stored fairly securely on the premises, together with Bren guns. The army section also had a 2-inch mortar and 3.5-inch rocket launcher, together with six Sten guns. The RAF section of the Combined Cadet Force had access to a catapult-launched single seat training glider.

After World War II the school produced an annual Shakespeare play, under the direction of the English master, Mr J.H.C. Byrnes, until his retirement. One year they toured schools in Denmark with "The Merchant of Venice". Byrnes's final production of Hamlet, presented at the school in 1963, toured to Denmark and Sweden in the summer of 1964.  Brian Theodore Ralph in the eponymous role went on to study at the  Guildhall School of Music and Drama and enjoyed a successful career in the theatre.

Also after World War II the school maintained a symphony orchestra and gave public performances under the direction of the modern languages master, Mr Dennis R. Stephens (who had a M.A. in Fine Arts from Oxford). After his retirement, Mr Stephens recalled that "it was a happy school".

The number of boys in the school, in the last years of its separate existence, was about 650, with three forms of entrance, each of about 20–25 children per class. Their numbers had doubled since the end of the War. Pupils took "O" Levels at the age of 16, and those who stayed on into the Sixth Form, took "A" Levels at the age of 18. Latin was taught to all Junior boys; Ancient Greek was still taught in the Sixth Form, although to a very small number of pupils, as of the academic year 1967–68. French and German were regularly taught too.

Former teachers
The school benefitted greatly in the postwar years from the presence of two refugee-teachers: Miss Strauss, from Vienna, who taught Latin, and the avuncular Mr. Hermann, a liberal-minded German.
In 1960-61 the music master was Ernest Warburton who later became Editor of Music at the BBC.

The last Headmaster, Mr W.H. Rhodes M.A. (Oxon.) (ca. 1924–2005)1 and the last Deputy-Headmaster, Mr. J. J. Evans M.A. (Cantab.) had both been Classics Masters. The Music Master, Mr. Peter Marchbank M.A. (Cantab.), left the school in 1969, to take up a career in conducting and radio broadcasting with the BBC in Manchester. The senior geography teacher, Mr. Eric G. Stokes, had had a notable wartime RAF career, having gained, amongst other decorations, the Distinguished Flying Cross and bar, and attaining the rank of Wing Commander.  Mr Stokes became the school archivist with Ron Crossman, an RE teacher and former Head Boy of the School. Ernest Warburton was head of music from 1960 to 1964. A chemistry teacher, George Holmes O.B.E., was an A.C.F. full Colonel. He had been awarded the Cadet Force Medal and the Special Constabulary Medal, with a number of clasps.

Merger with Charles Chute School
In September 1970, as part of the programme to make most UK maintained schools comprehensive, and abolish 11+ selection, Queen Mary's School merged with the Charles Chute Secondary Modern School, a secondary modern school which had been built next door. The combined schools became known initially as Queen Mary's and Charles Chute School. The first headmaster of the combined school was Wilfred Harry Rhodes, who was the last Headmaster of Queen Mary's School for Boys. The name of the comprehensive school was later changed to The Vyne School, latterly becoming The Vyne Community School, which remains to this day a co-educational maintained school for the 11–16 age group. The "Queen Mary's" name was transferred to the 16–18 Sixth Form College in Cliddesden Road, Basingstoke, Queen Mary's College.

Notable alumni

 John Arlott, a national celebrity as a BBC radio and television cricket commentator, who spoke with a slow, carefully controlled voice, noted for its Hampshire accent
 Gordon Coppuck, racing car designer
 John Freeman Dunn, Liberal MP from 1923 for Hemel Hempstead
 Paul Hockings, Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Illinois
 John James (c 1673-15 May 1746), architect
 Martin Read, Chairman of the Senior Salaries Review Body and Wincanton plc
 Revd. Gilbert White (1720–1793), village parson and pioneer naturalist
 George Wigg, an Army Officer, later a Labour MP, Junior Minister, and a Life Peer

References

Schools in Basingstoke
Defunct schools in Hampshire
Educational institutions established in 1909
Educational institutions disestablished in 1970
1970 disestablishments in England
Defunct grammar schools in England
1909 establishments in England


Boo to You Too! Winnie the Pooh is a Halloween television special produced by Walt Disney Television Animation with the animation production done at Toon City Animation, Inc. in Manila, Philippines, along with the additional production at Thai Wang Film Productions in Bangkok, Thailand. Based on the Disney television series The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, originally broadcast on October 25, 1996 on ABC.

Phil Spencer won the 1997 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Animation for his work on this film.

Synopsis

On Halloween, Pooh and his friends are eager to go trick-or-treating. Piglet has never gone trick-or-treating, having always been too afraid of the frightening atmosphere of Halloween. After building an imposing mannequin in an attempt to face his fears, he joins his friends in preparation for trick-or-treating. Pooh's attempt to get honey from a bee hive ends in failure, and the bees chase the group into Rabbit's garden, destroying some of his pumpkins. As night falls and a thunderstorm looms, Tigger overzealously speaks of the horrors of Halloween, frightening Piglet enough that he runs home and barricades the door and windows.

Sympathetic to Piglet's fear, Pooh, Eeyore and Tigger decide to avoid the frightening aspects of Halloween and throw Piglet a less frightening "Hallo-wasn't" party instead. When the three costumed friends show up at Piglet's house, he mistakes them for a monster and flees. The trio of friends discover Piglet is missing, and go to search for him in the night. Simultaneously, Piglet goes looking for Pooh and the others, but when he can't find any of his friends, Piglet believes they've all been taken by "Spookables".

Still wearing their costumes, Pooh, Eeyore and Tigger make their way through the increasingly stormy night to find Piglet, but their fears get the best of them. Pooh's costume gets stuck in a tree branch, and the other two struggle to pull him out. Hearing Pooh's cries for help, Piglet happens upon the scene and believes two "Spookables" are attacking his friend. Determined to help his friend, Piglet summons his courage and uses his mannequin to seemingly rescue Pooh. When the mannequin collapses in the midst of the ensuing chaos, the others believe Piglet has vanquished the apparent monster. They commend Piglet for his bravery, and they all go trick-or-treating together.

Cast

 John Fiedler as Piglet
 Steve Schatzberg as Piglet (Singing voice)
 Jim Cummings as Winnie the Pooh and Tigger
 Peter Cullen as Eeyore
 Ken Sansom as Rabbit
 Michael Gough as Gopher
 John Rhys-Davies as The Narrator

Movie connections
Boo to You Too! was also featured as a Halloween story in Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie, where the story is told by Roo (rather than the Narrator) while also happening at the same time. However Pooh and Tigger’s lines about mentioning Heffalumps were dubbed into Spookables due to the fact Lumpy is a Heffalump and Rabbit’s greenish fur was recolored into yellow so it wouldn’t look to similar from The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh.

References

External links

1996 television specials
American films with live action and animation
Halloween television specials
Winnie-the-Pooh specials
Disney television specials
1990s American television specials
Winnie the Pooh (franchise)
Television specials by Disney Television Animation
Films scored by Mark Watters


Rev. Stephen Livingstone Baldwin (; Pinyin: Bǎolíng; Foochow Romanized: Bō̤-lìng; January 11, 1835 – July 28, 1902) was an American missionary to China by the Methodist Episcopal Church. His ministerial life covered a period of forty-four years, half of which was spent at Foochow.

Biography
Stephen Livingstone Baldwin was born in Somerville, Somerset, New Jersey on January 11, 1835. He graduated at Concord Biblical Institute (modern-day Boston University) in 1858. The same year he was appointed a missionary to China under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal Church. He arrived at Shanghai with Mrs. Baldwin in the latter part of 1858, and proceeded forthwith to his station at Foochow, which he reached early in 1859. In the beginning of 1861, he left with his family for the United States on account of Mrs. Baldwin's health, but she died on the voyage. Baldwin married again in America, and the next year, he was at Foochow again with his second wife, Esther E. Baldwin, remaining till 1870. Upon his return to the United States, he held several pastorates, and was for the last 14 years of his life, recording secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. In 1900, he published Foreign Missions of the Protestant Churches. Baldwin died of typhoid fever on July 28, 1902, in Brooklyn, New York.

References
 A Century of Protestant Missions in China (1807-1907) (p. 430)
 The Encyclopedia Americana (pp. 78 – 79)
 保靈

1835 births
1902 deaths
Christian missionaries in Fujian
Methodist missionaries in China
Methodist writers
American Methodist clergy
American Methodist missionaries
Southern Methodists
American expatriates in China
19th-century American clergy


Chilean-Romanian relations are foreign relations between Chile and Romania. Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on February 5, 1925. Embassies were established in each other's countries that year but the bilateral relations were interrupted in 1943 because of World War II.

In 1965, the diplomatic relations were renewed. Even though most of the Eastern Bloc countries broke their relations with Chile after 1973, Romania refused to sever diplomatic relations.

Chile has an embassy in Bucharest and honorary consulates in Braşov and Cluj-Napoca. Romania has an embassy in Santiago.

See also
 Foreign relations of Chile
 Foreign relations of Romania

References

External links
  Chilean Foreign Ministry about relations with Romania (in Spanish)
 Chilean embassy in Bucharest (in Spanish and Romanian)
  Romanian embassy in Santiago de Chile (in Spanish)

Romania
Bilateral relations of Romania


Koščake (; ) is a remote settlement in the hills northeast of Begunje in the Municipality of Cerknica in the Inner Carniola region of Slovenia.

References

External links

Koščake on Geopedia

Populated places in the Municipality of Cerknica


St John Basil Wynne Willson (surname Wynne-Willson; 28 August 186815 October 1946) was an Anglican bishop in the first half of the 20th century. He was the Bishop of Bath and Wells from 1921 to 1937.

The maternal grandson of Michael Alexander, Bishop of Jerusalem, Willson was educated at Cheltenham and St John's College, Cambridge. He was an Assistant Master at The Leys School and Rugby before Headships at Haileybury College and Marlborough. Ordained in 1904, he was appointed Dean of Bristol in 1916, a post he held for five years. The Bishop of Bristol (George Nickson) and the Dean were strong supporters of Britain's involvement in the Great War and Willson, although 48, volunteered for the Army Chaplaincy. He was interviewed on 7 February 1917, and he asked to be posted to France or Salonika; but bouts of colon pain and shortsightedness meant that he had to serve in England. He left the army in 1918. He married Alice Lillian Wills in 1919, and died in 1946. He was consecrated a bishop on All Saints' Day 1921 (1 November) by Randall Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury, at St Paul's Cathedral. He then served as Bishop of Bath and Wells until his retirement on 1 November 1937.

Publications

A classical scholar, Willson's translations included Aeschylus’ Prometheus Bound; Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars, Books 4 and 5; Virgil's Aeneid, Books 5 and 6; and Lucian of Samosata's Wonderland (Vera Historia).

References

External links

People educated at Cheltenham College
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Heads of schools in England
Deans of Bristol
20th-century Church of England bishops
Bishops of Bath and Wells
1868 births
1946 deaths


George Walker (c.1581–1651) was an English clergyman, known for his strong Puritan views. He was imprisoned in 1638 by William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, an affair that was later raised  against Laud at his trial. He became a member of the Westminster Assembly in 1643.

Anthony à Wood called Walker a "severe partisan", while Thomas Fuller said he was "a man of an holy life, humble heart, and bountiful hand."

Life
He was born about 1581 at Hawkshead in Furness, Lancashire, and was educated at the Hawkshead grammar school, founded by his kinsman, Archbishop Edwin Sandys.  He was a near relative of John Walker. He went to St. John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1608 and M.A. in 1611. His former tutor, Christopher Foster, who held the rectory of St. John Evangelist, Watling Street, the smallest parish in London, resigned that benefice in favour of Walker, who was inducted on 29 April 1614. There he continued all his life, refusing preferment.

In 1614 he accused Anthony Wotton of Socinian heresy and blasphemy. This led to a "conference before eight learned divines", which ended in a vindication of Wotton. On 2 March 1619 he was appointed chaplain to Nicholas Felton, Bishop of Ely. He was already respected as a logician, Hebraist, and theologian, and engaged in disputes with "heretics" and "papists". On 10 July 1621 he was incorporated B.D. of Oxford.

On 31 May 1623 he had a disputation on the authority of the church with Sylvester Norris, who called himself Smith. About the same time Walker was associated with Daniel Featley in a disputation with Father John Fisher. His puritanism was displeasing to Laud, who in 1636 mentions him in his yearly report to Charles I as one "who had all his time been but a disorderly and peevish man, and now of late hath very frowardly preached against the Lord Bishop of Ely his book concerning the Lord's Day, set out by authority; but upon a canonical admonition given him to desist he hath recollected himself, and I hope will be advised". In 1638 appeared his Doctrine of the Sabbath, which bears the imprint of Amsterdam, and contains extreme  views of the sanctity of the Lord's day.

Walker was committed to prison on 11 November 1638 for some "things tending to faction and disobedience to authority" found in a sermon delivered by him on the 4th of the same month. His case was introduced into the House of Commons on 20 May 1641, and his imprisonment declared illegal. He was afterwards restored to his parsonage, and received compensation for his losses. At the trial of Laud in 1643 the imprisonment of Walker was made one of the charges against the archbishop. When he was free again he became very busy as a preacher and author. Four of his works are dated 1641: 1. God made visible in His Works, or a Treatise on the Eternal Works of God. 2. A Disputation between Master Walker and a Jesuite in the House of one Thomas Bates, in Bishop's Court in the Old Bailey, concerning the Ecclesiastical Function. 3. The Key of Saving Knowledge. 4. Socinianisme in the Fundamentall Point of Justification discovered and confuted. In the last of these, which was directed against John Goodwin, he revived imputations against Wotton, who found a vindicator in Thomas Gataker; in the following year Walker replied. Goodwin in his Treatise on Justification, 1642, deals with the various doctrinal points raised by Walker.

Walker joined the Westminster Assembly of divines in 1643,  of which he was an active and influential member. On 29 January 1645 he preached a fast-day sermon before the House of Commons, which was shortly afterwards published, with an Epistle giving some details of his imprisonment. In the same year (1646) he printed A Brotherly and Friendly Censure of the Errour of a Dead Friend and Brother in Christian Affection. This refers to some remarks of William Prynne. On 26 September 1645 parliament appointed him a "trier" of elders in the London classis.

There is an undated tract by him about providing preachers in Lancashire. He himself supported the minister of Hawkshead. He was also a benefactor to Sion College library.

He died in his seventieth year in 1651, and was buried in his church in Watling Street, which was destroyed in the Great Fire of London of 1666.

Notes

References

External links

1581 births
1651 deaths
17th-century English Anglican priests
Westminster Divines
People educated at Hawkshead Grammar School
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
People from Hawkshead
English Calvinist and Reformed theologians
17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians


Easter traditions (also known as Paschal traditions) are customs and practices that are followed in various cultures and communities around the world to celebrate Easter (also known as Pascha or Resurrection Sunday), which is the central feast in Christianity, commemorating the resurrection of Jesus. The Easter season is seen as a time of celebration and feasting, in contrast to the antecedent season of Lent, which is a time of penitence and fasting.

Easter traditions include sunrise services or late-night vigils, exclamations and exchanges of Paschal greetings, flowering the cross, the wearing of Easter bonnets by women, clipping the church, and the decoration and the communal breaking of Easter eggs (a symbol of the empty tomb). The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection in Christianity, traditionally decorates the chancel area of churches on this day and for the rest of Eastertide. There are also traditional Easter foods that vary by region and culture. Many traditional Easter games and customs developed, such as egg rolling, egg tapping, and cascarones or confetti eggs. Egg hunting, originating in the idea of searching for the empty tomb, is an activity that remains popular among children. Today Easter is commercially important, seeing wide sales of greeting cards and confectionery such as chocolate Easter eggs.

Games
There are a large number of traditional Easter games and customs in the Christian world. Many of these games incorporate Easter eggs, a symbol of the empty tomb. Of these the most well known, widespread and popular until the modern times are the egg rolling, egg hunt, egg tapping, and egg dance. Their rules may vary in different cultures and localities. At the same time, there exist less known peculiar customs. Nowadays child entertainers and kindergartens invent various new Easter games, often adapting well-known games to Easter topics, such as word puzzles involving Easter-related words.

Egg games
The rules of egg rolling may vary significantly, with the basic idea being an egg race. The eggs are either rolled down a steep hill or pushed across a lawn with sticks.
Egg hunt is a kind of treasure hunt game: children have to collect as many hidden eggs as possible.
Egg tapping is a contest for the hardest egg: the contestants tap each other's eggs with egg tips and optionally with other parts: "butts" or sides.
Egg dance requires dancing among eggs while keeping them undamaged. In some traditions the egg dancer may be blindfolded.

Africa

Ethiopia and Eritrea

Easter, known as Fasika (Ge'ez: ፋሲካ, sometimes transcribed as Fasica; from Greek Pascha), also called Tensae (Ge'ez: ትንሣኤ, "to rise") is celebrated among Ethiopian and Eritrean Christians.

In Ethiopia, the most prominent and longstanding religion has been the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (then including the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) since the times of Frumentius. Ethiopian (Ethio-Eritrean, Eastern) Easter, or Fasika, however, takes place in all the Christian Churches throughout the country, whether it be Orthodox, Catholic, or Protestant, and follows the eastern method of calculating Easter (see Computus for details), thus tending to fall after Easter in the Western calendar (some years both fall on the same date). Fasika is a much more important festival than Christmas, since the Death and Resurrection of Jesus is more significant in Orthodox and Ethiopian Evangelical theology than his birth. Jesus' crucifixion which led to his death on a Friday, according to Orthodox thought was for the purpose of fulfilling the word of God, and led to the conquest of death and Jesus' resurrection from the tomb after three days, the third day being the Sunday when Ethiopian Easter is celebrated.

Fasika is a climactic celebration. Fasting becomes more intense over the 55-day period of Lent for Orthodox Christians, Catholics and optionally for some Protestant denominations, when no meat or animal products of any kind, including milk and butter, are eaten. Good Friday starts off by church going, and is a day of preparation for the breaking of this long fasting period.

The Orthodox Christians prostrate themselves in church, bowing down and rising up until they get tired. The main religious service takes place with the Paschal Vigil on Saturday night. It is a somber, sacred occasion with music and dancing until the early hours of the morning. At 3:00 a.m. everyone returns home to break their fast, and a chicken is slaughtered at midnight for the symbolic occasion. In the morning, after a rest, a sheep is slaughtered to start the feasting on Easter Sunday. While Catholics and Protestant denominations have special Easter Services/Masses bringing in people from various smaller community churches together  to participate in an Easter sermon and celebration.

In Ethiopian-Eritrean Orthodox Christianity or the Tewahedo faith, it is believed the near-sacrifice of Abraham's loved son Isaac (Genesis 22), which was a test of faith from God to Abraham, was interrupted by a voice of an angel from the heavens, and the sending of a Lamb for the sacrifice instead. This Old Testament story is said to be a prophetic foreshadowing of God sending his only beloved son for the world as a sacrifice and the fulfilling of Abraham's promise.

Easter in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and its diaspora communities, is a day when people celebrate; there is a release of enjoyment after the long build-up of suffering which has taken place, to represent Christ's fasting for forty days and forty nights. People often have food and for most Orthodox Christians locally brewed alcohol from fresh honey (tej, tella and katikalla), while to a certain extent Ethiopian-Eritrean Protestantism generally discourages heavy alcohol.

Ethiopians and Eritreans in the West especially those of the Catholic and Protestant denominations celebrate Easter on both the Eastern and Western days. While most Ethiopian-Eritrean Orthodox Christians in the West refrain from doing so because celebrating the Western Easter celebration would interfere with the Orthodox Eastern Fasting Season. In most cases the Catholic Western Fasting Season ends earlier than the Orthodox Eastern Fasting Season as can be seen in the difference between the when the Eastern and Western Churches celebrate Easter (Fasika).

Nigeria
Since the arrival of Christianity in Nigeria with the missionaries that came to the country from the early 1800s, Easter has been observed among the Christian population.

Asia

Malaysia
Despite Malaysia being a Muslim majority country, Easter is celebrated in the states of Sabah and Sarawak in East Malaysia as there is a significant Christian indigenous population in both states.

The Americas

Bermuda
In the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, historically famous for growing and exporting the Easter lily, the most notable feature of the Easter celebration is the flying of kites to symbolize Christ's ascent. Traditional Bermuda kites are constructed by Bermudians of all ages as Easter approaches, and are normally only flown at Easter. In addition to hot cross buns and Easter eggs, fish cakes are traditionally eaten in Bermuda at this time.

Jamaica
In Jamaica, eating bun and cheese is a highly anticipated custom by Jamaican nationals all over the world. The Jamaica Easter Buns are spiced and have raisins, and baked in a loaf tin. The buns are sliced and eaten with a slice of cheese. It is a common practice for employers to make gifts of bun and cheese or a single loaf of bun to staff members. According to the Jamaica Gleaner, "The basic Easter bun recipe requires wheat flour, brown sugar, molasses, baking powder or yeast and dried fruits." Easter egg traditions and the Easter Bunny activities are not widespread in Jamaica. Also, Jamaican traditions include sometimes include throwing garlic onto the floor as a sign of good luck during Easter dinner.

United States
In Louisiana, USA, egg tapping is known as egg-knocking. Marksville, Louisiana claims to host the oldest egg-knocking competition in the US, dating back to the 1950s. Competitors pair up on the steps of the courthouse on Easter Sunday and knock the tips of two eggs together. If a participant's egg shell cracks they have to forfeit it, a process that continues until just one egg remains. Venetia Newall describes egg eating competitions in Western Germany and among German emigrants to Pennsylvania, United States.

Europe

Cyprus
As well as the common painted easter egg hunt, in Cyprus it is customary for people to light great fires (Greek: λαμπρατζια) in schools or church yards. The fires are made up of scrap wood, gathered usually by enthusiastic young boys which scour their neighbourhoods for them, in order to make their fire as great as it can be (and bigger than the neighbouring one). More than often this competition leads to fights happening over scraps of wood and the police or fire department being called to put out the fires that have gone out of control. It is customary for a small doll representing Judas Iscariot to be burnt. The same thing happens on Crete, but it is non-competitive, and the fire is called "founara" which means "big fire" in Cretan Greek. The founara burns coupled with the detonation of small dynamites called "plakatzikia" in plural, and with gunshots in the air.

Eastern Europe

Many central and eastern European ethnic groups, including the Albanians, Armenians, Belarusians, Bulgarians, Croats, Czechs, Estonians, Georgians, Hungarians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Macedonians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Ukrainians, decorate eggs for Easter.

In Bulgaria, the Easter eggs are decorated on Thursday or Saturday before Easter. Widespread tradition is to fight with eggs by pair, and the one whose egg is the last surviving is called borak (, fighter). The tradition is to display the decorated eggs on the Easter table together with the Easter dinner consisting of roasted lamb, a salad called Easter salad  (lettuce with cucumbers),  and a sweet bread called kozunak.

In the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and some parts of Hungary, a tradition of spanking or whipping is carried out on Easter Monday. In the morning, men spank women with a special handmade whip called "Easter switches" called a pomlázka (in Czech) or korbáč  (in Slovak); in eastern regions of former Czechoslovakia Moravia and Slovakia they also pour cold water on them. The pomlázka/korbáč consists of eight, 12 or even 24 withies (willow rods), is usually from half a metre to two meters long and decorated with coloured ribbons at the end. In some regions it might be replaced by a stick of a juniper tree. The spanking may be painful, but it's not intended to cause suffering. A legend says that women should be spanked with a whip in order to keep their health, beauty, and fertility during the whole next year.

An additional purpose can be for men to exhibit their attraction to women; unvisited women can even feel offended. Traditionally, the spanked woman gives a coloured egg (kraslice) they've prepared by themselves as invitations to eat and drink and as a sign of her thanks to the man. If the visitor is a small boy, he is usually provided with sweets and a small amount of money.

In some regions, the women can get revenge in the afternoon or the following day when they can pour a bucket of cold water on any man. The habit slightly varies across Slovakia and the Czech Republic. A similar tradition existed in Poland (where it is called Dyngus Day), but it is now little more than an all-day water fight.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Slovenia, a basket of food is prepared, covered with a handmade cloth, and brought to the church to be blessed.  A typical Easter basket includes bread, colored eggs, ham, horseradish, and a type of nut cake called "potica".

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and Kosovo, jumping over flames () is a customary requirement to jump over fire.

Germany
In northern Germany, Easter Fires (in German: Osterfeuer, ) are lit around sunset on Holy Saturday. Each of the federal states have their own regulations for allowing and/or the way of staging Easter Fires: While in the city and state of Hamburg, private persons are allowed to have an Easter Fire of any size on their own premises, in Schleswig-Holstein, for example, only the widespread voluntary fire brigades are allowed to organize and stage them on open fields. Over the past years, Easter Fires themselves have become larger and developed to smaller versions of Volksfests with some snack stands selling Bratwurst, steak in bread rolls, beer, wine, and soft drinks as well as maybe one or two rides for the children. Usually, Easter Fires are kept burning over hours until dawn (roughly around 6 o'clock) and cause therefore a special atmosphere during the whole Easter Night with their bright lights in the dark and the omnipresent smell of smoke.

During the weeks before Easter, special Easter bread is sold (in German: Osterbrot). This is made with yeast dough, raisins, and almond splinters. Usually, it is cut in slices and spread with butter. People enjoy it either for breakfast or for tea time (in German: Kaffee und Kuchen, literally ″coffee and cake″).

In many parts of Germany a popular Easter pastime is egg throwing. In this "game" there are no winners or losers, nor any apparent aim. Participants throw a painted and decorated hard boiled egg as far as they can across the fields. This is repeated until eventually the egg bursts apart, an event that takes a sometimes surprising number of throws. In other versions it is a competitive event when pairs throw a raw egg to each other while moving further and further apart.

Hungary and neighbouring countries
In Hungary, Transylvania, Southern Slovakia, Kárpátalja, Northern Serbia - Vojvodina, and other territories with Hungarian-speaking communities, the day following Easter is called Locsoló Hétfő, "Watering Monday".  Men usually visit families with girls and women.  Water, perfume or perfumed water is  sprinkled  on the women and  girls of the house by the visiting  men, who  are given in exchange an Easter egg. Traditionally Easter ham, colored boiled eggs and horseradish sauce are consumed on Sunday morning. In the Eastern part of the country, an Easter specialty known as sárgatúró (literally "yellow curd cheese") is made for the occasion.

Ireland
Easter was traditionally the most important date in the Christian calendar in Ireland, with a large feast marking the end of lent on Easter Sunday. Among the food commonly eaten were lamb, veal, and chicken, with a meal of corned beef, cabbage, and floury potatoes was a popular meal. It was traditional for farmers to share the meat from a slaughtered bullock or lamb with neighbours and or the less fortunate. Another tradition was that if a beggar called to a house, they would be given roasted potatoes. At this time of year, eggs were plentiful, and would be eaten at each meal.

Eggs were dyed for good luck, using a variety of methods such as boiling them with certain lichens and plants. The coloured eggshells would be kept to decorate the May bush. A tradition among children was to collect their own food for a feast, including eggs and potatoes, which they would cook outdoors using a fire. They would also eat buttered bread, sweet cakes, with milk of homemade cordial. The place the children's feast was held would be known as a clúdóg. As a game on Easter Sunday, it was a custom to roll hard boiled eggs down a hill. There are records of Easter Sunday being referred to as Easter Egg Day as far back as 1827, recounting the consumption of eggs.

Easter is a day of remembrance for the men and women who died in the Easter Rising which began on Easter Monday 1916. Until 1966, there was a parade of veterans, past the headquarters of the Irish Volunteers at the General Post Office (GPO) on O'Connell Street, Dublin, and a reading of the Proclamation of the Irish Republic. It is usually celebrated on Easter Monday.

Italy

In Florence, Italy, the unique custom of the Scoppio del carro is observed in which a holy fire lit from stone shards from the Holy Sepulchre are used to light a fire during the singing of the Gloria of the Easter Sunday Mass, which is used to ignite a rocket in the form of a dove, representing peace and the Holy Spirit, which following a wire in turn lights a cart containing pyrotechnics in the small square before the cathedral.

The Netherlands, Belgium and France
Church bells are silent as a sign of mourning for one or more days before Easter in The Netherlands, Belgium and France. This has led to an Easter tradition that says the bells fly out of their steeples to go to Rome (explaining their silence), and return on Easter morning bringing both colored eggs and hollow chocolate shaped like eggs or rabbits.

In both The Netherlands and Dutch-speaking Belgium, many more modern traditions exist alongside the Easter Bell story. The bells ("de Paasklokken") leave for Rome on Holy Saturday, called "Stille Zaterdag" (literally "Silent Saturday") in Dutch. In the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands (Twente and Achterhoek), Easter Fires (in Dutch: Paasvuur) are lit at sunset on Easter Day.

In French-speaking Belgium and France the same story of Easter Bells ("les cloches de Pâques") bringing eggs from Rome is told, but church bells are silent beginning Maundy Thursday, the beginning of the Paschal Triduum.

Nordic countries
In Norway, in addition to staying at mountain cabins, cross-country skiing and painting eggs, a contemporary tradition is to read or watch murder mysteries at Easter. All the major television channels run crime and detective stories (such as Agatha Christie's Poirot), magazines print stories where the readers can try to figure out "Whodunnit", and new detective novels are scheduled for publishing before Easter. Even the milk cartons are altered for a couple of weeks. Each Easter a new short mystery story is printed on their sides. Stores and businesses close for five straight days at Easter, with the exception of grocery stores, which re-open for a single day on the Saturday before Easter Sunday.

In Sweden and Finland, traditions include egg painting and small children dressed as Easter witches (påskkärring or in Finland påskhäxa, typically dressed as old folks) collecting candy door-to-door, in exchange for decorated hand-made greetings such as cards or pussy willows, called virvonta in Finland, which is a result of the mixing of an old Orthodox tradition (blessing houses with willow branches) and the Swedish Easter witch tradition. Brightly coloured feathers and little decorations are also attached to birch branches in a vase. In Finland, it is common to plant ryegrass in a pot as a symbol of spring and new life. After the grass has grown, many people put chick decorations on it. Children busy themselves painting eggs and making paper bunnies.

Denmark has the gækkebrev tradition of sending relatives and friends artful paper cuttings, often with a snowdrop, and a rhyme with the letters of the sender's name replaced by dots. If the recipient guesses who sent it, the sender owes them a chocolate egg; and vice versa if they can't. The decorated letter custom was originally a means of proposal or courtship, but is now considered mostly for children.

For lunch or dinner on Holy Saturday, families in Sweden and Denmark traditionally feast on a smörgåsbord of herring, salmon, potatoes, eggs, and other kinds of food. In Finland, it is common to eat roasted lamb with potatoes and other vegetables. In Finland, the Lutheran majority enjoys mämmi as another traditional Easter treat, while the Orthodox minority's traditions include eating pasha (also spelled paskha) instead.

In the western parts of Sweden and in Finnish Ostrobothnia, bonfires have at least since the 18th century been lit during Holy Saturday.  This tradition is claimed to have its origin in Holland.  During the last decades though, the bonfires have in many places been moved to Walpurgis Night, as this is the traditional date for bonfires in many other parts of the country.

Poland

In Poland, white sausage and mazurek are typical Easter breakfast dishes.

The butter lamb (Baranek wielkanocny) is a traditional addition to the Easter meal for many Polish Catholics. Butter is shaped into a lamb either by hand or in a lamb-shaped mold.

Ukraine
Preparations for Easter celebration in Ukraine begin weeks before the feast day, with Great Lent being part of it. The Ukrainian Easter eggs include pysanky, krashanky (edible, one-colour dyed eggs), driapanky (a design is scratched on the eggshell) etc. During the Easter Vigil a priest also blesses the parishioners' Easter baskets, which include Easter eggs, paska, butter, cheese, kovbasa, salt and a few other products. With this food, on their return home, people break their fast. The ritual is called 'rozhovyny. People visit their relatives and neighbours exchanging Easter greetings. Celebration of Easter in Ukraine is filled with many other customs and rituals, most of which are centuries-old.

United Kingdom

In Scotland, the north of England, and Northern Ireland, the traditions of rolling decorated eggs down steep hills and pace egging are still adhered to.

Strutt and Hone in their 1867 book The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England describe an Easter tradition from the Isles of Scilly called goose dancing'. For goose dancing the maidens dress up as young men and vice versa. In this disguise they visit neighbours for dancing and making joke stories.

Oceania

New Zealand
In New Zealand, Easter is celebrated with hot cross buns and chocolate eggs. The Auckland Easter Show is also an annual tradition.

See also
 Easter Bilby
 Easter egg
 Easter foods
 Egg decorating in Slavic culture
 Ēostre
 Paschal greeting

References


Kožljek (, ) is a village in the hills north of Begunje in the Municipality of Cerknica in the Inner Carniola region of Slovenia.

Church

The local church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Anne and belongs to the Parish of Begunje pri Cerknici.

References

External links

Kožljek on Geopedia

Populated places in the Municipality of Cerknica


The CMLL World Tag Team Championship (Campeonato Mundial de Parejas CMLL in Spanish) is a professional wrestling tag team championship promoted by the Mexican Lucha Libre wrestling-based promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL; Spanish for "World Wrestling Council") since 1993. As it is a professional wrestling championship, it is not won legitimately; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match or awarded to a wrestler because of a storyline. All title matches take place under two out of three falls rules.

In early 1993, then-CMLL booker Antonio Peña decided to leave the promotion and start his own professional wrestling promotion, Asistencia Asesoría y Administración (AAA); when Peña left CMLL, he acquired a number of wrestlers, among them the then-reigning Mexican National Tag Team Champions, Misterioso and Volador, leaving CMLL without a Tag Team title. In response, CMLL created the CMLL World Tag Team Championship to fill the void. On March 3, 1993, Canek and Dr. Wagner Jr. won a tournament to become the first CMLL World Tag Team Champions. The team of Negro Casas and Shocker hold the record for the longest reign as a team at . Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero hold the record for the longest combined reigns of any team: 1,185 days divided over three reigns. Individually, Negro Casas has held the championship six times for a total of 2,577 days, the longest of any champion. The team of Último Guerrero and Dr. Wagner Jr. held the championship for seven days, the shortest reign of any champion. Negro Casas and Último Guerrero have the most title reigns with six each, while the combinations of Último Guerrero and Rey Bucanero and Averno and Mephisto are the only teams to have won the championship three times.

Title history

Combined reigns
As of  , .

By team

By individuals

Notes

References
General sources
[G]
Specific

External links
  CMLL World Tag Team Title History at Cagematch.net

Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre championships
Professional wrestling tag team champion lists


Llwynypia RFC was a rugby union club located in the Welsh village of Llwynypia in the Rhondda. The team provided several international players during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably Willie Llewellyn, who was not only selected to represent Wales while playing at the club, but later played for the British Isles on their 1904 tour of Australia and New Zealand.

History
Llwynypia RFC was founded in 1891, one of several Rhondda teams to emerge with the industrialisation of the valleys, when the mining of the coalfields led to a mass influx of economic immigrants. Llwynypia may of been formed before 1891 as there is evidence of a Llwynypia team being played in the early 1880s. The first mention is a match between Ystrad and a joint Tonypandy and Llwynpia team played on 30/11/1882. The next mention is of a match between Llwynpia and Mountain Ash, played on 01/03/1883. In the early 1890s Llwynypia, along with other local clubs, such as Treorchy, Ferndale and Penygraig, were represented in the newly formed Welsh Rugby Union. By 1895 the Welsh selectors began re-evaluating the needs of the Welsh pack, and began looking for a more physical style of player. These players would be able to jump and scrummage, but would also be able to take and hand out rough play. This forward player was found in the valley clubs, strong colliers who would be dubbed the 'Rhondda forward'. The new breed of forward were first represented in 1896 by Treorchy's Sam Ramsey and Penygraig's Dai Evans, but in 1897 Dick Hellings became the first player from Llwynypia Rugby Club to represent his country. The following match, against Ireland, he was joined by the club's second representative William Alexander.

These were the glory years of success for Llwynypia, during the 1895-96 season, supported by both Hellings and Alexander, they promised much, defeating several top flight opponents. The next season they finished undefeated, a feat normally only achieved by first class teams such as Newport and Cardiff. As the club gained in influence, the team began to attract talent from other clubs; which included Llanelli's three times capped Jack Evans. Llwynypia's backs were described as 'speedy and well drilled', which was typified by the emergence in the early 1900s by Willie Llewellyn, a seventeen-year-old out of Christ College, Brecon. In 1901 Llwynpyia provided three players to the Wales team that faced Ireland as part of the Home Nations Championship.

In 1904, Llwynypia, now seen as a top flight club, found itself a victim of its own success when a number of its players switched to either professional or more 'popular' clubs. Support for the club dwindled and Llwynypia temporarily disbanded in 1905. The club reformed in 1907 but found it hard to gain the support and quality of player it held in the early 1900s. After the First World War, the Rhondda Valleys saw a massive decline in the demand for coal, this created an economic depression which was felt across South Wales. With little disposable income, crowds dwindled, which resulted in many valley clubs facing financial ruin. Llwynypia was one such club and disbanded by the 1930s.

Notable former players
See also :Category:Llwynypia RFC players

  William Alexander (7 caps)
  George Dobson (1 cap)
  Tom Dobson (4 caps)
  Jack Evans (3 caps)
  William Evans (4 caps)
  Dick Hellings (9 caps)
  Bob Jones (1 cap)
  Mark Lewis (1 cap)
  Willie Llewellyn (20 caps)

Bibliography

References

Defunct rugby union teams in Wales
Rugby union teams in Wales
Rugby clubs established in 1891
1891 establishments in Wales


Robert Lee Jun-fai (born 16 December 1948) is a Hong Kong musician. He is the younger brother of the late martial artist Bruce Lee.

Early life
Lee was born on 16 December 1948 in Hong Kong as the youngest son of Grace Ho () and Lee Hoi-chuen (), a leading Chinese Cantonese opera and film actor of the 1940s.

Career
Lee was the founder of a Hong Kong beat band called The Thunderbirds, a beat group in the same Hong Kong/Macau musical scene as Danny Diaz & The Checkmates, Zoundcrakers, Anders Nelson & The Inspiration, D'Topnotes and Teddy Robin & The Playboys. He founded the group in 1966 and quickly became famous in Hong Kong. A few singles were sung mostly or all in English. Also released was Lee singing a duet with Irene Ryder.

He later moved to Los Angeles in the United States and stayed with his older brother Bruce Lee. After Bruce's death, Robert released an album dedicated to him called The Ballad of Bruce Lee. A single of the same title was also released.

On 27 November 2005, Robert unveiled a Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong, celebrating what would have been Bruce's 65th birthday. He is the producer of the 2010 film Bruce Lee, My Brother.

Personal life
Lee is the younger brother of Phoebe Lee, Agnes Lee, Peter Lee, and Bruce Lee. He is the uncle of Shannon Lee and Brandon Lee.

In 1977, Lee married Hong Kong singer and actress Sylvia Lai (), who performed under the stage name of Sum Sum (). They had a son named Clarence Lee Ka-Ho () in 1980, and divorced in 1983.

Discography

Singles
Ballad of Bruce Lee – Sunrise 906 – 1974 (USA)
Irene Ryder & Robert Lee – Baby baby / You put me down – HK Columbia CHK-1028 – 196?
EP
The Thunderbirds & The Nautics – ECHK 513 – 196?

Album
Ballad of Bruce Lee – Sunrise LP-R905 – 1974 (USA)

Compilation
Various Artists: Uncle Ray's Choice – Baby Baby – Irene Ryder & Robert Lee (1968)- EMI – 2003

References

External links

Interview with Robert Lee

Hear

1948 births
Cantonese people
Hong Kong male singers
Hong Kong people of English descent
Living people
Family of Bruce Lee


The 1967 Roe state by-election was a by-election held on 2 September 1967 for the Western Australian Legislative Assembly seat of Roe in the southeastern agricultural part of the state.

The by-election was triggered by the resignation of Country Party member Tom Hart on 6 July 1967.

The seat of Roe, first established in 1950, was considered to be a safe seat for the Country Party. At the time of the by-election, the seat included the towns of Dumbleyung, Gnowangerup, Kondinin, Kulin, Lake Grace, Narembeen and Ravensthorpe.

Timeline

Candidates
The by-election attracted two candidates. Bill Young, representing the Country Party, was a farmer and party official residing in Kondinin, while Mel Bungey, representing the Liberal and Country League, was a farmer residing in Gnowangerup.

Results
Bill Young easily retained the seat for the Country Party. No swings are noted due to the seat being uncontested at the 1965 election.

References

Roe state by-election 1967
Western Australian state by-elections
1960s in Western Australia
Roe state by-election 1967


"Don't Call Us, We'll Call You" is a hit song by the American rock band Sugarloaf. Co-written by lead vocalist Jerry Corbetta, the song was featured as the title track of the band's fourth and final album. It was their fourth single and was recorded at Applewood Studios in Golden, Colorado. Performing on the track, along with Jerry Corbetta, were session players Paul Humphries (drums), Max Bennett (bass), Ray Payne (guitar), and a group called the "Flying Saucers" (Jason Hickman, Mikkel Saks, and David Queen) on harmony vocals.

The song peaked at number nine on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in the winter of 1974-1975 and number 12 on the Cash Box Top 100. The song is their second greatest hit. It spent 21 weeks on the chart, four weeks longer than their bigger hit, "Green-Eyed Lady".

In Canada, "Don't Call Us, We'll Call You" was a bigger hit, where it reached number five for two weeks. "Green-Eyed Lady" had also charted better in Canada (number one versus number three U.S.).

The song uses a guitar melody from the Beatles hit, "I Feel Fine" (which is also alluded to in the lyric, "sounds like John, Paul, and George") as well as a riff of Stevie Wonder's hit, "Superstition". An imitation of Wolfman Jack by disc jockey Ken Griffin also is featured briefly; the call sign of a radio station is stated ("Stereo 92" in the nationwide release). Numerous tracks of this line were cut to match local markets.

"Don't Call Us, We'll Call You" was performed on the TV series, The Midnight Special, with Wolfman Jack himself (the host and announcer of the program) making a cameo appearance on the "Stereo 92" line.

Lyrical content
The song is a rather cynical view of the music industry, based on the band's real-life experience with CBS Records. It describes the difficulty of breaking into the business and securing a contract from the record company, who claims that the band is good, but too derivative of other popular bands at the time. When the band finally breaks through with a hit ("Green-Eyed Lady") and completes a successful tour, the record company changes course and wants to offer the band their services, only to receive the same line they gave the band before their hit—"don't call us, we'll call you". The references are a practical joke at the expense of CBS Records, which had just turned them down for a recording contract. The song includes the sound of a touch-tone telephone number being dialed near the beginning and ending of the song. Those numbers were an unlisted phone number at CBS Records in Manhattan ("area code 212" stated in the song), and the number of the White House switchboard (in the similar-sounding area code 202).

Chart performance

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

References

External links
 Lyrics of this song

1974 songs
1974 singles
Satirical songs
Songs about music
Songs written by Jerry Corbetta
Sugarloaf (band) songs
American rock songs


Eugenie Söderberg  (1903–1973) was a Swedish-American writer and journalist born in Heidelberg, Germany noted for her profound concern with women's issues which she addressed in her novels and short stories.

Early years
In 1912, her father, Alexander Riwkin, a Russian-Jewish immigrant who had studied philosophy established himself in Stockholm, Sweden, as an industrialist following a short return to the family's home town, Gomel in Russia. The Riwkin home flourished as a center for culture, attracting both established and upcoming literary figures from Scandinavia and abroad. Eugenie, the eldest daughter was encouraged by her philosopher father who was also a lecturer and writer of short stories in Russian and Yiddish.

Eugenie's younger brother Joseph Riwkin also followed a similar path, acting for a while as a stimulating nucleus within a group of the most aspiring young writers of Sweden. These included Gunnar Ekelöf, Harry Martinson, Karin Boye, Ebbe Linde, who with many others participated as writers and editors in the avant-garde Swedish magazine, Spektrum.

Career
Eugenie was soon working as a creative writer and earning her living as an editor, journalist and newspaper reporter.  She attained immediate success in 1930 with her first novel Studentfabriken (The Student Factory). The work was translated into fourteen languages and also produced as a film.

In 1928 she married the young writer Mikael Söderberg and son of Hjalmar Söderberg. After only a couple of years of marriage her husband died in 1931. She continued to maintain a close relationship with her in-laws, in particular her father-in-law. However it was her sister Anna Riwkin, Sweden's foremost photographer, who was to be her closest friend throughout her lifetime, although she remained close to her brother Joseph and her sister-in-law, Ester Riwkin, both also writers.

Later life
In 1940 Eugenie Söderberg came to the United States as a reporter for Scandinavian newspapers and in the following year she married the well-known art dealer and Plato scholar Hugo Perls. She eventually became an American citizen and continued to write both journalistically and creatively, covering American theater, music and art. One of her later books, Min Son är Min (My Son is Mine), appeared in 1965 and was well received.

The writer died in January 1973, at the age of sixty-nine.

Publications (selection)
 1933 – Kulturen i Sovjet (as Eugénie Riwkin–Söderberg, Bonnier)
 1936 – Studentfabriken: roman (Bonnier)
 1947 – Med bästa avsikt: roman (Medén)
 1961 – Mokihana bor på Hawaii (Rabén & Sjögren)
 English translation: Mokihana lives in Hawaii (1961)
 1962 – Hawaii (with Anna Riwkin-Brick)
 1965 – Min son är min (Rabén & Sjögren)
 1970 – "Kollektivet kring Spektrum". In the newspaper Bonniers litterära magasin, 1970: nr 8

Footnotes

References

1903 births
1973 deaths
Writers from Stockholm
People from the Grand Duchy of Baden
Swedish Ashkenazi Jews
Swedish-language writers
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish American novelists
Swedish emigrants to the United States
20th-century Swedish novelists
Swedish women novelists
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American women writers
American women novelists
20th-century Swedish women writers
20th-century American Jews
American Ashkenazi Jews
German emigrants to Sweden


Christopher Knowles (; born 1966) is an American comic book artist, writer and blogger who writes on comic books and broader pop culture topics.

Career
Knowles began his career in 1996, writing and drawing comics, particularly, Halo, an Angel's Story, a mini-series published by Sirius Entertainment, and contributing to the art in a graphic novel based on the Saturday Night Live cartoon The X Presidents. He was also the editor of the Top Shelf Productions magazine Comic Book Artist from 2000–2004 and has written articles for publications such as The Jack Kirby Collector and sites like Comic Book Resources.

Knowles wrote a book called Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes (2007), which won an Eagle Award for "Favourite Comics-Related Book". He co-authored a book published in 2008 about The X-Files TV series called The Complete X-Files: Behind the Series, the Myths, and the Movies. In October 2010, Viva Editions published his latest book, The Secret History of Rock 'n' Roll, which Voice of America says presents rock and roll as having its roots "in the mystery cults of the ancient world", then "follows the evolution of rock 'n' roll from an expression of youthful rebellion to a symbol of American culture."

Since November 2007 Knowles has been blogging on topics related to his books.

Bibliography

Comics
 "Fix" (script and art, in Negative Burn #41, Caliber Comics, 1996)
Halo, an Angel’s Story (script and pencils, Sirius Entertainment, 4-issue mini-series, 1996)
The X Presidents (pencils, with authors Robert Smigel/Adam McKay, graphic novel, 80 pages, Villard, October 2000, )
Prime8: Creation (TwoMorrows Publishing, July 2001)

Books

Christopher Loring Knowles (2020). The Endless American Midnight. ISBN 979- 8692403704

Notes

References

External links

The Secret Sun
Christopher Knowles - Our Gods Wear Spandex: The Secret History of Comic Book Heroes, Red Ice Creations, November 11, 2007

Interviews
Plus Ultra Podcast Episode 10: Interview with Christopher Knowles, Grey Lodge Review, November 16, 2007
"A thousand questions with. . . Christopher Knowles", A Thousand Faces: The Quarterly Journal of Superhuman Fiction, #3 (Winter 2008)

American non-fiction writers
Comics critics
Place of birth missing (living people)
1966 births
Living people
American comics artists


The European Liberal Forum (ELF) is a political foundation at the European level affiliated to the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party. Founded in 2007, ELF brings together liberal think tanks, political foundations, and institutes from around Europe to observe, analyze, and contribute to the debate on European public policy issues and the process of European integration, through research, training, and the promotion of active citizenship within the EU.

Compared to other political foundations in Europe, the European Liberal Forum's independent status is much more pronounced. ELF is open to all types of liberal actors, provided they subscribe to the ideas represented by the European Liberals. Additionally, ELF provides ALDE with the scientific input toward policy development, thus contributing to the European public debate, and it presents liberal proposals and views towards the wider public in EU Member States.

Board of directors and secretariat
The ELF Board of Directors provides the foundation with day-to-day guidance. Currently, the Board is composed of:
 Hilde Vautmans, MEP, President
 Svenja Hahn, MEP, 1st Vice-President
 Dr Milosz Hodun, 2nd Vice-President
 Mats Löfström, MP Treasurer
 Dr Šárka Prát, Board member
 Marco Mariani, Board member
 Pieter Van de Stadt, Board Member

The secretariat is run by Daniel Kaddik, ELF Executive Director.

Publications

Policy papers
 Batteries Charging the Future: The New Cycle for Energy Storage, and the Global Arms Race for it by Francesco Cappelletti;
 The ‘Brussels Effect’ Digitalisation and the Future of Transatlantic Relations by Dr Antonios Nestoras;
 Enhancing the Commission’s AI Act Proposal Dr Benjamin Jan;
 The Promise of Magnetic Fusion for a Sustainable Future by Francesco Cappelletti;
 The Potential of Harm Reduction: A Novel EU Strategy on Tobacco Regulation by Dr Frank-Ulrich Fricke;
 Towards a Social EU? A Liberal Vision for Social Policy Beyond the Porto Summit by Dr Maria Alesina.

Member organisations

See also

 Liberalism by country - for discussion of individual states of Europe
 Liberalism in Europe
 Politics of Europe

References

External links
European Liberal Forum

2007 establishments in Belgium
Think tanks established in 2007
Think tanks based in Belgium
Political and economic think tanks based in the European Union
Political foundations at European level
Advocacy groups in Belgium