Counterfeit consumer goods—or counterfeit, fraudulent, and suspect items (CFSI)—are goods, often of inferior quality, made or sold under another's brand name without the brand owner's authorization. The colloquial terms knockoff or dupe (duplicate) are often used interchangeably with counterfeit, although their legal meanings are not identical.

Sellers of such goods may infringe on either the trademark, patent or copyright of the brand owner by passing off its goods as made by the brand owner. Counterfeit products made up 5 to 7% of world trade in 2013, and in 2014 cost an estimated 2.5 million jobs worldwide. Counterfeit products exist in virtually every industry.

The spread of counterfeit goods are worldwide, with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in 2008 having estimated the global value of all counterfeit goods at $650 billion annually, increasing to $1.77 trillion by 2015. Countries mainly the U.S., U.K., Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, South Korea and Japan are among the hardest hit, as their economies thrive on producing high-value products, protected by intellectual property rights and trademarks.

Description
A counterfeit consumer good is a good—often of inferior quality—made or sold under another's brand name without the brand owner's authorization. The term counterfeit, fraudulent, and suspect items (CFSI) is also used to describe such goods. Pirated goods are reproductions of copyrighted products used without permission, such as music, movies or software. Exact definitions depend on the laws of various countries.

The colloquial terms knockoff or dupe (duplicate) are often used interchangeably with counterfeit, although their legal meanings are not identical. Knockoff products are those that copy or imitate the physical appearance of other products but which do not copy the brand name or logo of a trademark. They may still be illegal under trademark laws if they confuse consumers or violate patents.

Economic impact
Sellers of counterfeit goods may infringe on either the trademark, patent or copyright of the brand owner by passing off its goods as made by the brand owner. Counterfeit products made up 5 to 7% of world trade in 2013, and in 2014 cost an estimated 2.5 million jobs worldwide, with up to 750,000 jobs lost in the U.S.  About 5% of goods imported into the European Union in 2013 were fakes, according to the OECD.
According to Forbes, in 2018 counterfeiting was the largest criminal enterprise in the world. Sales of counterfeit and pirated goods totals $1.7 trillion per year, which is more than drugs and human trafficking. It is expected to grow to $2.8 trillion and cost 5.4 million jobs by 2022. According to The Counterfeit Report, "China produces 80% of the world's counterfeits and we're supporting China. Whether or not it's their intention to completely undermine and destroy the U.S. economy, we [in the United States] buy about 60% to 80% of the products." It states:

The OECD states that counterfeit products encompass all products made to closely imitate the appearance of the product of another as to mislead consumers. Those can include the unauthorized production and distribution of products that are protected by intellectual property rights, such as copyright, trademarks, and trade names. Counterfeiters illegally copy trademarks, which manufacturers have built up based on marketing investments and the recognized quality of their products, in order to fool consumers. Any product that is protected by intellectual property rights is a target for counterfeiters. Piotr Stryszowski, a senior economist at OECD, notes that it is not only the scale of counterfeiting that is alarming, but its rapidly growing scope, which means that now any product with a logo can become a target.

In many cases, different types of infringements overlap: unauthorized music copying mostly infringes copyright as well as trademarks; fake toys infringe design protection. Counterfeiting therefore involves the related issues of copying packaging, labeling, or any other significant features of the goods.

Among the leading industries that have been seriously affected by counterfeiting are software, music recordings, motion pictures, luxury goods and fashion clothes, sportswear, perfumes, toys, aircraft components, spare parts and car accessories, and pharmaceuticals. Counterfeit pharmaceuticals are the most profitable sector of illegally copied goods, with lost revenues up to $217 billion per year. Fraudulent drugs are known to harm or kill millions around the world, thereby damaging the brand names and sales of major pharmaceutical manufacturers.

Since counterfeits are produced illegally, they are not manufactured to comply with relevant safety standards. They will often use cheap, hazardous and unapproved materials or cut costs in some other manner. These unapproved materials can be hazardous to consumers, or the environment.

Growing problem
It was estimated by the OECD that in 2013 counterfeit goods accounted for about $461 billion, or about 2.5% of total world trade. That estimate did not include either domestically produced and consumed products or digital products sold on the internet. That estimate rose from 1.8% of world trade in 2007. The OECD concluded that despite their improved interception technologies, "the problem of counterfeit and pirated trade has not diminished, but has become a major threat for modern knowledge-based economies."

In the U.S., despite coordinated efforts by Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Customs and Border Protection (CBP) to stem the influx of counterfeit goods into the U.S., there was a 38% increase in counterfeits seized between 2012 and 2016. In a test survey by the GAO of various items purchased online of major brands, all of which stated they were certified by Underwriters Laboratories, the GAO found that 43% were nonetheless fakes.

The approximate cost to the U.S. from counterfeit sales was estimated to be as high $600 billion as of 2016. A 2017 report by the Commission on the Theft of American Intellectual Property, stated that China and Hong Kong accounted for 87 percent of counterfeit goods seized entering the United States, and claimed that the Chinese government encourages intellectual property theft. Utah Governor Jon Huntsman, who had served as U.S. ambassador to China, stated, "The vast, illicit transfer of American innovation is one of the most significant economic issues impacting U.S. competitiveness that the nation has not fully addressed. It looks to be, must be, a top priority of the new administration."  In March 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order to, among other things, ensure the timely and efficient enforcement of laws protecting Intellectual Property Rights holders from imported counterfeit goods.

An Outside magazine article in 2016 discussed the psychology of sales, and the role of gullible consumers, perhaps blindly ignoring warning signs of a "killer deal", somehow justifying buying an item they know is a fake.

Types
Counterfeiters can include producers, distributors or retail sellers. Growing over 10,000% in the last two decades , counterfeit products exist in virtually every industry sector, including food, beverages, apparel, accessories, footwear, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, electronics, auto parts, toys, and currency. The spread of counterfeit goods are worldwide, with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) in 2008 having estimated the global value of all counterfeit goods at $650 billion annually, increasing to $1.77 trillion by 2015. Countries mainly the U.S., U.K., Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, South Korea and Japan are among the hardest hit, as their economies thrive on producing high-value products, protected by intellectual property rights and trademarks. By 2017, the U.S. alone was estimated to be losing up to $600 billion each year to counterfeit goods, software piracy and the theft of copyrights and trade secrets.

Online sales
In a report by the U.S. GAO in 2018, approximately 79 percent of the American population had bought products online. They found numerous products which were sold online by Amazon, Walmart, eBay, Sears and Newegg were counterfeit. For 2017 it was estimated that online sales of counterfeit products amounted to $1.7 trillion. Pew Research Center states that worldwide such e-commerce sales are expected to reach over $4 trillion by 2020. CBP has reported that with e-commerce, consumers often import and export goods and services which allows for more cross-border transactions which gives counterfeiters direct access to consumers.

Internet sales of counterfeit goods has been growing exponentially, according to the International Trademark Association, which lists a number of reasons why:

Buyers often know they were victimized from online sales, as over a third (34%) said they were victimized two or three times, and 11% said they had bought fake goods three to five times. While many online sellers such as Amazon are not legally responsible for selling counterfeit goods, when items are brought to their attention by a buyer, they will apply a takedown procedure and quickly remove the product listing from their website.

In buying counterfeit goods directly from other smaller sellers, location is becoming less a factor, since consumers can purchase products from all over the world and have them delivered straight to their doors by regular carriers, such as USPS, FedEx and UPS. Whereas in previous years international counterfeiters had to transport most counterfeits through large cargo shipments, criminals now can use small parcel mail to avoid most inspections.

Apparel and accessories

Ray-Ban, Rolex, Supreme and Louis Vuitton are the most copied brands worldwide, with Nike being the most counterfeited brand globally according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Counterfeit clothes, shoes, jewelry and handbags from designer brands are made in varying quality; sometimes the intent is only to fool the gullible buyer who only looks at the label and does not know what the real thing looks like, while others put some serious effort into mimicking fashion details.

Others realize that most consumers do not care if the goods they buy are counterfeit and just wish to purchase inexpensive products. The popularity of designer jeans in 1978 spurred a flood of knockoffs.

Factories that manufacture counterfeit designer brand garments and watches are usually located in developing countries, with between 85% and 95% of all counterfeit goods coming from China.

Expensive watches are vulnerable to counterfeiting as well. In Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam and the Philippines, authentic-looking but poor quality watch fakes with self-winding mechanisms and fully working movements can sell for as little as US$20, with good quality ones selling for $100 and over. Some fakes' movements and materials are also of remarkably passable quality – albeit inconsistently so – and may look good and work well for some years, a possible consequence of increasing competition within the counterfeiting community.

Some counterfeiters have begun to manufacture their goods in the same factory as the authentic goods. 'Yuandan goods' () are those fakes that are produced in the same factory as legitimate designer pieces without authorized permission to do so. These goods are made from scraps and leftover materials from the genuine products, produced illegally, and sold on the black market.

Thailand has opened a Museum of Counterfeit Goods displaying over 4,000 different items, in 14 different categories, which violate trademarks, patents, or copyrights. The oldest museum of this kind is located in Paris and is known as Musée de la Contrefaçon.

In fashion, counterfeit goods are called knock offs. These counterfeit goods are usually sold on markets and street corners. Though purchasing these goods might be seemingly harmless to those who purchase them knowingly, the National Fraud Intelligence Bureau in England has advised people not to buy counterfeit goods, as their production often funds more serious crime.

Many fashion houses try to stop knock offs from circulating in the market; Louis Vuitton has an entire team solely focused on stopping counterfeits. Gucci has adapted the counterfeit culture into its designs, changing the spelling of Gucci to 'Guccy' for its spring/summer 2018 collection and painting REAL all over the bags.

Consumers may choose to actively dismiss these unclear origins of product when a trendy style is available for little money. The previous French terrorist attack in 2015 at Charlie Hebdo Newspaper has been traced back to being funded by counterfeit product. According to Tommy Hilfiger's Alastair Grey, terrorists bought the guns used with funds gained from selling illegal luxury sneakers. This is more normal than consumers may think. Grey discusses how often sellers will be overlooked by watch-groups as buying fakes from a distributor in China is less suspicious than other, more extreme criminal activity. The cause and effect of this discounting of crime is giving sellers money to partake in terrorism, human trafficking and child labour. These sellers are difficult to track due to counterfeited shipping papers (they cannot be tracked by customs) and fake brands masquerading as a non-descript fashion company that is actually full of fake luxury.

Goods have been brought into the United States without the logos adorned on them in order to get past customs. They are then finished within the country. This is due to the increase in seizing of product at borders. The counterfeiters are reactive to the increasing crackdown on the illegal business practice. Stock-rooms have been replaced with mobile shopping vans that are constantly moving and difficult to track.

Companies like Entrupy are determined to eradicate fake goods with an iPhone application and a standard small camera attachment which uses algorithms to detect even the most indistinguishable "super-fake". Online retailers are also having a difficult time keeping up with monitoring counterfeit items.

Companies all over the internet are illegal e-boutiques that use platforms like eBay, Instagram and Amazon to sell counterfeit goods. Sometimes they own their own websites that have untraceable IP addresses that are often changed. Instagram is a difficult platform to trace as sellers on it take WeChat, PayPal and Venmo and typically talk with clients on platforms like WhatsApp. This all makes the transactions seamless and hard to track since payment is done via third party. Listings are also often posted on the story feature, hence they are not permanent. The problem is getting larger according to Vox and is getting more difficult to monitor.

In 2019, Amazon launched a program known as 'Project Zero' to work with brands to find counterfeit objects on the site. This technology has given private users and companies the capability to gauge handbags certification. Within time, this technology will be widely adaptable to larger platforms. Project Zero offers Amazon partners to flag fake listings without Amazon having to step in. Since Amazon has over five billion listings, a computerized element is also crucial for keeping up with getting rid of fakes. This program scans items based on assets and codes that are provided by Amazon partners and deletes fake items.

Electronics

Counterfeit electronic components have proliferated in recent years, including integrated circuits (ICs), relays, circuit breakers, fuses, ground fault receptacles, and cable assemblies, as well as connectors. The value of counterfeit electronic components is estimated to total 2% of global sales or $460 billion in 2011. Counterfeit devices have been reverse-engineered (also called a Chinese Blueprint due to its prevalence in China) to produce a product that looks identical and performs like the original, and able to pass physical and electrical tests.

Incidents involving counterfeit ICs has led to the Department of Defense and NASA to create programs to identify bogus parts and prevent them from entering the supply chain. "A failed connector can shut down a satellite as quickly as a defective IC," states product director Robert Hult.
Such bogus electronics also pose a significant threat to various sectors of the economy, including the military. In 2012 a U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee report highlighted the risks when it identified approximately 1,800 cases of suspected counterfeit parts in the defense supply chain in 2009 and 2010.

Counterfeit electronic parts can undermine the security and reliability of critical business systems, which can cause massive losses in revenue to companies and damage their reputation. They can also pose major threats to health and safety, as when an implanted heart pacemaker stops, an anti-lock braking system (ABS) fails, or a cell phone battery explodes.

In 2017 the OECD estimated that one in five (19%) of smartphones sold worldwide were counterfeit, with the numbers growing. Alibaba founder Jack Ma said "we need to fight counterfeits the same way we fight drunk driving." In some African countries up to 60% of smartphones are counterfeit. Unfortunately, it is nearly impossible for most consumers to spot a fake since telling the difference requires a higher than average level of technical knowledge. Counterfeit phones cause financial losses for owners and  distributors of legitimate devices, and a loss of tax income for governments. In addition, counterfeit phones are poorly made, can generate high radiation, contain harmful levels of dangerous elements such as lead, and have a high chance of including malware.

Media
Compact Discs, videotapes and DVDs, computer software and other media that are easily copied can be counterfeited and sold through vendors at street markets, night markets, mail order, and numerous Internet sources, including open auction sites like eBay. In some cases where the counterfeit media has packaging good enough to be mistaken for the genuine product, it is sometimes sold as such. Music enthusiasts may use the term bootleg recording to differentiate otherwise unavailable recordings from counterfeited copies of commercially released material.

In 2014, nearly 30% of the UK population was knowingly or unknowingly involved in some form of piracy, either through streaming content online or buying counterfeit DVDs, with such theft costing the UK audiovisual industries about £500m a year. Counterfeits are particularly harmful to smaller, independent film-makers, who may have spent years raising money for the film. As a result, the value of intellectual property becomes eroded and films are less likely to be made. In 2018, U.S. agents seized more than 70,000 pirated copies of music and movies from a home in Fresno, California. Although it was a relatively small portion of all imported counterfeits, according to one expert:

China has been targeted by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) for distributing pirated movies and television shows. A selection of websites, internet newsgroups, peer-to-peer online networks and physical locations renowned for sharing illegal content, were presented to officials. Other countries were also listed as sources, including Russia, Brazil, Canada, Thailand and Indonesia. In August 2011, it was reported that at least 22 fake Apple Stores were operating in parts of China, despite others having been shut down in the past by authorities at other locations. The following month, also in China, it was discovered that people were attempting to recreate the popular Angry Birds franchise into a theme park (see here) without permission from its Finnish copyright/trademark owners.

3D printed products
Counterfeiting of countless items with either large or relatively cheap 3D printers, is a growing problem. The sophisticated printing material and the ever-expanding supply of digital CAD designs available online, will contribute to a black market in counterfeit goods. The Gartner Group estimated that intellectual property loss due to 3D printer counterfeiting could total $100 billion by 2018. Among the technological fields that can be victimized by counterfeits will be auto and aircraft parts, toys, medical devices, drugs and even human organs. According to one intellectual property law firm:

Along with making illicit parts for almost any major product, the fashion industry has become a major target of counterfeiters using 3D printing. The OHIM in 2017 found that approximately 10% of fashion products sold worldwide are counterfeits, amounting to approximately $28.5 billion of lost revenues per year in Europe alone. Industry leaders feared that budding counterfeiters would soon be creating bags, apparel and jewelry at a lower production cost after gaining access to pirated blueprints or digital files from manufacturers.

Toys
Counterfeit toys leave children exposed to potentially toxic chemicals and the risk of choking. An estimated 10 to 12 per cent of toys sold in the UK in 2017 were counterfeit, with the influx of counterfeit goods coming primarily from China. Trading Standards, a UK safety organization, seizes tens of thousands of toys every month to prevent children coming into contact with them, according to the British Toy and Hobby Association (BTHA).

Australian toy manufacturer Moose Toys have experienced problems with counterfeiting of their popular Shopkins toys in 2015. In 2013, five New York-based companies were accused of importing hazardous and counterfeit toys from China. Merchandise seized included knockoff toys featuring popular children's characters such as Winnie the Pooh, Dora the Explorer, SpongeBob SquarePants, Betty Boop, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Power Rangers, Spider-Man, Tweety, Mickey Mouse, Lightning McQueen and Pokémon. In 2017, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection seized $121,442 worth of counterfeit children's toys that arrived into port from China and was destined for a North Carolina-based importer. The shipment was found to contain multiple items bearing trademarks and copyrights registered to Cartoon Network, Saban Brands, and Danjaq, LLC.

Pharmaceuticals

According to the U.S. FBI, the counterfeiting of pharmaceuticals accounts for an estimated $600 billion in global trade, and may be the "crime of the 21st century." They add that it "poses significant adverse health and economic consequences for individuals and corporations alike." The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 30% of pharmaceuticals in developing countries are fake, stating that "Anyone, anywhere in the world, can come across medicines seemingly packaged in the right way but which do not contain the correct ingredients and, in the worst-case scenario, may be filled with highly toxic substances."

About one-third of the world's countries lack effective drug regulatory agencies, which makes them easy prey for counterfeiters. Globally, more than half of counterfeit pharmaceuticals sold are for life-threatening conditions, such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and cancer. An estimated one million people die each year from taking toxic counterfeit medication.

With the increase of internet sales, such fake drugs easily cross international boundaries and can be sold directly to unsuspecting buyers. In September 2017, Interpol, after a 10-year investigation, took down 3,584 websites in various countries, removed 3,000 online ads promoting illicit pharmaceuticals, and arrested 400 people.

The majority of online pharmacies taken down did not require a prescription to order the medicines and most sold potentially dangerous bogus versions of real drugs. One target for the operation was the illicit trade in opioid painkillers, especially fentanyl, which is 50 to 100 times stronger than morphine. Counterfeit versions of other narcotics like OxyContin and Percocet also contain fentanyl as a key ingredient. Online pharmacies had flooded the US market and contributed to the opioid epidemic, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) claiming that sixty-six percent (66%) of the 63,600 overdose deaths in 2016 were caused by opioids, including fentanyl. The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) found that "customers can purchase fentanyl products from Chinese laboratories online with powdered fentanyl and pill presses" which are then shipped directly to buyers via regular mail services such as USPS, DHL, FedEx, and UPS.

Buyers are attracted to rogue online pharmacies since they pose as legitimate businesses. Consumers are motivated by lower prices, and some are attracted by the ability to obtain prescription drugs without a prescription. Of the drugs bought online, however, 90 percent are found to come from a country different from one the website claims. A 2018 report by the DHS

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines counterfeit drugs as those sold under a product name without proper authorization:
"Counterfeiting can apply to both brand name and generic products, where the identity of the source is mislabeled in a way that suggests that it is the authentic approved product. Counterfeit products may include products without the active ingredient, with an insufficient or excessive quantity of the active ingredient, with the wrong active ingredient, or with fake packaging."

According to The Economist, between 15%-30% of antibiotic drugs in Africa and South-East Asia are fake, while the UN estimated in 2013 that roughly half of the antimalarial drugs sold in Africa—worth some $438m a year—are counterfeit. In early 2018 29 tons in counterfeit medicine were seized by Interpol in Niger.

Pfizer Pharmaceuticals has found fake versions of at least 20 of its products, such as Viagra and Lipitor, in the legitimate supply chains of at least 44 countries. Pfizer also found that nearly 20% of Europeans had obtained medicines through illicit channels, amounting to $12.8 billion in sales. Other experts estimate the global market for fake medications could be worth between $75 billion and $200 billion a year, as of 2010.

Other prescription drugs that have been counterfeited are Plavix, used to treat blood clots, Zyprexa for schizophrenia, Casodex, used to treat prostate cancer, Tamiflu, used to treat influenza, including Swine flu, and Aricept, used to treat Alzheimers. The EU reported that as of 2005 India was by far the biggest supplier of fake drugs, accounting for 75 percent of the global cases of counterfeit medicine. However, many drugs and other consumer products that were supposedly made in India, were actually made in China and imported into India.

Another 7% came from Egypt and 6% from China. Those involved in their production and distribution include "medical professionals" such as corrupt pharmacists and physicians, organized crime syndicates, rogue pharmaceutical companies, corrupt local and national officials, and terrorist organizations.

Food

Food fraud, "the intentional adulteration of food with cheaper ingredients for economic gain," is a well-documented crime that has existed in the U.S. and Europe for many decades. It has only received more attention in recent years as the fear of bioterrorism has increased. Numerous cases of intentional food fraud have been discovered over the last few years. As of 2013, the foods most commonly listed as adulterated or mislabelled in the United States Pharmacopeia Convention's Food Fraud Database were: milk, olive oil, honey, saffron, fish, coffee, orange juice, apple juice, black pepper, and tea. A 2014 report by the U.S. Congressional Research Service listed the leading food categories with reported cases of fraud as olive oil; fish and seafood; milk and milk-based products; honey, maple syrup, and other natural sweeteners; fruit juice; coffee and tea; spices; organic foods and products; and clouding agents.

United States
 In 2008, U.S. consumers were "panicked" and a "media firestorm" ensued when Chinese milk was discovered to have been adulterated with the chemical melamine, to make milk appear to have a higher protein content in government tests. It caused 900 infants to be hospitalized and resulted in six deaths.
 In 2007, the University of North Carolina found that 77 percent of fish labeled as red snapper was actually tilapia, a common and less flavorful species. The Chicago Sun-Times tested fish at 17 sushi restaurants found that fish being sold as red snapper actually was mostly tilapia. Other inspections uncovered catfish being sold as grouper, which normally sells for nearly twice as much as catfish. Fish is the most frequently faked food Americans buy, which includes "...selling a cheaper fish, such as pen-raised Atlantic salmon, as wild Alaska salmon." In one test, Consumer Reports found that less than half of supposedly "wild-caught" salmon sold in 2005-2006 were actually wild, and the rest were farmed.
 French cognac was discovered to have been adulterated with brandy, and their honey was mixed with cheaper sugars, such as high-fructose corn syrup.
 In 2008, U.S. food safety officers seized more than 10,000 cases of counterfeit extra virgin olive oil, worth more than $700,000 from warehouses in New York and New Jersey. Olive oil is considered one of the most frequently counterfeited food products, according to the FDA, with one study finding that many products labeled as "extra-virgin olive oil" actually contained up to 90% soybean oil.
 From 2010 until 2012, the conservation group Oceana analyzed 1,200 seafood samples from 674 retail outlets in 21 U.S. states. A third of the samples contained the DNA of a different type of fish to the one stated on the product label. They found that fish with high levels of mercury such as tilefish and king mackerel were being passed off as relatively safe fish like grouper. Snapper (87%) and tuna (59%) were the most commonly mislabeled species.
 Genetic testing by the Boston Globe in 2011 found widespread mislabelling of fish served in area restaurants.

The Food and Drug Administration, the primary regulatory body for food safety and enforcement in the United States, admits that the "sheer magnitude of the potential crime" makes prevention difficult, along with the fact that food safety is not treated as a high priority. They note that with more than 300 ports of entry through which 13 percent of America's food supply passes, the FDA is only able to inspect about two percent of that food.

New U.S. seafood tracing regulations were announced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in 2015.

Europe
Food counterfeiting is a serious threat in Europe, especially for countries with a high number of trademark products such as Italy. In 2005, EU customs seized more than 75 million counterfeited goods, including foods, medicines and other goods, partly due to Internet sales. More than five million counterfeit food-related items, including drinks and alcohol products, were seized. According to the EU's taxation and customs commissioner, "A secret wave of dangerous fakes is threatening the people in Europe."

Incidents
 The 2008 Irish pork crisis was pork contaminated with dioxins.
 The 2013 horse meat scandal was a multinational incident involving horse meat (and pork) being found in food products that were labelled as only containing beef.
 The 2013 European aflatoxin contamination scandal involved milk contaminated with aflatoxins.

Wine
In China, counterfeit high-end wines are a growing beverage industry segment, where fakes are sold to Chinese consumers. Knock-off artists refill empty bottles from famous chateaux with inferior vintages. According to one source, "Upwardly mobile Chinese, eager to display their wealth and sophistication, have since developed a taste for imported wine along with other foreign luxuries." In China, wine consumption more than doubled since 2005, making China the seventh-largest market in the world.

The methods used to dupe innocent consumers includes photocopying labels, creating different and phony chateaux names on the capsule and the label. Sometimes authentic bottles are used but another wine is added by using a syringe.
The problem is so widespread in China, the U.S. and Europe, that auction house Christie's has begun smashing empty bottles with a hammer to prevent them from entering the black market. During one sale in 2008, a French vintner was "shocked to discover that '106 bottles out of 107' were fakes." According to one source, counterfeit French wines sold locally and abroad "could take on a much more serious amplitude in Asia because the market is developing at a dazzling speed." Vintners are either unable or hesitant to fight such counterfeiters: "There are no funds. Each lawsuit costs 500,000 euros," states one French vintner. In addition, some vintners, like product and food manufacturers, prefer to avoid any publicity regarding fakes to avoid injuring their brand names.

Counterfeit wine is also found in the West, although primarily a problem for collectors of rare wine. Famous examples of counterfeiting include the case of Hardy Rodenstock, who was involved with the so-called "Jefferson bottles," and Rudy Kurniawan, who was indicted in March 2012 for attempting to sell faked bottles of La Tâche from Domaine de la Romanée-Conti and Clos St. Denis from Domaine Ponsot. In both cases, the victims of the fraud were high-end wine collectors, including Bill Koch, who sued both Rodenstock and Kurniawan over fake wines sold both at auction and privately.

Cosmetics
U.S. Customs and Border Protection suggest that the cosmetic industry is losing about $75 million annually based on the amount of imitation products that are smuggled into the U.S. each year. In addition to the lost revenue, cosmetics brands are damaged when consumers experience unhealthy side effects, such as eye infections or allergic reactions, from counterfeit products.

Customs agents seized more than 2,000 shipments of counterfeit beauty products in 2016, and noted that fake personal care items were more common than knockoff handbags. One of the biggest threats to beauty consumers is the risk that they are buying counterfeit products on familiar 3rd party retail platforms like Amazon.

Cigarettes
Illicit cigarettes are an example of the multi-pronged threat of counterfeiting, providing hundreds of millions of dollars per year to terrorist groups

The harm arising from this amalgam of contaminants sits on top of any baseline hazard ascribed to commercial tobacco products. With the sales of illicit cigarettes in Turkey, for example, exceeding 16.2 billion cigarettes per year, Turkish Prime Minister Erdogan labeled counterfeit tobacco as "more dangerous than terrorism".

Military items
According to a U.S. Senate committee report in 2012 and reported by ABC News, "counterfeit electronic parts from China are 'flooding' into critical U.S. military systems, including special operations helicopters and surveillance planes, and are putting the nation's troops at risk." The report notes that Chinese companies take discarded electronic parts from other nations, remove any identifying marks, wash and refurbish them, and then resell them as brand-new – "a practice that poses a significant risk to the performance of U.S. military systems.

It must be noted in this case however that it is usually not the components themselves which are counterfeit: they have in most instances been fabricated by the expected manufacturer or by a licensee who has paid for the appropriate intellectual property. Rather, what is fraudulent is the issuing by the reseller of a Certificate of Conformity that claims that their provenance is traceable, sometimes accompanied by the components being remarked to make it appear that they have been manufactured and tested to more stringent standards than is actually the case.

There have, however, been situations where components have been fully counterfeit. A fairly typical example is that of USB to Serial port "dongles" ostensibly manufactured by FTDI, Prolific and others which in practice contain a general-purpose microcontroller which has been programmed to implement the same programming interface to a greater or lesser extent. Another example is that of electrolytic capacitors which have been sold as originating from a highly regarded manufacturer but in practice are merely shells which contain a lower-specification (and physically smaller) component internally.

Other counterfeit product categories
These include items which purport to be original art, designer watches, designer china, accessories such as sunglasses and handbags, and all varieties of antiques. In some cases the copying process has proceeded through several vendors, and it is possible to see gradual changes as the chain of "counterfeits of counterfeits" progresses.

These products frequently show up for sale on online sites such as Amazon and eBay. Efforts to report them as fraudulent receive little response.

Enforcement

United States
On November 29, 2010, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security seized and shut down 82 websites as part of a U.S. crackdown of websites that sell counterfeit goods, and was timed to coincide with "Cyber Monday," the start of the holiday online shopping season. Attorney General Eric Holder announced that "by seizing these domain names, we have disrupted the sale of thousands of counterfeit items, while also cutting off funds to those willing to exploit the ingenuity of others for their own personal gain." Members of Congress proposed a PROTECT IP Act to block access to foreign Web sites offering counterfeit goods.

Some U.S. politicians are proposing to fine those who buy counterfeit goods, such as those sold in New York's Canal Street market. In Europe, France has already created stiff sentences for sellers or buyers, with punishments up to 3 years in prison and a $300,000 fine. Also in Europe, non-profit organizations such as the European Anti-Counterfeiting Network, fight the global trade in counterfeit goods.

During a counterfeit bust in New York in 2007, federal police, with the help of local Private Investigator Ray Dowd, seized $200 million in fake designer clothing, shoes, and accessories from one of the largest-ever counterfeit smuggling rings. Labels seized included Chanel, Nike, Burberry, Polo, Ralph Lauren and Baby Phat. Counterfeit goods are a "...major plague for fashion and luxury brands," and numerous companies have made legal efforts to block the sale of counterfeits from China. Many of the goods are sold to retail outlets in Brooklyn and Queens.

For trademark owners wishing to identify and prevent the importation of counterfeit goods, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection agency supports a supplemental registration of trademarks through their Intellectual Property Rights e-Recordation program. In 2017 U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order to, among other things, ensure the timely and efficient enforcement of laws protecting Intellectual Property Rights holders from imported counterfeit goods.

Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA)
In October 2011, a bill was introduced entitled Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA). If the bill had been passed, it would have expanded the ability of U.S. law enforcement and copyright holders to fight online trafficking in copyrighted intellectual property and counterfeit goods. The bill would have allowed the U.S. Department of Justice, as well as copyright holders, to seek court orders against websites accused of enabling or facilitating copyright infringement. Opponents of the bill stated that it could have crippled the Internet through selective censorship and limiting free speech. In regards to the bill, the Obama administration stressed that "the important task of protecting intellectual property online must not threaten an open and innovative internet." The legislation was later withdrawn by its author, Rep. Lamar Smith.

International
On October 1, 2011, the governments of eight nations including Japan and the United States signed the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA), which is designed to help protect intellectual property rights, especially costly copyright and trademark theft. The signing took place a year after diligent negotiations among 11 governments: Australia, Canada, the European Union, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Mexico, Morocco, New Zealand, Singapore, Switzerland and the United States. The EU, Mexico, Switzerland and China have not yet signed the agreement. Due to the latter, critics evaluated the agreement as insubstantial.

In China counterfeiting is so deeply rooted that crackdowns on shops selling counterfeit cause public protests during which the authorities are derided as "bourgeois puppets of foreigners."
Countries like Nigeria fight brand trademark infringement on a national level but the penalties are dwarfed by the earnings outlook for counterfeiters: "As grievous as this crime is, which is even worse than armed robbery, the penalty is like a slap on the palm, the most ridiculous of which is a fine of 50,000 naira ($307). Any offender would gladly pay this fine and return to business the next day."

In early 2018 Interpol confiscated tonnes of fake products worth $25 million and arrested hundreds of suspects and broke up organized crime networks in 36 different countries on four continents. They raided markets, chemists, retail outlets, warehouses and border control points, where they seized among other things, pharmaceuticals, food, vehicle parts, tobacco products, clothing, and agrochemicals. Over 7.2 million counterfeit and illicit items weighing more than 120 tonnes were confiscated.

Human rights laws
Counterfeit products are often produced in violation of basic human rights and child labor laws and human rights laws, as they are often created in illegal sweatshops. Clothing manufacturers often rely on sweatshops using children in what some consider "slave labor" conditions. According to one organization, there are some 3,000 such sweatshops in and around Buenos Aires, Argentina. Author Dana Thomas described the conditions she witnessed in other country's sweatshops, noting that children workers are often smuggled into countries and sold into labor:

U.S. Supreme Court justice Sonia Sotomayor, who has tried to prosecute counterfeiters, notes that major industries have suffered the loss of hundreds of thousands of jobs due to the exploitation of child labor in sweatshops in New York and Asia. Those often produce dangerous merchandise, such as fake auto parts or toys, made of toxic and easily breakable materials.

The profits often support terrorist groups, drug cartels, people smugglers and street gangs. The FBI has found evidence that a portion of the financing of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing came from a store selling counterfeit T-shirts. The same has been found surrounding many other organized crime activities. According to Bruce Foucart, director of US Homeland Security's National Intellectual Property Coordination Centre, the sales of counterfeit goods funded the Charlie Hebdo attack of 2016 in Paris, which left 12 people dead and nearly a dozen more injured. Sales of pirated CDs have been linked to funding the 2004 Madrid train bombing, and investigations firm Carratu connects money from counterfeit goods to Hezbollah, Al Qaeda, the Japanese Yakuza, the ETA, and the Russian Mob.

The crackdown on counterfeit goods has not only become a matter of human rights but one of national and international security in various countries. The FBI has called product counterfeiting "the crime of the 21st century."

Internet shopping sites
Major Internet shopping sites, such as Amazon.com, eBay.com, and Alibaba.com, provide complaint pages where listings of counterfeit goods can be reported. The reporter must show that it owns the intellectual property (e.g. trademark, patent, copyright) being presented on the counterfeit listings. The shopping site will then do an internal investigation and if it agrees, it will take the counterfeit listing down. The actual execution of such investigations, at least, on Amazon and eBay, seems to be limited in reality.

Social media platforms
Besides, online market sites, the shift to digital for luxury and consumer goods have led to both promising opportunities and serious risks. The British government, released a study, Social Media and Luxury Goods Counterfeit, stating 1/5 of all items tagged with luxury good brand names on Instagram are fakes, with 20% of the posts featured counterfeit goods from accounts, usually based in China, Russia, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Ukraine. It also highlights the scale, impact, and characteristics of infringement, and that sophistication from counterfeiters continues to grow through social media platforms. In 2016, in a span of 3-day period, Instagram has identified 20,892 fake accounts selling counterfeit goods, collectively responsible for 14.5 million posts, 146,958 new images and gaining 687,817 new followers, with Chanel (13.90%), Prada (9.69%) and Louis Vuitton (8.51%) being the top affected brands, according to Social Media and Luxury Goods Counterfeit: a growing concern for government, industry and consumers worldwide study from The Washington Post.

Social media and mobile applications have turned into ideal platforms for transactions and trades. Counterfeit users and sellers would set up online accounts on Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook and post counterfeit or illicit products through ways of sponsored ads and deals. The consumer can easily contact buyers and purchase the counterfeit goods unknowingly, by email, WhatsApp, WeChat, and PayPal. As social media watchdogs and groups are working on cracking and shutting down accounts selling counterfeit goods, counterfeiters continue to operate 24 hours, with advanced systems in algorithms, artificial intelligence, and spambots, also tactics involving automatic account creation, avoid in detection and tax-and-duty-free law. It is advised by many that brands, tech platforms, governments and consumers require a comprehensive strategy and cross-sector collaboration to combat the multifaceted system enabling the international counterfeit market.

So far, only United Kingdom, Scotland and Erie representatives have taken the initiatives by using law enforcement and criminal charges to fight against counterfeiting and piracy on social media accounts. This concern still needs tremendous effort in updating its enforcement policies in online counterfeiting, below are some emerging solutions suggested by World Trademark Review:
 Social media surveillance – New technical filters and deploy further resources; engaging in open information sharing; and promoting broader awareness in public campaigns
 Continued enforcement measures – Rogue website actions; customs training and cooperation with law enforcement; and addressing counterfeit goods at the source
 Reinforce in postal service – advance data screening for mail parcels and shipments
 Adopting a set of best practices in payment processors
 Collaborate with third-party cooperation for reliance

Anti-counterfeiting packaging
Packaging can be engineered to help reduce the risks of package pilferage or the theft and resale of products: Some package constructions are more resistant to pilferage and some have pilfer indicating seals. Counterfeit consumer goods, unauthorized sales (diversion), material substitution and tampering can all be reduced with these anti-counterfeiting technologies. Packages may include authentication seals and use security printing to help indicate that the package and contents are not counterfeit; these too are subject to counterfeiting. Packages also can include anti-theft devices, such as dye-packs, RFID tags, or electronic article surveillance tags that can be activated or detected by devices at exit points and require specialized tools to deactivate. Anti-counterfeiting technologies that can be used with packaging include:
 2D barcodes - data codes that can be tracked
 Color shifting ink or film - visible marks that switch colors or texture when tilted
 DNA tracking - genes embedded onto labels that can be traced
 Encrypted micro-particles - unpredictably placed markings (numbers, layers, and colors) not visible to the human eye
 Forensic markers
 Holograms - graphics printed on seals, patches, foils or labels and used at point of sale for visual verification
 Kinetic diffraction grating images
 Micro-printing - second line authentication often used on currencies
 NFC (Near Field Communication) tagging for authentication - short-range wireless connectivity that stores information between devices
 Overt and covert feature
 QR code
 Security pigments and inks - marks only visible under ultraviolet light and is not under normal lighting conditions
 Security tape and labels
 Serialized barcodes
 Tactile prints - dots printed directly onto surface of the product, provide embossed finishes to highlight specific design features
 Tamper evident seals and tapes - destructible or graphically verifiable at point of sale
 Taggant fingerprinting - uniquely coded microscopic materials that are verified from a database
 Track and trace systems - use codes to link products to database tracking system
 Water indicators - become visible when contacted with water
With the increasing sophistication of counterfeiters techniques, there is an increasing need for designers and technologists to develop even more creative solutions to distinguish genuine products from frauds, incorporating unique and less obvious aspects of identification into the design of goods. One of the most impressive of techniques exploits anisotropic optical characteristics of conjugated polymers. Engineers have developed specialized markings and patterns that can be incorporated within the designs of textiles that can only be detected under polarized lights. Similar to methods implemented in the production of currency, invisible threads and dyes are used to create unique designs within the weaves of luxury textiles that cannot be replicated by counterfeiters due to a unique set of fibres, anisotropic tapes, and polymer dyes used by the brand and manufacturer.

See also

References

Further reading
 Sara R. Ellis, Copyrighting Couture: An Examination of Fashion Design Protection and Why the DPPA and IDPPPA are a Step Towards the Solution to Counterfeit Chic, 78 Tenn. L. Rev. 163 (2010).
 Phillips, Tim. Knockoff: The Deadly Trade in Counterfeit Goods Kogan Page, U.K. (2006)
 Wilson, Bee. Swindled: The Dark History of Food Fraud, from Poisoned Candy to Counterfeit Coffee, Princeton University Press (2008)
 Ellis, D.I., Brewster, V.L., Dunn, W.B., Allwood, J.W., Golovanov, A. and Goodacre, R. (2012) Fingerprinting food: current technologies for the detection of food adulteration and contamination. Chemical Society Reviews, 41, 5706–5727.
 Ellis, D.I., Muhamadali, H., Haughey, S.A., Elliott, C.T. and Goodacre, R. (2015) Point-and-shoot: rapid quantitative detection methods for on-site food fraud analysis – moving out of the laboratory and into the food supply chain. Analytical Methods. 7, 9401–9414.

 Share and share alike: the challenges from social media for intellectual property rights. UK Government: Intellectual Property Office. 2017. 99. 1–150. .
 Stroppa, A., & Stefano, D. D. (2016). Social media and luxury goods counterfeit: a growing concern for government, industry and consumers worldwide (pp. 1–50, Rep.) (B. Parrella, Ed.). Washington, D.C.: The Washington Post.

External links

 National Food Safety and Toxicology Center The Counterfeit Food Scope and Threat Seminar at the Michigan State University
 Food fraud and "economically motivated adulteration" of food and food ingredients at the Congressional Research Service
 Fingerprinting food: Current technologies for the detection of food adulteration and contamination in the Chemical Society Reviews
 Detecting Food Authenticity and Integrity, Royal Society of Chemistry themed collection
 Point-and-shoot: rapid quantitative detection methods for on-site food fraud analysis – moving out of the laboratory and into the food supply chain
 Through-container, extremely low concentration detection of multiple chemical markers of counterfeit alcohol using a handheld SORS device

Commercial crimes
Authentication methods


National Reconciliation is the term used for establishment of so-called 'national unity' in countries beset with political problems. In Afghanistan the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan government under Babrak Karmal  issued a ten-point reconciliation program in 1985 upon the advice of Soviet leadership, called the National Reconciliation Policy or NRP.

Creation
Karmal appointed a six-member group of people who were not political party members to develop the National Reconciliation Policy. Mohammad Najibullah later intensified and broadened the proposals in 1987 to stop the Afghan civil war which had continued since 1978 after the Saur Revolution. At the National Reconciliation meeting they came to the conclusion that the Soviet Armed Forces in Afghanistan should withdraw.

In addition to ending the armed conflict with the Mujahideen and the integration of the Mujahideen into a multi-party political process and the withdrawal of Soviet Union security forces, the development of a new constitution was proposed as a component of the National Reconciliation Policy.

In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev was selected Secretary General of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev pushed new president Mohammad Najibullah to come with a peace proposal in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. On 15 January 1987, Najibullah requested a six-month ceasefire between Mujahideen and government forces, and made other proposals as part of the National Reconciliation Policy. The resistance replied to these proposals at a general meeting in Ghur Province in July 1987. The meeting was called together by Mujahideen resistance leader Ismail Khan in Herat Province. Najibullah's proposal was rejected and the six-month ceasefire agreement ended.

Government–Mujahideen negotiations
Peace processes used to negotiate between government and Mujahideen included non-aggression or other peace agreements with local commanders, discussion of the proposed agreements at district level, and proposals such as disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of fighters into their local communities. The 1988 Geneva Accords did not set rules for political processes linked with these local peace arrangements; it was limited to withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan.

By 1991, National Reconciliation Policy negotiations had made progress. Factors creating difficulties included Afghan distrust for Najibullah as a former head of the Afghan intelligence agency; support by regional and global powers for exiled opposition leaders; and the time scale needed for peace and reconciliation processes.

The new constitution
Under Najibullah's leadership a new constitution was ratified by the Loya jirga in 1987. The new constitution abolished the one-party system in the country and saw the establishment of the Meli Shura (Loya jirga), Sena (Senate) and the Wolasi Jirga (House of Representatives) which would eventually replace the Revolutionary Council which had been the ruling organ since the PDPA's establishment in 1965. The word "Democratic" was also removed from the country's official name, and since 1987 the official name of the country was the Republic of Afghanistan. Islam became the official state religion again after the talks.

References

External links
Constitution of Afghanistan (1987)

Peace processes
People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan


Brian Gilbert may refer to:

Brian Gilbert (director), English film director
Brian Gilbert (tennis) (1887–1974), English tennis player
Brian David Gilbert, American performer, musician, and comedian; former video producer for Polygon


Robert Walter is an editor and an executive with several not-for-profit organizations. Most notably, he is the executive director and board president of the Joseph Campbell Foundation (JCF), an organization that he helped found in 1990 with choreographer Jean Erdman, Joseph Campbell's widow.

In 1979, Walter was an editor with Alfred van der Marck Editions. He began to work on several projects with Campbell, who subsequently named him editorial director of his Historical Atlas of World Mythology.

Following Campbell's death in 1987, Walter served as literary executor of Campbell's estate, completing Volumes I and II of the Atlas and supervising its posthumous publication. With JCF publishing director David Kudler, he continues to oversee the publication of Campbell's oeuvre, including the video series Joseph Campbell's Mythos and the other works in the Collected Works of Joseph Campbell series, including the 2008 edition of The Hero with a Thousand Faces.

Prior to his work in publishing, Walter was a founding faculty fellow at the California Institute of the Arts; lectured widely on experiential education; and pursued a professional theater career, working for a decade as a director, production manager, and playwright. Bob was a founding trustee of United Religions Initiative and has served that organization as treasurer and as a member of its Global Council. He currently serves as the president of the elected board of trustees for the public Tamalpais Union High School District in Marin County, California; his term expires in 2015.

Notes

External links
Joseph Campbell Foundation

Living people
American book editors
California Institute of the Arts faculty
American theatre directors
American educators
Year of birth missing (living people)


Harold Johnston (1 May 1895 – 3 July 1978) was an Australian rules footballer who played for North Melbourne in the Victorian Football League (VFL) during the 1920s.

Johnston was with North Melbourne from their inaugural VFL season in 1925 but as a result of them being an inexperienced club, he only experienced six wins in his 37-game career. One of those victories, against Hawthorn, was Wels Eicke's 200th and they won largely due to Johnston's career best four goal haul.

As a VFL field umpire, Johnston appeared three times in 1930 and also officiated in a further three matches on the boundary in 1931.

References

Holmesby, Russell and Main, Jim (2007). The Encyclopedia of AFL Footballers. 7th ed. Melbourne: Bas Publishing.

1895 births
1978 deaths
North Melbourne Football Club players
Australian Football League umpires
Australian players of Australian rules football
Place of birth missing


Little Nellie 007 is a 1991 book by Bruce Barrymore Halpenny about the James Bond autogyro, Little Nellie, as featured in the film You Only Live Twice, and her creator, Wing Commander Retd. Ken Wallis.

The book, known to James Bond fans, and also used as a reference book for other Bond books, gives a behind-the-scenes look at the making of the film, as well as providing all the location shoots for the film, and also a brief history of aviation legend Ken Wallis. Halpenny and Wallis were friends and both ex-Royal Air Force.

The book briefly delves into Ken Wallis’s early family connections with aviation, then onto his own World War II exploits, first as an operational pilot in the Army Co-operation Command flying Lysanders and then as an operational captain of Wellington bombers. Finally, the reader is brought to Wallis’s post-war activities and early stunt filming in Brazil, (some around the statue of Christ by the Corcovado Mountain at Rio de Janeiro and at one point accidentally getting caught in one of Brazil’s notorious "ventana" windstorms) and Italy.

The book then gives the behind the scenes information about Little Nellie, a Wallis WA-116 Agile, and the filming.

The sections include:
Little Nellie;
Little Nellie in Action;
Little Nellie on Location;
Shooting a Ground Scene;
Little Nellie’s Weapons;
Little Nellie is Hit;
The Dangers;
The Most Memorable;
A Punishing Schedule;
The Lighter Moments and No Time to Relax.

See also
 Outline of James Bond

References
Notes

Bibliography
 Little Nellie 007 on Amazon
 James Bond 007: Aproximación a una saga by Luis Saavedra Castaño — Published by Saimel Ediciones, 2000. Original from the University of Michigan. Digitized February 26, 2008 (229 pages)

1991 non-fiction books
20th-century aviation
Non-fiction books about James Bond
Aviation books
Works by Bruce Barrymore Halpenny
Books about individual films


Bovista nigrescens, commonly referred to as the brown puffball or black bovist, is an edible cream white or brown puffball. Phylogenetic relationships between Bovista nigrescens and species of Lycoperdaceae were established based on ITS and LSU sequence data from north European taxa.

Description
The fruit body of Bovista nigrescens is 3–6 cm across. The roughly spherical fruit body is slightly pointed at the bottom. Although it lacks a sterile base, the fruit body is attached to the substrate by a single mycelial cord which often breaks, leaving the fruit body free to roll about in the wind. The outer wall is white at first, but soon flakes off in large scales at maturity to expose the dark purple-brown to blackish inner wall that encloses the spore mass. These spores leave via an apical pore, which is caused by extensive splitting and cracking. The gleba is often dark purple-brown. The capillitium is highly branched with brown dendroid elements. Spores are brown and ovoid, with a diameter of 4.5–6 µm. They are thick-walled, and nearly smooth, with a central oil droplet, and a long, warted pedicel.

Habitat and distribution
Bovista nigrescens puffballs  are often found in grass and pastureland. Although they are found most abundantly in late summer to autumn, they persist in old dried condition for many months. They are uncommon in most areas, but frequent in North and West Europe. They are edible when young. In addition, they are found on the ground, fields, lawns or on roadsides. Typically, they may be found at an altitude of up to 2,500 meters (8,202 feet).

References

Agaricaceae
Fungi of Europe
Edible fungi
Puffballs
Fungi described in 1794


Ben Jones (born c. 1880; date of death unknown) was an English footballer who played one game in the Football League for Burslem Port Vale in April 1905.

Career
Jones played for Alsagers Bank Church, before joining Burslem Port Vale in August 1904. His only appearance was at centre-half in an 8–1 thumping by Liverpool at Anfield on 8 April 1905. He was released from the Athletic Ground at the end of the 1905–06 season, at which point he moved on to Alsagers Bank United and then Halmerend Gymnastics, before returning to old club Alsagers Bank Church.

Career statistics
Source:

References

Footballers from Newcastle-under-Lyme
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
1880 births
Year of death missing


Fowler is a locality on the west side of the lower Stikine River in northwestern British Columbia, Canada, located in the vicinity of the Great Glacier and Choquette Hot Springs Provincial Park.  Fowler Creek lies opposite it across the Stikine.

See also
Stikine, British Columbia
Glenora, British Columbia
Fowler (disambiguation)

References

Stikine Country
Unincorporated settlements in British Columbia


Darsanalaya is an Indian Christian ashram under the territory of Archdiocese of Delhi and belongs to one of the mission centers of S H Province of CMI Congregation. Action in Contemplation is the concept of Darsanalaya Ashram.

People from all walks, irrespective of caste, creed and faith are behind the functions of the Darsanalaya and the peaceful ambiance of Ashram. All those who visit Darsanalaya are well absorbed into this ambiance irrespective of age / health.

Hope radiates in the gentle, calm and serene surroundings. Darsanalaya Ashram  is committed to the Vision ‘With the People for Goodness’ and Mission to ‘Create Equality, Solidarity and Friendship among People’.

History
SH Province has acquired about  of land in 1996 to set up a mission (Catholic missions) centre at Chandpur Village of Faridabad District, Haryana. After six years of initiation, the centre has introduced a dynamic new approach to serve the people.

Compassionate and friendly organizational skills of the missionaries well accepted by the people and Darsanalaya Ashram become an intimate centre for the local community.

They have long years of reflection, meditation and knowledge of herbal treatment. They can easily adopt and practice social work, community development, a Students' Scholarship Program, an AIDS Awareness Campaign, yoga therapy, herbal treatment, etc.

Overview
Darsanalaya Ashram started with the same spirit of Jesus Christ and Blessed Chavara. It is a place of silence and solitude. The Ashram vicinity is powered with spiritual vibrations. This is an Ashram where people can come from all lifestyles irrespective of caste and creed. It is an Indian Christian Ashram for the search and social reformation in collaboration with other religions and religious sects.

Location
Darsanalaya Ashram is located in a village area on the banks of the Yamuna River. It is in a village called Chandpur, at  and about 20 km away from Faridabad city of Haryana state in India. It is bounded by the National Capital Territory of Delhi National Capital Territory of Delhi on its north, Gurgaon Gurgaon District on the west, and Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh State on its east across the Yamuna River. There are around 27 villages around this ashram.

Ethnic diversity
The village population consists of different castes and traditions. The main classes of people in this area are Jats, Rajputs, Brahmins, Ahirs, Banias, Harijans and Gujars. Almost all belong to agricultural communities. There are also categories like village artisans, craftsmen and certain other menials who helped in the agricultural operations. These included the village blacksmith, the carpenter, the oil man, the barber, the washer man, the village potter and some others.

Ambiance
Darsanalaya keeps an atmosphere of silence in and around the ashram vicinity. The people who visit the ashram enjoy the simple vegetarian food and fresh air with yoga and meditation in the atmosphere of silence. The ashram has developed an idea of Garbhagraha Anubhava meditation (Womb Experience). Dr. Aji Sebastian the visionary and the Acharya (Director) of the Ashram were in silence for a year in Saccidananda Ashram, at Narsinghpur, M.P. state of India, for the experiment of Garbhagraha Anubhava.

In this busy world, people are in stress and confusion and they always run here and there for solace. When a human being was in the womb of its mother, it was alone in its solitude. In this busy world, people forget the cause of their life, i.e. solitude and silence. Darsanalaya Ashram is a place to repose in the busy schedule of this world.

Ashram inmates observe and study the problems and issues of the world. The problems relate to children, women, rich and poor, healthy and weak, family and society; each individual in the community is responsible for the things that happen in the society.

Darsanalaya promotes the eco-friendly life style and raises a voice against social evils like child labor, HIV/AIDS discrimination and its stigma, sex imbalance, abortion, women feticide, poverty, and sexual abuse, while trying to promote value-based education in rural and urban areas, religious harmony and ecumenical fellowship, creating equality, solidarity and friendship among people.

Darsanalaya Ashram and its activities originate from the deeper levels of meditation in solitude and silence. The divine energy that proceeds from meditation moves to social activities. Many people from far and near are members of the Darsanalaya family, and behind the Darsanalaya Ashram's humanitarian and developmental activities. The vision of the ashram been fulfilled, ‘with the people for the goodness’.

Activities
Activities of Darsanalaya Ashram  are governed by the registered body of the Darsanalaya Society, which is a Charitable Society registered under the Societies Registration Act, XXI of 1860 (Reg. No. S-55211 of 2006) by the Darsanalaya Ashram with a view to plan, organize, unify and implement socio-economic, educational and healthcare activities of the Darsanalaya Ashram. The all-round welfare of those who depend on agriculture, the working class, the poor and the indigent, irrespective of caste, creed or religion is the goal of the society.

The society had registered for the smooth functions of the Darsanalaya Ashram's charitable and humanitarian activities. The society tries its best to collaborate with like-minded people in this field and cherish the activities of society by teamwork. Darsanalaya is associating with government and other local NGOs of the area for social enhancement. The society is involved in different types of awareness programs through art and media, especially on HIV/AIDS discrimination and its stigma, sex imbalance, abortion, women feticide, poverty, and sexual abuse, and trying to promote value based education in rural and urban areas, religious harmony etc. The society is involved in medical promotion through giving awareness training and treating people with different types of herbs. It is also involved in the construction of a new generation through classes, and academic support to children. It is actively involved in inter-religious and ecumenical programs.

Institute
Darsanalaya Institute of Alternative Medicines and Research is an innovation of Darsanalaya Society and it is for promotion and research on herbal medicines. It has affiliated with the Indian Board of Alternative Medicines. As part of the propagation of healing power of herbal medicines, it arranges training programs in the Institute and in different states in association with local NGOs and government agencies.

Arogyalaya
Darsana Arogalaya is a 15-bedded Arogalaya (hospital) where an herbal system of medicine (Sheethali Chikithsa) is practiced. People from different parts of the country and abroad visit the Arogalaya for treatment. It has consulting centers in different parts of the country.

Navadarsan
The inspiration for Nava Darsan is from the words of APJ Abdul Kalam, former President of India.
"Dream, Dream, Dream
Dreams transform into thoughts
And thoughts result in action" (Ignited Minds, P.1)

The idea of the Nava Darsan (New Vision), value-added education program originates from the group discussion of experts in the field of academics, social scientists, social workers, educators, artists, film directors, politicians and principals of CBSE schools. The discussion resulted in formulating the objectives for the Nava Darshan Education Program.

The aims and objectives of the Nava Darshan Education Program:

•	To promote value based classes.
•	To give clear cut sex education.
•	To find out the leadership qualities of the children.
•	To create a stage for interaction and to widen their world.
•	To create a sensitive generation for the future.
•	To shape the youngsters into persons with a strong character and outgoing personality.
•	To give dreams for the youngsters.
•	To find out the talents of students.
•	To provide counseling, yoga Training, and Meditation techniques to the children to reduce the stress and to increase the concentration and meaning in life.
•	To make a better rapport between the parents, teachers and children.
•	To conduct animation programs for teachers and parents through the schools.

There are thousands of schools in government and private sectors. Years of experience with the students and parents made a few issues clear, related to this field. Stress among the students, identity crisis, broken family relationships, emotionally imbalanced teachers, the aimless life etc. were a few burning issues of study findings.

The society sponsors over a hundred brilliant and poor children from the villages. It is not only to provide a little financial support, but to give formation to these children though seminars, talent shows, sports and games etc. Darsanalaya provides sponsorship to one hundred and thirty students for their studies from 13 schools around the Ashram. Nava Darshan aspirants have regular get-togethers, classes, seminars, sport and literary competitions etc.

References

External links
 Documentary Companion by Asok Sadan
 Documentary on Darsanalaya by V K Sreeraman
 Article "Medical Pilgrimage" by Dr. Saju Chackalackal
 CANDID CORNER "Jesus in Dharma" by A. J. Philip Issue 15, 6–12 April 2009
 Ashram Priest Trains Filipinos to heal poor
 Carmelite Priest Honored for his healing work

Discalced Carmelite Order
Catholic spirituality
Roman Catholic churches in India
Community development
Rural community development
Christianity in Delhi


NH 153 may refer to:

 National Highway 153 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 153, United States


NH 111 may refer to:

 National Highway 111 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 111, United States


NH 78 may refer to:

 National Highway 78 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 78, United States


The Film Academy Vienna (Filmakademie Wien) is the Institute for Film and Television at the University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna.

Curriculum

The offered programs (Bachelor/Master's degree) are:

Directing
Screenwriting
Cinematography
Editing
Production

There is also a Digital Art - Compositing program (Master only).

During the first two years of study, students take classes in all programs, before they specialize in the field of study they applied for.

Application

The application process takes place once a year: After completing given assignments, some of the applicants will be invited for one week of tests and interviews. The Filmacademy Vienna admits 15 to 20 new students per year.

Faculty
The current faculty consists of internationally acclaimed filmmakers:

Michael Haneke and Wolfgang Murnberger in directing
Götz Spielmann, Sandra Bohle and Kathrin Resetarits in screenwriting
Wolfgang Thaler and Thomas Benesch in cinematography
Michael Hudecek in editing
Franz Brandstaetter in digital-art compositing
Danny Krausz in production

External links

 Film Academy Vienna Website (german)
 International Filmfestival Filmacademy Vienna

Film schools in Austria
Education in Vienna


NH 119 may refer to:

 National Highway 119 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 119, United States


Iecava Municipality () is a former municipality in the historical region of Semigallia, and the Zemgale Planning Region in Latvia. The municipality was formed 2003 by a reorganization of Iecava Parish, the administrative centre being Iecava. The municipality consisted of the following villages: Audrupi, Dimzukalns, Dzelzāmurs, Dzimtmisa, Iecava, Rosme, Zālīte, Zorģi. The population in 2020 was 8,353.

On 1 July 2021, Iecava Municipality ceased to exist and its territory was merged with Bauska Municipality as Iecava Parish.

History

Iecava was first mentioned in 1492, when the Master of the Livonian Order, Johann Freytag von Loringhoven, issued a document regarding the duties of peasants from Iecava and Mežotne regarding the local estate.

There is earlier proof of inhabitants of Semigallia settling the area. Today, in the center of Iecava, there was a camp, in which there have been found many items even from the Stone Age such as war hammers and work hammers. Two early tombs of the Iron Age were also explored.

In the 14th century Iecava was subordinated into the Livonian Order. From mid 16th century to end of 18th century the town was part of the Duchy of Courland. In 1567, with the order of the Duke of Courland, a separate Iecava-Lambarte congregation was founded, for which the Lutheran Church began to be built in 1641. During the Duchy of Courland in 1652.-1845. Iecava became a local industrial center with copper, tar, lime, brick and coal kilns, dolomite quarries, paper mills, flax and monochrome weave weaver, and stud workshops. Cannons (two of them are displayed in the center of Iecava), cannon balls, ship nails, and boilers were produced.

After adding Courland to Russian Empire, Iecava became a crown manor. In 1795, the estate was acquired by Count Peter von der Paul, to whom the Russian Empress Catherine II donated the previously rented Lieliecava manor, and came to Paul's "eternal ownership". Count Paul's reign brought Iecava a lively boom - at the end of the 18th century Iecava castle was built, 1795-1890. created an English-style landscape park of 17.2 hectares with a large variety of native tree species and exotic species.

During the Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812, significant fights took place in Iecava. During the French invasion, Colonel de Tolly, the brother of the famous Russian officer Michael Barclay de Tolly, died here. Legends say that several bullets fired during the campaign have left marks still visible on the walls of Iecava Church. On July 7, 1812, the Battle of Iecava took place, where the French army, led by generals von Grawert and Kleist von Nollendorf, defeated Russian troops.

In the 19th century there were 16 manors in the territory of Iecava (Branti, Briede, Grienvalde, Misa, Zorģe manor, etc.). In 1827 the Dzimtmisa School was opened, 1858. - the Iecava School, 1864. - the Misa School. At the end of the 19th century, the rapid development of capitalism and the geographical position of Iecava contributed to the development of the village and its administrative center. In 1869 a parish house was built, in 1876 - the school of Iecava parish. In 1885, a pharmacy was opened in Iecava, which is still in operation in this building. In 1891, the new Peace Court building, including customs, police, post office (now houses a cultural house), was completed. During this time, too, Craftsmen's House (now - post office).

During the first world war, two years in the vicinity of the frontline, Iecava was hit hard. Iecava Palace was destroyed in 1915 with the deportation of the Russian army from Riga. From the palace complex, the library housing of the Earl Leonid von der Pahlen, the horse stables, and the three park guards' houses have remained.

Although Iecava suffered greatly during the First World War - there were only 43 homes with 139 inhabitants in the 1920s - it quickly recovered due to convenient traffic and fertile soils.

At the time of the first Republic of Latvia, 17 000 ha of the land of the Lieliecava Manor was divided into new holdings, while the manor was converted into a village with 400 building blocks. In 1935, there were 709 residents in the village. In the second half of the 1930s, Iecava had two schools, three libraries, a hospital, many commercial and industrial companies, and several associations.

On 23 August 1936, the Freedom Monument was built in Iecava Park. The monument was carved from Latvian granite by artist Pēteris Banders.

Soviet occupation

The end of the first year of the Soviet occupation of Latvia (1940–41) is dramatic for Latvia as a whole and also for Iecava - a large part of the population of the parish was deported. The second wave of deportations over Iecava came in 1949. Only a portion of the deported returns. On June 14, 1990, at Iecava station, the sculptor Mārtiņš Zaurs designed monument was discovered to the victims of Stalinist repression, “The pain semaphore.”

The years of Soviet occupation are marked by forced collectivization. After World War II, more than 10 kolkhozes were established in Iecava territory, combined in the 1970s in the “Iecava” kolhoz (a/s “Rakmente”, etc., founded in the early 1990s), p/s “Progress” (several companies were created in the early 1990s, including co-operative societies “Ikstrums” and “Rosme”, SIA, Iecava) and p/s Zālīte

In 1958, by decree of the Supreme Council of the Latvian SSR, the heavily populated area “Iecava” is transformed into a working village. There are 1242 residents in the village this time around.

By the end of the 1950s, the food industry began to grow in Iecava. A distillery was reconstructed in 1957, a dairy combined in 1962, a bakery was built in 1961. In 1968, a combined feed plant started production, in 1973 the Iecava Poultry Factory was created (now a/s “Balticovo”, the largest producer of eggs in the Baltics).

On 1 February 1963, the village of Iecava workers was transformed into a city village.

In the 1980s, a strong agrarian complex base has developed in Iecava's urban village and its surroundings. The Iecava station contains an intermediate-Republican fertilizer base, a combined forage plant, and an asphalt-concrete plant. The area comprises an Iecava bird factory, an distillery, a dairy and other businesses. Large agricultural production companies were here. The overall atmosphere was affected by the former presence of three parts of the USSR rocket bases.

After independence

In the early 1990s, with the recovery of Latvia's independence and rapid changes in economic life, Iecava and its surroundings also changed. Some of the Soviet troops were leaving and there was a change in the legal status of many companies in the area.

In 1990, the Council of Members of the People of Iecava chose in favour of the parish when examining the question of changing the status of the village.

On 12 August 2003, the deputies of Iecava parish council unanimously decided to establish the municipality of Iecava within the administrative territorial borders of the civil parish of Iecava and, on the basis of regulation 708, adopted by the Cabinet on 16.12.2003, “Provisions on the establishment of the municipality of Iecava of the Bauska District”, thus Iecava Parish became the Iecava Municipality (1 January 2004).

See also
 Administrative divisions of Latvia
Tourism portal for Iecava
Iecava municipality site

References

Former municipalities of Latvia


Arecibo Lighthouse & Historical Park () is a historic lighthouse located in the city of Arecibo, Puerto Rico. It is also known as Los Morrillos Lighthouse and is as a monument to Puerto Rico's complex history under Spanish colonial rule. Perched atop the rugged Punta Morrillos headland since 1898, this iconic lighthouse was the last constructed under Spain's 300-year presence on the island. Despite the collapse of the Spanish Empire following the Spanish-American war that same year, the Arecibo Lighthouse endured as a beacon through subsequent decades of change.

The lighthouse was designed in the neoclassical architectural style popular during the 19th century, featuring a stately rectangular building with an attached hexagonal tower. The rectangular keeper's house measures 40 feet 4 inches (12.29 m) wide by 84 feet 2 inches (25.65 m) long. The hexagonal tower is topped by a dome made of bronze that encases the working lantern room.

The original lighting apparatus was a Fresnel lens of the third order, able to project a beam of light with a radius of 18 miles to warn approaching ships. In 1931, the lighthouse was modernized and converted to electric power. Today, the lantern houses a 190mm lens that emits a bright white flash repeating every five seconds.

After the light was automated in 1964, the unmanned structure fell victim to decay and vandalism without resident keepers. Sadly, the original Fresnel lens, a masterpiece of lighting engineering, met an ignoble end. The lens was damaged in 1975 and completely destroyed in 1977, severing another tangible link to the lighthouse's origins. For years the historic tower stood neglected. Despite this period of decline, the sturdy lighthouse endured as a testament to its sound construction.

After years of neglect, the iconic Arecibo Lighthouse underwent a meticulous restoration in 2001 by a private company dedicated to preserving the historic landmark. It is now operated as the Arecibo Lighthouse and Historical Park, featuring interactive exhibits that bring Puerto Rico's rich history to life. Visitors can explore a replica Taíno Indian village, models of Columbus' legendary ships, slavery quarters, a pirate ship replica and cave, mini zoo, saltwater aquariums, playground, and water park. The lighthouse itself houses a museum with maritime artifacts, exhibits on the lighthouse's engineering and history, and the Spanish-American War.

The painstaking restoration of this engineering marvel allows new generations to appreciate its history and purpose. In addition to guiding ships as originally intended, the Arecibo Lighthouse now helps visitors navigate the captivating narrative of Puerto Rico through engaging exhibits and displays. It once again stands as a respected coastal landmark, treasured both for its past service and the enriching experiences it offers today.

While the lighthouse itself remains little changed from its original construction, the history it represents is one of conflict and conquest. Its presence is a reminder of Puerto Rico's status as one of the last remnants of Spain's once vast empire. Yet it also stands as a symbol of the island's resilience through the rise and fall of colonial powers.

The Arecibo Lighthouse continues to watch faithfully over the waters it has illuminated for generations.

This lighthouse should not be confused with the Cabo Rojo lighthouse, known as Faro de Los Morrillos de Cabo Rojo.

Gallery

See also
 List of lighthouses in Puerto Rico

References

 Puerto Rico lighthouses. Lighthouses Friends

External links
Arecibo Lighthouse and Historical Park

Lighthouses completed in 1898
Historic American Engineering Record in Puerto Rico
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Puerto Rico
Maritime museums in Puerto Rico
Neoclassical architecture in Puerto Rico
1898 establishments in Puerto Rico
National Register of Historic Places in Arecibo, Puerto Rico


NH 108 may refer to:

 National Highway 108 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 108, United States


NH 109 may refer to:

 National Highway 109 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 109, United States


NH 121 may refer to:

 National Highway 121 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 121, United States


NH 123 may refer to:

 National Highway 123 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 123, United States


Bārbele Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

References

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


Knut Bergsland (7 March 1914 – 9 July 1998) was a Norwegian linguist. Working as a professor at the University of Oslo from 1947 to 1981, he did groundbreaking research in Uralic (especially Sami) and Eskaleut languages.

Career
He was born in Kristiania as a son of engineer Einar Christian Bergsland (1883–1945) and Henriette Louise Krogh Raabe (1883–1958). He was the brother of sports administrator Einar Bergsland. He finished his secondary education in 1932, and enrolled at the University of Oslo. He also studied at the École des Hautes Études and the Institut Catholique from 1935 to 1936. He graduated with the cand.philol. degree in 1940, having specialized in Latin, but now concentrated more on the Sami languages. His first linguistic work was a grammar of the Southern Sámi language, released as Røros-lappisk grammatikk in 1946. This work earned him the dr.philos. degree, and it is still the reference grammar of this language.

In 1947 Bergsland was appointed professor in Finno-Ugric languages at the University of Oslo, succeeding Konrad Nielsen. He continued his work on Sami languages, and also did important research in Eskaleut languages, firstly a historical grammar of Kalaallisut (or Western Greenlandic), and then a dictionary and reference grammar of Aleut. His interest in these languages arose during two stays as a visiting scholar; respectively at the University of Copenhagen in 1948 and the Indiana University at Bloomington in 1949–1950. He continued studying Aleut after retiring as a professor in 1981. Bergsland's professorship was vacant until 1987, when Ole Henrik Magga replaced him. Bergsland's final works were Aleut dictionary – Unangam tunudgusii (1994), Aleut Grammar (1997) and Ancient Aleut Personal Names (1998). He died in July 1998.

Bergsland held an honorary degree at the University of Helsinki.

References

1914 births
1998 deaths
Linguists from Norway
Linguists of Sámi
Finno-Ugrists
Norwegian Latinists
Academic staff of the University of Oslo
Paleolinguists
Linguists of Eskimo–Uralic languages
Linguists of Eskaleut languages
Aleut language
20th-century linguists
Eskimologists
Greenlandic language


Gail Clements McDonald (March 9, 1944 - January 18, 2020) was an American political administrator who was appointed as  Chair of Interstate Commerce Commission from 1993 until the Commission's disbandment by Congress in 1995. She was appointed to other positions in government. In 2004 she moved to North Carolina, and has served in political administrative positions there.

Life and career
She grew up in Greenville, Mississippi and studied history at Texas Christian University, where she earned bachelor's and master's degrees. She took a teaching position at Oklahoma State University. In 1974, she became a local campaign manager and later a staffer for Governor David Boren, who was elected as a US senator. In 1979, McDonald moved to Washington, D.C., with her husband, who joined the Federal Election Commission. She was hired as Associate Director of the Gas Research Institute, now the Gas Technology Institute.

In 1990, McDonald was named to the Interstate Commerce Commission. She became its chair in 1993. The Commission was disbanded by a vote of Congress on June 16, 1994. Some programs were shifted to the U.S. Department of Transportation, and the Commission was closed in 1995. McDonald was appointed as an administrator in the Department of Transportation, then as the national ombudsman for the Small Business Administration. After leaving that position, she was appointed to Maryland's Public Service Commission.

McDonald and her husband moved to North Carolina in 2004, where she took a position with the state Ports Authority. In 2006, she was named as the first small-business ombudsman for the North Carolina Department of Commerce.

References

External links
Small Business Ombudsman via North Carolina Department of Commerce

1944 births
Living people
Oklahoma State University faculty
People from Greenville, Mississippi
People of the Interstate Commerce Commission
Texas Christian University alumni


NH 125 may refer to:

 National Highway 125 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 125, United States


Hangeland is a Norwegian surname. Notable people with the surname include:

Brede Hangeland (born 1981), Norwegian footballer
Siri Hangeland (born 1952), Norwegian feminist, civic leader and politician

Norwegian-language surnames


Brunava Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

References

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


East Perth was an electoral district of the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of Western Australia from 1890 to 1962.

Based in inner urban Perth, the district was one of the original 30 seats contested at the 1890 election. The district's member from 1894 to 1904 was Walter James, who served as Premier of Western Australia from 1902 to 1904. When the district was abolished at the 1962 election, its member at the time, Herb Graham of the Labor Party, transferred to the new seat of Balcatta.

Members

Election results

East Perth


Ceraukste Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

References

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


The teams competing in Group 3 of the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Championships qualifying competition were Italy, Wales, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Luxembourg.

Standings

Matches

Goalscorers
As of 4 September, there have been 41 goals scored over 18 games, for an average of 2.28 goals per game.

1 goal

3
Under
Under
Under
Under
Under
Under


Euphorbia balsamifera (balsam spurge) is a flowering plant in the spurge family Euphorbiaceae. It is distributed in the Canary Islands and the western Sahara. It is the vegetable symbol of the island of Lanzarote. Euphorbia adenensis has been treated as a subspecies of this species.

Description
The plant varies greatly in height. It can be described both as a low shrub or as a small tree from 2–5 meters tall. The stems are up to 15 cm in diameter, semisucculent without spines, covered with transverse leaf-scars. The color of the stem varies from gray to terra-cotta. It is branched from the base, the older parts gradually becoming knotty and very thick. The leaves are 80 millimeters long and 4–8 millimeters wide clustered at the tips of the stems. They are green and glaucous, sessile, varying in shape from linear-lanceolate to ovate. The inflorescences are terminal cymes, usually reduced to a single semi-sessile 6 millimeters wide cyathium at the tip of each stem. The color of pseudo-petals is yellowish green. The fruit of the plant is a green large capsule 10 millimeters long and 9 millimeters wide, pinkish-reddish-green when ripened. It is shallowly lobed, smooth or hairy and semi-sessile.

Subspecies
Two subspecies have been distinguished, but Euphoria balsamifera subsp. adenensis is now accepted as a separate species, Euphorbia adenensis.

Distribution and habitat
Euphorbia balsamifera is native to the Canary Islands, western Morocco and Western Sahara.

The tree grows 800 meters above sea level in dense communities on rocky grounds and sandy dunes (except for extremely mobile dunes) in plains among other succulent plants.

Uses
Milky latex of Euphorbia balsamifera is poisonous like in other Euphorbia species, but it is not so caustic. In Morocco, it is widely used in dentistry as anesthesia for acute dental pulpitis treatment.

The leaves were gathered and cooked as a green vegetable in the Canary Islands.

As most other succulent members of the genus Euphorbia, its trade is regulated under Appendix II of CITES.

See also
 List of animal and plant symbols of the Canary Islands
 Euphorbia kamerunica, closely related plant in Africa with similar uses

References

External links

balsamifera
balsamifera
Flora of the Canary Islands
Flora of North Africa
Flora of Morocco
Flora of Yemen
Flora of Saudi Arabia
Flora of Western Sahara


Code Parish (, ) is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

Towns, villages and settlements of Code parish

Gallery

Notable people
 Atis Slakteris

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


Dāviņi Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

References

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


Gailīši Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

Towns, villages and settlements of Gailīši parish

References

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


Īslīce Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

Towns, villages and settlements of Īslīce parish
  - parish administrative center

Notable people
 Krišjānis Berķis

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


William Henry Bradbury (1884–1966) was an English footballer who played at half-back for Burslem Port Vale, Stoke, Aberdare, Oldham Athletic, Scunthorpe United, Rochdale and Burton Town.

Career
Bradbury played for May Bank and Newcastle Swifts, before joining Burslem Port Vale in May 1903. He made his debut on Boxing Day 1903, in a 3–1 defeat by Bristol City at the Athletic Ground. He played three further Second Division games in the rest of the 1903–04 season, and was used as an emergency player in the 1904–05, 1905–06, and 1906–07 campaigns. The club then went into financial meltdown and liquidation, at which point he was released. He joined Fegg Hayes and then moved on to Stoke, playing 28 Birmingham & District League / Southern League games for the "Potters" in the 1910–11 season. He later played for Aberdare, Oldham Athletic (in two spells), Scunthorpe United, Rochdale and Burton Town.

Career statistics
Source:

References

1884 births
1966 deaths
People from Sudbury, Derbyshire
Footballers from Derbyshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Port Vale F.C. players
Stoke City F.C. players
Aberdare Athletic F.C. players
Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players
Scunthorpe United F.C. players
Rochdale A.F.C. players
Burton Town F.C. players
English Football League players
Southern Football League players
Date of birth missing
Place of birth missing
Date of death missing
Place of death missing


NH 85 may refer to:

 National Highway 85 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 85, United States


Mežotne Parish () is an administrative unit of Bauska Municipality in the Semigallia region of Latvia.

Towns, villages and settlements of Mežotne parish

Parishes of Latvia
Bauska Municipality
Semigallia


NH 88 may refer to:

 National Highway 88 (India)
 New Hampshire Route 88, United States