This is a list of British television related events from 1989.

Events

January
1 January
Neighbours stars and pop singers Kylie Minogue and Jason Donovan reach number one in the UK Singles Chart with their duet Especially for You. The song, released in November 1988, remains at the top of the charts for three weeks.
The network television premiere of Amadeus on BBC1, Miloš Forman's 1984 biographical drama based on the play of the same name that is a fictionalised biography of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.
2 January – The network television premieres of Sesame Street Presents: Follow That Bird on BBC1 and the 1985 Madonna starring film Desperately Seeking Susan on BBC2.
5 January – Debut of the sitcom Desmonds on Channel 4.
7 January – The Chart Show moves from Channel 4 to ITV.
8 January – The original airdate of the Only Fools and Horses episode Yuppy Love featuring the classic scene in which Del Boy falls through a bar. A 2006 poll named the scene as the most popular of the entire series while it was also named 7th Greatest Television Moment of all time in a 1999 Channel 4 poll.
9 January – Launch of Central News South, a separate local news service for the South Midlands, covering Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and parts of Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire and Wiltshire. The programme is broadcast from a new computerised news centre in Abingdon.
16 January
The Late Show, The UK's first daily arts programme makes its debut on BBC2, presented by Sarah Dunant. It airs directly after Newsnight.
Debut of the critically-acclaimed children's series Press Gang on ITV, starring Julia Sawalha.
20 January – BBC2 airs live coverage of the inauguration of George Bush as the 41st President of the United States.
22 January – ITV launches an omnibus edition of Coronation Street which airs on Sunday afternoons. But the repeat is not stranded across the network with different regions airing it at different times. Some regions, including Central, later move the episode to a Saturday afternoon slot and the omnibus is dropped in some areas from September 1990.
24 January – BBC1 airs an episode of EastEnders, featuring a mouth-to-mouth gay kiss between the characters Colin Russell (Michael Cashman) and Guido Smith (Nicholas Donovan), the first time it was seen on British television. The scene causes uproar among viewers and in the press.
26 January – Debut of the sitcom Joint Account on BBC1.
27 January – The US family sitcom Roseanne makes its UK debut on Channel 4, starring Roseanne Barr and John Goodman.
28 January – The US drama series Midnight Caller makes its UK debut on BBC1 and it was one of the first television shows to address the dramatic possibilities of the then-growing phenomenon of talk radio.

February
5 February – At 6pm, the world's first commercial DBS system, Sky Television, goes on the air. Three new channels, Sky News, Sky Movies and Eurosport all launch, as well as the flagship Sky Channel, later renamed Sky One.
6 February
Launch of the Sky News flagship breakfast programme, Sunrise which would run until 2019.
Sky Channel begins a rerun of its popular Australian medical soap opera series The Young Doctors, starting with the first-ever episode.
11 February – The Australian soap Home and Away makes its UK debut on ITV. It is the second networked Australian soap on that channel, following the short-lived Richmond Hill which was still airing during the afternoon. Home and Away is crucially scheduled in early evening slots of either 5:10pm, 6pm or 6:30pm across the ITV network and it immediately became the counterpart series to BBC1's Neighbours airing at 5:35pm. This scheduling continues thirty years later with both series now in these same slots but together on Channel 5.
12 February – ITV launches its Find a Family campaign to help find permanent homes for youngsters in care.
13 February – The first ITV national weather bulletin is broadcast.
14 February – Debut of Out on Tuesday on Channel 4, the UK's first weekly magazine series for gay and lesbian viewers. Later changing its name to Out, the show aired for four series before being axed in 1992.
23 February – Some 23 million viewers tune in to watch the exit of the hugely popular character Den Watts (Leslie Grantham) from EastEnders. Grantham filmed his final scenes in the show in the Autumn of 1988, but his exit was delayed into 1989 to avoid the show suffering the double blow of losing Den so soon after his former wife Angie (Anita Dobson) who exited in May 1988. The character falls into a canal after being shot, but the character's exact fate is left unconfirmed. He would make a return to the show in 2003.
24 February – Debut of the children's game show Fun House on Children's ITV, presented by Pat Sharp.
25 February – The long-awaited WBA Heavyweight title fight between Britain's Frank Bruno and the USA's Mike Tyson is held at the Hilton Hotel in Las Vegas. Because of the time difference between Britain and the US, the fight is televised in the UK in the early hours of 26 February. Tyson wins after the referee stops the bout in the fifth round.
February
Channel 4 begins broadcasting in NICAM digital stereo, initially from the Crystal Palace transmitting station, prior to a national transmitter-by-transmitter roll-out during 1990.
Anglia and Central reschedule Emmerdale Farm to 7pm on Tuesdays and Thursdays.

March
2 March
My Brother David, an edition of the BBC2 schools series Scene is first broadcast in which Simon Scarboro talks about the life of his brother, David Scarboro who originally played the EastEnders character Mark Fowler and who fell to his death from Beachy Head in 1988. The programme is repeated again on 19 June for a general audience as part of BBC2's DEF II strand.
After much publicity, a two-minute advert for Pepsi featuring Madonna's latest single "Like a Prayer" is shown during a commercial break on ITV, 12 minutes into The Bill.
6 March – Debut of the three-part ITV drama Winners and Losers, starring Leslie Grantham. The series is his first post-EastEnders role.
9 March – On Top of the Pops, comedian Lenny Henry joins regular presenter Nicky Campbell for a special Comic Relief edition of the programme.
10 March – On the second Red Nose Day, BBC1 airs the eight-hour telethon, A Night of Comic Relief 2.
15 March
BBC1 airs John's Not Mad, an edition of the QED documentary strand that shadowed John Davidson, a 15-year-old from Galashiels in Scotland with severe Tourette syndrome. The film explores John's life in terms of his family and the close-knit community around him and how they all cope with a misunderstood condition.
Debut of the drama series Children's Ward on Children's ITV.
16 March – Debut of the children's sitcom Mike and Angelo on Children's ITV.
17 March – Channel 4 launch the Friday night chat show Clive Anderson Talks Back.
31 March – The last Oracle on View transmission takes place on Channel 4.
March
The Independent Broadcasting Authority recommends that the headquarters of a fifth channel should be situated outside London, preferably at a location north of Birmingham.
The Children's Channel launches free-to-air on Astra 1A, airing from 5am to 10am on weekdays and from 5am to 12pm on weekends, time-sharing with Lifestyle.

April
1 April
Five Star appear on CBBC's Going Live! to promote their latest single With Every Heartbeat. During a live phone-in, a teenage caller verbally abuses them and asks why they are "so fucking crap". Presenter Sarah Greene quickly cuts off the call as the tirade continues. On 23 September 2019, an individual claiming to be Eliot Fletcher, the caller, apologises to the band for the incident via a social media account. However, doubt is then cast on the authenticity of the apology after several other people claim to be the notorious caller.
Discovery Channel Europe launches. The channel broadcasts via Intelsat and on cable systems.
2–3 April – ITV airs The Heroes, an Australian-British television miniseries based on the World War II Operation Jaywick, starring John Bach and Jason Donovan.
3 April
Channel 4 launches its breakfast television show The Channel Four Daily. The programme is based heavily on news and current affairs, with segments focusing on sports, finance, lifestyles, arts and entertainment and discussion. It is axed in 1992 after failing to gain enough viewers and was subsequently replaced by the much more popular The Big Breakfast.
The Australian children's series The Bartons makes its UK debut on BBC1.
4 April – TUGS, a children's model animated series made by Clearwater Features, the company behind the first two series of Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends) makes its debut on Children's ITV, the same day as the final episode of Hill Street Blues is broadcast on Channel 4.
8 April – The US action series MacGyver makes its UK debut on BBC1, starring Richard Dean Anderson.
15 April – The date of the Hillsborough disaster. The BBC's cameras are at the Hillsborough ground to record the FA Cup semi-final clash between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest for their Match of the Day programme, but as the disaster unfolds, the events are relayed to their live sports show, Grandstand, resulting in the extreme emotional impact on the general British population.
20 April – John Leslie becomes the first Scottish presenter of Blue Peter on BBC1.
21 April – BBC2's 25th anniversary. Programming includes an edition of Arena in which the author Graham Greene sets out to trace a namesake who posed as him for many years and an edition of The Late Show which looks at the early BBC2 jazz programme Jazz 625.
24 April
The BBC's Ceefax only runs as a partial service due to a strike by broadcasting unions.
Jon Snow joins Channel 4 News as its main newscaster, replacing Peter Sissons.
26 April – BBC1 airs A Case of Spontaneous Human Combustion, a Q.E.D. documentary which sets out to investigate apparent instances of the phenomenon of spontaneous human combustion, combustion of the human body without an apparent external source of ignition.
27 April – BBC2 airs the 40 Minutes documentary Inside Broadmoor, a film showing life inside Broadmoor Hospital in Berkshire.

May
1 May – The network television premiere of the 1984 science-fiction sequel Star Trek  III: The Search for Spock on BBC1, starring William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy and DeForest Kelley.
2 May – ITV airs an edition of the First Tuesday documentary strand investigating the My Lai Massacre during the Vietnam War called Four Hours in My Lai which is later shown in the US as part of the Frontline series with the title Remember My Lai.
6 May – Yugoslavia's Riva win the 1989 Eurovision Song Contest with Rock Me.
20 May – Debut of the game show That's Showbusiness on BBC1, presented by Mike Smith.
26 May
The High Court rejects a legal challenge to overturn the broadcasting restrictions introduced in October 1988 after deciding the Home Secretary acted lawfully.
ITV airs live the last game of the season, between Liverpool and Arsenal at Anfield. Arsenal win the league title with the last kick of the season, thanks to a late goal from Michael Thomas. More than 8 million people are said to have tuned in.

June
3 June – Sky Television and The Walt Disney Company come to an arrangement which allows to broadcast movies for a five-year period, this agreement comes a few weeks after plans to create a full-time channel were scrapped, although the channel itself eventually launched on 1 October 1995.
5 June
BBC2 broadcasts a special 90-minute programme Climate in Crisis to mark United Nations' World Environment Day was presented by Michael Buerk and David Attenborough, which predicts the Earth's greatest threat within rising temperatures and sea levels will already be changing our planet from averting catastrophe in the year 2050, as well as studio guests including Sir Shridath Ramphal and Jonathon Porritt with an exclusive interview of HRH Prince Charles voices his concerns.
Channel 4 airs the network television premiere of David Lynch's 1984 science-fiction epic Dune, starring Kyle MacLachlan, Virginia Madsen, Francesca Annis, Max von Sydow, Jürgen Prochnow, Everett McGill, Sean Young, Siân Phillips, José Ferrer, Freddie Jones, Patrick Stewart, Dean Stockwell, Alicia Witt and Sting.
19 June – For the first time, BBC2 broadcasts during the morning when not showing Daytime on 2. Programmes begin at 10am as opposed to lunchtime.
22 June
John Craven presents his final edition of the children's news programme John Craven's Newsround. After his departure, the show continues under the name Newsround.
An edition of Question Time looks back at Robin Day's ten years as the show's presenter as he prepares to step down from the role. The edition is presented from the Greenwood Theatre in London, with panellists Michael Foot, Lady Antonia Fraser, Michael Heseltine and David Owen.
Debut of the Channel 4 miniseries Traffik, a drama about the illegal drugs trade.

July
10 July
The music magazine series The O-Zone makes its debut on BBC1.
ITV introduces a second daily airing of Home and Away.
On the Channel 4 game show Countdown, the set receives a redesign and Carol Vorderman is promoted to being the show's co-host alongside Richard Whiteley.
12 July – A special edition of Question Time from Paris, France, is the last to be chaired by Robin Day. Panellists on the programme are Leon Brittan, Chantal Cuer, Denis Healey and Yvette Roudy.
19 July
Debut of the game show Interceptor on ITV, hosted by former tennis player and Treasure Hunt sky-runner Annabel Croft with the eponymous Interceptor played by actor Sean O'Kane. The series would run for seven episodes until it ended on 1 January 1990 with the New Year special.
The BBC documentary series Panorama accuses Shirley Porter, Conservative Leader of Westminster City Council of gerrymandering.
25 July – ITV airs "Don't Like Mondays", an episode of The Bill, featuring a storyline in which several characters are caught up in a bank robbery. The episode sees the exit of PC Pete Ramsey, played by Nick Reding who is shot in the chest by one of the robbers while protecting a colleague. The fate of the character is left unresolved.
28 July – London Weekend Television's current affairs programme Friday Now! is axed after ten months on air due to poor ratings. From the Autumn, it is replaced by Six O'Clock Live.
31 July
Sky Channel is rebranded as Sky One and confines its broadcasting to the UK and Ireland.
Premiere ceases broadcasting due to losses of around £10 million and increased competition from Sky Movies to thank the viewers as well as a few businesses that helped with the channel's transmission.

August
18–20 August – Michael Aspel presents Murder Weekend, a five-part televised murder mystery series for ITV. The show, devised and written by Joy Swift sees celebrities attempting to solve a murder, with viewers also invited to identify the suspect.
25 August – Rupert Murdoch delivers the MacTaggart Memorial Lecture at the Edinburgh International Television Festival in which he launches an attack on the narrow elitism within the British television industry.
26 August – ITV airs Michael Lindsay-Hogg's science-fiction mystery television movie Murder on the Moon, starring Brigitte Nielsen, Julian Sands, Gerald McRaney, Jane Lapotaire, Celia Imrie and Brian Cox. It focuses about the American and Soviet mining companies teamed up with several human settlements exploited the satellite's resources to survive as the investigators between NASA and KGB are forced to solve a case together.
27 August
Launch date of the first Marcopolo Satellite which will serve as a platform for British Satellite Broadcasting that will launch the following year.
ITV airs Don Boyd's biographical television movie Goldeneye, starring Charles Dance as Ian Fleming which focuses about the life of the James Bond author, although it is not to be confused with a later film version of the same name.
28 August
The network television premiere of Ron Howard's 1985 American science-fiction drama Cocoon on ITV, starring Don Ameche, Wilford Brimley, Hume Cronyn, Brian Dennehy, Steve Guttenberg and Jessica Tandy.
BBC1 airs News '39, a week of news-style programmes hosted by Sue Lawley, marking the 50th anniversary of the start of World War II. Each edition was presented in news format reporting on events as if they were occurring in this present time. The bulletin ends on 3 September.

September
1 September
The first ITV generic look is introduced.
Launch of London Weekend Television's Friday evening news magazine programme Six O'Clock Live.
3 September – BBC1 airs the television film Bomber Harris, a drama based on the life of Arthur Harris and starring John Thaw in the eponymous role.
5 September – Carol Smillie makes her debut as hostess on ITV's Wheel of Fortune who replaces Angela Ekaette.
8 September – Debut of Challenge Anneka on BBC1, presented by Anneka Rice.
10 September – BBC1 launches Screen One, an anthology of one-off dramas. The first film is One Way Out, directed by Mick Ford and starring Bob Peck, Denis Lawson, Samantha Bond and Enn Reitel.
13 September
The BBC is accused of censorship after banning an interview with Simon Hayward, a former Captain of the Life Guards who spent several years in a Swedish prison after a drug smuggling conviction, just hours before he is due to appear on the Wogan show. The decision, taken by BBC1 Controller Jonathan Powell followed protests from several MPs. The BBC says the subject is not appropriate for a family programme, but will be discussed on other shows.
Debut of the children's series Bodger & Badger on BBC1, starring Andy Cunningham.
14 September
Peter Sissons takes over as the presenter of Question Time as the series returns after its Summer break.
The children's stop-motion animated series Postman Pat makes its debut in Ireland on Network 2 as part of Dempsey's Den. The animated series The Adventures of Spot also begins airing in Ireland on that day with an Irish language being dubbed called Echtrai Bhrain.
15 September – Ceefax AM is broadcast for the final time.
25 September – BBC2 airs The Interrogation of John, Malcolm McKay's 1987 ScreenPlay, starring Dennis Quilley, Bill Paterson and Michael Fitzgerald. The film, about the police questioning of a murder suspect and first shown in 1987, now forms the first of a three-part series titled A Wanted Man which further develops the story. The second part of the trilogy, The Secret, airs on 27 September, while Shoreland concludes the series on 28 September.
26 September – Debut of Capital City, a series about investment bankers produced by Euston Films for Thames on ITV. Thames spent an estimated £500,000 to run newspaper and billboard advertisements to promote the series launch, believed at the time to be the largest advertising spend for a programme in the history of ITV. Full-page advertisements are taken in six national newspapers including the Financial Times, The Times and The Independent, promoting Shane-Longman, the fictitious company of the series and featuring images of cast members in character.
28 September
Sybil Ruscoe and Jenny Powell are the first female duo to present Top of the Pops on BBC1.
BBC1 debuts Blackadder Goes Forth, the final instalment of this saga is set in 1917 on the Western Front in the trenches during World War I, with Rowan Atkinson reprises the role once again as Captain Edmund Blackadder.

October
1 October
The largest entertainment company in Britain as HIT Entertainment which was originally a Jim Henson production company called Henson International Television launches. They specialise in acquiring rights and distributing television series for children such as Thomas & Friends, Bob the Builder, Barney & Friends, Fireman Sam, Pingu, Angelina Ballerina and The Wiggles.
BBC2 airs the network television premiere of Birdy, Alan Parker's 1984 drama which is based on William Wharton's 1978 novel of the same name starring Matthew Modine and Nicolas Cage, with the soundtrack score by former Genesis frontman Peter Gabriel.
2 October
Launch of RTL Veronique, a Dutch private commercial television station broadcasting from Luxembourg. The channel aired to Europe via the Astra satellite and attracted attention in its early days due to its late-night lineup of erotic programmes. The station changed its name to RTL 4 in 1991.
Breakfast Time is relaunched as Breakfast News on BBC1.
4 October – Jeremy Paxman makes his first regular appearance as presenter of BBC2's Newsnight. He would be in that role until 2014.
11 October
Debut of Around the World in 80 Days on BBC1, a seven-part series in which Michael Palin circumnavigates the world, following the route taken by Jules Verne's fictional character Phileas Fogg. The series concludes on 22 November.
Launch of the second generation of the Rover 200. Part of its promotion includes an advert in which a man halts his lover's wedding to someone else before the pair drive off together in that car, accompanied by the track "Up Where We Belong".
16 October – Debut of the sitcom Birds of a Feather on BBC1, starring Pauline Quirke, Linda Robson and Lesley Joseph.
20 October – ITV introduces a third weekly episode of Coronation Street which airs on Fridays at 7:30pm.
29 October – Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher appears on ITV's The Walden Interview with Brian Walden. His tough stance with Thatcher during the programme is one of the things that helps to contribute to her downfall the following year.

November
1 November – ITV airs One Day in the Life of Television, a documentary filmed by 50 camera crews looking behind-the-scenes of British television on 1 November 1988.
2 November – The last episode of Blackadder Goes Forth, Goodbyeee is broadcast on BBC1. With one of the moving endings ever seen on British television, it is aired nine days before Remembrance Day. The final scene was also voted the ninth most memorable moment of all time in a poll for The Observer and Channel 4 on 11 September 1999.
7 November – MTV Europe broadcasts the live programme from East Berlin which were succeeded in both hotels and conference centres that gave access to the channel for the first time, two days before the wall came down to paving the way for German reunification.
8 November – The teenage drama series Byker Grove makes its debut on BBC1.
9 November – The last episode of the soap Emmerdale Farm which aired under its original title.
14 November – The long-running soap Emmerdale Farm changes its name to Emmerdale after 17 years.
16 November – Debut of Tony Robinson's children's comedy series Maid Marian and Her Merry Men on BBC1.
19 November–26 November – Prince Caspian becomes the second Narnia book to be aired as a television serial on BBC1 in two parts.
 20 November – The Ceefax service is relaunched to focus on news, sport and current affairs. The magazine elements are significantly reduced and are mainly restricted to the weekend.
20–24 November – TVS pilots a 30-minute late-night edition of its news programme Coast to Coast called Coast to Coast Late.
21 November – Television coverage of proceedings in the House of Commons begins.
22 November
Following the commencement of televised coverage of the House of Commons the previous day, BBC2 launches a breakfast round-up of yesterday's proceedings. This is preceded by the 8am bulletin from Breakfast News. Previously, the only BBC2 breakfast output was programmes from the Open University. Their programmes continue to be shown on BBC2 at breakfast, but in an earlier timeslot.
The Stone Roses are invited to appear on BBC2's The Late Show. During their performance, the electricity is cut off by noise limiting circuitry, prompting singer Ian Brown to shout "Amateurs, amateurs" as presenter Tracey MacLeod tries to link into the next item.
25 November – Helen Sharman is selected as the first Britain to travel into space in a live programme aired by ITV. She was one of 13,000 people to apply for the chance to become an astronaut after responding to a radio advertisement and journeys to the Mir space station in 1991.
26 November – BBC1 debuts The Ginger Tree, a four-part television adaptation of Oswald Wynd's 1977 novel of the same name starring Samantha Bond, Daisuke Ryu and Adrian Rawlins. The serial ends on 17 December.
29 November – Debut of four-part serial Blackeyes on BBC2 which is written and directed by Dennis Potter, adapted from the novel of the same name, starring Gina Bellman as an attractive model with Michael Gough in a key role as her uncle, described the series theme as the objectification of "young and attractive women as consumer goods in a way that brutalizes both sexes". The serial continues on 20 December.

December
3 December – The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, another Narnia story, is aired as a four-part serial on BBC1. The serial continues on 24 December.
4 December – ITV airs the 3000th episode of Coronation Street.
6 December
The last episode of the 26-year original run of Doctor Who, part three of Survival, is broadcast on BBC1. The long-running show would be off the air for 16 years until it was revived in 2005 with the only new material during this time being an American telemovie in 1996.
The first terrestrial television showing of Stanley Kubrick's 1980 psychological horror classic The Shining on ITV, based on Stephen King's 1977 novel of the same name starring Jack Nicholson, Shelley Duvall, Scatman Crothers and Danny Lloyd. This was the American theatrical cut of the film, running 25 minutes longer than the version previously released in the UK.
8 December – Alan Bradley (Mark Eden) is fatally run over by a Blackpool tram on Coronation Street, getting the soap's  biggest ever audience at almost 27 million viewers, a record that remains to this day.
11 December – Debut of The Art of Landscape on Channel 4, a programme that shows slowly changing sceneries, animations and landscapes accompanied by music. Initially lasting for three hours, it is broadcast throughout the morning when ITV Schools was off air, from March 1990, the slot is reduced to 30 minutes and aired prior to The Channel Four Daily. After disappearing from the schedule in early 1991, it makes a one-off return in August 1997.
17 December – The network television premiere of John Hughes' 1985 American fantasy comedy Weird Science on BBC2, starring Anthony Michael Hall, Ilan Mitchell-Smith, Kelly LeBrock and Bill Paxton.
24 December
The network television premiere of the ghost story The Woman in Black on ITV, based on Susan Hill's acclaimed novella.
The network television premiere of Jim Henson's 1986 fantasy adventure Labyrinth on BBC1, starring David Bowie and Jennifer Connelly.
The iconic British Airways Face advert is first aired. It was made by advertising firm Saatchi & Saatchi, having been written by Graham Fink and Jeremy Clarke, with Hugh Hudson as director which also often considered to became a television commercial classic.
25 December
Christmas Day highlights on BBC1 include the network television premieres of the Paul Hogan's 1986 smash hit comedy Crocodile Dundee and the John Cleese film Clockwise.
Debut of Noel's Christmas Presents on BBC1, presented by Noel Edmonds.
Christmas Day highlights on ITV include the network television premieres of The BFG and Down and Out in Beverly Hills.
The children's series Playbus is renamed Playdays. The show's name is changed after the BBC received a complaint from the National Playbus Association.
26 December – Boxing Day highlights on ITV include the network television premieres of the blockbuster 1983 Star Wars sequel Return of the Jedi, starring Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford and Carrie Fisher, as well as the 1986 comedy film Ruthless People starring Danny DeVito.
28 December – Paul Gambaccini guest presents a special end-of-decade edition of Top of the Pops with Mike Read.
29 December – Deirdre Barlow (Anne Kirkbride) confronts her husband Ken (William Roache) on Coronation Street before throwing him out, ending their decade-long television marriage.
31 December
The network television premiere of Peter Yates' 1983 British/American science-fiction fantasy adventure Krull on BBC1, starring Kenneth Marshall, Lysette Anthony, Freddie Jones, Francesca Annis, Alun Armstrong, David Battley, Bernard Bresslaw, Robbie Coltrane and Liam Neeson.
BBC1 says goodbye to the 1980s with Clive James on the 80s, a special two-hour programme reviewing the decade.
BBC2 has its own review of the 1980s, with The Late Show Eighties, featuring highlights of 1980s rock music.
The animated special Granpa, based on the book by veteran English children's author and illustrator John Burningham and produced by John Coates and directed by Dianne Jackson, best for working on the animated Christmas special The Snowman is shown on Channel 4 at 6:30pm.
December
The controversial Broadcasting Bill is introduced into Parliament by the Government. It will pave the way for the deregulation of commercial television.
A hearing at the Appeal Court upholds the broadcasting ban.

Debuts

BBC1
2 January – Precious Bane (1989)
3 January – Greenclaws (1989–1990)
4 January – Tom's Midnight Garden (1989)
5 January – Dooby Duck's Disco Bus (1989–1992)
6 January – Making Out (1989–1991)
22 January – Campion (1989–1990)
26 January – Joint Account (1989–1990)
28 January – Midnight Caller (1988–1991)
15 February – The Country Boy (1989)
19 February – Laura and Disorder (1989)
9 March – A Touch of Spice (1989)
2 April – May to December (1989–1994)
3 April – The Bartons (1988)
6 April – Tricky Business (1989–1991)
7 April – The Justice Game (1989–1990)
8 April – MacGyver (1985–1992, 2016–2021)
2 May – Take Me Home (1989)
12 May – Jumping the Queue (1989)
20 May – That's Showbusiness (1989–1996)
9 July – Chelworth (1989)
8 September – Challenge Anneka (1989–1995, 2006)
10 September – Screen One (1989–1998)
13 September
Bodger & Badger (1989–1999)
 Fantastic Max (1988–1990)
14 September
The Poddington Peas (1989)
Penny Crayon (1989–1990)
Clockwise (1989–1991)
19 September – The Paradise Club (1989–1990)
28 September – Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)
2 October – Breakfast News (1989–2000)
5 October – Bluebirds (1989)
11 October – Around the World in 80 Days (1989)
16 October – Birds of a Feather (1989–1998 BBC, 2014–2020 ITV)
29 October – Mother Love (1989)
6 November – Happy Families (1989–1990)
8 November – Byker Grove (1989–2006)
16 November
Maid Marian and Her Merry Men (1989–1994)
Victoria Wood (1989)
19 November – Prince Caspian/The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1989)
26 November – The Ginger Tree (1989)
25 December – Noel's Christmas Presents (1989–1999)
28 December – The New Yogi Bear Show (1988)
29 December – Commercial Breakdown (1989–2008)

BBC2
4 January – The Dark Angel (1989)
13 January – A Bit of Fry & Laurie (1989–1995)
1 March – Shadow of the Noose (1989)
3 April – Chris and Crumble (1989)
26 April – Shalom Salaam (1989)
12 May – KYTV (1989–1993)
19 May – Tygo Road (1989–1990)
9 June – I, Lovett (1989–1993)
16 June – Mornin' Sarge (1989)
10 July – The O-Zone (1989–2000)
19 September – Look and Read: Through the Dragon's Eye (1989)
4  October – Nice Work (1989)
22 October –  The Smoggies (1988–1991)
1 November – Summer's Lease (1989)
29 November – Blackeyes (1989)
31 December – The Late Show (1989–1995)

ITV
6 January
Round the Bend (1989–1991)
Hot Dog (1989–1991)
High Street Blues (1989)
7 January – Superboy (1988–1992)
8 January – Agatha Christie's Poirot (1989–2013)
13 January – A Bit of a Do (1989)
16 January – Press Gang (1989–1993)
25 January – Young Charlie Chaplin (1989)
8 February – Flying Squad (1989–1990)
11 February – Home and Away (1988–present)
12 February – Find a Family (1989–1991)
15 February – Mr. Fixit (1989)
18 February – Woof! (1989–1997)
21 February – Hitman (1989)
24 February
Fun House (1989–1999)
A Quiet Conspiracy (1989)
26 February
 Forever Green (1989–1992)
 Forever Knight (1989–1992)
6 March – Winners and Losers (1989)
13 March
The Labours of Erica (1989–1990)
Keynotes (1989–1992)
15 March
EMU-TV (1989)
Children's Ward (1989–2000)
16 March – Mike and Angelo (1989–2000)
21 March – Bradley (1989)
1 April – Ghost Train (1989–1991)
2 April –  The Heroes (1989)
4 April – TUGS (1989)
6 April – Rolf's Cartoon Club (1989–1993)
12 April – No Strings (1989)
14 April
Windfalls (1989)
Grim Tales (1989–1991)
Surgical Spirit (1989–1995)
17 April – When Will I Be Famous? (1989)
23 April
Tanamera – Lion of Singapore (1989)
Capstick's Law (1989)
2 May – The Bubblegum Brigade (1989)
20 May – Brian Conley: This Way Up (1989–1990)
21 May – A Tale of Two Cities (1989)
26 May – Sob Sisters (1989)
3 June – Young, Gifted and Broke (1989)
5 June
 The Nineteenth Hole (1989)
Huxley Pig (1989–1990)
6 June – Sounds Like Music (1989–1990)
7 June
Everybody's Equal (1989–1991)
Split Ends (1989)
11 June
We Are Seven (1989–1991)
Tales of Sherwood Forest (1989)
12 June – Rules of Engagement (1989)
16 June – After the War (1989)
5 July – Bangers and Mash (1989)
11 July – Somewhere to Run (1989)
19 July – Interceptor (1989–1990)
23 July – Back Home (1989)
26 July – Anything More Would Be Greedy (1989)
2 August – Garfield and Friends (1988–1994)
18 August – Murder Weekend (1989)
20 August – The Fifteen Streets (1989)
27 August – Goldeneye (1989)
2 September – Saracen (1989)
5 September – French Fields (1989–1991)
10 September – It's Stardust (1989–1990)
13 September – The Best of Magic (1989–1990)
15 September – Act of Will (1989)
25 September – Streetwise (1989–1992)
26 September – Capital City (1989–1990)
27 September – Wisdom of the Gnomes (1987–1988)
1 October – Close to Home (1989–1990)
4 October
Take the Plunge (1989)
Confessional (1989)
8 October – Goals on Sunday (1989–1992)
2 November – The Riddlers (1989–1998)
6 November – About Face (1989–1991)
8 November – The Free Frenchman (1989)
15 November – All Change (1989–1991)
2 December – Frederick Forsyth Presents  (1989–1990)
8 December – Stay Lucky (1989–1993)
21 December – The Shell Seekers (1989)
24 December – The Woman in Black (1989)
25 December – The BFG (1989)
26 December – K.T.V (1989–1992)
27 December – Till We Meet Again (1989)
28 December – The Tailor of Gloucester (1989)
Unknown
Satellite City (1988)

Channel 4
1 January – The Dog It Was That Died (1989)
5 January – Desmond's (1989–1994)
17 March – Clive Anderson Talks Back (1989-1996)
18 January – Thirtysomething (1987–1991)
27 January – Roseanne (1988–1997)
14 February – Out on Tuesday (aka Out) (1989–1992)
20 February – Behaving Badly (1989)
3 April – The Channel Four Daily (1989–1992)
8 April – The World of David the Gnome (1985)
23 April – The Henderson Kids (1985–1987)
23 May – Absolutely (1989–1993)
30 May – Prisoners of Childhood (1989)
11 June – The Manageress (1989–1990)
22 June – Traffik (1989)
20 August
The Wonder Years (1988–1993)
The Endless Game (1989)
17 October – Sticky Moments (1989–1990)
11 November – 4 Play (1989–1991) (Anthology)
31 December – Granpa (1989)
Unknown – Club X (1989)

Sky Channel/One
5 February
Dolly (1987–1988)
 Spearfield's Daughter (1986)
6 February – Sky Star Search (1989–1991)
3 September –  21 Jump Street (1987–1991)
15 October – Amerika (1987)
24 October – Dick Francis Mysteries (1989)
Unknown – My Little Pony (1986–1987)

Sky News
6 February – Sunrise (1989–2019)

Channels

New channels

Defunct channels

Rebranded channels

Television shows

Changes of network affiliation

Returning this year after a break of one year or longer
 Watch with Mother (1952–1975) (1987, 1989, 1993 VHS Only)

Ending this year
10 February – High Street Blues (1989)
29 March – Tumbledown Farm (1988–1989)
19 April – Charlie Chalk (1988–1989)
26 April – Barney (1988–1989)
1 May – The Benny Hill Show (1955–1989)
16 May – The Book Tower (1979–1989)
5 June – When Will I Be Famous (1989)
6 June – The Bubblegum Brigade (1989)
18 June – Three Up, Two Down (1985–1989)
27 June – TUGS (1989)
11 July – The Bretts (1987–1989)
17 July – Rules of Engagement (1989)
23 July – Tales of Sherwood Forest (1989)
24 July – Traffik (1989)
8 August – Creepy Crawlies (1987–1989)
15 August – C.A.B. (1986–1989)
21 August – Dramarama (1983–1989)
30 August – Anything More Would Be Greedy (1989)
1 September – Bangers and Mash (1989)
20 September – EMU-TV (1989)
29 September – Breakfast Time (1983–1989)
8 October – First of the Summer Wine (1988–1989)
9 October – Streets Apart (1988–1989)
13 October – Square Deal (1988–1989)
25 October – Confessional (1989)
19 November – Mother Love (1989)
25 November – Saracen (1989)
1 December – A Bit of a Do (1989)
6 December – Doctor Who (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–present)
7 December – The Poddington Peas (1989)
17 December – The Ginger Tree (1989)
18 December – The Real Ghostbusters (1986–1991)
24 December – Ever Decreasing Circles (1984–1989)
25 December – Thunderbirds Superstar 90 (1987–1988)

Births
 8 February – Dani Harmer, actress
 2 March – Nathalie Emmanuel, actress
 23 March – Jessica Baglow, actress
 7 June – London Hughes, presenter and comedian
 23 July – Daniel Radcliffe, actor (Harry Potter films)

Deaths

See also
 1989 in British music
 1989 in British radio
 1989 in the United Kingdom
 List of British films of 1989

References

External links
List of 1989 British television series at IMDb


The 1992 Copa Libertadores was the 33rd edition of the Copa Libertadores, CONMEBOL's annual international club tournament. São Paulo won the competition.

Qualified teams

Draw
The champions and runners-up of each football association were drawn into the same group along with another football association's participating teams. Three clubs from Chile competed as Colo-Colo was champion of the 1991 Copa Libertadores.

Group stage

Group 1
Colo-Colo, as the previous year champions, should join the competition only in the Round of 16, but they requested to start the competition in the group stage, due to financial reasons, thus five clubs participated in this group.

Group 2

Group 3

 As Marítimo and Universidad de Los Andes finished with the same number of points, a playoff to define the third-placed team was played. Marítimo beat Universidad de Los Andes and qualified to the Round of 16.

Tiebreaker
 Marítimo qualify due to better goal difference in group.

|-

|-
|}

Group 4

Group 5

Knockout stage

Finals

First leg

Second leg

References

1
Copa Libertadores seasons


Hans Heinrich Georg Queckenstedt (1876 in Leipzig-Reudnitz – 8 November 1918 in Bertrix) was a German neurologist remembered for describing Queckenstedt's phenomenon. He graduated from the University of Leipzig in 1900, having studied under Emil Kraepelin. He worked under Sigbert Josef Maria Ganser, and gained his doctorate in 1904. He worked in Rostock, and was habilitated as Privatdozent in 1913. He studied cerebrospinal fluid dynamics, noting the fluctuation of pressure with respiration. This led to experiments with the Valsalva manoeuvre and jugular vein pressure from which his eponymous test was published. He took part in the First World War as a medical officer and died shortly before the armistice due to an accident.

External links

References

German neurologists
1876 births
1918 deaths
Physicians from Leipzig
People from the Kingdom of Saxony
German military doctors
German military personnel killed in World War I
Prussian Army personnel
Road incident deaths
Deaths in the German Empire
German Army personnel of World War I
Military personnel from Leipzig


The Buntingford branch line in Hertfordshire, England, connected Buntingford to the railway network at . It was promoted locally and opened in 1863 after overspending its available capital. The line was completed with the assistance of the neighbouring Great Eastern Railway. Residential travel and goods services became significant at the end of the 19th century. The area served by the line was predominantly agricultural, and after 1948 usage did not keep pace with rising costs. When the Hertford East branch was electrified, Buntingford branch trains were reduced in frequency with through trains to London withdrawn. The line was recommended for closure in the Beeching Report, and the passenger service was withdrawn in 1964; goods services closed in 1965.

The line was informally known as The Bunt by the workers on the line.

Proposals

Buntingford is located on Ermine Street, the road from London to Cambridge and the north, and had a prime position as a trading town before the advent of railways. The town was bypassed by the main line of the Eastern Counties Railway from London to Cambridge via Bishop's Stortford, which opened in stages between 1840 and 1845. The Ware and Hertford branch from Broxbourne was opened by the Northern and Eastern Railway in 1843.

In 1845 during Railway Mania, a grandiose scheme to build a Great Western, Southern and Eastern Counties Railway was proposed to run from Southampton to Ipswich via Bishops Stortford and Hadham. Its cost was clearly unrealistic and it did not proceed. In 1847 George Hudson promoted a Parliamentary Bill for an alternative route to Cambridge, leaving the Hertford branch at Ware and running via Buntingford and Royston to Shelford which failed to gain approval.

Authorisation
On 1 August 1856, a meeting of 150 landowners was held at the George and Dragon Hotel in Buntingford, to discuss promoting a branch line to Buntingford. A local promoter, George Mickley, estimated £70,000 to construct ten miles of single track railway and £30,000 for land and stations, making a total of £100,000. Annual receipts were forecast to be £10,083, and a 5% profit was expected. A second meeting was held on 28 August, and it was reported that there was no opposition locally when people were circulated by letter. It was decided to proceed. A Parliamentary Bill was submitted in November 1857. The Bill passed through Parliament and the Royal Assent was granted for the Ware, Hadham and Buntingford Railway on 12 July 1858 with authorised share capital of £50,000.

A tender of £44,000 to build the line was accepted from W. S. Simpson of Ely; the engineer was Henry Palfrey Stephenson and the first sod was cut at a ceremony on 20 July 1859.

While land was being acquired, opposition was encountered from a landowner near Ware, and the decision was taken to alter the route to join the Hertford branch at St Margaret's instead of Ware. Many other difficulties were encountered in acquiring land. A deviation Bill was submitted in 1860 to improve the gradients and shorten the line which gained the Royal Assent on 22 July 1861. The line needed an unusual number of bridges increasing the cost per mile of construction.

There was a shortfall in subscribed capital and the borrowing powers in the company's Act of Incorporation were conditional on a proportion of the capital having been raised. The directors considered mortgaging the line, but it proved impossible to find a financial house willing to take debenture shares and the company lacked funds.

The line, when completed, was a branch from the Eastern Counties Railway. The Great Northern Railway had a branch line to Hertford from Welwyn and it was possible that the Buntingford line might be sold to the GNR. The ECR agreed to provide financial assistance to the extent of £22,000. Two ECR board members joined the WH&BR board, and the ECR agreed to work the line for 50% of receipts. In 1862 the ECR and other railway companies in East Anglia amalgamated to form the Great Eastern Railway.

By 1863 the line was ready, and a special train was arranged for shareholders to attend the Shareholders' Meeting in Buntingford. On 10 February 1863 a special train ran from London to Buntingford.

An inspection by the Board of Trade was necessary before passenger operation could start, and Captain J. H. Rich visited the line on 18 April 1863. He was critical, the permanent way was below the required standard and the underbridges were badly constructed, one at Bog Ford Bridge, was reported to have sunk three inches under the inspection train, there were no facing point indicators, no turntable at St Margaret's, and several stations had no distant signals. There was inadequate fencing, and overbridges were not properly fenced on the road approach wing walls.

This was a serious blow to the company, which had assumed that early opening was within its grasp. Bog Ford Bridge was reconstructed, a 91-feet depth of piling was required to get a proper foundation. The work committed the company to considerable unforeseen expenditure and a further Act of 22 June 1863 obtained authorisation to take an additional £40,000 share capital.

Opening

Rectification was put in hand, and on 30 June 1863 Col Yolland inspected the line. He was not entirely satisfied, but he reluctantly gave approval. The first trains ran on 3 July 1863. There were four trains each way daily and two in Sundays. The journey time of 50 minutes was reduced to 40 minutes from 1 August 1863. There were minimal goods facilities at the beginning. Income for the first quarter year (to 30 September 1863) was £1,221, of which £359 was from goods traffic.

Goods trains caused congestion on the single line, and the board decided that a passing loop at Hadham was required; expenditure of £220 was authorised 24 May 1865; the work was to be done by the GER at the Buntingford company's expense. Braughing followed as a crossing point in 1892.

The line was expensive to build and only completed with finance from the Eastern Counties Railway and its successor company (from 1862), the Great Eastern Railway. The capital subscribed including GER subscription was £106,871 and there were outstanding liabilities of £50,000 and a debenture debt of £29,403. This state of affairs could hardly continue long, and the company wrote to the GER on 21 June 1865, asking them to take over the line. The board admitted that they were "not yet in a state to pay a dividend".

Walter Bentinck had debenture bonds due on 10 February 1866. The company was unable to pay, and Bentinck took them to the Court of Chancery where he obtained judgment in his favour for £3,039, "payable in land if not in cash". The company had no cash and no spare land, so the matter escalated, and in the end the GER paid Bentinck in order to settle the matter in November 1866. On 7 March 1867, the GER, realising that the initiative rested with it, wrote to the company suggesting absorption. Its motivation was that the Great Northern Railway might get control of the Buntingford company and use it to gain entry into GER territory.

Shareholders of the Buntingford Company met on 26 March 1867 and voted in favour of selling to the GER; the deed of transfer was ratified on 30 July 1868, effective on 1 September 1868.

Due to poor usage, Widford station was closed after 31 December 1868 but a petition was raised locally and it reopened on 1 April 1869.

Change in the late 19th century
Safety improvements were demanded by the Board of Trade, and the block telegraph system was installed between St Margaret's and Mardock, operational from June 1888. it was extended to the end of the line between 1892 and 1893 at a cost of £15,277.

From this period the revenue increased as commuting became an important business; in addition goods usage on the line was brisk. By 1900, seven trains operated each way daily, with two on Sundays; the journey time was 35 minutes, and there were three goods trains each way daily. From July 1915 the passenger service reached its peak, with eleven trains in each direction.

A local bus operator started passenger services from 1920, but the London residential traffic was gaining strength; from 1922 there was a homeward through train from London, although the counterpart London-direction through train did not start until 1939.

From 1923

In 1953 a film, including location shots was made at Braughing.  The film was set in an Irish village called Rathbarney, and Braughing station was made to resemble the fictitious station. The film had the working title O'Leary Night, but was released in 1954 as Happy Ever After; it also had the title Tonight's the Night.

Sunday services were withdrawn from the passenger timetable after 18 September 1955.

From 15 June 1959, diesel multiple units were introduced on the passenger services; for some time they were unreliable. Through trains to London from the branch were withdrawn at this time. In 1960 the Hertford East branch was electrified effective from 21 November 1960 and the Buntingford branch timetable was altered to suit connections with the electric trains in the morning and evening peaks, except on Saturdays.

In 1961 another film was shot on the branch: West Mill station was used to film Postman's Knock. Spike Milligan played a naive country postman who unwittingly foils an attempted train robbery.

Closure
By the 1960s, the area served by the branch had not developed as a residential area for commuters, and when the Beeching Report was published, the branch was recommended for closure. The passenger service was withdrawn from 14 November 1964, and the final goods train ran on 17 September 1965.

Topography

 ; opened 31 October 1843; relocated west of level crossing 3 July 1863; still open;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964; alternatively known as Mardocks in early years;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964;
 ; opened 3 July 1863; closed 16 November 1964.

There were passing loops at Braughing and Hadham.

The route was  in length.

The line was steeply graded, rising at gradients of up to 1 in 63 as far as the summit of the line about three-quarters of a mile beyond Hadham. After that the line falls at 1 in 56, with more moderate gradients from there to the terminus.

References

External links
 Photographs of the branch line at Herts Memories: the Bunt Photo Gallery

Railway companies established in 1856
Early British railway companies
Pre-grouping British railway companies
Rail transport in Hertfordshire
Railway companies established in 1857
Railway lines opened in 1863
Beeching closures in England
British companies established in 1856


Arturo Pérez de Alejo Rodríguez (1951 – 25 January 2017) was a Cuban dissident and had been declared as a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International.

He was president of the human rights organization Frente Escambray and activist supporter of the Varela project. He was a member of the Democratic Action Movement, National Action Party and the Independent Democratic Front.

He was imprisoned during the Black Spring in 2003 and sentenced to 20 years in prison. At the time of his arrest he was president of the Escambray Human Rights Front.

Pérez de Alejo Rodríguez died on 25 January 2017 in Miami, Florida, U.S. at the age of 66.

References

External links
 Arturo Pérez de Alejo Rodríguez  Freedom Collection interview

1951 births
2017 deaths
Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Cuba
Cuban democracy activists
Cuban dissidents
Cuban human rights activists
Cuban prisoners and detainees
People from Manicaragua


Ee-mat-la, also known as King Phillip, (9 October 1739 - 8 October 1839) was a Seminole chief during the Second Seminole War.

He was captured while camped at Dunlawton plantation, and held at Fort Marion.  He died while being transported west in 1839.

He was "also a very aged chief, who has been a man of great notoriety and distinction in his time, but has now got too old for further warlike enterprize."

His son was Coacoochee (Wild Cat).

References

External links
Ee-mat-la, Catlin sketch, Ayer Art Digital Collection (Newberry Library)
Seminolee. 154-156. Ee-mat-la (King Phillip), Ye-how-lo-gee (the Cloud), Co-ee-ha-jo (- - -), three Seminolee warriors w... (1850), NYPL digital library
ee-mat-la, George Catlin, Smithsonian American Art Museum
Ruins of sugar mill, Dunlawton plantation
FLORIDA 32) Dunlawton Plantation Sugar Mill Ruins, National Register of Historic Places
Battle of Dunlawton Plantation - Port Orange, FL

1739 births
1839 deaths
Pre-statehood history of Florida
Native American leaders
Native Americans of the Seminole Wars
18th-century Seminole people
18th-century Native American leaders
19th-century Seminole people
Native Americans imprisoned at Fort Marion


Corona, in comics, may refer to:

 Corona, an alias used by the Eternal Thena
 Corona, a Marvel Comics character and member of The Initiative-incarnation of The Order
 Corona, a mutant from the alternate future of Here Comes Tomorrow

References

See also
Corona (disambiguation)


Labor unions in the United States, since their early beginnings, have held various viewpoints on immigration. There were differences among the labor unions and occasionally opposition to contemporary majority opinions and public policies.

First half of 20th century
In the first half of the 20th century, the majority of labor unions within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) were strongly anti-immigration, looking to curtail immigration, causing the AFL itself to adopt restrictive policies and resolutions. The predominant viewpoint in the AFL in the early 20th century saw the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 as a model piece of legislation for restricting Asian immigration and favored its expansion to include Japanese and Korean immigrants. The AFL also favored the passage of a literacy test as a requirement for an immigrant's entry to the United States to reduce the number of unskilled and presumably-uneducated immigrants admitted into the country. After unemployment rose after the conclusion of World War I, the AFL made a renewed push for "a total suspension of immigration for a period of five years or longer."  Although the legislation was less severe, the AFL supported the Immigration Act of 1924. While there were several notable exceptions, most labor unions within the AFL were allied with the position of the organization as a whole.

In the early part of the 20th century, restrictive policies towards immigration aligned the AFL with culturally-conservative, nativist groups, such as the American Defense Society.  They were functionally one-sided coalitions since the groups by and large ideologically opposed labor unions and workers' rights to collective bargaining.

AFL arguments opposing immigration
The AFL, in the first half of the 20th century, pursued arguments to promote restricting immigration that were racist, economic, and political. Racist arguments often posited that immigrants were degrading the quality of life in the United States and unable to adapt to American society. Many of their arguments mirrored those of the eugenics movement of the time that certain races were genetically inferior to others and so were incapable of assimilating into the societies of the "higher" races.  Generally, various unions within the AFL deemed three immigrant ‘races’ inferior: Southern and Eastern European, Asian, and Latino (often specifically Mexican). However, as Latino immigrants did not make up a significant portion of the population at the time, the AFL focused most vocally on limiting the immigration of the former two groups.

Economic arguments aimed at restrictive immigration policies posited that an increase in the supply of labor tilted the balance toward employers, who could use cheaper immigrant labor as strikebreakers. That would limit the effectiveness of labor unions to bargain, thereby reducing the wages and working conditions of American workers. Also, firms would prefer hiring less expensive foreign workers over American workers, leading to greater unemployment for the latter. Proponents of that argument also opposed organizing immigrants into American labor unions, as doing so would raise their wages, encouraging even more immigration into the country.

With the rise of communism in Europe after the Russian Revolution (1917), and a growing anxiety of similar attempts occurring in the United States, the AFL sought to gain legitimacy by purging itself of any ties to communism. The actions and statements of the far-left Industrial Workers of the World, a labor federation, led to an association between labor and communism, which the AFL fervently sought to avoid. Since immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe were viewed especially suspiciously as potential communist "agitators," more political arguments were presented by the AFL to oppose immigration from those areas the organization of such immigrant workers.

Contingencies of AFL position
One central dichotomy that largely dictated the position of labor unions towards immigration during the early 20th century was whether their focus was largely inward or outward. Unions with an outward focus, dedicated to organizing workers, tended to be pro-immigrant, as immigrants constituted the main populations that they were attempting to organize. Unions that attempted to raise wages and working conditions for already-unionized workers, instead of organizing new workers, tended to see immigrant labor as competition with native workers and so wanted restrictive measures. As the vast majority of the unions within the AFL fell in the latter camp in the first half of the 20th century, the AFL, as a whole, unsurprisingly adopted the latter position.

That created a cycle geared towards greater restriction, as it appeared hypocritical if unions within the AFL organized immigrant workers while the organization, as a whole, was promoting policies aimed at restricting immigration. Therefore, the AFL, led by its president, Samuel Gompers, opposed individual unions organizing immigrant labor.

Individual AFL unions that defied central directives and organized immigrant labor were much more likely to oppose restrictive immigration policies, forming a minority within the AFL.  One example of such a union was the International Ladies Garment Workers Union (ILGWU), primarily of female immigrant workers from Eastern and Southern Europe, which argued that reducing immigration was the wrong tactic to reduce unemployment and to raise bargaining power.

CIO position on immigration
Unlike the AFL, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) did not promote policies to restrict the flow of immigration into the United States. Its members were industrial unions, a more inclusive organizing philosophy to organize both skilled and unskilled workers by industry, regardless of "race, color, creed, or nationality." The AFL, on the other hand, had mostly skilled craft workers, with unions divided by their craft.

The CIO was more supportive towards immigration and more receptive towards welcoming immigrants into their ranks, but the AFL pursued steps to curtail immigration.

Second half of 20th century
During the second half of the 20th century, the predominant view among organized labor changed dramatically, favoring both liberal, inclusive immigration policies and the aggressive organization of immigrant workers. At the end of the 20th century, approximately 2 percent of the world's people resided in a country other than the one in which they were born. Migrant movement across countries has become evident.

Increase in illegal immigration
The passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 created a quota of 120,000 visas per year granted to Western Hemisphere immigrants and restricted Western Hemisphere immigration for the first time. That led to long backlogs of people trying to emigrate from Western Hemisphere countries into the United States. Many residents of those countries decided to instead attempt to enter the United States illegally or to enter legally using temporary work visas and then to remain illegally after their expiration. As illegal immigrants began to be a growing amount of the American labor force, labor unions and federations were forced to differentiate their immigration policies on legal and illegal immigrants.

United Farm Workers under Cesar Chavez
The United Farm Workers under Cesar Chavez was committed to restricting immigration. Chavez and Dolores Huerta, the cofounder and president of the UFW, fought the Bracero Program, which existed from 1942 to 1964. They opposed the program because they believe that it undermined American workers and exploited the migrant workers. Since the program ensured a constant supply of cheap immigrant labor for growers, immigrants could not protest any infringement of their rights, lest they be fired and replaced. Their efforts contributed to Congress ending the Bracero Program in 1964.

In 1973, the UFW was one of the first labor unions to oppose proposed employer sanctions to prohibit hiring illegal immigrants.

However, on a few occasions, concerns that illegal immigrant labor would undermine UFW strike campaigns led to a number of controversial events, which the UFW describes as against strikebreaking but have also been interpreted as being anti-immigrant. In 1969, Chavez and other members of the UFW marched through the Imperial and Coachella Valleys to the border of Mexico to protest the growers' use of illegal immigrants as strikebreakers. Joining him on the march were Reverend Ralph Abernathy and US Senator Walter Mondale. In its early years, the UFW and Chavez went so far as to report illegal immigrants who served as strikebreaking replacement workers and those who refused to unionize to the Immigration and Naturalization Service.

In 1973, the United Farm Workers set up a "wet line" along the United States-Mexico border to prevent Mexican immigrants from entering the United States illegally and potentially undermining the UFW's unionization efforts. During one such event in which Chavez was not present, some UFW members, under the guidance of Chavez's cousin Manuel, physically attacked strikebreakers after peaceful attempts to persuade them not to cross the border had failed.

In 1979, Chavez used a forum of a U.S. Senate committee hearing to denounce the federal immigration service, which he said the U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service purportedly refused to arrest illegal Mexican immigrants who Chavez claims are being used to break the union's strike.

AFL–CIO opposition to illegal immigration
The merger of the AFL and the CIO in 1955 caused the AFL contingent to liberalize its position towards legal immigration, and it no longer advocated restrictive immigration policies for legal immigrants. Various unions within the AFL–CIO differed on their views towards illegal migration, however.

As a whole, during the 1970s the AFL–CIO's policies towards illegal immigrants mirrored the economic arguments made towards legal immigrants during the first half of the century. The AFL–CIO believed that illegal immigrants were willing to work for less money under worse conditions than legal workers and so would drag down the wages of native workers and increase unemployment. They, therefore, pushed for policies aimed at reducing the flow of illegal immigration such as increased enforcement and employer sanctions.

Changed attitudes of the AFL–CIO
However, by the early 1980s, the AFL–CIO, under Lane Kirkland, began to consider the United States unable to reduce the flow of illegal immigration effectively and that laws to restrict immigration are inherently ineffective. It argued that one central reason is that the disparities between the quality of life in the United States and the countries of origin of most illegal immigrants are so great that many people will attempt to enter the United States regardless of the potential risks.

Two of the most vocal opponents of restrictionist immigration policy towards illegal immigrants were the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) and the Union of Needletrades, Industrial and Textile Employees (UNITE). SEIU, representing principally building trades, state and healthcare workers, grew from 650,000 members in 1980 to over 2 million members in 2009, in large part by organizing immigrant labor, many of whom were working illegally. Justice for Janitors, perhaps the union’s most seminal and successful campaign, highlights the union's organization of immigrant labor. UNITE was born of a merger between the ILGWU and the Amalgamated Clothing and Textile Workers Union (ACTWU), both of which have strong histories of opposition to restrictive immigration policies.

The AFL–CIO increasingly believed illegal immigrants to be much harder to organize than legal immigrants, as fear of deportation and lack of legal recourse make them much easier to exploit by employers to prevent the unionization of their workforce. Therefore, believing restricting the flow of illegal immigrants to be impossible, the AFL–CIO began to support policies favoring the legalization of illegal immigrants. One such policy was the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, which granted amnesty to an estimated 3 million illegal aliens.

The AFL–CIO also began to consider restrictions on legal immigration to be ineffective in the early 1980s and that restricting legal immigration does not actually reduce the number of immigrants entering the country but simply creates greater illegal immigration. It, therefore, has supported reforming immigration policy to allow for the entry of more legal immigrants and providing amnesty to illegal immigrants.

21st century
In 2005, several unions within the AFL–CIO, such as UNITE and SEIU, disaffiliated from the AFL-CIO and formed the Change to Win Federation, a competing labor federation that now includes seven constituent member unions.

One principal disagreement the unions had with the AFL–CIO that helped spur their disaffiliation was their belief that the AFL-CIO was not investing enough resources into organizing new workers. While not directly related to immigration issues, the split is reminiscent of earlier disagreements concerning immigration policy in which the AFL unions that had prioritized organization were more likely to support immigration.

In 2007, the Change to Win Coalition and the AFL–CIO on immigration reform proposals, and no legislative changed happened that year. However, on April 14, 2009, both federations released a statement saying that they had agreed on a single reform proposal in response to President Barack Obama's statement that he would press for immigration reform by the end of the year. Their proposal, however, did not include a guest worker program, but the business community has suggested that such a program needs to be a central component of any reform package. Nevertheless, labor's unity on this issue is expected to give Obama additional leverage on the issue.

Notes

History of labor relations in the United States
Immigration policies in the United States
Labor history of the United States


Cameron Charles Newton (born February 25, 1950) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender. He played 16 games in the National Hockey League with the Pittsburgh Penguins from 1971 to 1973, and 102 games in the World Hockey Association with the Chicago Cougars, Denver Spurs, Ottawa Civics, and Cleveland Crusaders from 1973 to 1976.

Early life
Newton was born in Peterborough, Ontario. He played in the Ontario Hockey Association junior league with the Toronto Marlboros.

Career
Newton was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in 1970 and played 16 games for the club over two seasons. Newton also played 102 games during his three years in the World Hockey Association for the Chicago Cougars, Denver Spurs, Ottawa Civics and Cleveland Crusaders.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

External links

1950 births
Living people
Amarillo Wranglers players
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Chicago Cougars players
Cleveland Crusaders players
Denver Spurs (WHA) players
Erie Blades players
Hampton Gulls (SHL) players
Hershey Bears players
Ice hockey people from Peterborough, Ontario
Kitchener Rangers players
Pittsburgh Penguins players
Pittsburgh Penguins draft picks
Toronto Marlboros players


"Rhinosaur" is a song by American rock band Soundgarden on their 1996 album Down on the Upside. Despite not being released as its own single it was released as a B-side to the song "Ty Cobb". While "Ty Cobb" itself did not chart, "Rhinosaur" charted at 19 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks.

Reception
Chris Cornell said in an interview that the lyrical target of "Rhinosaur" was ambiguous and could be applied to several people or groups. "Rhinosaur" was praised for having a massive groove with "stairstep guitar riffs" said to be adored by Soundgarden's guitarist Kim Thayil. Thayil said that the tuning of the instruments was unusual for Soundgarden. He said during an interview "Ben and I played on dropped-D, but Chris played in standard tuning. That's unusual for us. If one of us is in dropped-D, usually all three of us are." The song also received moderate airplay by rock radio stations in America.

Charts

References

1997 songs
Soundgarden songs
Song recordings produced by Adam Kasper
Song recordings produced by Chris Cornell
Songs written by Chris Cornell
Songs written by Matt Cameron


Atheism, as defined by the entry in Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, is "the opinion of those who deny the existence of a God in the world. The simple ignorance of God doesn't constitute atheism. To be charged with the odious title of atheism one must have the notion of God and reject it." In the period of the Enlightenment, avowed and open atheism was made possible by the advance of religious toleration, but was also far from encouraged.

Accusations of atheism were common, but most of the people suspected by their peers of atheism were not actually atheists. D'Holbach and Denis Diderot seem to be two of the very small number of publicly identified atheists in Europe during this period. Thomas Hobbes was widely viewed as an atheist for his materialist interpretation of scripture—Henry Hammond, a former friend, described him in a letter as a "Christian Atheist". David Hume was accused of atheism for his writings on the "natural history of religion"; Pierre Bayle was accused of atheism for defending the possibility of an ethical atheist society in his Critical Dictionary, and Baruch Spinoza was frequently regarded as an atheist for his "pantheism". However, all three of these figures defended themselves against such accusations.

Rise of toleration
In the Reformation and Counter-Reformation eras, Europe was a "persecuting society" which did not tolerate religious minorities or atheism. Even in France, where the Edict of Nantes had been issued in 1598, then revoked in 1685, there was very little support for religious toleration at the beginning of the eighteenth century. States were concerned with maintaining religious uniformity for two reasons: first, they believed that their chosen confession was the way to God and other religions were heretical, and second, religious unity was necessary for social and political stability. The advancement of toleration was the result of pragmatic political motives as well as the principles espoused by Enlightenment philosophes. Religion was a central topic of conversation during much of the eighteenth century. It was the subject of debate in the coffeehouses and debate societies of Enlightenment Europe, and a bone of contention among the philosophes. Michael J. Buckley describes the rise of toleration, and of atheism itself, as a response to religious violence in the preceding years: the expulsion of the Huguenots from France, the Spanish inquisition, the witch trials, the civil wars of England, Scotland and the Netherlands. Buckley argues that "religious warfare had irrevocably discredited confessional primacy in the growing secularized sensitivity of much of European culture." This is a view echoed by Ole Peter Brell and Ray Porter. Marisa Linton, however, points out that it was a common conception that religious diversity would lead to unrest and possibly civil war.

According to Justin Champion, the question in England was not one of determining religious truth, whether or not there was a god, but rather one of understanding how the priesthood had gained the power to determine what was accepted as truth. Republican radicals like Henry Stubbe, Charles Blount and John Toland understood religion as a social and cultural institution, rather than as transcendent principles. They were primarily motivated by priestly fraud or "priestcraft". The second half of Thomas Hobbes' book Leviathan contains an example of this sort of anticlerical thought. Hobbes, like Toland and other anticlerical writers of the period, understood religion in terms of history. By viewing religious truth and the church as separate, they helped open the way for further religious dissent.

Because France was an absolutist monarchy in which the king was seen as ruling by divine right, it was generally thought that French people had to share his religious views. The Edict of Nantes, which granted toleration to the Huguenot minority in France, was revoked in 1685. Marisa Linton argues that while the philosophes did contribute to some extent to the rise of French toleration, the activities of French Huguenots also played a part: they began to worship more publicly in the more remote regions of France, and their continued loyalty to the French crown on the eve of and during the Seven Years' War may have helped to ease the monarch's suspicions about their faith. In the mid-eighteenth century, Jansenist intellectuals began campaigning for religious toleration for Calvinists. Linton argues that together, these causes shifted public opinion towards religious toleration. Religious toleration was not accepted by everyone; for instance, Abbé Houtteville condemned the rise of toleration in France because it weakened ecclesiastical authority and encouraged irreligion. However, in 1787 Louis XVI granted an Edict of Toleration acknowledging their civil rights to marry and own property, although they were still denied the official right to worship and could not hold public office or become teachers. Full religious toleration for Protestants would not be granted until the French Revolution.

Writers on toleration
The Dutch Jew Spinoza argued for individual freedom to express personal beliefs, while discouraging large congregations unless they belonged to a somewhat deistic idealized state religion. According to Spinoza, freedom of thought, speech and expression were the core values of toleration—as such, Spinoza opposed censorship. Jonathan Israel summarized his position, that anti-toleration laws were engineered "for personal advantage but also at great cost to the state and the public", and that they exacerbated religious conflict rather than diminishing it. Spinoza constructed his theories about toleration based on a freedom to think rather than the right to worship, and was established according to philosophical principles rather than being based on any interpretation of scripture. Consequently, Spinoza was essentially arguing for everyone, atheists, Catholics and Jews included.

Pierre Bayle was a strong advocate of tolerance, the basis of a quarrel with Louis XIV. He even defended the idea of an ethical atheist society in his famous dictionary. Martin Fitzpatrick credits him with making a "powerful contribution to the way philosophes would wage war on intolerance and superstition". Although he wanted to diminish the influence of Spinoza, Bayle was treated in a similar fashion by the Huguenots of the United Provinces, who saw him as a dangerous thinker and a potential atheist.

John Locke suggested a pragmatic view of toleration, although he advanced a concept of toleration only between certain Christian sects. He vehemently denied the atheists' right to toleration since they did not believe in a god, practiced no recognizable form of worship, and were not seeking to save their souls. He similarly denied toleration to Catholics on the grounds that papal authority made them a danger to the state. In essence, Locke advanced a freedom of worship, not a freedom of thought. The vast majority of eighteenth-century writers, like Locke, had no interest in granting religious tolerance to ideas that deviated from the core of revealed religion. Most of these writers were strongly opposed to Spinoza's ideal of toleration, which is "chiefly about individual freedom and decidedly not the freedom of large ecclesiastical structures to impose themselves on society".

Voltaire, in his 1763 "A Treatise on Toleration", continued in the tradition of John Locke, arguing that toleration allowed communication and good relationships between differing confessions in the marketplace. Allowing the Huguenots to return to France would boost the French economy. He would not be the only one to espouse this viewpoint.

Opponents tended to conflate the views of those who wrote in favour of toleration under the heading of dangerous anti-orthodoxy and atheism, despite their radically differing viewpoints and confessions.

Related philosophical movements

Deism
Deism is the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason rather than religious revelation or dogma. It was a popular perception among the philosophes, who adopted deistic attitudes to varying degrees. Deism, in this respect, is very different from atheism, which denies the existence of a deity altogether. Voltaire, for instance, was convinced that the existence of god was a demonstrable fact. The deistic god, however, often bore little resemblance to the God of Christian scripture, which meant that deists were often heavily criticized by the adherents of confessional faiths and could be accused of atheism.

Deists often pushed for religious toleration, a move which would have supported the open expression of atheism. This is not because they supported atheism—they did not—but because deist philosophers tended to be in favour of the civil freedom of conscience. As Michael J. Buckley writes, "If atheism was unacceptable, superstition and fanaticism were even more so." Deists were not pro-atheist, but their anticlerical leanings indirectly benefited the evolution of atheism.

In historiographical terms, it has been quite common to see a close link between deism and atheism. Buckley critiques Peter Gay's view of the direct tie between deism and atheism, writing, "the vectors which Gay charts are certainly there, but the distinction may be somewhat too neat, too overdrawn." Louis Dupré describes deism as "the result of a filtering process that had strained off all historical and dogmatic data from Christian theology and retained only that minimum which, by eighteenth-century standards, reason demands." Atheism is perhaps the same process taken a step further. Buckley credits the rise of atheism with the gradual submission of theology to philosophy—as thinkers, including church leaders, began to argue religion on philosophical terms, they opened the way for disbelief—they made atheism thinkable. Deism is, in this perspective, a complicated waypoint on the path to atheism: deism is the philosophical belief in a deity based on reason. Once belief in God is based on reason, it becomes thinkable to reason one's way into disbelief.

Freemasonry
Freemasons in continental Europe during the Enlightenment era were accused of atheism. The masonic "Constitutions" of 1723 are vague on the matter of religion, stating that if a Freemason "rightly understands the Art, he will never be a stupid Atheist, nor an irreligious Libertine", while also asking that he follow "that religion to which all men agree, leaving their particular opinions to themselves". Although Masonic literature referred sporadically and vaguely to a "Grand Architect of the Universe", their secretive practices made the religious affiliation of each Freemason a matter of speculation.

Freemasonic culture originated in Britain and spread to the Continent, bringing with it ideas about natural rights and the rights of the governed. In some areas, Continental Freemasonry may have drawn from more subversive English sources. Margaret C. Jacob outlines a relationship between John Toland and Dutch Freemasonry; Jean Rousset de Missy, the founder of the Masonic lodge in the Dutch Republic in 1735 was a self-described pantheist, borrowing the term coined by Toland. Jacob argues that "there is a streak of freethinking or deism that turns up at moments in the history of Continental Freemasonry right into, and especially during, the 1790s." This religious ambiguity could be interpreted as contributing to the "thinkability" of atheism.

Contemporary perspectives

Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), in his 1670 Theologico-Political Treatise, criticized Judaism (his birth religion) and all organized religion. His philosophical orientation is often called "pantheism", a term coined by John Toland after Spinoza's death. However, in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Spinoza's name was often associated with atheism, freethinking, materialism, deism, and any other heterodox religious belief. Whether or not "pantheism" constitutes atheism is still debated by modern scholars.

Pierre Bayle
Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) was widely accused of atheism for his espousal of religious toleration, although he professed himself a Huguenot. He encountered a great deal of criticism for defending atheism. In his Dictionnaire historique et critique he stated that while atheists were "exceedingly blind and ignorant of the nature of things" there were many atheists "who are no way distinguished for their vices", and that "if atheists exist, who, morally speaking, are well-disposed, it follows that Atheism is not a necessary cause of immorality, but simply an incidental one in regard to those who would have been immoral from disposition or temperament, whether Atheists or not." In response to criticism, he included an essay "Clarifications: On Atheists" in the 1702 edition of the Dictionary. In it, he continued defending his thesis that "there have been atheists and Epicureans whose propriety in moral matters has surpassed that of most idolators", arguing that religion is not the sole basis of morality. It is, he wrote, "a very likely possibility that some men without religion are more motivated to lead a decent, moral life by their constitution, in conjunction with the love of praise and the fear of disgrace, than are some others by the instincts of conscience."

David Hume
David Hume (1711–1776) was often seen as an atheist in his own day. His skeptical attitude toward religion in such works as "Of Superstition and Religion", "Essays Moral and Political", "On Suicide", "On the Immortality of the Soul", "Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion", as well as his death-bed conversations with Boswell (later published), earned Hume the reputation as a practicing atheist. Hume was even turned down for a teaching position at the University of Edinburgh in the 1740s because of his alleged atheism.

Diderot
Denis Diderot (1713–1784) was one of the central guests of d'Holbach's salon and the primary editor of the Encyclopédie. Although Diderot wrote extensively about atheism, he was not as polemic as d'Holbach or Naigeon—instead of publishing his atheistic works, he tended to circulate them among his friends or give them to Naigeon for posthumous publishing. Diderot espoused a materialist worldview. He attempted to solve the problems of how the cosmos could begin without a creator, and theorized about how life could come from inorganic matter. According to Dupré, Diderot concluded that if one abandons "the unproved principle that the cosmos must have a beginning" then the need to establish the "efficient cause" of creation is no longer a problem. Diderot thought that the origin of life might be a process of the natural internal evolution of matter.

D'Holbach

Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789) was the central figure of the 'coterie holbachique' and the salon he hosted in his Paris home. The salon has been interpreted as a meeting place for Parisian atheists, based on an anecdote in which D'Holbach told David Hume, who claimed not to believe anything, that of the eighteen guests at his salon, fifteen were atheists and three had not yet decided. There is some doubt as to the accuracy of this statement. In any case, D'Holbach himself was a professed atheist. The salon was the site of a great deal of discussion about atheism, and the atheistic and theistic guests seem to have spent a great deal of time good-naturedly arguing for their respective positions. Despite claims that the salon was a hotbed of atheism, there seem to only have been three convinced atheists in regular attendance: D'Holbach, Denis Diderot and Jacques-André Naigeon.

D'Holbach's written works often included atheistic themes. Alan Charles Kors cites three in particular, Système de la nature, Le Bon-sens and La Morale universelle as being particularly concerned with advancing the cause of atheism. Kors summarized some of the basic themes of these three texts as the idea that rigorous materialism was the only coherent viewpoint, and that "the only humane and beneficial morality was one deduced from the imperatives for the happiness and survival of mankind." What was relatively unique about D'Holbach was that, as Kors writes, he "was an atheist, and he proselytized".

The Encyclopédie
Although the Encyclopédie (published 1751–1772) was driven and edited by the atheist Denis Diderot, the encyclopedia's articles on atheism and atheists take a negative tone, having been written by the pastor Jean-Henri-Samuel Formey and the abbé Claude Yvon. This was probably the most common conception of atheism by the public and by some of the "philosophes". Yvon identifies the main causes of atheism as ignorance and stupidity, and debauchery and the corruption of morals. The article "Athées" is primarily concerned with refuting Bayle's assertions, insisting that atheists "cannot have an exact and complete understanding of the morality of human actions".

Notes

Sources

 Champion, Justin. The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and its Enemies, 1660–1730. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
 Champion, Justin. "Toleration and Citizenship in Enlightenment England: John Toland and the Naturalization of the Jews, 1714–1753." In Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 133–156. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
 Dupré, Louis. Religion and the Rise of Modern Culture. Notre Dama, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2008.
 Grell, Ole Peter and Roy Porter. "Toleration in Enlightenment Europe." In Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 1–22. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

 Jacob, Margaret C. Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
 Kors, Alan Charles. D'Holbach's Coterie: An Enlightenment in Paris. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.
 Linton, Marisa. "Citizenship and Religious Toleration in France." In Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 157–174. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
 Russell, Paul. "The Riddle of Hume's Treatise: Skepticism, Naturalism and Irreligion." New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
 Tomaselli, Sylvana. "Intolerance, the Virtue of Princes and Radicals." In Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, edited by Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter, 86–101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

  Robert Morrissey (ed.)
  Robert Morrissey (ed.)

Further reading
Buckley, Michael J. SJ. Denying and Disclosing God: The Ambiguous Process of Modern Atheism
Baron d'Holbach, The System of Nature

Kors, Alan Charles, Atheism in France, 1650–1729: The Orthodox Sources of Disbelief

Atheism
Enlightenment philosophy


Bessie Breuer (October 19, 1893 – September 26, 1975) was an American journalist, novelist, and playwright. She was an O. Henry Award winner.

Biography
Breuer was born with the name Elizabeth Freedman in Cleveland, Ohio to Samuel Aaron Freedman, a cantor and composer, and Julia Freedman. She studied journalism at University of Missouri and then worked as a reporter for the St. Louis Times in her late teens. She later became an editor for the New York Tribune, first working as the head of the women's department and then, at the age of 22, becoming the Sunday editor. She left that position to become the national director of magazine publicity for the American Red Cross at the end of World War I, and subsequently joined the staff of the Ladies Home Journal. She also contributed articles on feminism to Harper's Magazine and the Pictorial Review.

Part of the expatriate movement, Breuer moved to France in the early 1920s and began writing fiction under the encouragement of Kay Boyle and Laurence Vail. Her first works of fiction to be published were short stories in Story and Harper's magazines. She began using the name Bessie Breuer when she began to write fiction to differentiate it from her work as a journalist.

In 1925, she married her third husband, the painter Henry Varnum Poor (previously she had been married to Mr. Breuer and Carl Kahler). This third marriage of 45 years ended with Poor's death in 1970.

Breuer's first novel Memory of Love (1935) was made into a film in 1939 titled In Name Only. The film starred Cary Grant and Carole Lombard. Her other novels include The Daughter (1938), The Actress (1955), and Take Care of My Roses (1961). A prolific writer of short stories, she won four O. Henry Awards between 1943 and 1947. One of her stories is included in 55 Short Stories from the New Yorker and a collection of her stories was published, titled The Bracelet of Wavia Lea and Other Stories (1947). Sundown Beach,  her only play, which was about World War II fliers suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder, premiered on Broadway in 1948. It was directed by Elia Kazan. It featured the young, then-unknown actress Julie Harris and was the first Broadway venue of the Actors Studio.

During World War II, Breuer worked for the United States Office of War Information. She also wrote for periodicals such as World's Work, House Beautiful, Mademoiselle, and The New Yorker until the 1960s. She died at the age of 81 at her home in New City, New York. She had two children, Peter and Anne, and three grandchildren.

References

External links

Bessie Breuer Papers, 1926–1972 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center
Bessie Breuer papers, 1948, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
 Bessie Breuer Manuscripts at Dartmouth College Library

1893 births
1975 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American feminists
American Red Cross personnel
University of Missouri alumni
New-York Tribune people
Writers from Cleveland
20th-century American women journalists
20th-century American women writers
Journalists from New York City
Journalists from Ohio
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American journalists


Samsung GT-M7500 (known as Samsung Emporio Armani "Night Effect") is a candybar phone that was announced in January 2009. One of the key selling points of the handset was the user-selectable lighting effects that it came with, plus prominent Emporio Armani branding. As of January 2014, this is the only official Emporio Armani handset products, although Samsung have produced Giorgio Armani branded handsets such as a special edition of the Samsung Galaxy S.

Features
 Screen size: 2.2 inch OLED screen
 Resolution: 240 x 320 pixels
 Phone dimensions: 114.9 x 47.4 x 12 mm
 Weight: 90.2g
 Standby Time: Up to 290hrs
 Talk Time: Up to 4hrs 20mins
 120mb internal memory
 3-megapixel camera
 3.5mm headphone jack
 3G (HSDPA), EDGE, GPRS, and HSCSD
 Dedicated music keys
 FM radio with RDS
 Messaging: SMS, MMS, Email
 microSD Card Slot (TransFlash)

See also
Samsung P520 Giorgio Armani

References

External links
 Samsung Emporio Armani - Samsung official website

M7500
Portable media players
Mobile phones introduced in 2009


Omar Pernet Hernández is a Cuban librarian, human rights activist, and a former political prisoner.

He was imprisoned during the Black Spring in 2003 and released to exile in Spain in 2008. Amnesty International considered him a prisoner of conscience.

References

External links
 Ex-Cuban prisoner of conscience Omar Pernet Hernandez describes torture (video in Spanish)

Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Cuba
Cuban dissidents
Cuban human rights activists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Cuban prisoners and detainees
Cuban exiles
Cuban emigrants to Spain


William Unek ( – 21 February 1957) was a Ugandan police constable, mass murderer, spree killer, and serial killer who killed a total of 57 people in two separate spree killings three years apart.

Murder sprees
Unek's first murder spree occurred near Mahagi, Belgian Congo in 1954, where he killed 21 people with an axe within an hour and a half, before escaping and finally ending up in British Tanganyika Territory.The motive was never ascertained.

Apparently because of unspecified social misunderstandings with his boss, Unek went on a second rampage which began in the early hours of February 11, 1957. Armed with a stolen police rifle, 50 rounds of ammunition, and an axe, he started killing people in the area of Malampaka, a village about  southeast of Mwanza.

Within twelve hours, Unek shot dead ten men, eight women, and eight children, murdered five more men with the axe, stabbed another one, burned two women and a child, and strangled a 15-year-old girl, thus killing a total of 36 people. He then changed out of his police uniform into clothes stolen from one of his victims and fled. Among the dead was reportedly his own wife, whom he killed in their hut before setting it on fire, as well as the wife of a police sergeant.

Manhunt and death
For nine days, Unek was sought by Wasukuma tribesmen, police, and eventually a company of the King's African Rifles in Tanganyika's greatest manhunt up to that time.

Despite the extensive search operation, including dogs and aircraft, and a posted reward of $350, Unek eluded his pursuers until he finally showed up at the house of Iyumbu ben Ikumbu, who lived only  away from Malampaka, in search of food. When Iyumbu reported the incident to police, he was asked to keep Unek with him and notify them, should the killer come again to his home. Unek, still armed, reappeared at about 1:00 a.m. the next day. Iyumbu, sending his wife to police, gave Unek food and engaged in a conversation with him for nearly two hours until help arrived. At that point, Iyumbu ran out of his house whereupon a police superintendent threw a smoke bomb, setting the house on fire. Unek, severely injured when attempting to evade capture, later succumbed to his wounds in Mwanza hospital. Iyumbu later received a financial reward of £125, as well as the British Empire Medal for his bravery leading to the capture of the constable.

Aftermath
As response to the murders, a fund was created to help the descendants of those killed and a maternity clinic was built as a memorial for Unek's victims.

His rampage ranks among the deadliest of the twentieth century.

See also
 List of rampage killers in Africa

References

External links
 Hunt crazed killer of 36, The Windsor Daily Star (February 16, 1957)
 Other parts – Dar Es Salaam, The Calgary Herald (February 19, 1957)
 Said greatest murderer in criminal history, Saskatoon Star-Phoenix (March 28, 1957)
 Mordender Polizist, Hamburger Abendblatt (March 28, 1957)
 Public Order, Colonial, Issues 339-342 (1958)
 Council Debates: Official Report (1957)
Report by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to the General Assembly of the United Nations on the Administration of Tanganyika (1957)

1929 births
1954 in the Belgian Congo
1954 murders in Africa
1957 deaths
1957 in Tanganyika
1957 murders in Africa
Belgian Congo people
Crime in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Death in Tanzania
Democratic Republic of the Congo police officers
Democratic Republic of the Congo spree killers
Fugitives
Ugandan murderers
Mass stabbings in Africa
Massacres in 1954
Massacres in 1957
Massacres in Africa
Massacres in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Murder in Tanzania
Serial mass murderers
People killed by law enforcement officers


As Seen Through Windows is the second album by Canadian band Bell Orchestre. It was recorded at Soma Electric Studios in Chicago, IL.

Track listing
 "Stripes" — 2:18
 "Elephants" — 8:53
 "Icicles/Bicycles" — 6:15
 "Water/Light/Shifts" — 3:09
 "Bucephalus Bouncing Ball" — 4:56
 "As Seen Through Windows" — 8:11
 "The Gaze" — 2:38
 "Dark Lights" — 5:28
 "Air Lines/Land Lines" — 11:50

References

2009 albums
Bell Orchestre albums
Arts & Crafts Productions albums


Igor Valentinovich Varlamov (; 12 August 1971 – 25 September 2022) was a Russian professional footballer who played as a defender.

Club career
Varlamov made his debut in the Russian Premier League in 1992 for Dynamo Moscow. He played four games in the 1992–93 UEFA Cup for Dynamo Moscow.

Honours
 Russian Premier League bronze: 1992, 1993

References

External links

1971 births
2022 deaths
Soviet men's footballers
Footballers from Yaroslavl
Russian men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Soviet Union men's under-21 international footballers
Russia men's under-21 international footballers
FC Dynamo Moscow players
Russian Premier League players
FC Chernomorets Novorossiysk players
FC Tyumen players
FC Lokomotiv Nizhny Novgorod players
FC Anzhi Makhachkala players
PFC Spartak Nalchik players
FC Torpedo Vladimir players


Chaperal is a neighbourhood located in the suburban Orleans area, in the east-end of the city of Ottawa, Ontario.

Part of the city's Cumberland Ward, the residential development is bordered to the north by Innes Road, to the west by Mer Bleue Road, the east by Tenth Line Road and to the south by Brian Coburn Boulevard.  The community includes a mixture of single family, semi-detached, town homes, and bungalows.  Tamarack commenced the first phase of construction in Spring 2008. As of the Canada 2011 Census, the population was 766.

Past OC Transpo plans saw a potential O-Train light train line to the area; however, some controversy and the December 14, 2006 cancellation of a previous proposal halted the plans.

Taggart Realty Management were responsible for the commercial development of the Shops of Tenth Line, located at the corner of Tenth Line Road and Brian Coburn Boulevard.

See also
 List of Ottawa neighbourhoods

References

Neighbourhoods in Ottawa