Walter Silva (born January 4, 1977) is a Mexican professional baseball pitcher who is a free agent. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the San Diego Padres.

Career

Mexican League/San Diego Padres
Silva played in the Mexican League from 2002 to 2008. On February 21, 2009 Silva was invited to spring training by the San Diego Padres. After a good spring he made the opening day roster as the team's third starter in the pitching rotation.

Silva made his Major League debut on April 8, 2009, against the Los Angeles Dodgers. He pitched five innings allowing two runs on five hits with a strikeout, and earned the no decision, leaving the game tied at 2–2.

Silva was the starting pitcher for the visiting Padres in the first Major League baseball game at the New York Mets' new ballpark, Citi Field, April 13, 2009.  He pitched 4.2 innings, giving up five runs on five hits, and striking out two.  The Padres won the game, but Silva did not get the decision.

On July 7, he was designated for assignment by the Padres after going 0–2 with an 8.76 ERA in 6 starts.

Second Stint in Mexican League
In 2010, he returned to the Mexican League with the Sultanes de Monterrey, for whom he played for through the 2015 season.

On April 12, 2016, he was traded to the Vaqueros Laguna from the Toros de Tijuana.

On March 18, 2017, he was traded to the Bravos de León from the Vaqueros Laguna.

Silva did not play in a game in 2020 due to the cancellation of the Mexican League season because of the COVID-19 pandemic. He was released by the Bravos on March 9, 2021.

On June 11, 2021, Silva signed with the Generales de Durango of the Mexican League. He was released on November 23, 2021.

International career
After the 2020 season, he played for Panama in the 2021 Caribbean Series.

References

External links

Retrosheet
Mexican League
Venezuela Winter League

1977 births
Living people
Algodoneros de Guasave players
Baseball players from Sinaloa
Bravos de León players
Broncos de Reynosa players
Central American and Caribbean Games bronze medalists for Mexico
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in baseball
Competitors at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from Mexico
Mexican expatriate baseball players in the United States
Mexican League baseball pitchers
Portland Beavers players
San Diego Padres players
Sportspeople from Mazatlán
Sultanes de Monterrey players
Tigres de Aragua players
Mexican expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Toros de Tijuana players
Tuneros de San Luis Potosí players
Vaqueros Laguna players
Venados de Mazatlán players
Expatriate baseball players in Panama
Mexican expatriate sportspeople in Panama


Egil Børre Johnsen (born 14 July 1936 in Oslo) is a Norwegian writer.  He was the recipient of the Riksmål Society Literature Prize in 2006.

References

1936 births
Living people
Writers from Oslo
21st-century Norwegian male writers


Sobrefoz is one of nine parishes (administrative divisions) in Ponga, a municipality within the province and autonomous community of Asturias, in northern Spain.

The population is 93 (INE 2007).

Villages and hamlets
 Sobrefoz
 Ventaniella

Parishes in Ponga


The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Fort Donelson of the American Civil War. Order of battle compiled from the casualty returns, and the reports. The Confederate order of battle is listed separately.

Abbreviations used

Military Rank
 BG = Brigadier General
 Col = Colonel
 Ltc = Lieutenant Colonel
 Maj = Major
 Cpt = Captain
 Lt = 1st Lieutenant

Other
 w = wounded
 k = killed

Union Forces

District of Cairo
BG Ulysses S. Grant, Commanding
 Chief of Staff: Col Joseph D. Webster
 Chief of Engineers: Col James B. McPherson
 Assistant Adjutant General: Cpt John A. Rawlins

Western Flotilla
Flag Officer Andrew H. Foote (w)

Rear Guard
These units were attached to the District of Cairo but were posted to guard duty and did not take part in the campaign against Fort Donelson.

See also

 Tennessee in the American Civil War

Notes

References
 Cooling, Benjamin Franklin, The Campaign for Fort Donelson, U.S. National Park Service and Eastern National, 1999, .
 Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
 Gott, Kendall D., Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry—Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862, Stackpole books, 2003, .
 Robert Underwood Johnson, Clarence Clough Buell, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War: The Opening Battles, Volume 1 (Pdf), New York: The Century Co., 1887.
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.

American Civil War orders of battle


Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism (French: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire du Jacobinisme) is a book by Abbé Augustin Barruel, a French Jesuit priest.  It was written and published in French in 1797–98, and translated into English in 1799.

In the book, Barruel claims that the French Revolution was the result of a deliberate conspiracy or plot to overthrow the throne, altar and aristocratic society in Europe. The plot was allegedly hatched by a coalition of philosophes, Freemasons and the Order of the Illuminati. The conspirators created a system that was inherited by the Jacobins who operated it to its greatest potential. The Memoirs purports to expose the Revolution as the culmination of a long history of subversion. Barruel was not the first to make these charges but he was the first to present them in a fully developed historical context and his evidence was on a quite unprecedented scale. Barruel wrote each of the first three volumes of the book as separate discussions of those who contributed to the conspiracy. The fourth volume is an attempt to unite them all in a description of the Jacobins in the French Revolution. Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism is representative of the criticism of the Enlightenment that spread throughout Europe during the Revolutionary period.

Barruel's Memoirs are considered to be one of the founding documents of the right-wing interpretation of the French Revolution. They became popular immediately after they were published and were read and commented on by most of the important literary and political journals of the day. The four volumes of the text were published in a number of languages and created a debate about the role of the philosophes, their ideas, and the Enlightenment in the French Revolution. They remained in print well into the 20th century and contributed to the historical interpretation of the late 18th century in France. The success of Barruels work is testimony to the anti-philosophical discourse that spread in the aftermath of the revolution. Barruel left behind a construction of the Enlightenment that was destined to influence subsequent interpretations. He wound accusations tightly around his foes and tied them into positions from which they could not escape. The text created a link between the Enlightenment and the Revolution and this connection remains a topic of historical debate.

Background

Abbé Augustin Barruel (1741–1820) became a Jesuit in 1756 but by 1762 anti-Jesuit feeling in France had become so strong that he left and travelled for many years, returning only in 1773. The events of the French Revolution in 1792 caused him to leave again and take refuge in England. His dislike and hostility towards the philosophers was well known and well developed before 1789 as he had been on the editorial staff of the popular anti-philosophy literary journal Année littéraire decades before the Revolution. In 1797, when living in exile in London, he wrote the Memoirs. It was published in French by the French publishing company at 128 Wardour Street, Oxford Street, London. An English edition was issued the same year, and the work quickly became a commercial success. The multi-volume work went through four revised French editions by 1799 and was translated into English, German, Italian, Spanish, Swedish, and Russian as editions were issued in London, Hamburg, Augsburg, Luxembourg, St. Petersburg, Dublin, Naples and Rome before the fall of Napoleon.

Synopsis

Outline of the work
In his "Preliminary Discourse", Barruel defines the three forms of conspiracy as the "conspiracy of impiety" against God and Christianity, the "conspiracy of rebellion" against kings and monarchs, and "the conspiracy of anarchy" against society in general. He sees the end of the 18th century as "one continuous chain of cunning, art, and seduction" intended to bring about the "overthrow of the altar, the ruin of the throne, and the dissolution of all civil society".

The first volume examines the anti-Christian conspiracy that was begun by Voltaire in 1728 when Barruel claimed that Voltaire "consecrated his life to the annihilation of Christianity". Barruel returned to the principal texts of the Enlightenment and found reasons to draw close links between the philosophism of the time and the anti-Christian campaigns of the Revolution. Here he found that the philosophes had created an age of pretend philosophy which they used in their battle with Christianity. Their commitment to liberty and equality were really commitments of "pride and revolt". Barruel claimed that the proponents of the Enlightenment led people into illusion and error and refers to the philosophes as "Writers of this species, so far from enlightening the people, only contribute to lead them into the path of error". He alleged that Voltaire, Jean le Rond d’Alembert, Denis Diderot, and Frederick II, the King of Prussia, planned the course of events that led to the French Revolution. They began with an attack on the Church where a "subterranean warfare of illusion, error, and darkness waged by the Sect" attempted to destroy Christianity. The influence of the philosophes could not be underrated according to Barruel. They created the intellectual framework that put the conspiracy in motion and controlled the ideology of the secret societies. Barruel appears to have read the work of the philosophes and his direct and extensive quotes show a deep knowledge of their beliefs. This is unusual among the enemies of the Enlightenment, who rarely distracted themselves by reading the works and authors they were attacking. Barruel believed the philosophes were important as the original villains that seduced the population and made Enlightenment, and subsequently revolutionary, ideals favorable.

The second volume focuses on the anti-monarchical conspiracy that was led by Jean Jacques Rousseau and Baron de Montesquieu. These conspirators sought to destroy the established monarchies under the guise of "Independence and Liberty". Barruel analyses and criticizes Montesquieus The Spirit of Laws and Rousseaus Social Contract because the application of the ideas expressed in these books had "given birth to that disquieted spirit which fought to investigate the rights of sovereignty, the extent of their authority, the pretended rights of the free man, and without which every subject is branded for a slave - and every king a despot". He believed that the influence of these two writers was a necessary factor in the enactment of the French Revolution. He agreed with the revolutionaries as they themselves placed the remains of Voltaire and Rousseau in the Pantheon to pay homage to the "fathers of the revolution". Barruel believed that the philosophes had created a lasting influence as their spirit survived through their writings and continued to promote anti-monarchical feelings within the Jacobins and the revolutionaries. The destruction of monarchies in Europe led to the triumph of the Jacobins as they trampled "underfoot the altars and the thrones in the name of that equality and that liberty which summon the peoples to the disasters of revolution and the horrors of anarchy". Barruel equated the rejection of monarchy with a rejection of any type of order and government. As a result, the principles of equality and liberty and their attacks against the monarchy were attacks against all governments and civil society. He presented a choice to his readers between monarchy and the "reign of anarchy and absolute independence".

Barruels third volume addresses the antisocial conspiracy that was the objective of the Freemasons and the Order of the Illuminati. The philosophes and their attacks against the church and the throne paved the way for the conspiracy that was led by these secret societies. These groups were believed to have constituted a single sect that numbered over 300,000 members who were "all zealous for the Revolution, and all ready to rise at the first signal and to impart the shock to all others classes of the people". Barruel surveyed the history of Masonry and maintained that its higher mysteries had always been of an atheist and republican cast. He believed the Freemasons kept their words and aims secret for many years but on August 12, 1792, two days after the fall of the French monarchy, they ran through the streets openly announcing their secrets. The secret words were "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" and the secret aim was the overthrow of the French monarchy and the establishment of the republic. Barruel claimed he heard them speak these words in France but that in other countries the Masons still kept their secrets. A division of the group into numerous lodges ensured that if the secrets of one lodge were discovered, the rest would remain hidden. He believed that it was his job to warn all governments and people of the goals of the Freemasons. Barruel described in detail how this system worked in the case of the Illuminati. Even after Johann Adam Weishaupt, the leader of the sect, was discovered and tried in court, the proceedings could not uncover the universal influence of the Illuminati and no steps were taken against the group. The majority of the secret societies could always survive and carry on their activities because of the organization of the group. The Illuminati, as a whole, functioned to radicalize the movement against the throne and altar and influenced more members of the population to subscribe to their hidden principles. They refined the secret structure that had been provided by the Masons basic framework.

For Barruel, the final designs of the coalition of the philosophes, the Freemasons and the Illuminati were achieved by the Jacobins. These clubs were formed by "the adepts of impiety, the adepts of rebellion, and the adepts of anarchy" working together to implement their radical agenda. Their guiding philosophy and actions were the culmination of the conspiracy, as they directly wanted to end the monarchy and the church. Barruel believed that the only difference between the Jacobins and their precursors was that the Jacobins actually brought down the church and the throne and were able to institute their basic beliefs and goals, while their precursors only desired to do these things without much success.

The Memoirs and the French Revolution
According to Barruel, the first major assault on the Enlightenment came during the French Revolution. In the minds of many, the Enlightenment was inextricably connected to the Revolution that followed. This presumed link resulted in an explosion of literature that was hostile to the Enlightenment. When the leaders of the Revolution canonized Voltaire and Rousseau and made the Enlightenment themes of reason, progress, anti-clericalism and emancipation central to their own revolutionary vocabulary, it created a link that meant any backlash against the Revolution would increase opposition to the Enlightenment. The advent of what Graeme Garrard has called the "continuity thesis" between the Enlightenment and the Revolution – the belief that they were connected in some intrinsic way, as cause and effect- proved damaging to the Enlightenment.

For Barruel, the Revolution was not a spontaneous popular uprising expressing a long-suppressed general will. It was instead the consequence of a united minority group who used force, subterfuge and terror to impose their will on an innocent and unsuspecting population. Barruel believed that the Revolution was caused by Voltaire, Rousseau and the other philosophes who conspired with secret societies to destroy Catholicism and the monarchy in France. He argued that the writings of the philosophes had a great influence on those who would lead the Revolution and that Voltaire and his followers were responsible for the training of revolutionaries. It was from the followers of the philosophes "that the revolutionary ministers Necker and Turgot started up; from this class arose those grand revolutionary agents, the Mirabeaux, Sieyes, Laclos, Condorcets; these revolutionary trumps, the Brissots, Champforts, Garats, Cheniers; those revolutionary butchers, the Carras, Frerons, Marats".

The Encyclopédie

Within the Memoirs, Barruel alleged that Diderots Encyclopédie  was a Masonic project. He believed that the written works of the philosophes penetrated all aspects of society and that this massive collection was of particular significance. The Encyclopédie was only the first step in philosophizing mankind and was necessary to spread the impious and anti-monarchical writings. This created a mass movement against the church and society. Barruel believed that the conspirators attempt to "imbue the minds of the people with the spirit of insurrection and revolt" and to promote radicalism within all members of society. This was believed to be the main reason behind the Encyclopédie as it was "a vast emporium of all the sophisms, errors, or calumnies which had ever been invented against religion". It contained "the most profligate and impious productions of Voltaire, Diderot, Boulanger, La Mettrie, and of other Deists or Atheists of the age, and this under the specious pretence of enlightening ignorance". Barruel believed the volumes of the Encyclopédie were valuable in controlling the minds of intellectuals and in creating a public opinion against Christianity and monarchy.

Philosophism
Philosophism was a term used by Barruel within the Memoirs to refer to the pretend philosophy that the philosophes practiced. It was originally coined by Catholic opponents of the philosophes but was popularized by Barruel. It referred to the principles that were shared by philosophes, Freemasons, and Illuminati. Barruel defined philosophism as "the error of every man who, judging of all things by the standard of his own reason, rejects in religious matters every authority that is not derived from the light of nature. It is the error of every man who denies the possibility of any mystery beyond the limits of reason if everyone who, discarding revelation in defence of the pretended rights of reason, Equality, and Liberty, seeks to subvert the whole fabric of the Christian religion".

The term had a lasting influence as by the end of the 18th century it had become a popular term of abuse used by conservative journals to refer to supporters of the Revolution. These journals accused those who practiced philosophism as having no principles or respect for authority. They were skeptics who failed to believe in the monarchy and the church and thus, had no principles. The use of the term became pervasive in the Anti-Jacobin Review and contributed to the belief in a connection between the Enlightenment and the Revolution and its supporters. Philosophism became a powerful tool of anti-revolutionary and anti-Jacobin rhetoric.

Members of the conspiracy
Barruel identified a number of individuals who he believed played direct roles in the Enlightenment and the conspiracy against Christianity and the state. He identified Voltaire as the "chief", d’Alembert as the "most subtle agent", Frederick II as the "protector and adviser", and Diderot as its "forlorn hope". Voltaire was at the head of the conspiracy because he spent his time with the highest levels of European society. His attention and efforts were directed at kings and high-ranking ministers. DAlembert worked behind the scenes and inside the more common areas of French society. He employed his skill in the cafes and academies and attempted to bring more followers to the conspiracy. Barruel takes a close look at the correspondence between Voltaire and dAlembert and uses this as evidence of their plot to overthrow society. He is deeply concerned with the fact that those he identifies as the leaders of the plot had secret names for one another in their private correspondence. Voltaire was "Raton", dAlembert was "Protagoras", Frederick was "Luc", and Diderot was known as "Plato". Barruel also argued that the conspiracy extended far beyond this small group of philosophes. He believed that the court of Louis XV was a "Voltairean ministry" of powerful men. This group involved Marquis dArgenson who "formed the plan for the destruction of all religious orders in France", the Duc de Choiseul who was "the most impious and most despotic of ministers", the "friend and confidant of dAlembert", Archbishop de Briennes, and Malesherbes, "protector of the conspiracy".

According to Barruel, this group of influential leaders worked together with a number of adepts who supported the conspiracy. The most important adept that Barruel identifies is Condorcet. Barruel claimed that Condorcet was a Freemason and leading member of the Society of 1789 who was elected to the Legislative Assembly and was "the most resolute atheist". Condorcet was important because he embodied everything that Barruel claimed the conspiracy was. He was a Freemason that associated with the philosophes and who would become an influential member of the revolution process. Barruel also lists the Baron dHolbach, Buffon, La Mettrie, Raynal, Abbé Yvon, Abbé de Prades, Abbé Morrelet, La Harpe, Marmontel, Bergier and Duclos among the members of the "synagogue of impiety".

Barruel's techniques of argumentation
As a Catholic apologist of the religious and political status quo, Barruel downplayed his own Catholicism and presented himself as a neutral party within the radicalized debate surrounding the Revolution.  His tactic was to cite document after document with a commentary that effectively showed it was the truth. The reader of the Memoirs could have been any individual who doubted some of Barruels inferences, but who would eventually be overwhelmed by the sheer weight of evidence against the Enlightenment and liberation movements. His fanatical hatred for revolutionary and enlightenment ideas is hidden behind a faux neutrality and casuistic slight of pen. By isolating single passages and quoting them out of context, Barruel presented what seemed to be a convincing case. He made up for quality with quantity and persuaded a number of contemporaries to adopt his view. The Memoirs is constructed according to reason and Barruel attempts to use the Enlightenments own tool to bring about its demise.

Reception
Barruels work was influential and impossible to ignore. The Freemasons of France, Germany, and England angrily contested his assertions and a voluminous literature was the consequence. Even his critics were forced to take him seriously in their attempt to refute his arguments. The Memoirs were written about and discussed at length by leading literary and philosophical figures.

Edmund Burke, an English political thinker, was impressed by the work of Barruel in uncovering a connection between the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Burke wrote a letter to Barruel and expressed his admiration. He wrote, "I cannot easily express to you how much I am instructed and delighted by the first volume of your History of Jacobinism." He praised "the whole of the wonderful narrative" for being supported by documents and proofs with "the most judicial regularity and exactness." At the end of the letter Burke added: "I forgot to say, that I have known myself, personally, five of your principal conspirators; and I can undertake to say from my own certain knowledge, that as far back as the year 1773, they were busy in the plot you have so well described, and in the manner, and on the principle you have so truly represented. To this I can speak as a witness." Burkes own works were also filled with references to the philosophe sect and a dislike for their "fanaticism, atheism and perversion of public morals".

Others soon took up the arguments of Burke and Barruel. In England, the Scottish scientist John Robison published Proofs of a Conspiracy against All the Religions and Governments of Europe, carried on in the Secret Meetings of the Free Masons, Illuminati, and Reading Societies. The work, published in 1798, detailed a conspiracy that involved philosophes, Masons, and the Illuminati and their desire to "root out all the religious establishments and overturn all the existing governments of Europe". Robinsons text has been characterized as being less detailed but more refined than Barruels Memoirs. Even with these differences, Robinsons work supported the conspiracy that Barruel purported to have discovered. Barruel himself commented on the similarities, stating "Without knowing it, we have fought for the same cause with the same arms, and pursued the same course". The two writers had many similarities in their arguments and conclusions and their books spawned an anti-Enlightenment and anti-revolution discussion that was constructed on the same theses.

Despite the initial popularity of the book, Barruels opponents soon rejected his book. Jean Joseph Mounier, a member of the National Assembly during the beginning of the French Revolution, insisted the Revolution broke out because of the failure of the established authorities to handle a number of crises that occurred. He blamed the parlements of France for attempting to become rivals of the monarch and the spirit of intolerance in France. Mounier believed the Revolution was a result of social and political tensions and he did not believe there was a planned conspiracy. Joseph de Maistre, a well known counter-revolution theorist, also did not accept Barruels conspiracy theory. He wrote a short rejection of the Memoirs in which he termed Barruels accusations "foolish" and "false". Maistre rejected the idea of the Freemasons being partly responsible, perhaps because he was a member himself, and did not believe that the Illuminati were as powerful as Barruel made them out to be.

Contribution and legacy
Barruels version of the revolution, which blamed specific men and pointed out a single cause, has been rejected by the majority of scholars, as the concept of a "master conspiracy" lies on the fringes of historical analysis. Still, his Memoirs do retain historical significance. Amos Hofman has argued that Barruels work "appears to be the first systematic attempt to discuss the role of conspiracy in a revolution". The theory of conspiracy is a tool for Barruel that is used in an attempt to discredit "public politics", or politics based on the support of public opinion. Hofman shows how Barruel sought to prove that public politics, demanded by both the philosophes and the revolutionaries, could not in fact exist, as it was an illusion designed to create support for their private desire to control France. Barruels theory of conspiracy is important as a "reaction to a problem that was at the focus of the ideological struggle during the second half of the eighteenth century – the problem of the rise of public opinion as a political factor that had to be taken into account by the leaders of society". According to this view, Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism can be read as an attempt to understand the public appeal of the ideas of the Enlightenment and mass politics. Barruels text is also important for its entrenchment of an understanding of conspiracy within modern politics. Conspiracy was seen as a motivating cause of revolution because it suggested conflict within the society. It viewed politics as a clash between opposing ideas which, because of substantial division, could not be solved by a compromise. The society that Barruel creates was not divided by legitimate beliefs and divergent interests. Instead, it was a binary divide between the united and wholly patriotic group that included Barruel and the unholy alliance of traitors and criminals. Barruels theory of a master conspiracy and his understanding of the causes of political change still influence society.

Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism has also been seen as a primary source that can be used to examine Freemasonry in Europe. Even though Freemasonry became a target in the paranoid literature that blamed the Revolution partly on the activities of Masons, the work still had some historical value in regard to the group. Margaret Jacob argues that Barruels writings "offer a point of departure for understanding the relationship between the Continental Enlightenment, as it was lived in the clubs, societies, and lodges of the eighteenth century, and the outbreak of the democratic revolutions in the late 1780s in Amsterdam, Brussels, and most important, Paris." She believes that if readers can look past the paranoia within the text, it can provide information about how Freemasons were treated during the Revolution. Jacob also sees value in the text because Barruel argued for a distinction between English Freemasonry and its Continental counterpart. Barruel believed that his allegations against the Continental Freemasons did not apply to the respectable English Freemasons. The activities of the English Freemasons were not the cause for concern. He distinguishes between the circumstances of the French and the English and shows that the language used in each situation was important. He believes that the Masonic language about equality, liberty, and fraternity bears relation to the radical and democratic phase of the French Revolution and to Jacobin language. From the book, Margaret Jacob salvages the realization that language is important and that it can have a social force all of its own.

Barruel's polemic is an important source for the understanding of the mentality of the opponents of the French Revolution and their understanding of the ideological origins of the Revolution. Furthermore, Barruel is seen as the father of modern conspiracy theory. The Memoirs contain all of the elements that continue to characterize conspiracy narratives today, including the argument that a hidden group is orchestrating world events behind the scenes, and an attempt to construct a direct lineage from the past to the present. Barruel presents a thorough application of conspiracy theory methodology. As a result, he has had a lasting influence on following generations. Various  20th Century works attacking Communism and the Russian Revolution can be seen to follow his model.

See also
 Counter-Enlightenment
 Science in the Age of Enlightenment
 Philosophe
 Augustin Barruel
 Encyclopédie
 Frederick II of Prussia
 Conspiracy theory
 Freemasonry
 Illuminati

Notes

Bibliography

Barruel, Abbé Augustin. Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism. Hartford: Hudson & Goodwin, 1799.
Chandler, David. "Abbé Barruel, SJ, William Taylor, and the Pelican Business." The Allen Review Issue No. 19, 1998.
Edmund Burke to Abbé Barruel, May 1, 1797. In Thomas W. Copeland, ed.. The Correspondence of Edmund Burke, 10 Vols.. Chicago and Cambridge, 1958–1978.
Garrard, Graeme. Counter Enlightenments: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
Hofman, Amos. "Opinion, Illusion, and the Illusion of Opinion: Barruels Theory of Conspiracy." Eighteenth Century Studies Vol. 27 No. 1 (1993). 27–60.
Jacob, Margaret C.. Living the Enlightenment. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Kaufman, Will. Britain and the Americas. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2005.
Knight, Peter. Conspiracy Theories in American History. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003.
McMahon, Darrin M.. Enemies of the Enlightenment. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Ridley, Jasper. The Freemasons. London: Constable and Company Limited, 2003.
Schmidt, James. "Inventing the Enlightenment Anti-Jacobins, British Hegelians and the Oxford English Dictionary." Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 64 No. 3, July 2003. 421–443.
Tombs, Robert. France 1814–1914. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996.

External links
Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism:
Part 1, Antichristian Conspiracy
Part 2, The Antimonarchical Conspiracy
Part 3, Antisocial Conspiracy
Part 4, Antisocial Conspiracy; Historical Part

1798 non-fiction books
Books about the French Revolution
Counter-Enlightenment
Anti-Masonry
Works about the Illuminati
Freemasonry-related controversies


Casielles is one of nine parishes (administrative divisions) in Ponga, a municipality within the province and autonomous community of Asturias, in northern Spain.

The population is 16 (INE 2011).

References

Parishes in Ponga


Jan Christopher Cockburn Næss (born 18 December 1964) is a Norwegian writer, known for his novels and children's literature.

He was born in Great Britain. His novels include Meg selv og mine kjære (1999), Jotapata (2001), Fiat (2004) and Det begynner med sex og ender med døden (2007). His children's books include Alexandria og de tre gåtene (2001), Stein og fossilene (2002), Selma og ballettmonsteret (2003), Puddingmannen (2004) and Puddingmannen og de tre søstrene som alle het noe på B (2006). He won the Riksmål Society Literature Prize in 2007.

References

1964 births
Living people
21st-century Norwegian novelists
Norwegian children's writers


Taranes is one of nine parishes (administrative divisions) in Ponga, a municipality within the province and autonomous community of Asturias, in northern Spain.

The population is 69 (INE 2007).

Villages and hamlets
 Tanda
 Taranes
 Valle del Moro

References

Parishes in Ponga


Dag Olav Hessen (born 6 July 1956) is a Norwegian writer and biologist, known for his work in the field of ecology.

He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He was awarded the Riksmål Society Literature Prize in 2008, and the Fritt Ord Honorary Award in 2010.

References

1956 births
Living people
Norwegian biologists
Academic staff of the University of Oslo
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters


Howard Strickling (September 25, 1896 – July 16, 1982) served as head of publicity for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer pictures from the late 1920s into the late 1960s.

Biography
He was born in West Virginia;  Strickling was in charge of the publicity surrounding MGM's films, and the studio's stars for what most film buffs consider the heyday of the company. He was also the voice-over announcer on several trailers for famous MGM films including Gone with the Wind, and all three theatrical releases of The Wizard of Oz (1939, 1949, and 1955).

Strickling was also well known in Hollywood as one of MGM's "fixers", along with studio vice-president, Eddie Mannix. Strickling and Mannix are the subject of E. J. Fleming's book The Fixers: Eddie Mannix, Howard Strickling and the MGM Publicity Machine (2004). According to the book, Strickling and Mannix were responsible for covering up or working to tone down several scandals, including pregnancies and abortions, surrounding high-profile MGM talent.

Strickling retired in the 1960s. He was married from 1930 until his wife died, in 1980. He died in Chino, California; on July 16, 1982, aged 85.

He was portrayed by actor Joe Spano in the 2006 film Hollywoodland, a semi-fictional account of the death of Superman star George Reeves. Strickling's friend, and fellow "fixer", Eddie Mannix was portrayed by the British actor Bob Hoskins.

See also
 Harry Brand
 Eddie Mannix

References

1896 births
1982 deaths
People from West Virginia
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer executives


Jeremy Bleich (pronounced BLYSH; born June 18, 1987) is an American-Israeli former professional baseball pitcher who currently works as an advance scout and analyst  for the Pittsburgh Pirates and pitches for Team Israel. He previously played for the Oakland Athletics of Major League Baseball (MLB).

In high school, Bleich was named a 2005 first-team All-American by Collegiate Baseball (Louisville Slugger), a third-team All American by Baseball America, and was twice named All-State in Louisiana. He was profiled by author Michael Lewis in his short book Coach: Lessons on the Game of Life, published in 2005. He was named a Cape Cod Baseball League All-Star in 2006.

Bleich was selected in the First Round of the 2008 Major League Baseball Draft (44th overall) by the New York Yankees, out of Stanford University. He was named a Hawaii Winter Baseball post-season All-Star in 2008, had surgery to repair a torn glenoid labrum in his throwing shoulder in 2010, and was named the Eastern League Pitcher of the Week on May 26, 2014. Bleich pitched for Team Israel in the 2017 World Baseball Classic qualifier, and for Team Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic. He made his major league debut in 2018.

He pitched for Team Israel in the 2019 European Baseball Championship. He also pitched for the team at the Africa/Europe 2020 Olympic Qualification tournament in Italy in September 2019, which Israel won to qualify to play baseball at the 2020 Summer Olympics. He pitched for Team Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo in the summer of 2021.

Early and personal life
Bleich was born in Metairie, Louisiana, a suburb 15 minutes west of New Orleans, to Stan (a cardiologist and Chair of the board of cardiology at East Jefferson General Hospital, who grew up in Brooklyn) and Caron Bleich.  Bleich is Jewish, grew up in a Conservative Jewish home with Orthodox Jewish grandparents, had a bar mitzvah and went to Israel on Birthright, and is a member of Shir Chadash Conservative Congregation. His paternal grandparents George (from Poland) and Yolanda Bleich (from an area of Czechoslovakia that is now Ukraine; seven of her siblings were killed) were Auschwitz concentration camp Holocaust survivors. He said: "it’s something I feel ... defines me....  It gives you a foundation for some of the struggles you go through, gives you perspective in the moment."

He has a sister (Dr. Lauren Feldman), and a brother (Dr. Steven Bleich). Remarking on how his father and siblings are all doctors, Bleich noted: "I always tell people I'm the black sheep of the family." He is close friends with former outfielder Sam Fuld, whom he credits with being a great sounding board throughout his career.

High school
He attended Isidore Newman School in New Orleans, graduating in 2005. As a sophomore Bleich was 9–3, striking out 100 batters in 71.0 innings while batting .318. As a junior, he was 7–3 with a 1.25 ERA, and 110 strikeouts in 72.2 innings, while also batting .464. As a senior, he was 7–1 with an 0.56 ERA, and 138 strikeouts in 63.0 innings, while batting .387. In high school by his junior year he had what author Michael Lewis described as "a decent fastball, great command, a big-league change-up and charm to burn", and had over 40 colleges recruiting him.

Bleich was named a 2005 first-team All-American by Collegiate Baseball (Louisville Slugger), a third-team All American by Baseball America, and the 2005 All-Metro Player of the Year.  He was named All-State in Louisiana twice, was the 2004 and 2005 District Most Valuable Player, and in 2003–05 was named a three-time All-District, All-Metro, and All-Orleans teams player.  As a pitcher at Isidore Newman, he was profiled by author Michael Lewis in his short book Coach: Lessons on the Game of Life, published in 2005.

He played in the 2004 WWBA World Championships with the Cincinnati Reds scout team, and in the 2005 High School All-American Game, in Albuquerque, New Mexico.  He was rated the 97th-best prospect in the nation in 2005.

College career
Bleich then attended Stanford University, majoring in economics.  As a freshman in 2006, throwing an 88–92 mph fastball, a breaking ball, and a changeup, he tied for fourth in the Pac-10 with seven saves. He was named a Cape Cod Baseball League All-Star in 2006, pitching  for the Wareham Gatemen. Baseball America named him the 19th-best player in the league.

As a sophomore in 2007, he was 10th in the Pac-10 in starts (16) and innings pitched (98.2).  As a junior in 2008 during which he missed two months with tendinitis in his elbow, he was 3–3 record with one save and a 2.09 ERA, leading the team in ERA, and earned honorable mention Pac-10 All-Academic honors.

Professional career

New York Yankees

Minor leagues
Bleich was selected in the First Round of the 2008 Major League Baseball draft (44th overall) by the New York Yankees out of Stanford, and received a $700,000 signing bonus. Baseball America named him the Yankees' ninth-best prospect for 2010. He was named a Hawaii Winter Baseball post-season All-Star in 2008, pitching for the Waikiki BeachBoys, for whom he was 3–1 with a 1.77 ERA (2nd in the league among starters) in 7 starts. He then pitched in one game that season for the Staten Island Yankees of the Low–A New York-Penn League. In 2009, he pitched for the Tampa Yankees of the High–A Florida State League, and for the Trenton Thunder of the Double–A Eastern League, starting 27 games.

Bleich had surgery to repair a torn glenoid labrum in his throwing shoulder, after starting 8 games for Trenton in 2010. He then missed part of the 2010 season, and all of the 2011 season.

In 2012, he was 2–1 with a 2.76 ERA as he pitched in 16 games for the GCL Yankees of the rookie–level Gulf Coast League, the Staten Island Yankees, and the Tampa Yankees. He was named the 2012 Minor League Comeback Player of the Year by Jewish Baseball News. In 2013, he was again 2–1 with a 2.76 ERA, this time for Trenton in 27 games, 4 of them starts.

Bleich began the 2014 season pitching for Trenton, for whom he started 15 games, and was named the Eastern League Pitcher of the Week on May 26, 2014. He was promoted to Triple-A for the first time later that season, and pitched for the  Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders of the International League.

Pittsburgh Pirates
On November 18, 2014, Bleich signed a minor league deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates organization. In 2015, he pitched in one game for the Bradenton Marauders of the High–A Florida State League, made 25 relief appearances and had 4 saves for the Altoona Curve of the Double–A Eastern League, and had a 2.60 ERA in 13 relief appearances for the Indianapolis Indians of the Triple–A International League.

Philadelphia Phillies
On January 25, 2016, Bleich signed a minor league contract with the Philadelphia Phillies. That season he pitched for the Reading Fightin Phils in the Double–A Eastern League, and the Lehigh Valley IronPigs in the Triple–A International League.

Somerset Patriots
Bleich signed with the Somerset Patriots of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball on July 28, 2016, and went 2–2 with a 2.45 ERA in 17 relief appearances. In 22 innings, Bleich struck out 28 batters and allowed up 3 walks.

Los Angeles Dodgers
On February 17, 2017, Bleich signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks. Bleich was released on the last day of spring training. Bleich was signed again by the Somerset Patriots in April 2017. He pitched  scoreless innings, over two games.

On April 29, 2017, Bleich signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers and was assigned to Oklahoma City of the Triple–A Pacific Coast League. Mid-season, his fastball was up to 95 mph, complemented by his curveball, changeup, and slider, and Oklahoma City pitching coach Matt Herges observed: "He's a strike machine, and he's fearless." He pitched in 31 games for Oklahoma City (for whom he was 5–3 with a 3.22 ERA, allowing opponents a .261 average — .228 by right-handers — as his fastball was in the mid-90s) and seven for the Class Double-A Tulsa Drillers while in the Dodgers system, and had a combined 5–4 record with 3 saves and a 3.77 ERA. On November 6, he elected to be a free agent.

Oakland Athletics
On January 15, 2018, Bleich signed a minor league contract with the Oakland Athletics organization and was invited to Major League spring training. A's general manager David Forst said, "Jeremy proved with his performance last year that he can pitch at this level." He began 2018 pitching for the Triple–A Nashville Sounds. For the 2018 season with Nashville, he was 1–2 with one save and a 2.63 ERA in  innings over 38 games.

Major leagues
On July 13, 2018, the Athletics selected Bleich to the 40-man roster and promoted him to the major leagues for the first time. He made his major league debut that night against the San Francisco Giants, a decade after being drafted and after pitching for 14 different teams, at 31 years of age. After he pitched in two major league games, he was designated for assignment on August 6. He elected free agency following the year on November 2. He faced 3,106 batters in the minor leagues, before facing just four in the majors.

Boston Red Sox
On December 18, 2018, Bleich signed a minor league deal with the Philadelphia Phillies organization. He pitched in spring training for the Phillies, and was released on March 21, 2019.

On April 17, 2019, Bleich signed a minor league deal with the Boston Red Sox organization. He pitched in the 2019 season with the Triple-A Pawtucket Red Sox, with whom he was 2–2 with a 5.59 ERA, and the Low–A Lowell Spinners, with whom in nine relief appearances he was 1–0 with an 0.71 ERA and 16 strikeouts in 12.2 innings.

Minnesota Twins
Bleich was traded to the Minnesota Twins on July 25, 2019, in exchange for cash considerations. Pitching for the Triple–A Rochester Red Wings in 2019 he was 1–1 with a 5.40 ERA and 17 strikeouts in 13.1 innings. He became a free agent following the 2019 season.

Post-playing career
Since 2020, Bleich has been a hybrid advance scout and analytics whiz for the Pittsburgh Pirates.  He has worked on the positioning and shifting of the defense, in part by combining tendencies gleaned from advance scouting and from the available statistics.

International team experience

Team USA
Bleich was a member of the U.S. Junior National Team in 2005, as it placed second at the 2005 Pan American Championships in Mexico.

Team Israel
Bleich pitched for Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic qualifier, in September 2016. Bleich first pitched during the second game of the series, throwing 23 pitches over  innings, giving up two hits while recording three strikeouts. Bleich again pitched during the third and final game of the series, throwing 13 pitches over  of an inning, giving up two hits, an unearned run, and a walk.

Bleich pitched for Team Israel at the 2017 World Baseball Classic main tournament, in March 2017. He appeared in three games, and struck out two batters in  innings. Bleich said: "It was an unbelievable experience.... Those guys will forever be like family. We battled together in a tough environment and we succeeded."

He pitched for Team Israel in the 2019 European Baseball Championship, going 0–0 with a 0.00 ERA, as he pitched in one game, tossing three innings in relief against Team Italy and giving up one hit and two walks while striking out six. He also pitched for the team at the Africa/Europe 2020 Olympic Qualification tournament in Italy in September 2019, which Israel won to qualify to play baseball at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. In the tournament he was 1–1 with an 11.57 ERA over 4.2 innings.

He pitched for Team Israel at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo in the summer of 2021. He was 0–1 with a 3.86 ERA in three relief appearances, in which he limited opposing batters to a .125 batting average.

See also
List of Jewish baseball players

References

External links

Stanford Cardinal bio

1987 births
Living people
2017 World Baseball Classic players
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
Israeli people of Czechoslovak-Jewish descent
Israeli people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Israeli people of Polish-Jewish descent
Altoona Curve players
Baseball players at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Baseball players from Louisiana
Bradenton Marauders players
Indianapolis Indians players
Isidore Newman School alumni
Jewish American baseball players
Jewish Major League Baseball players
Lehigh Valley IronPigs players
Lowell Spinners players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Nashville Sounds players
Oakland Athletics players
Oklahoma City Dodgers players
Pawtucket Red Sox players
People from Metairie, Louisiana
Sportspeople from Jefferson Parish, Louisiana
Reading Fightin Phils players
Rochester Red Wings players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players
Somerset Patriots players
Stanford Cardinal baseball players
Staten Island Yankees players
Tampa Yankees players
Trenton Thunder players
Tulsa Drillers players
Wareham Gatemen players
2019 European Baseball Championship players
Olympic baseball players for Israel
21st-century American Jews


Charles Henry Tompkins (September 12, 1830 – January 18, 1915) was an American officer who served as a Union Army colonel, who received an appointment to the brevet grade of Brigadier General of volunteers during the American Civil War. He was a recipient of the Medal of Honor for valor in action on June 1, 1861, in the Battle of Fairfax Court House (June 1861). This was the first action in the Civil War for which a Union Army officer would receive the Medal of Honor, although it was not awarded until 1893. He is not to be confused with another Union officer, Brevet Brigadier General Charles H. Tompkins (d. 1895) who commanded the 1st Rhode Island Light Artillery Regiment.

Early life and career
Tompkins was born in Fort Monroe, Virginia, on September 12, 1830.  He was the son of Colonel Daniel D. Tompkins, a career Army officer, and was the grand nephew of Vice President Daniel D. Tompkins.

He received an appointment to West Point from Brooklyn, New York, as a member of the class of 1851, though he did not graduate with his class. He resigned in 1849 for unspecified reasons.  Tompkins pursued private business interests until enlisting as a Private in the First Dragoons in January 1856, rising to the rank of sergeant before his enlistment ended in January 1861.  He served on the western frontier and was recognized for his performance at the Second Battle of Pyramid Lake near Pyramid Lake, Nevada, in June 1860.

Tompkins received his commission as a 2nd lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Cavalry Regiment in March 1861. It was in this unit that he gained fame for his heroism in action at the Battle of Fairfax Court House (June 1861) while a 1st lieutenant, to which he was promoted on April 30, 1861.

Tompkins was reassigned to the 5th U.S. Cavalry Regiment on August 3, 1861, and served as the regimental quartermaster.  On April 24, 1862, he received a volunteer commission as colonel of the 1st Vermont Cavalry.  He resigned his volunteer commission on September 9, 1862.

During the war, he received brevets (honorary promotions) to major, lieutenant colonel, colonel and brigadier general.

Medal of Honor citation
"Twice charged through the enemy's lines and, taking a carbine from an enlisted man, shot the enemy's captain." Captain John Quincy Marr was the first Confederate soldier killed in combat during the Civil War.

Postbellum
Tompkins was appointed as one of the nine officers assigned to the military commission investigating the conspirators involved in President Lincoln's assassination.  Because of a dispute with General Grant, between 1866 and 1881 he was posted to numerous remote and austere western posts.

He served the remainder of his career in the Quartermaster Corps, rising to Assistant Quartermaster General on January 24, 1881.  The position of Assistant Quartermaster General, carried a rank of colonel in the Regular Army, to which Tompkins was promoted the same day.  He finished his career serving on the east coast, voluntarily retiring on September 12, 1894.

Tompkins suffered a broken leg in September 1914 and the wound never healed properly.  He died of sepsis in Washington, D.C., on January 18, 1915.  He is buried at Oak Hill Cemetery in Washington, D.C.

Personal life
Tompkins married Ms. Augusta Root Hobbie of New York on December 17, 1862. They had seven children, four of whom reached adulthood. His eldest son, Selah Reeve Hobbie (“Tommy”) Tompkins, was an Army officer who became Colonel of the 7th Cavalry Regiment. His second son, Colonel Frank Tompkins, also served as a career army officer including notable participation as a major in the 13th Cavalry in both the raid on Columbus, New Mexico by Pancho Villa and the Punitive Expedition that followed for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

See also

 List of Medal of Honor recipients

References

1830 births
1915 deaths
Union Army colonels
United States Army colonels
United States Army Medal of Honor recipients
United States Military Academy alumni
American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor
Burials at Oak Hill Cemetery (Washington, D.C.)


Extrapolation domain analysis (EDA) is a methodology for identifying geographical areas that seem suitable for adoption of innovative ecosystem management practices on the basis of sites exhibiting similarity in conditions such as climatic, land use and socioeconomic indicators. Whilst it has been applied to water research projects in nine pilot basins, the concept is generic and can be applied to any project where accelerating change being considered as a central development objective.

The outputs of the method thus far have been used to quantify the global economic impact of implementing particular innovations together with its effect on water resources. The research has stimulated members of several of the Challenge Program for Water and Food projects to explore potential areas for scaling out. Such is the case of the Quesungual agroforestry system in Honduras, which is moving towards new areas in parallel with areas identified by the EDA method.

EDA is a combined approach that incorporates a number of spatial analysis techniques. It was first investigated in 2006, when it was applied to assess how similarity analysis can be used to scale out research findings within seven Andes pilot systems of basins. The method developed further the research around Jones' 'Homologue' analysis by incorporating socio-economic variables in the search for similar sites around the Tropics. It has since been used to evaluate ‘Impact pathways’ and Global Impact Analysis. 'Homologue' was developed to determine the similarity of climatic conditions across a geographical area to those exhibited by the pilot site; the pixel resolution at which this is processed is 2.43 arc minutes, or 4.5 km at the equator.

To derive the extrapolation domains, Bayesian and frequentist statistical modelling techniques are used. The weights-of-evidence (WofE) methodology is applied; this is based largely on the concepts of Bayesian probabilistic reasoning. In essence, statistical inference is based on determining the probability of target sites adopting the change demonstrated in pilot areas. The assumption is that a collection of training points will, in aggregate, have common characteristics that will allow their presence in other similar sites to be predicted. It is based on the collection of factors (used to create evidential theme data layers) that prove to be consistent with successful implementation at pilot sites and assumes that if target sites exhibit similar socio-economic, together with climatic and landscapes attributes to pilot sites, then there is strong evidence to suggest that out-scaling to these sites will succeed.

References

Jorge E. Rubiano M., Simon Cook, Maya Rajasekharan & Boru Douthwaite (2016). A Bayesian method to support global out-scaling of water-efficient rice technologies from pilot project areas. Water International

Ecosystems
Bayesian statistics


Viego is one of nine parishes (administrative divisions) in Ponga, a municipality within the province and autonomous community of Asturias, in northern Spain.

The population is 67 (INE 2007).

Villages and hamlets
 Viego
 Viboli

Parishes in Ponga


Simon Hatley (27 March 1685after 1723) was an English sailor involved in two hazardous privateering voyages to the South Pacific Ocean. On the second voyage, with his ship beset by storms south of Cape Horn, Hatley shot an albatross, an incident immortalised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his 1798 poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

Born in 1685 in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, Hatley went to sea in 1708 as part of Woodes Rogers's expedition against the Spanish. Rogers circumnavigated the world, but Hatley was captured on the coast of present-day Ecuador and imprisoned in Lima, capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru, where he was tortured by the Inquisition. He was released and returned to Great Britain in 1713.

Hatley's second voyage, under George Shelvocke, was the source of the albatross incident, and also ended with his capture by the Spanish. As Hatley had, at Shelvocke's direction, looted a Portuguese vessel on the coast of Brazil, the Spanish this time held him as a pirate, though ultimately they released him again, deciding that Shelvocke was the more culpable party. Hatley returned to Britain in 1723, and sailed to Jamaica to avoid trial for piracy. His fate thereafter is unknown.

In 1797, William Wordsworth, having read Shelvocke's account of that voyage, suggested Hatley's shooting of an albatross as the basis of a contemplated joint work with Coleridge. Wordsworth dropped out of the project soon after, but Coleridge continued, and the poem was published in Lyrical Ballads (1798), containing poems by both men, and assuring Hatley a place in literary history.

Early life
The oldest child in a family of hatters, Simon Hatley was born on 27 March 1685 in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England during the late Restoration period. His parents were Symon and Mary Hatley. Simon Hatley's mother's name at birth was Mary Herbert and, her son later stated while imprisoned by the Spanish, she was a Catholic. Her faith and name at birth possibly meant she was related to the earls of Pembroke, for they were also Catholic with the family name Herbert. The Hatley family was a prosperous one, owning a large house and three other rental properties on the High Street. The residence was pulled down and rebuilt in 1704, after Simon had left home. According to Simon Hatley's sole biographer, Robert Fowke, in 2010, "fittingly for the family of a son with piratical leanings, it was said to have been built with stone pilfered from the nearby construction site for Blenheim Palace."

Literate in Latin as well as English, young Simon would have attended the Woodstock Grammar School up the road from where he lived. Although as the oldest son of a prosperous merchant, he could probably have followed in his father's trade, some time around 1699 he was apprenticed as a pilot, completing his formal training in Bristol by 1706 at the latest. In this era, the accounts of maritime explorations were widely published and read, and Hatley may have gained a love of adventure from them.

Career
Much of what is known about Hatley's subsequent life is in connection with the two privateering voyages that he made to the Pacific coast of South America. Privateers were men who sailed in armed merchant ships carrying letters of marque from their government authorising them to plunder foreign enemies, keeping any profits for themselves and their ships' owners. The first such voyage made by Hatley was under the command of Captain Woodes Rogers during the War of the Spanish Succession, which found Britain and Spain on opposing sides. In 1708, at the age of twenty-three, he signed on as third mate (a junior officer position) of the Duchess, the smaller of Rogers's two ships, the other being the Duke.

Rogers's vessels were then being readied in Bristol for a long and difficult journey to the Pacific coast of South America. The purpose of the Rogers expedition was to go around Cape Horn into the South Pacific, to damage Spanish settlements and interests along the South American Pacific coast, and to capture booty for their own profit, including the large treasure galleons that sailed from Manila to Mexico. The two ships were to be crammed with men, supplies to maintain them, and with guns and powder, for the success of the expedition depended on being able to outfight those vessels they sought to capture and plunder.

Voyage with Rogers

With a war on, finding qualified sailors was difficult, and in July 1708, Hatley was sent to Dublin to fill out the ships' crews, with the aid of an assistant and a Dubliner, Humphry French. The Duke and the Duchess sailed from Bristol on 1 August 1708, and Hatley joined the Duchess when the vessels called at Cork three days later. Many of Hatley's recruits were not sailors, but at the time government regulations limited to one-half the proportion of professional seamen private vessels such as Rogers's could have in their crews, to preserve some for ships of the Royal Navy. A total of 150 men joined at Cork, where the ships remained until the end of August, making good losses of 40 by desertion. When the ships sailed on 1 September, there were 183 in the Duke and 151 in the Duchess.

On 8 September, the ships captured a Swedish vessel bound for Cadiz, but as Britain was not at war with Sweden and searchers could find no contraband aboard, Rogers had to let her go. This provoked a near-mutiny on board the Duke, as the sailors felt they had been cheated of plunder to which they were entitled. Hatley and the Duchess were not directly involved, but he could not have avoided awareness of the problems, as there were tensions aboard the smaller vessel as well. The expedition captured a small Spanish ship off Tenerife, but released her in exchange for supplies. Items taken from that ship were auctioned off among the sailors, and Hatley purchased a pair of silk hose.

After beating their way around Cape Horn, the two vessels stopped at the Juan Fernández Islands, off Chile, for resupply. The islands were believed to be uninhabited, but as the ships approached on 31 January 1709, sailors saw a fire on shore. The landing party were surprised to be met by Alexander Selkirk, a Scottish sailor who had been marooned there by his captain more than four years before and who was overjoyed at being rescued. The Duke pilot, William Dampier, had also been on that earlier cruise with Selkirk, though in a different ship. Rogers made Selkirk second mate of the Duke. The ships lay in Cumberland Bay for almost two weeks, allowing for repair, resupply and some time ashore.

Having resupplied and otherwise prepared, the expedition began to raid Spanish commerce. To assure fairness, the committee of expedition members who advised Rogers decided that the officers and men of each ship would each appoint two agents, one to remain on the vessel, the other to transfer to the other ship. This meant a partisan would be able to monitor what plunder was captured by the other ship. Hatley was elected an agent for Duchesss officers, and transferred to the Duke. Thus, for a time, Hatley, who would inspire Samuel Taylor Coleridge's albatross-shooting Ancient Mariner, Selkirk, probably the original for Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe and Dampier, possibly the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's Lemuel Gulliver (of Gulliver's Travels), shared the same vessel.

Opportunities for plundering were soon found; they captured several vessels, while negotiating the ransom of the town of Guayaquil in present-day Ecuador by threatening to burn it. Hatley played his part in these exploits, being in the Duchess'''s pinnace as part of a planned boarding party, when the expedition's two ships fought and captured a Spanish vessel known as the Havre de Grace in the Gulf of Guayaquil on 15 April, a sea battle that killed Rogers's brother John. When the main part of the expedition moved to capture Guayaquil on 18 April, Hatley was among those left behind on captured ships to guard the Spanish prisoners. With water becoming short, Hatley and another officer were detailed to command two of the captured ships (Hatley's was a barque) and go to Puna Island to collect water and seek news of the expedition. There they met Rogers and learned that the attack on Guayaquil had been successful, although not as profitable as hoped.

Rogers's expedition ultimately circumnavigated the globe, but Hatley did not make it that far. He remained in command of his barque as the Rogers expedition re-entered the Pacific Ocean proper. With water short and many sailors ill from a disease contracted in Guayaquil, the search for fresh water became increasingly desperate. But Hatley's ship went astray, and despite Rogers's efforts to search for her, was not seen again. Lanterns were hung and guns fired, in the hopes he would perceive them, but to no avail. Hatley had perhaps six sailors under him, and as about the same number of prisoners. It was thought that the prisoners had murdered him and his crew. Wrote Rogers in his account of the expedition, "we all bewailed Mr Hatley and were afraid he was lost."

First captivity, return to Britain
With food short—one of the prisoners died—Hatley's crew forced him to make for the coast of what is now Ecuador. There, in late May 1709, a native spotted the ship, and Hatley and his crew were captured. The natives abused them, but a priest intervened, probably saving their lives. Hatley and his men were transported south to Lima, now in Peru, where they were confined in the prison on the Plaza Real. He was tortured by the Inquisition, once being taken to a gallows with one of his fellows and half-strangled before being cut down. Hatley arranged to smuggle several letters out, but only one survives, dated 6 November 1709, and addressed to the sponsors of the Rogers voyage, in Bristol. This one reached Britain, and may have been the first news to reach Bristol about the fate of the Rogers expedition. Under the persuasion of the Inquisition, Hatley accepted conversion to Catholicism in 1710, and was freed, though required to remain in Peru, that December. The merchant sponsors of the Rogers expedition petitioned the British Government and, in 1711, Lord Dartmouth instructed the new governor of Jamaica to do what he could for British prisoners in the hands of the Spanish. In 1713, with peace between Spain and Britain restored, Hatley was allowed to leave, and returned to his native land, having learned Spanish. The Rogers expedition had returned in 1711, and the sale of the goods was still ongoing, as was litigation. Hatley was paid £180 10s 2d in August 1713 and later that year an additional forty pounds for his role in the taking of the Havre de Grace.

Symon Hatley had died in 1712, leaving property in Woodstock to his son Simon, though with a life estate to his widow, giving her the income from the rental properties for her lifetime. In 1718, mother and son sold those properties for £140.

Shelvocke expedition

When the War of the Quadruple Alliance (1717–1720) brought a renewal of hostilities between Britain and Spain, Hatley joined another privateering expedition as second captain of the Speedwell, under George Shelvocke, the expedition leader. As Hatley was already familiar with their South Pacific destination, his knowledge and experience made him a desirable hire for the voyage. The Speedwell was the smaller of the two ships that went on the expedition; the larger was named Success.

Delayed by difficulties over their privateering commissions and a lack of favourable winds, the expedition left Plymouth on 13 February 1719. The ships became separated and sailed independently after that; Shelvocke's conduct in doing so was subsequently the cause of litigation. On 4 June, at Cape Frio in Brazil, the Speedwell encountered a Portuguese ship. In spite of the fact that the Portuguese were allies of Britain, Shelvocke sent Hatley across with an armed crew. They left with gold and other valuables. The ship anchored at the present-day site of Florianópolis, Brazil, from 20 June to mid-August. During that time, the crew repaired the vessel and gathered supplies in preparation for the Cape Horn passage. At the end of July, Shelvocke recorded, the crew demanded new terms for division of the expedition's plunder, saying Rogers's crew had never received the full measure of what was due them. Shelvocke blamed Hatley for this episode, though whether it was a mutiny or done with the leader's connivance is uncertain, as the result left Shelvocke in control of how winnings would be divided and with a greater share of the treasure. Hatley also got into trouble with the locals, insulting one of their leaders, and Shelvocke, in his journal, accused Hatley of abusing the women.

In his journal entry for 1 October 1719 (see adjacent quotation), Shelvocke recorded the incident, the shooting of the albatross, for which Hatley joined his former shipmate Selkirk in being immortalised in literature. This took place about  south of Cape Horn. According to Shelvocke's account, Hatley shot the bird believing it portended ill-luck, and in the hope of fairer winds. Fowke noted that at that time there was no taboo against killing albatrosses, and this was something invented by Coleridge when he wrote of the incident. Sailors sometimes baited them with food, though the oily taste of their flesh was not greatly liked. A biographer of Rogers, Bryan Little, suggested that the harsh treatment of Hatley by the Spanish in Lima may have contributed to the "melancholy fits" during which he shot the albatross. The winds did not calm, but the ship was able to round Cape Horn, battling northward along the coast of Chile, through stormy weather.

Once clear of the weather, the Speedwell began raiding along the coast, capturing several small vessels, of which one, renamed Mercury, Hatley was placed in command. At Hatley's suggestion, since he knew the coast, Shelvocke had him operate independently to capture small vessels near the coast of Peru and Ecuador. On 9 March 1720, the Mercurys crew saw a ship that they initially assumed to be the Speedwell. It was too late to run when they realised it was a Spanish warship, the Brilliant. Hatley sent those sailors who were obviously British in appearance below, trying to make it appear his ship was still under Spanish control. The stratagem failed when three sailors, British by their dress, suddenly emerged from below decks, and the Brilliant fired, slightly wounding Hatley. The British sailors, including Hatley, were captured and landed at Paita, and transported  to Lima.

By this time Britain and Spain were again at peace, and all the prisoners but Hatley were soon released; he was kept chained and in solitary confinement. They accused him of piracy because of the looting of the Portuguese ship at Cape Frio; a purse had been found among his possessions with 96 moidores, and he faced hanging or hard labour in the mines. There was uncertainty as to whether the Lima authorities could try him for a crime against the Portuguese, and with Shelvocke's reputation poor even among the British (he was arrested and briefly imprisoned for the incident upon his return, though acquitted due to lack of witnesses), they decided the expedition commander was probably the responsible party. Hatley was released in 1723.

What became of Hatley after 1723 is uncertain. He faced the possibility of a piracy prosecution in England because of the Cape Frio incident. Immediately upon his return, he sailed for Jamaica, then a den of pirates, without presenting himself to the owners of the Shelvocke expedition. Nothing is known of him thereafter; Fowke speculated he continued as a sailor.

Literary influence

According to William Wordsworth, the poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner was conceived while he and Coleridge were walking together in the Quantock Hills of Somerset in November 1797. The two were considering the fate of Cain, condemned to wander the earth for killing his brother Abel, for a contemplated joint poetic work. The discussion turned to a book that Wordsworth was reading, Shelvocke's A Voyage Round the World by Way of the Great South Sea, in which the incident of Hatley shooting the albatross is told. "Much the greatest part of the story was Coleridge's invention", Wordsworth later wrote, though it was Wordsworth's idea that the main plot device of the narrative should involve the killing of an albatross in the South Sea, for which "the tutelary spirits of these regions take upon them to avenge the crime." Wordsworth soon found their poetic styles incompatible and withdrew from the project, but Coleridge continued. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner was published in their joint work, Lyrical Ballads, in 1798.

Tim Beattie, in his book on the privateering voyages of the early 18th century, deemed Shelvocke an unreliable witness, placing in doubt whether the albatross incident actually occurred, but considered Coleridge's use of it a testimonial to the enduring appeal of the books recounting the sea voyages. Hatley's shooting of an albatross differs in some regards from the Ancient Mariner's. Hatley shot the bird in the hopes of fairer winds; no motive is given for the Mariner's deed. The shooting by the Mariner is followed by retribution, the hanging of the albatross around the Mariner's neck, and other torments. Hatley underwent trials and tribulations after shooting the albatross, but these were at the hands of the Spanish and were not directly connected to the killing of the albatross. The Mariner is subsequently shriven by the Hermit. According to Fowke, there was "no forgiveness for Hatley and clearly there were things to forgive. He took ship for Jamaica fearing a second trial."

Notes

 References

Bibliography

External links
 "Advice to Pirates" by Robert Fowke (18 November 2010) in The Guardian''

1685 births
Date of death unknown
18th-century English people
English privateers
People from Woodstock, Oxfordshire


Peggy Payne (born 1949) is a writer, journalist and consultant to writers. She has written four books and her articles, reviews and essays have appeared in The New York Times, Cosmopolitan, The Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, and Chicago Tribune, among others. Her work deals primarily with religion and spirituality.

Biography

Peggy Payne writes novels that focus on the intersection of sex and spirituality. Her most recent, Cobalt Blue (2013) has been published in 5 countries and won a 2014 IPPY for Visionary Fiction.  It is probably the only novel to be a book of the month on a Playboy Radio Network program and in the top 100 spiritual books for Kindle.

Payne was born in 1949 in Wilmington, North Carolina. She graduated from Duke University in 1970 and worked for The Raleigh Times for two years before beginning her freelance career, which lasted over three decades.

She was awarded the Sherwood Anderson Award for 2003, given in memory of Sherwood Anderson, author of Winesburg, Ohio. She has received an NEH grant to study fiction at Berkeley, an Indo-American Fellowship to research Sister India (one of her books) in Varanasi, and a North Carolina Arts Council Fellowship.

Her work has been cited in The Best American Short Stories and published in anthologies including God: Stories, edited by Atlantic Monthly fiction editor C. Michael Curtis; New Stories from the South; and Remarkable Reads. An interview with her, "Writing and Revelation," is included in Dale Brown's Of Fiction and Faith: Twelve American Writers Talk about Their Vision and Work.

Books

Cobalt Blue
An artist is overwhelmed by a spiritual and physical experience that initially turns her life upside down, plunging her into compulsions, obsessions, and unmentionable attractions. She has to find out what has overcome her and learn how to deal with the power she'd never imagined. The story is set in the resort towns of Pinehurst, NC, and New Orleans.

Sister India
Her novel, Sister India, was published in 2002. It tells the story of a morbidly obese American woman living in India hiding from the life she tried to escape in North Carolina. The book is the story of her courageous emergence.

Sister India was on The New York Times list of notable books of 2001.

Revelation
Published in 1988, Revelation is the story of a calm and collected minister, Swain Hammond, in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. One day, while grilling food in his backyard, he hears God speaking to him. However, neither he nor most of his congregation believe in a god who does such a thing. Hammond, therefore, faces the difficult decision of whether to risk his livelihood by going public about the ordeal or keep secret the very thing his career is supposedly devoted to teaching.

The Healing Power of Doing Good
The Healing Power of Doing Good: The Health and Spiritual Benefits of Helping Others was Payne's second book, written with Allan Luks and published in 1991. In it, she argues, based on scientific evidence, that helping others mitigates both the intensity and the awareness of physical pain, reduces chronic hostility, and decreases the constriction within the lungs, leading to asthma attacks. She and Luks also make famous the term "helper's high," which describes a feeling of exhilaration and a burst of energy similar to that experienced after intense exercise, followed by calmness and serenity.

This can be corroborated by the Mother Teresa effect, in which researchers showed 132 Harvard students a film about Mother Teresa's work among Calcutta's poor people. The scientists then measured the level of immunoglobin A, the body's first defense against the common cold, in their saliva. The test revealed markedly increased levels of immunoglobin A, all after simply witnessing somebody else involved in charity work.

Doncaster
Doncaster: A Legacy of Personal Style was Payne's third book published in 1997. It depicts a women's clothing company that is built on helping every person, be it an employee or customer, develop their individual style and meet their personal goals.

Payne said of her own philosophy while writing for the company:
I found as I began work on this project, sponsored by the clothing company, that what might have been for me a routine copy-writing job instead became an important piece of my life's work. As an outsider to the company, I realized early in the process of the research that this organization was serious—and enthusiastic—about encouraging the development of individual potential. This was a philosophy close to my own heart, an idea that I too want to promote. So writing for Doncaster helped me get out a piece of my message. Thus, I became an example of the company's hiring philosophy: to find people who can meet the company's needs through fulfilling their own individual dreams.

References

External links
 Peggy Payne's website
 Peggy Payne's blog
 Image: Writing the Sacred

American Christian writers
1949 births
Writers from Wilmington, North Carolina
American women writers
Duke University alumni
Living people
People from Chatham County, North Carolina
21st-century American women


Live on Tour is a live album by American singer-songwriter John Prine, released in 1997. The album also include three studio tracks.

Reception

Writing for Allmusic, critic Jeff Burger wrote of the album "The studio tracks tacked onto the end of this album are nothing to write home about, but overall, Live on Tour is a solid collection. Featuring everything from tender folk ballads to rockers packed with Prine's trademark wacky witticisms, it would be a perfect starting point for anyone who has had the misfortune to have not yet encountered this one-of-a-kind artist."

Track listing
All tracks composed by John Prine; except where indicated
"Picture Show" – 3:54
"Quit Hollerin' at Me" (Prine, Gary Nicholson) – 6:10
 "You Got Gold" (Prine, Keith Sykes) – 4:55
"Unwed Fathers" (Braddock, Prine) – 3:00
"Space Monkey" (Prine, Peter Case) – 5:12
"The Late John Garfield Blues" – 4:11
"Storm Windows" – 4:32
 "Jesus the Missing Years" – 6:38
"Humidity Built the Snowman" – 4:51
"Illegal Smile" – 4:33
 "Daddy's Little Pumpkin" (Prine, Pat McLaughlin) – 3:38
"Lake Marie" – 8:47
"If I Could" (Tim Carroll) – 3:10
"Stick a Needle in My Eye" (Pat McLaughlin, Prine) – 3:06
"You Mean So Much to Me" (Prine, Donnie Fritts) – 4:14

Personnel
John Prine – vocals, guitar
Larry Crane – guitar, backing vocals
Howie Epstein – bass
Jack Holder – guitar
David Jacques – bass
John Jorgenson – guitar, banjo, mandolin
Pat McLaughlin – guitar
Phil Parlapiano – organ, piano, accordion, backing vocals
Joe Romersa – drums, percussion
Sam Shoup – bass
David Steele – guitar, backing vocals
Benmont Tench – piano, keyboards
Robby Turner – pedal steel guitar
Jason Wilber – guitar, backing vocals
Gary Belz – backing vocals
Al Bunetta – backing vocals
Keith Sykes – backing vocals

References

John Prine albums
1997 live albums
Oh Boy Records albums


Cultural sensitivity, also referred to as cross-cultural sensitivity or cultural awareness, is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures and others' cultural identities. It is related to cultural competence (the skills needed for effective communication with people of other cultures, which includes cross-cultural competence), and is sometimes regarded as the precursor to the achievement of cultural competence, but is a more commonly used term. On the individual level, cultural sensitivity is a state of mind regarding interactions with those different from oneself. Cultural sensitivity enables travelers, workers, and others to successfully navigate interactions with a culture other than their own.

Cultural diversity includes demographic factors (such as race, gender, and age) as well as values and cultural norms.

Cultural sensitivity counters ethnocentrism, and involves intercultural communication, among relative skills. Most countries' populations include minority groups comprising indigenous peoples, subcultures, and immigrants who approach life from a different perspective and mindset than that of the dominant culture. Workplaces, educational institutions, media, and organizations of all types are becoming more mindful of being culturally sensitive to all stakeholders and the population at large. Increasingly, training of cultural sensitivity is being incorporated into workplaces and students' curricula at all levels. The training is usually aimed at the dominant culture, but in multicultural societies may also be taught to migrants to teach them about other minority groups. The concept is also taught to expatriates working in other countries to ingratiate them into other customs and traditions.

Definitions and aims
There are a variety of definitions surrounding cultural sensitivity. All of these definitions revolve around the idea that it is the knowledge, awareness, and acceptance of other cultures. It includes "the willingness, ability and sensitivity required to understand people with different backgrounds", and the acceptance of diversity. Crucially, it "refers to being aware that cultural differences and similarities between people exist without assigning them a value." Definitions also include the skill set acquired by this learning. Cultural awareness is having the knowledge of the existence of multiple different cultures with different attitudes and worldviews, while cultural sensitivity means the acceptance of those differences and accepting that one's own culture is not superior.

In 2008, cultural sensitivity was found to be a widely used term in a literature search of global databases, both popular and scholarly. Based on this literature, cultural sensitivity is defined as "employing one's knowledge, consideration, understanding, [and] respect, and tailoring [it] after realizing awareness of self and others, and encountering a diverse group or individual".

There are many different types of cultural diversity in any society, including factors such as marginalized or socially excluded groups; ethnicity; sexual orientation; disability; values and cultural norms. Cultural sensitivity is relevant to all of these.

Support of cultural sensitivity is based on ideological or practical considerations. Former Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, advocated cultural sensitivity as an essential value in the modern world:

Factors that affect cultural sensitivity
Certain factors that affect cultural sensitivity include religion, ethnicity, race, national origin, language, or gender. Others areas to look at include age, education, socio-economic status, sexual orientation, and mental/physical challenges.

Political Correctness
A common critique of cultural sensitivity is that it relies too much on Political Correctness, or the idea of using language to avoid creating offense. The term, now co-opted as a critique of itself, was researched by Kat Chow who described that "The phrase [Political Correctness] has gone from wisdom to weapon." Cultural sensitivity has become a political topic with its necessity being debated.

Cultural Competence
Awareness and understanding of other cultures is a key factor of cultural sensitivity. Cultural Competence relies on the ability of both parties involved to have a pleasant and successful interaction. The term "cultural competence" is often used to describe those skills acquired to embody cultural sensitivity, particularly in the workplace. Cultural sensitivity requires flexibility.  Louise Rasmussen and Winston Sieck led studies consisting of members of the U.S. Military that identified 12 Core Aspects (consisting of four subgroups) of successful cross-cultural interactions. These aspects rely on the subjects of the study being able to remain diplomatic and learn from intercultural interactions.

The 12 Core Aspects Include:

 A diplomatic stance
 Maintaining a Mission Orientation
 Understanding Self in Social Context
 Managing Attitude Towards Culture
 Cultural Learning
 Self-Directed Learning of Cultures
 Developing Reliable Information Sources
 Learning New Cultures Efficiently
 Cultural Reasoning
 Coping with Cultural Surprises
 Developing Cultural Explanations of Behavior
 Cultural Perspective Taking
 Intercultural Interaction
 Intercultural Communication Planning
 Disciplined Self Presentation
 Reflection and Feedback

In the dominant culture
Cultural awareness and sensitivity help to overcome inherent ethnocentrism by learning about other cultures and how various modes and expectations may differ between those cultures. These differences range from ethical, religious, and social attitudes to body language and other nonverbal communication. Cultural sensitivity is just one dimension of cultural competence, and has an impact on ethnocentrism and other factors related to culture. The results of developing cultural sensitivity are considered positive: communication is improved, leading to more effective interaction between the people concerned, and improved outcome or interventions for the client or customer.

The concept is taught in many workplaces, as it is an essential skill for managing and building teams in a multicultural society. Intercultural communication has been cited as one of the two biggest challenges within the workplace, along with internal communications (mission statement, meetings, etc.).

In healthcare

Cultural sensitivity training in health care providers can improve the satisfaction and health outcomes of patients from different minority groups. Because standard measures for diagnosis and prognosis relate to established norms, cultural sensitivity is essential. A person's norms are defined by their culture, and these may differ significantly from the treating medical professional. Language barriers, beliefs, and trust are just a few of the factors to consider when treating patients of other cultural groups.  Understanding cultural beliefs regarding health and care can give healthcare professionals a better idea of how to proceed with providing care.

It is important to understand the concept behind the buzzword in the healthcare setting, as cultural sensitivity can increase nurses' appreciation of and communication with other professionals as well as patients. Part of providing culturally sensitive care is to develop cultural competence as an ongoing process. Nurses and employers should be committed to educating themselves about different patients' beliefs, values, and perspectives.

In Therapy
In a study on narrative theory in therapy, Cynthia C. Morris concluded that culture in made up of the collected stories of a group of people. In the practice of therapy, understanding a patient's point of view is vital to the clinician. Cultural Sensitivity allows for a clinician to get a more well-rounded understanding of where the client is coming from, why they may think about things in a certain way, or their approach to thought in general. Culturally Sensitive Therapy approaches psychotherapy by emphasizing how the clinician understands the client's race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender, religion and any other aspects that relate to culture and identity. Culturally sensitive therapists will help their patients feel more seen and understood, while those without cultural sensitivity may turn away patients from the practice of therapy altogether.

Working and travelling abroad
On the individual level, cultural sensitivity allows travelers and expatriate workers to successfully navigate a different culture with which they are interacting. It can increase the security of travelers because it helps them understand interactions from the perspective of the native culture. One individual's understanding of another's culture can increase respect for the other individual, allowing for more effective communication and interactions. For managers as well as employees, cultural sensitivity is increasingly more vital in business or government jobs.

This cross-cultural sensitivity can lead to both competitiveness and success when working with or within organizations located in a different country. These benefits highlight the consideration of how two societies and cultures operate, particularly with respect to how they are similar and different from each other. Being able to determine these in terms of thoughts, behavior beliefs, and expressions among others makes it possible to solve problems meaningfully and act in a manner that is acceptable to all stakeholders.

Lacking awareness of foreign cultures can also have adverse consequences. These can be as severe as reaching the point of legal action. Similarly, certain etiquettes in one country can be considered violations of business codes in another.

Tourism
Tourism is a major opportunity to experience and interact with other cultures. It is therefore one of the most vital times to be culturally sensitive. There are major faux pas to be aware of regarding the locals. Ensuring awareness of table manners, common phrases, local dress, etiquette at holy sites, and other immersions into the culture are great ways to be sensitive to the destination and engage with it.

Tourism to areas with Indigenous people requires more awareness and cultural sensitivity. Many of these areas have been colonized and turned into tourist attractions that put on display the culture that is being erased. These kinds of attractions lead to stereotyping that negatively impacts the culture rather than exposing others to it. These displays can often turn the culture into an exotic aesthetic that leads to inauthentic portrayals of the culture and furthers stereotypes. This cultural insensitivity happens when cultural practices and products are sold by another cultural group without consent. Due to this, culturally sensitive tourism is an up and coming industry that aims to engage with a culture rather than exoticized.

Models

Bennett scale

Milton Bennett was the first to create a model or framework designed to help comprehension of various stages of intercultural sensitivity. This became known as the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), otherwise referred to as the Bennett scale. This scale has been adapting and developing since 1986 and is included in The International Encyclopedia of Intercultural Communication (2017).

Bennett developed the framework of the model to show the intercultural sensitivity a person may experience. Intercultural sensitivity is defined as an individual's ability to develop emotion towards understanding and appreciating cultural differences that promotes appropriate and effective behavior in intercultural communication”.

According to Bennett, “As one’s perceptual organization of cultural difference becomes more complex, one’s experience of culture becomes more sophisticated and the potential for exercising competence in intercultural relations increases." By recognizing how cultural difference is being experienced, predictions about the effectiveness of intercultural communication can be made.

Bennett describes a continuum, which moves from ethnocentrism to "ethnorelativism". The model includes six stages of experiencing difference.

The six stages explained in the model include:

 Denial - when people fail to recognize distinctions among cultures or consider them to be irrelevant
 Defense - people perceive other cultures in a competitive way, or in an us-against-them way
 Minimization - people assume that their distinct cultural worldview is shared by others, or when they perceive their culture's values as fundamental or universal human values that apply to everyone.
 Acceptance - recognize that different beliefs and values are shaped by culture,
 Adaptation - when people are able to adopt the perspective of another culture,
 Integration - someone's identity or sense of self evolves to incorporate the values, beliefs, perspectives, and behaviors of other cultures.

Community Tool Box
The Community Tool Box was developed by the University of Kansas' Center for Community Health and Development, a designated World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Community Health and Development. The Centre's idea of "Building Culturally Competent Organizations," is a guide for diversity and inclusion training in the workplace. The Tool Box refers to three levels leading up to the fourth, the end goal:

 cultural knowledge
 cultural awareness
 cultural sensitivity
 cultural competence

Each step builds on the previous one, with the final one, cultural competence, being the stage where the organization has effectively enabled better outcomes in a multicultural workforce.

Cultural sensitivity and competence training

Training to achieve cultural competence or cultural sensitivity is undertaken in schools, workplaces, in healthcare settings

See also

 Cross-cultural communication
 Cultural assimilation
 Cultural behavior
 Cultural diversity
 Cultural identity
 Cultural intelligence
 Cultural pluralism
 Cultural relativism
 Intercultural learning
 Intercultural therapy
 Multiculturalism
 Social identity

References

Further reading
Cultural Sensitivity: A Concept Analysis
Intercultural Sensitivity and Conflict Management Styles in Cross-Cultural Organizational Situations
Cross-cultural competency tools

Cross-cultural studies
Cultural competence