The Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum is a research library of American cartoons and comic art affiliated with the Ohio State University library system in Columbus, Ohio. Formerly known as the Cartoon Research Library and the Cartoon Library & Museum, it holds the world's largest and most comprehensive academic research facility documenting and displaying original and printed comic strips, editorial cartoons, and cartoon art. The museum is named after the Ohio cartoonist Billy Ireland.

Covering comic books, daily strips, Sunday strips, editorial cartoons, graphic novels, magazine cartoons, and sports cartoons, the collection includes 450,000 original cartoons, 36,000 books, 51,000 serial titles, and  of manuscript materials, plus 2.5 million comic strip clippings and tear sheets.

History

The Cartoon Library began in 1977 when the Milton Caniff Collection was donated to Ohio State and delivered to the School of Journalism, which was headed by Lucy Shelton Caswell, who became the Milton Caniff Reading Room's first curator. Interviewed by Matt Tauber, Caswell detailed the museum's origins and how she became involved:

From two classrooms off the back hallway of the Journalism Building in 1977, the collection expanded to three classrooms and became part of the University Libraries. By 1989, the three classrooms were filled, and the library moved into a larger space, eventually requiring the use of off-site storage as the collection continued to expand. (At that point, the facility was named the Cartoon Research Library.)

In 1992, United Media donated the Robert Roy Metz Collection of 83,034 original cartoons by 113 cartoonists.

In 1998, the San Francisco Academy of Comic Art Collection was acquired from its director, Bill Blackbeard, giving the library the largest collection of newspaper comic-strip tear sheets and clippings in the world. Six semitrailer trucks transported this collection from California to Ohio.

In 2007, King Features Syndicate donated its proof-sheet collection, consisting of over two million strips (a duplicate set was donated to Michigan State University's Comic Art Collection).

In June 2008, the collection of the International Museum of Cartoon Art (more than 200,000 originals with an estimated value of $20 million) was transferred to the Cartoon Library & Museum. Founded in 1973 by cartoonist Mort Walker, the IMCA collection includes a wide variety of original cartoon art (comic strips, comic books, animation, editorial, advertising, sport, caricature, greeting cards, graphic novels, and illustrations), display figures, toys, and collectibles, plus works on film and tape, CDs, and DVDs. The 2009 exhibition From Yellow Kid to Conan: American Cartoons from the International Museum of Cartoon Art Collection was held at the Cartoon Library and Museum from June to August.

In September 2009, it was announced that the Ohio State University Board of Trustees approved a new name, Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum, in recognition of a $7 million gift from an anonymous donor to support the renovation of Sullivant Hall. The museum was named in honor of William Addison Ireland (1880 – May 29, 1935), a self-taught cartoonist (and native of Chillicothe, Ohio) well known throughout Ohio as Billy Ireland. A native of Chillicothe, Ohio, Billy Ireland was a self-taught cartoonist who was hired by The Columbus Dispatch shortly after his 1898 high school graduation. Until his death, Ireland worked in Columbus for the Dispatch, drawing both editorial cartoons and his Sunday feature, The Passing Show. His work was exhibited by the museum in 2003.

Former names
 Milton Caniff Reading Room, 1977
 Library for Communication and Graphic Arts
 Cartoon, Graphic, and Photographic Arts Research Library
 Cartoon Research Library, 1989
 Cartoon Library and Museum, July 2009
 Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum, September 2009

Collections and archives

The Milton Caniff Collection consists of 12,000 original artworks by Caniff, 85 boxes of memorabilia, and more than 450 boxes of manuscript materials, fan letters, and business records.

As the museum's collection of original art and manuscripts evolved and expanded, it added the Nick Anderson Collection, the Jim Borgman Collection, the Eldon Dedini Collection, the Edwina Dumm Collection, the Woody Gelman Collection of Winsor McCay cartoons, the Walt Kelly Collection, the collection of agent Toni Mendez, and the Bill Watterson Collection. The Bud Blake Collection includes more than 5,800 of the cartoon panels he drew for King Features Syndicate from 1954 to 1965, plus 10,000 daily and Sunday Tiger originals. Comic-book collections include the Will Eisner Collection; the Jay Kennedy Collection has more than 9,500 underground comic books.

The museum's collection includes work by Anne Mergen, who was the only female editorial cartoonist in the United States for much of her career.

Archival professional records include the Association of American Editorial Cartoonists, National Cartoonists Society, Newspaper Features Council, and the Cartoonists Guild. A biographical registry of cartoonists contains files for more than 5,000 cartoonists and clipping files organized by cartoon-related subjects.

Exhibitions
The library sponsors programs related to cartoon art by staging exhibitions, lending for exhibits elsewhere, and hosting speakers, seminars, workshops and conferences. Some physical exhibitions have been made available as digital exhibitions.

The Festival of Cartoon Art has been held triennially since 1983. Featuring two days of lectures, panel discussions, exhibitions, and receptions, it attracts cartoonists, comics scholars, fans, collectors, and students. Leading cartoonists have spoken at the festival, including Lynda Barry, Milton Caniff, Will Eisner, Jules Feiffer, Ben Katchor, Patrick Oliphant, Jeff Smith, Art Spiegelman, Garry Trudeau, and Bill Watterson.

Curators and Staff

Caswell remained as curator from 1977 to 2010. She is author of several books on cartooning, including Illusions: Ethnicity in American Cartoon Art (Ohio State Libraries, 1992) and Arnold Roth: Free Lance (Fantagraphics, 2001).

Jenny E. Robb became the museum's new curator on January 1, 2011, following the December 31, 2010, retirement of Caswell, who returned as curator of special projects in March 2011. Before arriving at Ohio State in 2005, Robb was curator of the Cartoon Art Museum in San Francisco for five years. She has master's degrees in history and museum studies from Syracuse University. Wendy Pflug joined the staff as associate curator in December 2011. Associate Curator and Assistant Professor Caitlin McGurk, who started as a Visiting Curator in February 2012, manages the libraries outreach efforts, including instruction, exhibits, tours, and social media.

Other staffers include Assistant Curators Susan Liberator and Marilyn Scott.

Books and publications
In May 2010, the Ohio State University Press announced Studies in Comics and Cartoons, a series of books edited by Caswell and Jared Gardner, associate professor in the Department of English. Books published in this series will focus on comics and graphic literature with monographs and edited collections covering the history of comics and cartoons from the editorial cartoon and early sequential comics of the 19th century through contemporary international comics and online comics.

In 2017, the Ohio State University Press began publishing Inks, a new journal for the Comics Studies Society. This journal is published triannually, and "features scholarly research on sequential art, graphic narrative, and cartooning.

Sullivant Hall Location
Expansion for the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library and Museum included the renovation of historic Sullivant Hall located on High Street adjacent to the Wexner Center for the Arts. The facility increased the library's space from  to more than . It features a reading room for researchers, three museum-quality galleries, and expanded storage space with state-of-the-art environmental and security controls.

In May 2009, Jean Schulz, widow of Charles M. Schulz, made a donation of $1 million with a promise of a matching grant if more funds were raised for the renovations. Her challenge was that she would provide an additional gift of $2.5 million if Ohio State raised the same amount from other sources to reach a $6 million total. Cartoonist Bil Keane and his family answered the Schulz Challenge with a $50,000 gift.

The $20.6 million project was completed in 2013, with Sullivant Hall housing both the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum and Ohio State's Department of Dance.

Awards
 In 2011, Lucy Caswell was honored with the Silver T-Square Award from the National Cartoonists Society.

Online gallery

Select collections have been digitized and are available as part of the library's Digital Exhibits collection.

See also
 Comics Crossroads Columbus
 Allan Holtz
 Belgian Centre for Comic Strip Art
 The Cartoon Museum, London museum dedicated to British cartoons
 Fred Waring Cartoon Collection
 George Kelley Paperback and Pulp Fiction Collection
 List of newspaper comic strips
 Michigan State University Comic Art Collection
 Roger Price Gallery
 ToonSeum

References

External links

 Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Blog
 Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum official site
 Lucy Caswell's video guided tour of the Museum collection
 Bruce Canwell visits the Museum
 Video: P. Craig Russell at the Museum
 Explore the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum Art Database
 Cartoon Topic Files
 Michigan State University Comic Art Collection
 San Francisco Academy of Comic Art collection: Comic features, 1894-1996
 Syracuse University Library Special Collections: Cartoonists

1977 establishments in Ohio
Art museums established in 1977
Art museums and galleries in Ohio
Cartooning museums
Comics-related organizations
Libraries established in 1977
Libraries in Ohio
Mass media museums in the United States
Museums in Columbus, Ohio
Ohio State University buildings
University museums in Ohio
University District (Columbus, Ohio)


Enoch Rowley was a footballer who played one game for Burslem Port Vale in January 1905.

Career
Rowley played for Biddulph before joining Second Division side Burslem Port Vale in September 1904. His only known appearance came at outside-left in a 1–0 loss to Glossop at the Athletic Ground on 7 January 1905. He was released at the end of that season.

Career statistics
Source:

References

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
Place of birth missing


Jack Beaumont Hamm (March 5, 1916 – December 22, 1996) was an American artist from Wichita, Kansas who is recognized both for his Christian-themed artwork and editorial cartoons, and for his books on drawing technique. He both studied and taught at the Frederic Mizen Academy of Art. As a cartoonist and comic strip letterer, he worked on the Bugs Bunny, Alley Oop, and Boots and Her Buddies comic strips before attending Baylor University to study theology. He taught at Baylor both before and after he graduated in 1948.

Hamm started drawing at 5 years old.  He attended Frederick Mizen Academy of Art c. 1936-1941. After finding success in cartoons, he was offered the chance to publish his own creation, but turned that down in order to study ministry at Baylor University from 1945 to 1948.

Hamm hosted an early TV drawing program, The Jack Hamm Show, in Texas and conceived of what became The New Testament from 26 Translations, published by Zondervan. His work drew praise from such diverse individuals as "Peanuts" creator Charles M. Schulz, Norman Vincent Peale, and FBI director J. Edgar Hoover.  By the end of his life, Jack Hamm's artwork could be found in over 25 books. His papers are stored at Baylor University.

Select bibliography

Teaching books
 Drawing the Head and Figure, Perigree Trade, first copyright 1962
 Cartooning the Head and Figure, Perigree Trade, first copyright 1967
 Drawing Toward God, Introduction by Charles M. Schulz, Droke House, c1968 Library of Congress Catalog: 68-16896
 How to Draw Animals, Perigree Trade, first copyright 1969
 Drawing Scenery: Landscapes and Seascapes, Penguin Group, Perigree Series, first copyright 1972
 First Lessons in Drawing and Painting, Perigree Trade, , originally named Still Life Drawing and Painting, Penguin Group(USA), c1976

Illustrations
 Pornography: The Sexual Mirage by John W. Drakeford, c1973,
 Did Genesis Man Conquer Space, by Emil Gaverluk, c1974,
 I, Golgotha by James R. Adams, c1987,
 Robed in Light by Alexandria Uriel, c1990,

External links
Frederick Mizen
Who's who in the South and Southwest: 1971-1972, Volume 12

References

1916 births
1996 deaths
American Christians
American cartoonists
Artists from Wichita, Kansas
Christian comics creators


The Sportfreunde Stuttgart is a German association football club from the city of Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg.

History

1874 to 1945
The club was formed, as a gymnastics club, on 18 April 1874, under the name of Turnverein Heslach. In June 1889, the club changed its name to Turnverein Karlsvorstadt.

On 20 June 1896, a separate football club, the Fußballclub Karlsvorstadt, was formed. In 1900, it merged with two other clubs, the F.C. Adler and the F.C. Askania to form the Stuttgarter Sportfreunde 1896.

The club was a founding member of the Südkreis-Liga in 1908, then the highest level of play in the Baden-Württemberg region. In 1909 the club participated in the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy in Italy, which is believed to be the precursor of the World Cup. The club existed there as a mid-table side but, in 1912–13, after a league reduction from 13 to eight clubs the previous season, it came last and was relegated. In this era, the club had Eugen Kipp in its ranks, who played 18 times for Germany between 1908 and 1913, 16 of those as a Sportfreunde player.

After the First World War, on 2 August 1919, Turnverein Karlsvorstadt and Stuttgarter Sportfreunde 1896 merged to form the current club, Stuttgarter Sportfreunde 1896. The team made a return to the highest league in the region, which was now the Kreisliga Württemberg and came third in 1919–20.

Sportfreundes most successful season came in 1921–22. It took out the title in its local division, the Kreisliga Württemberg having been split into two regional divisions. In the Württemberg-final, it managed to defeat Stuttgarter Kickers 1–0 and 3–2. From there, it advanced to the Württemberg-Baden championship, where it overcame Karlsruher FV 1–0 and 1–1. Advancing to the Southern German championship, it lost 0–1 to Borussia Neunkirchen in the semi-finals.

The next season saw the club missing out on qualification for the new Bezirksliga Württemberg-Baden and Sportfreunde was relegated to the second tier, where it stayed until 1926, when it earned promotion. The club managed to survive for four seasons in the Bezirksliga but was relegated once more in 1930. A fifth place in 1927–28 was its best result.

The club recovered from its temporary decline and, in 1933, it qualified for the Gauliga Württemberg, the new highest level of play in the region. It belonged to this league for the duration of its existence, until 1945. It this time, the club produced good results and finished runners-up in the league three times, never quite making it to the German championship finals.

1945 to 2013
With the resumption of football in Germany after the Second World War, Sportfreunde was grouped in the tier-two Landesliga Württemberg, which it won in 1946–47. This earned the club promotion to the Oberliga Süd, where it played for one last season in the top flight. The club came a distant last in the league in 1947–48, conceding 100 goals and being relegated back to the Landesliga. Sportfreunde became a mid-table side in this league, failing to qualify for the new 2nd Oberliga Süd in 1950 and thereby dropping another level to what was now the tier-three Amateurliga Württemberg.

The team continued to struggle against relegation but in 1954, it dropped down another level. The club made a brief recovery, earning promotion to the Amateurliga Nordwürttemberg in 1961 but being relegated again in 1964. After this, Sportfreunde never reached the higher levels of Württemberg football again, descending to the lower amateur leagues instead, to the extent that the new millennium saw it playing tier-eight football.

On 9 April 1987, the club changed its name to Sportfreunde Stuttgart 1874. The club suffered relegation from the Kreisliga A Stuttgart-Group 3 (IX) in 2008–09, finishing second-last. After two seasons in the Kreisliga B, the club returned to the Kreisliga A again in 2011. Since then the club has been achieving good results in the league, finishing runners-up in 2012 and 2013. It won promotion for a season to the Bezirksliga but was immediately relegated to the Kreisliga A in 2014 and the Kreisliga B in 2015.

Honours
The club's honours:
 Kreisliga Württemberg (I)
 Champions: 1922
 Gauliga Württemberg (I)
 Runners-up: 1936, 1940, 1943
 Landesliga Württemberg (II)
 Champions: 1947

Recent seasons
The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

 With the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 and the 3. Liga in 2008 as the new third tier, below the 2. Bundesliga, all leagues below dropped one tier.

References

External links
Official team site
Das deutsche Fußball-Archiv historical German domestic league tables

Football clubs in Germany
Football clubs in Baden-Württemberg
Association football clubs established in 1896
Sports clubs and teams established in 1874
1874 establishments in Germany
Football in Stuttgart


Lionel Cartwright is the debut studio album by American country music singer Lionel Cartwright. It was released in March 1989 (see 1989 in country music) on MCA Records. The album includes the singles "You're Gonna Make Her Mine", "Like Father, Like Son", "Give Me His Last Chance" and "In My Eyes". These latter three singles all charted in the Top 40 on the Billboard country singles charts.

Dan Cooper of Allmusic rated the album four-and-a-half stars out of five, saying that out of Cartwright's three albums, it was "still his best."

Track listing
All songs written by Lionel Cartwright except "Like Father Like Son", written by Paul Overstreet and Don Schlitz.

Chart performance

Singles

Personnel
As listed in liner notes.

 Eddie Bayers - drums
 Lionel Cartwright - mandolin, acoustic guitar, piano, fiddle, lead vocals, background vocals
 Pat Flynn - acoustic guitar
 Paul Franklin - steel guitar
 Steve Gibson - electric guitar
 Vince Gill - background vocals
 David Hungate - bass guitar
 John Barlow Jarvis - piano
 Mac McAnally - acoustic guitar, background vocals
 Mark O'Connor - mandolin, viola
 Michael Rhodes - bass guitar
 Tom Robb - bass guitar
 Matt Rollings - piano
 Steuart Smith - piano, electric guitar, acoustic guitar
 Harry Stinson - drums, background vocals

References

1989 debut albums
Albums produced by Tony Brown (record producer)
Lionel Cartwright albums
MCA Records albums


Ad orientem, meaning "to the east" in Ecclesiastical Latin, is a phrase used to describe the eastward orientation of Christian prayer and Christian worship, comprising the preposition ad (toward) and oriens (rising, sunrise, east), participle of orior (to rise).

Ad orientem has been used to describe the eastward direction of prayer that the early Christians faced when praying, a practice that continues in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodox churches, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Assyrian Church of the East, as well as the Eastern Catholic and Eastern Lutheran churches. It was normative in the Roman Catholic Church until the 1960s, and remains so in the Tridentine Mass; some Lutheran and Anglican churches continue to offer their respective liturgies ad orientem. Although the Second Vatican Council never ordered any change from ad orientem to versus populum, a posture facing the people, in the aftermath of the council the change was nevertheless widespread and became the norm. Ad orientem was never forbidden, however: the Pauline Missal, indeed, presumes that Mass is said ad orientem in its rubrics, indicating that in the celebration of the Mass the priestly celebrant faces the altar with his back to the congregants, so that they all face the same direction.

Since the time of the Early Church, the eastward direction of Christian prayer has carried a strong significance, attested by the writings of the Church Fathers. In the 2nd century, Syrian Christians hung a Christian cross on the eastern wall of their house, symbolizing "their souls facing God, talking with him, and sharing their spirituality with the Lord". Two centuries later, Saint Basil the Great declared that "facing the east to pray was among the oldest unwritten laws of the Church". Nearly all Christian apologetic tracts published in the 7th century in the Syriac and Arabic languages explained that Christians prayed facing the east because "the Garden of Eden was planted in the east () and ... at the end of time, at the second coming, the Messiah would approach Jerusalem from the east."

Parishes of the Coptic Church, a church of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, are designed to face east and efforts are made to remodel churches obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this fashion.

Christian prayer facing east

In the time of the early Church, the eastward direction of Christian prayer was the standard and carried a strong significance, attested by the writings of the Church Fathers.

Origins of the practice
The eastward direction of prayer among early Christians is a custom inherited from the Jews. At the time of the formation of Christianity, Jews commonly prayed not only towards the Temple of Solomon, where the "presence of the transcendent God (shekinah) [resided] in the Holy of Holies of the Temple", but also toward the east, although to what extent this practice was widespread is disputed. After the Temple was destroyed, synagogical liturgy continued the practice of praying in that direction, "inseparably bound up with the messianic expectation of Israel." It was the practice, Paul F. Bradshaw says, of the Jewish sects of the Essenes and the Therapeutae, for whom "the eastward prayer had acquired an eschatological dimension, the 'fine bright day' for which the Therapeutae prayed being apparently the messianic age and the Essene prayer towards the sun 'as though beseeching him to rise' being a petition for the coming of the priestly Messiah." Eventually, a "process of mutual stimulus and disaffection" between Jews and early Christians seems to have brought about the end of Jewish prayer towards the east, and Christian prayer towards Jerusalem. The Islamic practice of praying initially towards Jerusalem, as well as the concept of praying in a certain direction, is derived from the Jewish practice, which was ubiquitous among the Jewish communities of Syria, Palestine, Yathrib and Yemen.

Additionally, the Christian custom of praying towards the east may have roots in the practice of the earliest Christians in Jerusalem of praying towards the Mount of Olives, to the east of the city, which they saw as the locus of key eschatological events and especially of the awaited Second Coming of Christ. Although the localization of the Second Coming on the Mount of Olives was abandoned after the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the eastward direction of Christian prayer was retained and became general throughout Christendom.

Early Christianity
Early Christians, who were largely persecuted, usually worshipped in house churches, and the Eucharist was never exposed to non-Christians. The church-hall, according to the evidence found at Dura-Europos, was oblong, with the people facing the eastern wall, where there was a platform where the table-altar of the Eucharist was offered by the presbyter/priest, who also apparently faced east. Images of biblical scenes and figures, including that of Christ, adorned the walls, including the eastern wall. In the 2nd century, Syrian Christians indicated the direction in which to pray by placing a cross on the eastern wall of their house or church, a direction that symbolized "their souls facing God, talking with him, and sharing their spirituality with the Lord." Believers turned towards it to pray at fixed prayer times, such as in the morning, evening and other parts of the day; this practice continues among some Christians today, along with the related custom of Christian families erecting their home altar or icon corner on the east wall of their dwellings.

Among the early Church Fathers, Tertullian used the equivalent phrase ad orientis regionem (to the region of the east) in his Apologeticus (A.D. 197). Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–c. 215) says: "Since the dawn is an image of the day of birth, and from that point the light which has shone forth at first from the darkness increases, there has also dawned on those involved in darkness a day of the knowledge of truth. In correspondence with the manner of the sun's rising, prayers are made looking towards the sunrise in the east." Origen (c. 185–253) says: "The fact that [...] of all the quarters of the heavens, the east is the only direction we turn to when we pour out prayer, the reasons for this, I think, are not easily discovered by anyone." Origen "firmly rejects the argument that if a house has a fine view in a different direction, one should face that way rather than towards the east."

In the fourth century, Saint Basil the Great declared that one of the many beliefs and practices that Christians derived not from written teaching but by the tradition of the apostles was to turn to the East when praying. Using the phrase ad orientem, Augustine of Hippo mentioned the practice at the end of the fourth century.

Syriac and Arabic Christian apologetics of the 7th century explained that Christians prayed facing east because "the Garden of Eden was planted in the east () and that at the end of time, at the second coming, the Messiah would approach Jerusalem from the east." Saint John of Damascus taught that believers pray facing east because it "reminds Christians of their need to long for and strive for the paradise that God intended for them" and because "Christians affirm their faith in Christ as the Light of the world" by praying in the direction of sunrise.

Later ecclesiastics
In the ninth century, Saint John of Damascus, a Doctor of the Church, wrote:

Timothy I, an eighth-century patriarch of the Church of the East declared:

Moses Bar-Kepha, a ninth-century bishop of the Syriac Orthodox Church called praying towards the east one of the mysteries of the Church.

Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI, described the eastward orientation as linked with the "cosmic sign of the rising sun which symbolizes the universality of God." He also states in the same book (The Spirit of the Liturgy) that:

Present-day practice

Members of Oriental Orthodox Churches, such as those belonging to the Indian Orthodox Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Coptic Orthodox Church, as well as Oriental Protestant Churches such as the Mar Thoma Syrian Church, pray privately in their homes in the eastward direction of prayer at seven fixed prayer times; when a priest visits a home, he asks the family where the east is before leading them in prayer. Indian Christians and Coptic Christians in these traditions, for example, pray daily in private the canonical hours contained in the Shehimo and Agpeya, respectively (a practice done at fixed prayer times seven instances a day) facing the eastward direction.

Eastern Orthodox Christians, as well as members of the Church of the East, also face east when praying.

Members of the Pentecostal Apostolic Faith Mission continue to pray facing east, believing that it "is the direction from which Jesus Christ will come when he returns".

Liturgical orientation

The Ecclesiastical Latin phrase ad orientem is commonly used today to describe a particular posture of a priest in Christian liturgy: facing away from the people towards the apse or reredos or wall behind the altar, with priest and people looking in the same direction, as opposed to the versus populum orientation in which the priest faces the congregation. In this use, the phrase is not necessarily related to the geographical direction in which the priest is looking and is employed even if he is not facing to the east or even has his back to the east.

In the Tridentine Roman Missal published in 1570, however, ad orientem and versus populum are not mutually exclusive. The altar may indeed be versus populum (facing the people), but even in this case it is assumed to be ad orientem (towards the East): "Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum, celebrans versa facie ad populum, non vertit humeros ad altare, cum dicturus est Dóminus vobiscum, Oráte, fratres, Ite, missa est, vel daturus benedictionem ..." (If the altar is ad orientem, towards the people, the celebrant, facing the people, does not turn his back to the altar when about to say Dominus vobiscum ["The Lord be with you"], Orate, fratres [the introduction to the prayer over the offerings of bread and wine], and Ite, missa est [the dismissal at the conclusion of the Mass], or about to give the blessing ...). The wording remained unchanged in all later editions of the Tridentine Missal, even the last, which is still in use today.

History

The earliest churches in Rome had a façade to the east and an apse with the altar to the west; the priest celebrating Mass stood behind the altar, facing east and so towards the people. According to Louis Bouyer, not only the priest but also the congregation faced east at prayer. Michel Remery critiques Bouyer's view on the grounds of the unlikelihood that, in churches where the altar was to the west, Christians would turn their backs on the altar (and the priest) at the celebration of the Eucharist. According to Remery, the view prevails that the priest, facing east, would celebrate ad populum in some churches, in others not, in accordance with the churches' architecture. The official journal of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments Notitiae also commented in its May 1993 issue on the unlikelihood that the people would turn their backs on the altar so as to face east; and it recalled the reproaches of Pope Leo I against those who on entering Saint Peter's Basilica would turn round to face the rising sun and bow their heads to it.

Lang and Gamber argue that in churches with a westward apse, the people did not face either towards or away from the altar, but rather stood in the side aisles facing the opposite side aisle, which allowed them to see both the altar and the East. The central aisle would have been left empty for processions. This thesis is supported by indications that early Christians conventionally prayed both eastward and towards open doors or windows, and churches were segregated with women on one side and men on the other.

Outside of Rome, it was an ancient custom for most churches to be built with the entrance at the west end and for priest and people to face eastward to the place of the rising sun. Among the exceptions was the original Constantinian Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which had the altar in the west end.

After the Edict of Milan legitimized the building of Christian churches, the practice of praying towards the east did not result in uniformity in their orientation.

In the 8th or 9th century, the position whereby the priest faced the apse, not the people, when celebrating Mass was adopted in some basilicas of Rome. The Ordo Romanus I, dating to the early 700s, mentions the Pope turning to face the people to intone the Gloria and then immediately turning back to face east, implying that the rubric was written for a church with an eastward apse. This usage was introduced from the Frankish Empire and later became almost universal in the West. Some new churches in Francia such as St. Gall, influenced by Roman basilicas, also adopted the westward-facing apse, although this tendency was shortlived. However, the Tridentine Roman Missal continued to recognize the possibility of celebrating Mass "versus populum" (facing the people), and in several churches in Rome, it was physically impossible, even before the twentieth-century liturgical reforms, for the priest to celebrate Mass facing away from the people because of the presence, immediately in front of the altar, of the "confession" (), an area sunk below floor level to enable people to come close to the tomb of the saint buried beneath the altar.

Anglican Bishop Colin Buchanan argues that there "is reason to think that in the first millennium of the church in Western Europe, the president of the eucharist regularly faced across the eucharistic table toward the ecclesiastical west. Somewhere between the 10th and 12th centuries, a change occurred in which the table itself was moved to be fixed against the east wall, and the president stood before it, facing east, with his back to the people." This change, according to Buchanan, "was possibly precipitated by the coming of tabernacles for reservation, which were ideally both to occupy a central position and also to be fixed to the east wall without the president turning his back to them."

In 7th century England, it is said, Latin Catholic churches were built so that on the very feast day of the saint in whose honor they were named, Mass could be offered on an altar while directly facing the rising sun. However, various surveys of old English churches found no evidence of any such general practice.

Roman Catholic liturgy

The present Roman Missal of the Catholic Church (revised in 1969 following the Second Vatican Council) does not forbid the ad orientem position of the priest saying Mass: its General Instruction only requires that in new or renovated churches the facing-the-people orientation be made possible: "The altar should be built separate from the wall, in such a way that it is possible to walk around it easily and that Mass can be celebrated at it facing the people, which is desirable wherever possible." As in some ancient churches the ad orientem position was physically impossible, so today there are churches and chapels in which it is physically impossible for the priest to face the people throughout the Mass.

A letter of 25 September 2000 from the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments in the Roman Catholic Church treats the phrase "which is desirable wherever possible" as referring to the requirement that altars be built separate from the wall, not to the celebration of Mass facing the people, while "it reaffirms that the position toward the assembly seems more convenient inasmuch as it makes communication easier ... without excluding, however, the other possibility." This is also what is stated in the original text (in Latin) of the General Instruction of the Roman Missal (2002), which reads, "Altare maius exstruatur a pariete seiunctum, ut facile circumiri et in eo celebratio versus populum peragi possit, quod expedit ubicumque possibile sit." As quod is a neuter pronoun, it cannot refer back to the feminine celebratio [versus populum] and mean that celebration facing the people expedit ubicumque possible sit ("is desirable wherever possible"), but must refer to the entirety of the preceding phrase about building the altar separate from the wall so to facilitate walking around it and celebrating Mass at it while facing the people.

On 13 January 2008, Pope Benedict XVI of the Catholic Church publicly celebrated Mass in the Sistine Chapel at its altar, which is attached to the west wall. He later celebrated Mass at the same altar in the Sistine Chapel annually for the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord. His celebration of Mass in the Pauline Chapel in the Apostolic Palace on 1 December 2009 was reported to be the first time he publicly celebrated Mass ad orientem on a freestanding altar. In reality, earlier that year the chapel had been remodeled, with "the previous altar back in its place, although still a short distance from the tabernacle, restoring the celebration of all 'facing the Lord'." On 15 April 2010 he again celebrated Mass in the same way in the same chapel and with the same group. The practice of saying Mass at the altar attached to the west wall of the Sistine Chapel on the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord was continued by Pope Francis, when he celebrated the feast for the first time as Supreme Pontiff on 12 January 2014. Although neither before nor after the 20th-century revision of the Roman Rite did liturgical norms impose either orientation, the distinction became so linked with traditionalist discussion that it was considered journalistically worthy of remark that Pope Francis celebrated Mass ad orientem at an altar at which only this orientation was possible.

In a conference in London on 5 July 2016, Cardinal Robert Sarah, Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments in the Catholic Church, encouraged priests to adopt the ad orientem position from the first Sunday in Advent at the end of that year. However, the Vatican soon clarified that this was a personal view of the cardinal and that no official directives would be issued to change the prevailing practice of celebrating versus populum.

Oriental Orthodox liturgy

In Oriental Orthodox Christianity, the liturgy of the Coptic and Ethiopian rites exhort believers with the words “Look towards the East!” All churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church are designed to face east and efforts are made to remodel churches obtained from other Christian denominations that are not built in this fashion.

Eastern Orthodox liturgy

The Eastern Orthodox Church normally celebrates the Divine Liturgy facing eastward. Only in very exceptional circumstances does it do so versus populum.

Lutheran liturgy

Traditionally, in the Lutheran Churches, the Divine Service "is oriented to the East from which the Sun of Righteousness will return". Though some parishes now celebrate the Mass versus populum, the traditional liturgical posture of ad orientem is retained by many Lutheran churches.

Among Eastern Lutheran churches that celebrate the Byzantine Rite, the eastward position is universally practiced.

Anglican liturgy

The English expression "eastward position", which reflects the continuance in England of the traditional orientation abandoned elsewhere in the West, normally means not only "east-facing" but also unambiguously "the position of the celebrant of the Eucharist standing on the same side of the altar as the people, with his back to them". The opposite arrangement is likewise unambiguously called the "westward position". Those who use the phrase "ad orientem" refrain from using the correspondingly ambiguous "ad occidentem" phrase and speak of that arrangement instead as "versus populum".

With the English Reformation, the Church of England directed that the sacrament of the Holy Eucharist be celebrated at a communion table placed lengthwise in the chancel or in the body of the church, with the priest standing on the north side of the holy table, facing south. Turning to the east continued to be observed at certain points of the Anglican liturgy, including the saying of the Gloria Patri, Gloria in excelsis Deo and ecumenical creeds in that direction. Archbishop Laud, under direction from Charles I of England, encouraged a return to the use of the altar at the east end, but in obedience to the rubric in the Book of Common Prayer the priest stood at the north end of the altar. In the middle of the 19th century, the Oxford Movement gave rise to a return to the eastward-facing position, and use of the versus populum position appeared in the second half of the 20th century.

In the time when Archibald Campbell Tait was Archbishop of Canterbury (1868–1882), the eastward position, introduced by the Oxford Movement, was the object of violent controversy, leading to its outlawing by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874. In their pastoral letter of 1 March 1875, the Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England lamented "the growing tendency to associate doctrinal significance with rites and ceremonies which do not necessarily involve it. For example, the position to be occupied by the minister during the prayer of consecration in the Holy Communion' [...] We, the clergy, are bound by every consideration to obey the law when thus clearly interpreted [...]".

In spite of the legal prohibition, adoption of the eastward position became normal in the succeeding decades in most provinces of the Anglican Church with the exception of the Church of Ireland. Then, from the 1960s onward, the westward position largely replaced both eastward position and north side and, in the view of Colin Buchanan, "has proved a reconciling force within Anglican usage".

"Over the course of the last forty years or so, a great many of those altars have either been removed and pulled out away from the wall or replaced by the kind of freestanding table-like altar", in "response to the popular sentiment that the priest ought not turn his back to the people during the service; the perception was that this represented an insult to the laity and their centrality in worship. Thus developed today’s widespread practice in which the clergy stand behind the altar facing the people."

Methodist liturgy

The post-1992 United Methodist rubrics stated:

See also

Christian influences in Islam
Canonical hours
Fixed prayer times
Orientation of churches
Versus populum

References

External links
Oriented Episcopalians – List of Episcopal churches with ad orientem services, compiled by Richard Mammana

Catholic liturgical rites
Latin words and phrases
Orientation (geometry)


Arthur Pimlott (1872 – January 1895) was a footballer who played as a forward for Burslem Port Vale between 1891 and 1893.

Career
Pimlott probably joined Burslem Port Vale sometime in 1891. He scored three goals in four Midland League games and three cup games in the 1891–92 season, and featured once in the Football League Second Division in the 1892–93 season. He left the Athletic Ground in 1893, two years before his death.

Career statistics
Source:

References

1872 births
1895 deaths
Footballers from Hanley, Staffordshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Port Vale F.C. players
Midland Football League players
English Football League players


Scaphispatha is a genus of flowering plants in the family Araceae. It contains two species, S. gracilis and S. robusta. The genus was believed to be monotypic until 2003 when a new species, S. robusta was discovered by Eduardo Gomes Gonçalves in northern Brazil. The plant had been grown in cultivation for some years, but had always been assumed to be a Caladium until it flowered.

Scaphispatha gracilis Brongn. ex Schott - Bolivia, Brazil
Scaphispatha robusta E.G.Gonç. - Pará, Mato Grosso, Tocantins, Goiás

References

Aroideae
Araceae genera
Flora of Southern America
Taxa named by Adolphe-Théodore Brongniart
Taxa named by Heinrich Wilhelm Schott


U.S. Route 23 (US 23) is a United States Numbered Highway that runs from Jacksonville, Florida, to Mackinaw City, Michigan. In the state of Ohio, it is a major north–south state highway that runs from the Kentucky border at Portsmouth to the Michigan border at Sylvania.

Route description
The route crosses over the Ohio River via the U.S. Grant Bridge into the city of Portsmouth. Through downtown Portsmouth, it follows parallel one-way streets; northbound traffic is on Gay Street and southbound on Chillicothe Street. These roads merge into Scioto Trail, which becomes a divided highway north of Rosemount, and again north of Lucasville, through Piketon to just south of Waverly.

Within Waverly, the route runs concurrently with State Route 104 (SR 104), in addition to a four-block concurrency with SR 335 that ends in downtown Waverly. The concurrency with SR 104 ends just south of Chillicothe at which point US 23 becomes an expressway. The route bypasses Chillicothe to the east, including a short concurrency with US 35 before once again becoming a divided highway near Kingston. It continues as such through Circleville to the southern edge of Columbus, at the southern junction of Interstate 270 (I-270).

Columbus

In downtown Columbus, the route is applied to a one-way pair. It first jogs easterly via Livingston Avenue (north) and Fulton Street (south) before continuing northerly with northbound traffic on Fourth Street and southbound traffic on Third Street, which becomes Summit Street north of Fifth Avenue. The one-way pair ends at Hudson Street on the border of the SoHud and Glen Echo neighborhoods; both directions of US 23 jog westerly onto Hudson Street before continuing northerly on Indianola Avenue, closely paralleling I-71. The route then moves westerly again via Morse Road, then north again onto High Street on the north edge of the East Beechwold neighborhood. North of the northern junction with I-270, High Street becomes Columbus Pike.

The section immediately north of the northern junction with I-270 was upgraded with a northbound-only set of express lanes which passes under Dimension Drive, Campus View Boulevard, Radio City Boulevard, and Flint Road, with the former alignment of US 23 providing access to those roads. This configuration, known as the "Trench", opened to traffic in September 2015, and its construction coincides with a reconfiguration of the I-270 exit. After the Trench, US 23 leaves Columbus heading north.

North of Columbus
Heading north, US 23 becomes a four-lane road with a grass median, intersections at street level, and numerous public and private driveways. Starting at a short concurrency with US 42 south of Delaware, the route becomes a freeway through downtown Delaware, intersecting with US 36 and ending the concurrency with US 42. North of downtown Delaware, US 23 becomes a five-lane road, with a center lane dedicated for left-hand turns, from both directions. When it reaches the Delaware Dam and Delaware State Park south of Waldo, a grass median returns. From Waldo to southwest of Carey, the route is an expressway, all intersections with numbered U.S. and state routes are Interstate-style interchanges, while most county and local streets that intersect, are at street level and unsignaled. US 23 bypasses Waldo, Marion, and Upper Sandusky to the east. To the east and north of Upper Sandusky, US 23 runs concurrently with US 30 for about . Southwest of Carey the route then departs the expressway passing through Carey, running concurrently with SR 103 while the expressway continues westerly as SR 15. Within Carey, the concurrency with SR 103 ends, and a concurrency with SR 199 begins. The two cosigned routes continue as a rural highway to Fostoria.

Within Fostoria, US 23 runs concurrently with SR 18 while turning westerly along Lytle Street, then northerly along the Midblock Underpass in concurrency with SR 12. At the northern end of the expressway, SR 12 departs while US 23, still concurrent with SR 18/SR 199, continues westerly along South Street, then northerly along County Line Street. SR 18/SR 199 departs within Fostoria city limits, while US 23 continues northerly and becomes Fostoria Road. Northeast of Bradner, the route has a junction with US 6.

Northwest of Woodville, the route runs concurrently with US 20; the highway continues northwesterly to Perrysburg. There, US 23 begins a brief wrong-way concurrency with I-75, then departs for a concurrency with I-475, the western bypass of the Toledo metropolitan area. US 23 and I-475 run concurrently for the latter route's entire north–south portion, until I-475 departs in Sylvania to become an east–west aligned route. US 23 then continues northerly into Michigan as a freeway.

History
Before the establishment of the U.S. Numbered Highway System in 1926, the route of what would eventually become US 23 was numbered as SR 4 from Portsmouth to Marion; SR 22 from Marion to Carey; SR 63 from Carey to Fostoria; SR 199 from Fostoria to Millbury; and SR 2 from Millbury to Toledo. Over the years, portions of US 23 have been realigned to divided highway, freeway, or expressway portions. Among these are a bypass of Circleville built in 1958; the Marion–Carey expressway routing, on which work began in 1962; and a bypass of Chillicothe, on which work began in 1966.

When first established, US 23 followed its current routing from Fostoria to Woodville, then continued north along present-day Fostoria Road into Millbury and northwest along present-day SR 51 (Woodville Road) into East Toledo. There, it followed East Broadway Avenue, Starr Avenue, and Main Street to the Cherry Street Bridge (now the Martin Luther King Bridge) across the Maumee River. The route then followed Cherry Street (present-day SR 120) to Detroit Avenue (US 24), before turning west onto Laskey Road and north onto Lewis Avenue. Only a year later, the Fostoria–Toledo routing was shifted westerly, taking a northwest–southeast route that was originally designated SR 63 between Fostoria and Perrysburg, then East River Road into Toledo. It crossed the Maumee River via the Fassett Street Bridge, then followed South, Sumner, Logan, Summit, and Huron streets to rejoin its original routing. The Fostoria–Millbury routing was designated SR 199, and the Millbury–Toledo routing became SR 102, which in turn became present-day SR 51 in 1955. By 1940, US 23 was shifted westerly again in Toledo, taking the Anthony Wayne Bridge to Summit Street, then to Jefferson Avenue and Collingwood Boulevard before rejoining the previous routing.

US 23 was realigned  to follow Monroe Street northwesterly out of Toledo, joining with the first constructed segment of its current freeway routing in Sylvania. The freeway was extended southerly to US 20 (Central Avenue) by 1964. By 1969, the entire western freeway bypass of Toledo was complete, carrying the current routings of both US 23 and I-475. In addition, US 23 and SR 199 were swapped north of Fostoria in 1969, as US 23 reverted to its pre-1927 routing between Fostoria and Woodville, then running concurrently with US 20 from there to Perrysburg. The 1927–1969 routing of US 23 between Fostoria and Perrysburg thus became part of SR 199.

A plan was proposed by the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) in July 2020 to improve safety along US 23 in Wyandot County by reconfiguring several intersections and closing others to eliminate cross traffic and turns across opposing traffic for the stretch of US 23 between the interchange at SR 231 in Marion County and the interchange at SR 199 south of Upper Sandusky. After public comments, the proposal was revised to drop one intersection from the plan over concerns about the impact on emergency services. The rest of the plan was rejected by the Wyandot County Commission in May 2021 because of the impacts on the community and the community's preference for an interchange at SR 294.

Weigh stations were once located on US 23 just north of the split with US 35, but they were decommissioned and later converted into truck parking in 2023. Ross County had wanted the space to be utilized into a full interchange with Marietta and Seney Roads as a part of their 2008 Thoroughfare Plan.

Future
North of Upper Sandusky in Salem Township, Wyandot County, there have been a number of serious crashes at the intersection with County Road 44 and Township Road 44 from 2016 to 2021. To improve its safety, beginning April 11, 2022, ODOT will convert the intersection to a pair of right-in/right-outs and close the median crossover. Once this conversion is completed, the stretch of US 23 from SR 199 south of Upper Sandusky, through this junction, will be free of cross traffic and turns across opposing traffic.

Major intersections

References

External links

23

Transportation in Scioto County, Ohio
Transportation in Pike County, Ohio
Transportation in Ross County, Ohio
Transportation in Pickaway County, Ohio
Transportation in Franklin County, Ohio
Transportation in Delaware County, Ohio
Transportation in Marion County, Ohio
Transportation in Wyandot County, Ohio
Transportation in Seneca County, Ohio
Transportation in Sandusky County, Ohio
Transportation in Wood County, Ohio
Transportation in Lucas County, Ohio


Juan Guitéras y Gener (or Juan Guiteras) (January 4, 1852 – October 28, 1925), was a Cuban physician and pathologist specializing in yellow fever.

Guiteras studied medicine at the University of Havana, and moved to the United States in 1873 to attend the University of Pennsylvania, and graduated that same year. He worked at Philadelphia Hospital until 1879, when he went into the U.S. Navy as a physician and began to research yellow fever, working with Stanford Chaillé and George Miller Sternberg in the Havana Yellow Fever Commission. On May 5, 1883 he married Dolores Gener in Cuba. He then taught at the Medical University of South Carolina from 1884 to 1888, and then taught at the University of Pennsylvania from 1889 to 1898. In 1893, he served as an Assistant Secretary-General at the first Pan-American Medical Congress. When the Spanish–American War broke out, Guiteras went to Cuba with the U.S. Army and joined the yellow fever research team led by William C. Gorgas.

Around this same time, Carlos Finlay and Walter Reed discovered that the Aedes mosquito was the disease vector for yellow fever. Guiteras confirmed Finlay's results and collaborated with him to help eradicate Aedes from Cuba, reducing the incidence of yellow fever there. In 1900 he became chair of the Pathology and Tropical Diseases department at the University of Havana and founded the Journal of Tropical Medicine. In 1902 he became director of the Cuban Department of Public Health and continued research in pathology. He was a member of the Yellow Fever Commission of the International Health Board in 1916.

Bibliography

 Recent Discoveries on Malaria and the Mosquito (1900)

 Chappe, Aceotapia mutilans (1904)
 Cartas sobre el cólera (Letters on the cholera) (1911)
 Selección de los trabajos del doctor Finley (Selected works of Dr. Finley (1911)
  English translation  Bubonic plague in Cuba published in 1915.
 Insect Borne Diseases (1916)

References

1852 births
1925 deaths
Cuban pathologists
United States Navy Medical Corps officers
University of Pennsylvania alumni
University of Pennsylvania faculty
Cuban non-fiction writers
Cuban male writers
Male non-fiction writers
Writers from Spanish Cuba


Elisabet Boehm (née Steppuhn) (27 September 1859 – 30 May 1943) was a German feminist, writer, founder of the first Landwirtschaftlichen Hausfrauenvereins ("Agricultural Housewives' Society") and the founder of the rural women's movement in general.

Biography
Elisabet Steppuhn was born in Rastenburg, East Prussia, and married landowner Otto Boehm in 1880.  She formed the first Landwirtschaftlichen Hausfrauenvereins, initially with fifteen members, in Rastenburg in 1898.  The society's objectives were to promote educational and training opportunities, recognition of housework as professional work, bridging the gap between urban and rural and practical matters, such as improvement of production and sales in the agricultural sector.

Further societies with the same objective were established, and in 1905 Boehm was elected Chairman of the newly established East Prussian Society.  By 1916 the Reichsbund Landwirtschaftlicher Hausfrauenvereine ("Reich Federation of Agricultural Housewives' Societies") had emerged, of which Boehm was Chairman until 1929.

Boehm was also concerned with women's vocational training and in 1912, she founded the first Landwirtschaftliche Frauenschule ("Rural Women's School").

Publications
Translator's note: These are in German.
 Elisabet Boehm; Dr. W. Borgmann; E. A. Brödermann; Dr. H. Bade u.a.: Illustriertes Landwirtschafts-Lexikon ("Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Agriculture"). 2 Bände. Hrsg. v. P. Gisevius. 5. neubearbeitete Auflage. Berlin: Verlagsbuchhandlung Paul Parey, 1920,  625 und 558 Seiten; 6., neubearb. Auflage, 1923
 Die deutsche Landfrau und ihr Wirken in Haus und Vaterland ("The German Woman and her Work for Home and Fatherland"). Berlin: Paul Parey, 1924, 181 S.; 2., neubearbeitete Auflage 1927, 183 S. (Enthält eine Vielzahl von Tips für Haus und Hof, u.a. zur Geflügelzucht, der Imkerei, dem Obstbau, dem Reinemachen, der Gastlichkeit, Nachbarschaftspflege, der sozialen Arbeit...)
 Wie ich dazu kam! (loosely, "How I got there!") Berlin: Reichsnährstand Verlags-GmbH, 1941, 60 S.

Sources
 Christina Schwarz: Elisabet Boehm und der landwirtschaftliche Hausfrauenverein. Im Zeichen der Biene ("Elisabet Boehm and the Agricultural Housewives' Society: Beneath the Bee"). Hamburg: Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen, Abteilung Kultur, 1991, 56 S

Notes

External links

1859 births
1943 deaths
19th-century German people
20th-century German people
German feminists
German non-fiction writers
People from the Province of Prussia
People from Kętrzyn
20th-century German women


The Konica Minolta Face-Off Classic is an annual college lacrosse event played in Baltimore, Maryland early in the NCAA Division I season.  From 2007 to 2009, the event consisted of a doubleheader; in 2010 it was expanded to include a third game.  The event takes place in M&T Bank Stadium, the home field of the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League, and it was first held 2007. The event is hosted by the manufacturer Konica Minolta. The inaugural Face-Off Classic in 2007 set the attendance record for a regular season lacrosse-only event with 20,130 spectators. That was broken by the 2009 Big City Classic. The event was not held in 2014.

Results

See also
Big City Classic, an NCAA men's lacrosse tournament held annually at Meadowlands Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey

References

External links
Face-Off Classic Official Website

College lacrosse competitions in the United States
NCAA lacrosse
College sports in Maryland
Sports competitions in Baltimore


Thomas Reaney was a footballer who played three games at right-back in the Football League for Burslem Port Vale in the mid-1900s.

Career
Reaney played for Bridgetown Amateurs before joining Burslem Port Vale in August 1904. His debut came on 17 December; in a 2–1 defeat to Bolton Wanderers at the Athletic Ground. He played only a further two Second Division games before being released at the end of the season.

Career statistics
Source:

References

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
English men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
Place of birth missing


This is a list of casinos in Mississippi.

List of casinos

Gallery

See also

List of casinos in the United States
List of casino hotels

References

External links

Casinos - VisitMississippi.org

Mississippi
Casinos


JS Haruna (DDH-141) was the lead ship of the Haruna-class helicopter destroyer of the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force.

Overview

These ships were Japan's first helicopter-equipped destroyer (DDH), and their greatest feature was that it can carry and operate three helicopters in spite of its 5000t class. Such ships, including the development-improved Shirane-class destroyer, can be said to be the only one in the world to this day, and strongly reflect Japan's special military ideology. In terms of equipment, it was the first self-defense ship to be equipped with a fin stabilizer to stabilize its attitude during helicopter operation, and a landing restraint device (bear trap) was installed to improve the safety and efficiency of flight work on a swaying ship.

Until the introduction of the Kongō-class destroyer (Aegis ship), this class (including the Shirane-class destroyer) were the largest escort ship of the JMSDF.

Construction and career
Haruna was laid down on 19 March 1970 and launched on 1 February 1972 by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Nagasaki Shipyard. She was commissioned on 22 March 1973, into the 1st Escort Corps and deployed in Yokosuka.

It was dispatched in response to the 10th Yuyomaru incident that occurred in Tokyo Bay on November 9, 1974.  On November 26, she arrived at the incident site together with the escort vessels JDS Takatsuki, JDS Mochizuki, JDS Narushio and JDS Yukikaze. She was dispatched to Tokyo Bay and fired to sink the vessel from the 27th to the 28th. On November 27, the 51st Escort Corps was formed under the 1st Escort Corps, and was incorporated together with JDS Hiei, when she was commissioned on the same day.

In July 1975, she participated in a joint anti-submarine warfare training with the US Navy along with JDS Hiei, JDS Akizuki, JDS Makishio and JDS Narushio, south of Honshu.  From July 3 to August 17, 1978, she participated in Hawaii dispatch training with the JDS Hiei, JDS Kuroshio, and eight P-2J aircraft.

On March 27, 1981, the 52nd Escort Corps was formed under the 2nd Escort Corps, and was incorporated with JDS Kurama, when she was commissioned on the same day. Home port was transferred to Sasebo.  From November 2 to December 2, 1982, she participated in the Hawaii dispatch training with the escort vessels JDS Shirane, JDS Asakaze and eight P-2Js.  On March 30, 1983, the 52nd Escort Corps was abolished and became a ship under the direct control of the 2nd Escort Corps.

On March 30, 1984, she was transferred to the 3rd Escort Group as their flagship.  From March 31, 1986, FRAM repair started at Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Nagasaki Shipyard & Machinery Works. This refurbishment improved anti-submarine search capability, individual ship air defense capability, combat command / information processing capability, and electronic warfare capability, and extended the age of the ship by eight years. This FRAM repair work was completed on October 31, 1987, and returned to the flagship of the 3rd Escort Crops.  From June 16 to September 6, 1989, she was dispatched to the United States with JDS Shimakaze and JDS Mineyuki and participated in the Japan-US joint exercise READIEX 89-4A.  In 1990, participated in the Exercise RIMPAC 1990.  From June 15 to September 5, 1995, she participated in the US dispatch training with JDS Sawakaze and three P-3C aircraft.  From June 9 to September 3, 1997, she participated in the US dispatch training with JDS Hamagiri, JDS Myōkō and five P-3C aircraft.

On March 20, 1998, her home port was transferred to Maizuru. On October 13, the same year, she participated in the International Fleet Review to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of Korea in Busan, South Korea, along with JDS Setogiri and JDS Myōkō.  On February 18, 1999, during a firing circuit test of a high-performance 20mm machine gun (CIWS) while berthed at Maizuru Port, two live ammunition were fired accidentally and landed near Mt. Aoba, east of the port.  On March 24, the same year, in the case of a suspicious ship off the Noto Peninsula, the first "maritime security action" was announced, and it was dispatched with JDS Myōkō and JDS Abukuma to fire warning shots at the suspicious ship.

On February 12, 2002, based on the Act on Special Measures Against Terrorism, dispatched to the Indian Ocean along with JDS Sawakaze and JDS Tokiwa. She was on duty until June of the same year and returned to Japan on August 7.  On July 15, 2003, she was dispatched to the Indian Ocean along with the escort ship (at that time) JDS Asagiri and JDS Towada. She was on duty until October of the same year and returned to Japan on November 19.

In 2004, she participated in the Exercise RIMPAC 2004.

On August 21, 2007, she made a goodwill visit to the Russian Pacific Fleet base in Vladivostok. The arrival press conference was held in the Golden Horn.  On March 26, 2008, the escort corps was reorganized and transferred to the 3rd Escort Corps. In the same year, participated in the Exercise RIMPAC 2008.

Removed from the register on March 18, 2009. The total cruising range was 959,652.1 miles (48 laps of the earth, equivalent to 2.3 round trips per month), the total number of helicopter landings were 55,013, and the total number of flights were 21,927 hours.

In October 2009, she set off to a dismantling company located in Etajima, and was completed dismantled in January 2010.

Gallery

Citations

References

hazegray.org: Haruna DDH 141
globalsecurity.org: DDH Haruna Class

Haruna-class destroyers
Ships built by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
1972 ships


Pukkelpop 2008 was a music festival that took place on the plains beside the Kempische Steenweg in Kiewit, Belgium, located near the city of Hasselt, on the 14th, 15th, and 16 August.

Metallica, The Killers, and Sigur Rós headlined the event, which also saw appearances from acts such as The Flaming Lips, Hot Chip, Within Temptation, Erol Alkan, Manic Street Preachers, MGMT, and Crystal Castles. Belgian electro band Soulwax brought the festival to a close, performing on the Main Stage on the final night.

This year saw the introduction of a new indoor stage, The Shelter. It replaced the Skate Stage, the event's second outdoor stage and a festival mainstay for the past decade. The new setting still focused on punk and metal acts, with Soulfly, Meshuggah, and Killswitch Engage closing the stage on each of the three nights respectively.

The event was attended by 152,000 people, a record number for the festival at the time.

Line-up

Thursday, August 14

Friday, August 15

Saturday, August 16

External links
 Official website for 2008 edition
 Official website for current edition

Pukkelpop
2008 in Belgium
2008 in music
2008 music festivals


Sergey Petrovich Degayev (also spelled Degaev; ; 1857 in Moscow – 1921 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania) was a Russian revolutionary terrorist, Okhrana agent, and the murderer of inspector of secret police Georgy Sudeykin. After emigrating to the United States, Degayev took the name Alexander Pell and became a prominent American mathematician, the founder of school of Engineering at the University of South Dakota. The Dr. Alexander Pell scholarship is named in his honor.

Russian revolutionary and Okhrana agent

Family
Sergey Degayev was born in Moscow to the family of a military physician, state counsellor Peter Degayev. His maternal grandfather was a prominent Russian writer, Nikolai Polevoy. His father died in the 1860s, and Degayev's mother became the head of the family; she was, for her time, a well-educated woman, whose interests included reading and learning foreign languages. When the court sentenced pregnant revolutionary Hesya Helfman to death, she tried, unsuccessfully, to adopt the baby, despite a possible conflict with the authorities.

Degayev had three sisters—Marie, Nathalie, and Elizabeth—and a brother Vladimir, who was seven years his junior. While Marie was much older than Sergey, married early and did not play a large role in the life of the family, Nathalie (after marriage Makletsova) and Elizabeth (Liz) were very close to him. Natalie was a musician, while Elizabeth was a poet. Both sisters were involved in the Narodnaya Volya revolutionary movement. Vladimir was also deeply involved with Narodnaya Volya. As the oldest son, Sergey had to provide financial support for the family.

Military officer, student and engineer

At the age of nine, Sergey entered a Moscow Cadet school. After graduation, Sergey entered the Mikhailovskaya Artillery Academy in Saint Petersburg. He was accused of organizing anti-government underground "circles" in Saint Petersburg and Kronstadt. The accusations were never proven, but in 1879, Degayev was nevertheless expelled from the Academia. He briefly served as a military officer and was discharged from the Army with the rank of Staff captain in the same year.

Degayev was enrolled to the Saint Petersburg Institute for Rail Road Engineering in 1880. During his studies, he became acquainted with Andrei Zhelyabov and members of his circle; and in 1880, he became a full-fledged member of Narodnaya Volya, a revolutionary organization that turned to terrorist methods. After the 1879 Lipetsk Congress of Narodnaya Volya, which "sentenced" tsar Alexander II to death, most of the organization's resources were directed to the tsar's assassination. Degayev took an active part in an unsuccessful assassination attempt by digging and mining a tunnel under Malaya Sadovaya Street in Saint Petersburg. Some sources also suggest that Degayev had a role in the successful assassination of the tsar on 1 March 1881 and even observed the explosion that killed him. Degayev was among those arrested in connection with the assassination, but his guilt was not proven; he returned to his institute and received his degree in June 1881.

After graduating Degayev obtained an engineering position in Arkhangelsk. There he met Lyubov Ivanova, a young woman who shared his political views; he fell in love and married her on their trip to Saint Petersburg in November 1881.

Georgy Sudeykin and Vladimir Degayev

At that time, Gendarme Lieutenant Colonel Georgy Sudeykin was among the most dangerous enemies of Narodnaya Volya. He had eliminated the Kiev division of Narodnaya Volya almost entirely and was appointed the Head of the Secret Department of police of Saint Petersburg, responsible for coordination of all the secret agents in the capital of the Russian Empire. Later he would be appointed a special position of the Inspector of the Secret Police, a post specially created for him. As the primary hunter of Narodnaya Volya, he was also a main target of their assassination attempts. Sudeykin rarely lived in the same place for more than a few weeks; he used several passports and several uniforms of different governmental departments. He even temporarily lodged his wife and children in a Saint Petersburg prison, given that he felt it was the only safe place in the whole Empire.

Sudeykin was an avid supporter of using agent provocateurs inside the revolutionary movements not only to catch the active members but also to instigate quarrels and disputes, spread false rumours, and transmit the opinion that all the leading revolutionaries were spies or provocateurs. He was proud of his successes in recruiting his agents among the revolutionaries claiming that every member of an anti-government movement is either corrupt or naive: the corrupt can always be recruited by promise of money or by threats while the naive can always be recruited by appeal to their idealism.

Around November 1881 Vladimir, the younger brother of Degayev, was arrested for his participation in the Narodnaya Volya movement. He was interrogated by Sudeykin, who offered Vladimir freedom in exchange for collaboration with the Okhrana. Vladimir managed to inform the Executive Committee of Narodnaya Volya about the offer. Degayev participated in the discussions and proposed a plan: that Vladimir should accept Sudeikin's offer, and after becoming a police informer should arrange a secret meeting with Sudeykin at which Narodnaya Volya would kill Sudeykin. In March 1882 the plan was adopted by the Executive Commission of Narodnaya Volya. Vladimir agreed to work as an Okhrana agent, was released from prison and arranged a few meetings between Sudeykin and Sergey Degaev, who was charged with preparing for the assassination. However, soon most of Petersburg's Narodnaya Volya members were arrested. Sergey Degayev moved to Tiflis to avoid the arrests and work on the Tiflis-Baku railway. Vladimir Degayev abandoned the plan of killing Sudeykin and was soon removed from the list of Okhrana agents "for inactivity."

Leader of Narodnaya Volya and Okhrana Agent
In summer 1882, Degayev worked in Tiflis as a railroad engineer and organized Narodnaya Volya circles among Tiflis military officers. He presented himself as a member of the Executive Committee of Narodnaya Volya although he was not a member at that time. In autumn 1882, most of the Narodnaya Volya members in Tiflis were arrested and Degayev was ordered by the Narodnaya Volya leader Vera Figner to move to Odessa and organize an underground press there. On 18 December 1883 Degayev and the whole of his group was arrested.

After interrogation by Georgy Sudeykin, Degayev agreed to become an Okhrana informant. Almost all information about the deal came from Degayev himself, in an explanation he gave to his sister Natalia and to a Narodnaya Volya "court." According to Degayev, Sudeykin had appealed to his vanity and idealism. Sudeykin promised that in a few years they both would be de facto rulers of the Russian Empire by using the Okhrana to remove Degayev's superiors in Narodnaya Volya and by using Narodnaya Volya to remove Sudeykin's superiors in the Okhrana. He also promised Degayev secret meetings with tsar Alexander III, the police chief Vyacheslav von Plehve and the influential Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod Konstantin Pobedonostsev so that Degayev could present to them his plan of state reforms. According to Degayev, he indeed met Plehve and Pobedonostsev but not the tsar. However, research in the Soviet Union suggested that Degayev started to work as an Okhrana informant a few years earlier purely for financial reasons. Researcher Yu.F. Ovchenko states that Degayev started to work as an Okhrana informant in 1882 after his wife was arrested by Sudeykin. His cooperation with the Okhrana was a condition of Lyubov's release At any rate the agreement with Sudeykin provided a handsome monetary compensation for Degayev: 300 Russian roubles monthly plus 1000 roubles for each trip abroad.

Sudeykin staged Degayev's escape from prison. Information obtained from Degayev allowed the Okhrana to arrest the leader of Narodnaya Volya Vera Figner, to almost completely destroy the military wing of the organization, to arrest almost all members in the Tiflis, Nikolaev, and Kharkov organizations. After those arrests Degayev became a de facto leader of Narodnaya Volya. Information obtained from Degayev and from subsequent arrests allowed police to assure the tsar that his coronation ceremony would be safe. Alexander III was crowned on 27 May 1883.

Inspired by Alexandre Dumas's novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later, Sudeykin sent Degayev to Switzerland to lure two remaining Narodnaya Volya leaders, Lev Tikhomirov and Peter Lavrov, to Russia to be arrested. Tikhomirov and Lavrov suspected foul play and refused to move but kept their suspicions to themselves for a while. Trying to deflect suspicions from Degayev, Sudeykin decided to sacrifice police informer Fyodor Shkryaba, a member of Narodnaya Volya recruited by the Okhrana who still provided information of low interest to the Okhrana. Sudeykin planted evidence of Shkryaba being an informant and Narodnaya Volya blamed all the recent arrests on Shkryaba. Subsequently Degayev organized the assassination of Shkryaba.

In June 1883 Narodnaya Volya resumed publication of Listok Narodnoy Voly, an underground newspaper, as a demonstration that the organization was alive. Degayev published an article praising pogroms against Jews and urging members to incite more pogroms. At the time, Narodnaya Volya had an ambivalent position on antisemitism. Some theoreticians applied Marxist analysis and saw pogroms as a manifestation of the class struggle between oppressed peasants and oppressive Jewish petite bourgeoisie. On the other hand, many Narodnaya Volya members saw pogroms as incited by the tsarist Government and as one of the most revolting of the regime's crimes. The question of antisemitism was rendered even more divisive by the fact that many members were ethnic Jews. Richard Pipes speculated that the article was a part of Sudeykin's plan to transform Narodnaya Volya from an anti-government to an ultra-nationalist organisation similar to the later Black Hundreds.

Toward the middle of 1883, Sudeykin and Degayev established quite friendly relations. Sudeykin regularly visited the apartment of his agent and even used the apartment for his extramarital affairs. Sometimes they had wagers: once, Degayev announced that there was a person of interest to police in Saint Petersburg at the moment and claimed that Sudeykin would not be able to catch him without Degayev's help. Sudeykin answered that he had enough agents besides Degayev. The pair had a monetary bet that Sudeykin would not be able to effect an arrest: Sudeykin lost.

At that time Sudeykin was frustrated with his superiors. He did not like their attempts to put legal constraints on the actions of his secret police. He also considered his rank of Lieutenant Colonel (the seventh in the Table of Ranks) to be absurdly low for a person of his importance within the state security apparatus. Sudeykin proposed to Degayev a plan . Sudeykin would resign from his position, stating that he did not have enough powers to do his job properly. Soon Narodnaya Volya would assassinate the tsar's brother Grand Duke Vladimir and the tsar's aide Konstantin Pobedonostsev. The double assassination would frighten the tsar into accepting all Sudeykin's demands over the powers of secret police and might, too, make the tsar more responsive to Degayev's suggestions about government reforms.  Sudeykin also gave Degayev information about the movements of Sudeykin's own boss, the Minister of Interior Dmitry Tolstoy considering that the killing might free a deserved position for Sudeykin. Unexpectedly the tsar refused Sudeykin's letter of resignation, causing the pair to postpone assassination plans to 1884.

Assassination of Georgy Sudeykin

Some immigrant members of Narodnaya Volya harbored suspicions about Degayev, which were confirmed after Degayev talked with another prominent Narodnaya Volya member, German Lopatin, an experienced escapee from prisons himself. Lopatin found many inconsistencies in Degayev's story about his escape from Odessa prison. Interrogated by Lev Tikhomirov, Degayev confessed that he was an Okhrana agent and offered to help kill Sudeykin. On 17 October – 19 October 1883, the Executive Committee of Narodnaya Volya, which at that time consisted of eight Russians and three Poles, decided to spare Degayev's life if he killed Sudeykin. They appointed two young Narodnaya Volya members, V. P. Konashevich and N. P. Starodvorsky to assist Degayev and to ensure that Degayev would not renege on his promise.

The conspirators planned to get Sudeykin to visit Degayev's apartment and to kill him there. Degayev insisted that because of Sudeykin's great physical strength and his great ability with guns, their only chance was to shoot Sudeykin unexpectedly. For some reason Sudeykin twice missed his appointed meetings (6 December 1883 and 13 December 1883). To lure Sudeykin to the next meeting Degayev told him a story that he had a woman from Narodnaya Volya staying in his apartment who had planned to assassinate the tsar but who could possibly be persuaded to become an Okhrana agent. Sudeykin came on 16 December accompanied by his nephew, another secret police officer, Nikolay (Koka) Sudovsky. Degayev invited Sudeykin to the bedroom to be introduced to the woman and in the passageway between the dining room and the bedroom, near the watercloset, shot him in the back. Mortally wounded, Sudeykin cried to his nephew: "Koka, take your gun and help me!" But Koka ran out of the apartment. While he was struggling with the locks trying to open the door Konashevich came from behind and with several blows of a crowbar cracked Sudovsky's skull. Unexpectedly Sudeykin was able to stand up and walk to the dining room. There he was shot by Starodvorsky. Degayev (and later Konashevich) ran away from the apartment without waiting for the end of the ordeal. Degayev was sure that his accomplices had been ordered to kill him after Sudeykin was killed. The gunshots and cries were heard all across the building; however, when the concierge reported to the local police they told him that they had instructions not to interfere with the apartment whatever happened there. The apartment was searched only the next day after Sudeykin's servant reported that his master had not returned at the expected hour. Rushing to the apartment police found the dying Koka and dead Sudeykin.

All the posts in the Empire were plastered with posters showing Degayev's photographs and announcing 5000 roubles for information as to his whereabouts and 10,000 roubles for help in catching him. Still the conspirators had a good lead on their hunters and successfully arrived in Paris. At a winter 1884 meeting, Narodnaya Volya, led by V. A. Karaulov, Lev Tikhomirov and German Lopatin, fulfilled its end of the bargain and granted Degayev his life on the condition that he never again appear in the Russian Empire. Lev Tikhomirov personally verified that he boarded a steamship bound for South America.

American mathematician
From South America Degayev moved to the United States; there he joined his wife, Lyubov Degayeva. His brother, Vladimir Degayev, who worked at the time in a Russian consulate in the United States and moonlighted as a foreign correspondent for a few Russian publications printed an article claiming that Sergey Degayev was killed in New Zealand, discouraging searches for him by both Russian police and Russian revolutionaries.

Both Vladimir and Sergey Degayevs were registered in the USA under the name Polevoi after their maternal grandfather Nikolai Polevoy. After his naturalization Alexander (Sergey) took the name Alexander Pell and his wife took the name Emma Pell. At first they were poor; Sergey worked as a stevedore and as an unskilled labourer while his wife worked as a cook and a laundress.  In 1895 Alexander was enrolled into a PhD program in Johns Hopkins University with majors in mathematics and astronomy and a minor in English. During his study he was financially supported by his wife who continued to work as a cook. He received his doctorate in 1897 for the dissertation On the Focal surfaces of the Congruences of Tangents to a Given Surface.

The University of South Dakota was established in the frontier town of Vermillion and started its classes in 1882. In 1897 they decided that they needed a professor of mathematics. They asked Professor L. S. Hulburt from Johns Hopkins if he could suggest a suitable candidate. He replied that he "could suggest a first class mathematician who had the disadvantage of having a strong Russian brogue". The reply from South Dakota was "Send your Russian mathematician along, brogue and all".

Alexander Pell was immensely popular among his students who referred to him as the "class father" and "Jolly Little Pell" (who could "crack jokes faster than the freshmen could crack nuts"). He was a good researcher, a member of the American Mathematical Society and the author of many journal publications. He was also an accomplished administrator who organized the School of Engineering of the University of South Dakota and became its first Dean (1905).

Alexander Pell had a habit of providing financial support from his own resources, and providing accommodation in his house to a few of his students. One such student was Anna Johnson, the future accomplished mathematician Anna Johnson Pell Wheeler. Anna Johnson received her A.B. degree under Pell's supervision in 1903 and continued her study at the University of Iowa and then at the University of Göttingen. In 1904 Emma Pell died.  Three years later Alexander Pell went to Göttingen and married Anna in July 1907. They both returned to Vermillion where Anna taught classes in the theory of functions and differential equations and Alexander was the Dean of Engineering. In 1908 Pell resigned from the University of South Dakota and went with Anna to Chicago. There Anna completed her doctorate under E. H. Moore, while Pell took a position at the Armour Institute of Engineering (currently Illinois Institute of Technology). In 1911 Pell suffered a stroke and was unable to work thereafter. The same year the Pells moved to South Hadley, Massachusetts where Anna taught at Mount Holyoke College. In 1918 they moved again to Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania where Anna taught at Bryn Mawr College. Alexander Pell died in Bryn Mawr in 1921.

Despite his past as a political activist Alexander Pell was not much involved in American politics although he always voted for the Republican Party (his former comrades from Narodnaya Volya considered Republicans "ultra-bourgeois"). His opinion about his former country was strongly negative. He never spoke Russian at home. During the Russo-Japanese War he supported Japan. After the October Revolution and beginning of the Red Terror he wrote: "Accursed Russia: even after liberating herself, she does not let people live".

Dr. Alexander Pell scholarship

In 1952, Anna Johnson Pell Wheeler established the Dr. Alexander Pell scholarship. The fund continues to operate. It is given to prominent undergraduates majoring in mathematics.

References

Bibliography

David C. Rapoport, Terrorism: The first or anarchist wave, Taylor & Francis, 2006,

External links

Revolutionaries from the Russian Empire
Okhrana informants
20th-century American mathematicians
Johns Hopkins University alumni
University of South Dakota people
Illinois Institute of Technology faculty
1857 births
1921 deaths
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States
People from Vermillion, South Dakota


The Revolutionary Council () of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) ruled the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan from 1978 until its collapse in 1992. The council was the supreme state power under the communist regime and was a carbon copy of the Supreme Soviet in the Soviet Union. The point with the council was to convene on a semiannual basis to approve decisions made by the presidium.

Rise to power
After the Saur Revolution the biggest problem facing the party was the inner conflict between the two biggest groups in the party, the Khalqs and the Parchams. After taking power, Nur Mohammad Taraki refused to reveal information about the PDPA's organization and how it was built up. Taraki never revealed the identities of the members of the Revolutionary Council during his reign.

When the PDPA seized power with help from the Afghan army, it was the army soldiers to announce their victory over Mohammed Daoud Khan and the first decree ever released by the government was released by the Revolutionary Council of the Armed Forces under the control of Afghan air force Colonel Abdul Qadir. The Revolutionary Council of the Armed Forces eventually merged itself with the Revolutionary Council of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Later on the members of the Revolutionary Council met and elected Taraki as the Chairman of the Council and Prime Minister of Afghanistan. Taraki eventually revealed that there were in total 35 members in the council, which five of them were military officers and all of them were members of the PDPA. Taraki never published a list of the members of the Revolutionary Council and because of that most their names remains unknown.

On the Revolutionary Council's second meeting on 1 May 1978 they elected the new Ministers of Afghanistan. The meeting showed indicated that the distribution of power was in the Khalqs hands with 11 Khalqis being elected and 7 Parchamis. Babrak Karmal was elected to the position of Vice Chairman of the council, the second highest position. He was also elected Deputy Prime Minister in which he shared with Hafizullah Amin and Mohammad Aslam Watanjar. While a minority, the Parcham were able to get some important ministries such as the Ministry of the Interior, under the control of Nur Ahmed Nur. The Khalqis had full control of the Afghan security forces, Major Daoud Taroon was elected Chief of Police and Assadullah Sarwari was elected as the new boss of the Afghan secret police, AGSA.

On 24 May 1978 the Politburo announced the enlargement of the Revolutionary Council. This new enlarged council met for the first time on 12 June 1978 and this meeting is marked with two controversial changes. The first being to change the flag and replace it with a fully red one. The other being the declaration of the royal family to be traitors and removing their Afghan citizenships. Five days later the Revolutionary Council had a new meeting about the Parcham in the government, while not much information was or has been released about this meeting most of the Parcham politicians of the party were sent abroad as ambassadors.

Under the regime of Karmal, the Parchamis took the most important government positions, while also Independent politician rose to power. The Khalqi faction still outnumbered the Parchamis, especially in Afghan military and other security sectors. Because of the Khalq-Parcham power struggle discipline within the party broke down. Karmal tried to replace seven Khalqi military officers with Parchamis to get better control of the party, the officers ended sending the letters back. The government did nothing to intervene or stop these officers, while the government of Karmal eventually executed thirteen Amin supporters. This would indirectly lead to the Khalqi failed military coups in June, July and October which all happened in 1980. This eventually led to the purge of the Khalqis from the government which virtually shut down the government leaving the country at the hands of the Soviet advisers. During this phase the Parchamis with the help of the Soviets were able to crush the coup at the last second. While Karmal was unsuccessful when it came to destroy factionalism within the party, the party became more secure because of the Khalqi purge of the government. In June 1981 the Revolutionary Council with the Central Committee was again expanded, with now including fifteen more members. At this meeting Nur was appointed President of the Council and Sultan Ali Keshtmand became the new Prime Minister of Afghanistan.

New constitution
In November 1986, Karmal resigned his post as President of the Council and left the new post open to former KHAD leader Mohammad Najibullah. Before Najibullah rose to power Sultan Ali Keshtmand was acting president of Afghanistan and the council. Under Najibullah's sought a ceasefire between Mujahideen and government forces, he called this process National Reconciliation. After the National Reconciliation talks the Loya jirga ratified the new constitution made by Najibullah and various resistance groups. The new constitution abolished the one-party system in the country and saw the establishment of the Meli Shura (Loya jirga), Sena (Senate) and the Wolasi Jirga (House of Representatives) which would eventually replace the Revolutionary Council. They also agreed to remove "democratic" from the official name of Afghanistan, so since 1987-1992 the official name was the Republic of Afghanistan.

Organization
The Presidium of the Revolutionary Council consisted of all Revolutionary Council office bearer and some others. The Presidium's main role in PDPA and DRA politics was to serve as a legislature of such, approving state decisions before the Revolutionary Council could ratify them. The Presidium office also watched over the Council of Ministers. None to few Presidium members were members of the Council of Ministers, suggesting a deliberate  attempt of separating power between the two governmental bodies. Not much is known about the Presidium during Taraki and Amin's rule from 1978 to 1979. Right after the Soviet invasion it consisted of seven members, in which four of them were Parchams and three of them Khalqs.

The Presidium was the permanent ruling body of the Revolutionary Council. Members of the Presidium were elected by the Revolutionary Council. The President of the Revolutionary Council was the Chairman of the Presidium. The responsibilities of the Presidium were to enforce laws, granting amnesty or punishment among others.

Presidium in 1984

References

People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan