The Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) was formed in 1862 to build a railroad from Sacramento, California, to the San Francisco Bay, the westernmost portion of the First transcontinental railroad.  After the completion of the railroad from Sacramento to Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, and then the Oakland Pier on November 8, 1869, which was the Pacific coast terminus of the transcontinental railroad, the Western Pacific Railroad was absorbed in 1870 into the Central Pacific Railroad.

History

The Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870) was formed in December 1862 by a group led by Timothy Dame and including Charles McLaughlin and Peter Donahue, all associated with the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad (SF&SJ), to build a railroad from San Jose north to Niles (then called Vallejo Mills), east through Niles Canyon (then called Alameda Cañon), north to Pleasanton, east through the Livermore Valley, and over Altamont Pass to Stockton, then north to Sacramento, with the plan that the transcontinental railroad would follow the Western Pacific to San Jose and then the SF&SJ to San Francisco.

At the completion of the SF&SJ in January 1864, it was reported that the general contract for the Western Pacific was awarded to McLaughlin & Houston and that negotiations for iron, equipment, and rolling stock had begun. On October 31, 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad assigned all the rights of the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 to the Western Pacific for the route between Sacramento and San Jose, including land grants.  The amending Act of March 3, 1865 ratified and confirmed the assignment made by Central Pacific Railroad to Western Pacific Railroad and authorized Western Pacific Railroad as one of the charter companies.

Construction and transactions

The construction of the Western Pacific Railroad began in February 1865 near San Jose and northward under a contract taken by J.B. Cox & Myers.  After Chinese laborers had helped complete the San Francisco and San Jose Railroad in 1864, a force of 500 Chinese laborers was grading the roadbed and laying tracks for the Western Pacific in 1865.  By October 1866, Western Pacific completed  of track north and east from San Jose, reaching halfway into Alameda Cañon (now Niles Canyon) to a point just beyond Farwell. The first cars left San Jose to Vallejo Canyon (Alameda Cañon) on October 2. It had also surveyed, and started work on some places on, the rest of the line through Alameda Cañon, through Livermore Valley, over Livermore Pass (now Altamont Pass), and on to Stockton and Sacramento, before running out of money and halting all construction.  Part of the difficulty was that federal land grants were not available where Mexican land grants had previously been made.

In June 1867, the five Associates (Big Four plus E. B. Crocker) of the Central Pacific completed a complicated transaction with moribund Western Pacific (WP) and resuscitated it and its assets while Charles McLaughlin, the only Western Pacific owner left, retained rights to sell his land grants. In September 1867, Governor Stanford led a party to show them the projected WP line, which would captured his interest that it would soon be dubbed "The Governor's Road". In October 1867, patterned after the structure of the ill-fated Crédit Mobilier of America, the Contract and Finance Company was incorporated to act as the stock/asset holding/laundering subsidiary formally independent of Central Pacific, but informally transferring stocks/assets back to the five CP Associates, to finance the construction and purchase of railroad.

In early 1868, contractors Turton, Knox & Ryan broke ground on the Western Pacific line from Sacramento southward to Stockton and beyond, including Livermore Pass. Meanwhile, Central Pacific concluded that the route via San Jose to San Francisco was too long and that it would be better to change to a route using ferryboats from the planned CPRR's Oakland Pier in Oakland.  The decision to make Oakland the western terminus of the WP line was finally wrapped up, under the charge of Gov. Stanford, in a series of complex transactions and legislative compromise in April 1868.  The CPRR briefly considered a shorter route west from Dublin/Pleasanton to the Hayward/San Leandro area (a route used by Bay Area Rapid Transit more than 100 years later), but decided that the grades were too much of a disadvantage compared to the 1% grade of the Alameda Cañon route.

Since Central Pacific had decided to make Oakland the west coast terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad, its subsidiary purchased in August 1868 the majority of stock in San Francisco and Oakland Railroad (SF&O), which provided ferry-train service from a San Francisco ferry terminal connecting with railroad service through Oakland to San Antonio.  After the 1868 Hayward earthquake bankrupted the San Francisco and Alameda Railroad (SF&A), the CP subsidiary also purchased in August 1869 the majority of stock in SF&A, which provided ferry service from San Francisco and train service from Alameda Terminal to the quake-damaged terminal at Hayward, California.

After the Central Pacific completed the western half of the first transcontinental railroad from Omaha to Sacramento with the golden spike ceremony on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Summit, J. H. Strobridge with some crew and equipment went to Vallejo Mills (now Niles) at the west end of Alameda Cañon to commence in June 1869 to build a new rail line from Vallejo Mills northward towards Oakland. Meanwhile, Turton, Knox & Ryan dispatched workers to continue the railroad in Alameda Cañon eastward from the point where the 1866 Western Pacific rails abruptly stopped.

By July 1869, Strobridge had 500 Chinese workers on the leg from Vallejo Mills towards Oakland. On the other two fronts, Turton, Knox & Ryan had a larger force of upwards of 2,000 men, mostly Chinese, some deployed working eastward from the middle of Alameda Cañon towards Livermore Pass and some working southward from Sacramento towards Stockton.  This line included two engineering challenges: boring a  tunnel through hard material near Livermore Pass and bridging the San Joaquin River at Mossdale south of Stockton.

According to a report from the Sacramento Bee, for tunnel work at Livermore Pass in July 1869, white men were paid $45 per month with board, whereas the Chinese were paid $37.50 per month and had to board themselves.  The report went on to note that the Chinese "do more work, man for man, than the white men!"  The report also noted: "The difference in price is, allowing $5 a week for board, $29 50 per month, and yet the men who receive the higher sum do less work than those who receive the lower!"

By mid-August 1869, the railroad was completed through Alameda Cañon eastward into Livermore valley.  By the end of August, the tunnel at Livermore Pass was completed.  The first passenger train passed through the tunnel on September 1, and a large force was working to finish the San Joaquin River railroad bridge, which became the controlling link of the line from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay.

Opening
By September 5, 1869, the railroad from Vallejo Mills (now Niles) to San Leandro was completed, including a connection at bay side of San Leandro to the existing tracks of SF&A, purchased a month before in August 1869, which led to the functioning Alameda Wharf.  Upon the completion of the San Joaquin River railroad bridge at Mossdale at Lathrop the next day on Monday, September 6, 1869, the first through train from Sacramento to reach San Francisco Bay arrived not at the CPRR's Oakland Pier but at the SF&A RR's Alameda Terminal that evening to a cheering crowd, and the passengers took the SF&A RR ferryboat Alameda to San Francisco.  With urging from Gov. Stanford, this opening of the railroad was pushed to completion to accommodate visitors to the 1869 California State Fair in Sacramento, which opened the same Monday.

The completion of the San Joaquin River railroad bridge at Lathrop and the first through train from Sacramento to Alameda on September 6, 1869, were commemorated by two California Historical Landmarks, in Lathrop CHL 780-7 and Alameda CHL 440, respectively.

Two months later, the rail connection to the San Francisco and Oakland Railroad was finally in place, as was the expansion of CPRR's Oakland Pier. On the morning of November 8, 1869, the first transcontinental train to use the expanded ferry terminal at Oakland Pier traversed the SF&O and the Western Pacific Railroad to reach Sacramento, and continue eastward on the Central Pacific Railroad. The city of Oakland held a large celebration later in the day to greet the first westbound transcontinental train.

  New York and Oakland are bound together by ties strapped with iron.

After November 1869, the Oakland Pier was the Pacific coast terminus of the transcontinental trains. Alameda then reverted to local train service and in 1873 the original SF&A pier was abandoned.

Locomotives

The Western Pacific operated a total of ten locomotives. The first five were built in 1864 by the Norris Locomotive Works plant at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. One of these was a 12-ton 4-2-0 while the others were of the more conventional 4-4-0 type weighing from 30 to 33 tons. Baldwin Locomotive Works of Philadelphia built three more 30-ton 4-4-0 locomotives in 1866, and two similar locomotives were built by Mason Machine Works of Massachusetts in 1867.

The locomotive Mariposa, lettered G, was built by the Norris Locomotive Works in 1864. Sold in 1914 by the Southern Pacific to Stockton Terminal & Eastern #1. Currently on display at the Travel Town Museum in Griffith Park, Los Angeles, California. the only surviving locomotive of the original Western Pacific.

Changes
In 1870, the Western Pacific Railroad dissolved, and its routes absorbed by the Central Pacific Railroad.  Maps thereafter would show the Western Pacific route as one for the CPRR.

In 1879, the Central Pacific shortened its route from Sacramento to the Oakland Pier by building a line from Sacramento to Benicia, crossing the Sacramento River there via large train ferry, the Solano and Contra Costa, to Port Costa, then along the south shore of Carquinez Strait and San Pablo Bay to Richmond, Berkeley, and Oakland to the Oakland Pier. From 1879 on, the original 1862–1869 WP route through Altamont Pass and Niles Canyon became a secondary route between the East Bay and the San Joaquin Valley.

In 1930, the Solano and Contra Costa train ferry service was discontinued, and train traffic traveled into the Bay Area via the new steel Benicia-Martinez Bridge spanning the Carquinez Strait from Benicia to Martinez. This bridge continues in operation today.

In 1888, the Central Pacific routes were absorbed by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

Monuments

 California Historical Landmark No. 780.7 Transcontinental Railroad- Site of Completion of Pacific Railroad at entrance to Mossdale Crossing Park and Ramp, just north of San Joaquin River in Lathrop, California. Plaque is missing. The plaque apparently used September 8, 1869 as date of completion instead of September 6, 1869.

California Historical Landmark No. 440 Alameda Terminal of Transcontinental Railroad on the NW corner of Lincoln Ave. and Webster St. in Alameda, California.

The new Western Pacific Railroad

In 1903, to compete with the Southern Pacific Railroad, a new Western Pacific Railway Company was formed to build routes between Oakland, San Jose, Sacramento, Stockton, and Salt Lake City. East of Sacramento, the new Western Pacific Railway routes closely paralleled the Southern Pacific's legacy routes from the 1862 Western Pacific Railroad.

In 1916, the Western Pacific Railway Company was dissolved in bankruptcy. Its assets, including its 1903 route, were acquired by a new business entity, The Western Pacific Railroad Company.

In 1979, the Southern Pacific obtained trackage rights over the 1903 route from its old rival, The Western Pacific Railroad Company. Consequently, it abandoned the original 1862 Western Pacific Railroad route over Altamont Pass to Niles, except for a section between Pleasanton, California, through Niles Canyon, to the Niles District in Fremont, California. Other sections of the 1903 route are still operated by the Altamont Corridor Express, and the Union Pacific Railroad.

In 1984, Southern Pacific deeded the Pleasanton - Niles right-of-way to Alameda County, California. Since 1988, the Niles Canyon Railway has continuously operated a tourist railroad to preserve the history of the Western Pacific Railroad (1862–1870), on the route that completed the first transcontinental railroad to the Pacific coast.

See also

 Central Pacific Railroad
 San Francisco and Alameda Railroad
 San Francisco and Oakland Railroad
Niles Canyon Transcontinental Railroad Historic District (NCTR)

References

  "Mcloughlin" should be "McLaughlin" and "Dane" should be "Dame".

  McLaughlin rather than Donahue took the lead in selling the WP RR.

External links

 Early Railroads in the Niles Area

First transcontinental railroad
Defunct California railroads
Predecessors of the Southern Pacific Transportation Company
Railway companies established in 1862
Railway companies disestablished in 1870
1860s in California
1862 establishments in California
American companies established in 1862


The current status of polygamy is difficult to determine in Botswana as, legally, only marriage between a single man and woman is permissible, though there is a notable loophole. A man can marry his first wife (or village wife) under customary law, while then marrying his second under civil law. While the practice was thought to have long disappeared from the region, it has been noted that polygamous unions are still active in Botswana, though not particularly common. Polygamous unions in the nation do not have any more effect in the areas such as divorce battles, sexual abuse and a higher spread of HIV/AIDS than any other relationship style. A lack of proper health care and unprotected sex leads to a higher spread of STDs of all kinds, which is a problem to begin with in the country.

References

Polygamy in Africa
Botswana
Society of Botswana
Women's rights in Botswana


Tunstall Sr. High School is a high school located in Dry Fork, Virginia. About 900 students go to the school each year. The school has two levels and was recently renovated over the past several years. Tunstall High School was named for a long time legislator and lawyer, Whitmell P. Tunstall. It was formed in 1964 by the merging of Brosville High and Whitmell High. In 2016, Tunstall was named a National Blue Ribbon school by the U.S. Department of Education. Tunstall was the only high school in the state of Virginia to win the award.  The official school colors are red and white. Tunstall Middle School students go to this school after eighth grade.

Clubs and Activities
Robotics team, French club, Spanish club,  varsity Football team, junior varsity football team,  varsity baseball team, golf team, junior varsity basketball team, varsity basketball team, marching band, chorus, FCCLA, DECA, wrestling, Scholastic Bowl/ACE

Notable alumni

Joe Mantiply — pitcher, Arizona Diamondbacks

References

External links
 Official web site

Public high schools in Virginia
Schools in Pittsylvania County, Virginia
1964 establishments in Virginia
Educational institutions established in 1964


USS Simplicity (SP-96) was an armed motorboat that served in the United States Navy as a patrol vessel from 1917 to 1918.

Simplicity was built as a civilian motorboat in 1906 by Smith and Mabely at Astoria, New York. On 12 May 1917, the U.S. Navy acquired her from her owner, A. S. Korter of New York City, for World War I service as a patrol boat. She was commissioned on 7 June 1917 as USS Simplicity (SP-96).

Simplicity was assigned to the Section Net Patrol at New York City, where she carried out harbor patrols during World War I

On 19 October 1918, the barge No. 78 struck and crushed Simplicity while she was alongside a United States Army pier at Fort Wadsworth, New York. Her hulk was beached and stripped by the Navy, and she was stricken from the Navy List as of 19 October 1918.

References

NavSource Online: Section Patrol Craft Photo Archive: Simplicity (SP 96)

Patrol vessels of the United States Navy
World War I patrol vessels of the United States
Ships built in Queens, New York
1906 ships
Ships sunk in collisions


Blumenort (Plautdietsch /ˈblœmn̩ˌuɐ̯t/) is a local urban district in the Canadian province of Manitoba. It is located in the Rural Municipality of Hanover,  north of the city of Steinbach. It was founded in 1874 by Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonite farmers from the Russian Empire. Today, its economy is based on agriculture and the service industry.

Etymology
Blumenort comes from the German Blumenort, meaning flower place.

History
Prior to about 1870, south-eastern Manitoba, including the Blumenort area, were hunting, fishing, and trapping grounds used by the nomadic Ojibway people. In 1871, the government began negotiating the articles of the Ojibway land claims for this region of Manitoba. After signing Treaty 1, the First Nations people of south-eastern Manitoba moved onto the Brokenhead and Rousseau River Reserves. Soon, the Canadian government surveyed the land and readied it for expansion by European settlers.

In 1873, Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites from the Russian Empire sent a delegation to investigate land in North America. Four of the delegates decided to advise their people to settle in Manitoba and a Privilegium was signed between with the Canadian government. The document guaranteed Mennonites religious freedom, private school, military exemption and land that became known as the East Reserve. The East Reserve contained dozens of villages, only a few of which still exist today. One of those villages was Blumenort. The first Mennonite settlers were of the conservative Kleine Gemeinde church who founded Blumenort in the summer of 1874. In 1875, Blumenort consisted of 24 families, but had dropped to 18 by 1878.

The original settlement form was the traditional linear settlement, or street village, of Plautdietsch-speaking Russian Mennonites. A blacksmith shop was established in 1874, but the first store only opened in 1896. A cheese factory was built in 1892 and a milk skimming station in 1914, but the former closed by 1920.

The street village began breaking up around 1904, a process which was completed by 1910, as the farmers disbursed to move onto the land they farmed and to seek new land elsewhere. Within a few years, little evidence of the former community remained, its street serving as a driveway for two farming families.

In 1932, the farmers of the Blumenort area decided to build a cheese factory on a ridge, about a mile from the site of the former community, which brought further development. By 1940, there were 16 families and six businesses located along or near the mile road now called Blumenort's Centre Avenue. In 1947, a poultry-killing and processing plant opened.  In 1962, a post office was opened and in 1971, a 12-room school was erected. By 1971, the population had grown to 275.

Blumenort has continued to expand, growing to 1738 people by 2021, up from 1404 in 2011 and 1675 in 2016.

The community provides a local elementary school as well as the Blumenort Community Church, an Evangelical Mennonite Conference Church and Hope Church Blumenort, a non-denominational Church.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Blumenort had a population of 1,738 living in 564 of its 578 total private dwellings, a change of  from its 2016 population of 1,675. With a land area of , it had a population density of  in 2021.

Economy

Blumenort is supported by several local businesses including magazine companies, poultry producers, transport companies, and vehicle repair companies. In addition to this, because of its proximity to Steinbach, many people from Blumenort commute to Steinbach for shopping, work and sometimes school. As a small town in southern Manitoba, much of the commercial business is related to the agricultural sector and several dairy farms are located in and near the town of Blumenort.

Transportation
Blumenort is located on Manitoba Provincial Road 311, near its intersection with Provincial Trunk Highway 12. PTH 12 once passed through Blumenort, but now bypasses around the east side of the community.

Notable people
 Royden Loewen, historian

See also
Blumenort, Saskatchewan

References

Further reading
Loewen, Royden, Blumenort: A Mennonite Community in Transition, The Blumenort Mennonite Historical Society, 1983.

Designated places in Manitoba
Local urban districts in Manitoba
Unincorporated communities in Eastman Region, Manitoba
Russian Mennonite diaspora in Manitoba


In computer programming, a variable is an abstract storage location paired with an associated symbolic name, which contains some known or unknown quantity of data or object referred to as a value; or in simpler terms, a variable is a named container for a particular set of bits or type of data (like integer, float, string etc...). A variable can eventually be associated with or identified by a memory address. The variable name is the usual way to reference the stored value, in addition to referring to the variable itself, depending on the context. This separation of name and content allows the name to be used independently of the exact information it represents. The identifier in computer source code can be bound to a value during run time, and the value of the variable may thus change during the course of program execution.

Variables in programming may not directly correspond to the concept of variables in mathematics. The latter is abstract, having no reference to a physical object such as storage location. The value of a computing variable is not necessarily part of an equation or formula as in mathematics. Variables in computer programming are frequently given long names to make them relatively descriptive of their use, whereas variables in mathematics often have terse, one- or two-character names for brevity in transcription and manipulation.

A variable's storage location may be referenced by several different identifiers, a situation known as aliasing. Assigning a value to the variable using one of the identifiers will change the value that can be accessed through the other identifiers.

Compilers have to replace variables' symbolic names with the actual locations of the data. While a variable's name, type, and location often remain fixed, the data stored in the location may be changed during program execution.

Actions on a variable
In imperative programming languages, values can generally be accessed or changed at any time. In pure functional and logic languages, variables are bound to expressions and keep a single value during their entire lifetime due to the requirements of referential transparency. In imperative languages, the same behavior is exhibited by (named) constants (symbolic constants), which are typically contrasted with (normal) variables.

Depending on the type system of a programming language, variables may only be able to store a specified data type (e.g. integer or string). Alternatively, a datatype may be associated only with the current value, allowing a single variable to store anything supported by the programming language. Variables are the containers for storing the values.

Variables and scope:
 Automatic variables: Each local variable in a function comes into existence only when the function is called, and disappears when the function is exited. Such variables are known as automatic variables.
 External variables: These are variables that are external to a function and can be accessed by name by any function. These variables remain in existence permanently; rather that appearing and disappearing as functions are called and exited, they retain their values even after the functions that set them have returned.

Identifiers referencing a variable

An identifier referencing a variable can be used to access the variable in order to read out the value, or alter the value, or edit other attributes of the variable, such as access permission, locks, semaphores, etc.

For instance, a variable might be referenced by the identifier "" and the variable can contain the number 1956. If the same variable is referenced by the identifier "" as well, and if using this identifier "", the value of the variable is altered to 2009, then reading the value using the identifier "" will yield a result of 2009 and not 1956.

If a variable is only referenced by a single identifier, that identifier can simply be called the name of the variable; otherwise we can speak of it as one of the names of the variable. For instance, in the previous example the identifier "" is a name of the variable in question, and "" is another name of the same variable.

Scope and extent

The scope of a variable describes where in a program's text the variable may be used, while the extent (also called lifetime) of a variable describes when in a program's execution the variable has a (meaningful) value. The scope of a variable affects its extent. The scope of a variable is actually a property of the name of the variable, and the extent is a property of the storage location of the variable. These should not be confused with context (also called environment), which is a property of the program, and varies by point in the program's text or execution—see scope: an overview. Further, object lifetime may coincide with variable lifetime, but in many cases is not tied to it.

Scope is an important part of the name resolution of a variable. Most languages define a specific scope for each variable (as well as any other named entity), which may differ within a given program. The scope of a variable is the portion of the program's text for which the variable's name has meaning and for which the variable is said to be "visible". Entrance into that scope typically begins a variable's lifetime (as it comes into context) and exit from that scope typically ends its lifetime (as it goes out of context). For instance, a variable with "lexical scope" is meaningful only within a certain function/subroutine, or more finely within a block of expressions/statements (accordingly with function scope or block scope); this is static resolution, performable at parse-time or compile-time. Alternatively, a variable with dynamic scope is resolved at run-time, based on a global binding stack that depends on the specific control flow. Variables only accessible within a certain functions are termed "local variables". A "global variable", or one with indefinite scope, may be referred to anywhere in the program.

Extent, on the other hand, is a runtime (dynamic) aspect of a variable. Each binding of a variable to a value can have its own extent at runtime. The extent of the binding is the portion of the program's execution time during which the variable continues to refer to the same value or memory location. A running program may enter and leave a given extent many times, as in the case of a closure.

Unless the programming language features garbage collection, a variable whose extent permanently outlasts its scope can result in a memory leak, whereby the memory allocated for the variable can never be freed since the variable which would be used to reference it for deallocation purposes is no longer accessible. However, it can be permissible for a variable binding to extend beyond its scope, as occurs in Lisp closures and C static local variables; when execution passes back into the variable's scope, the variable may once again be used. A variable whose scope begins before its extent does is said to be uninitialized and often has an undefined, arbitrary value if accessed (see wild pointer), since it has yet to be explicitly given a particular value. A variable whose extent ends before its scope may become a dangling pointer and deemed uninitialized once more since its value has been destroyed. Variables described by the previous two cases may be said to be out of extent or unbound. In many languages, it is an error to try to use the value of a variable when it is out of extent. In other languages, doing so may yield unpredictable results. Such a variable may, however, be assigned a new value, which gives it a new extent.

For space efficiency, a memory space needed for a variable may be allocated only when the variable is first used and freed when it is no longer needed. A variable is only needed when it is in scope, thus beginning each variable's lifetime when it enters scope may give space to unused variables. To avoid wasting such space, compilers often warn programmers if a variable is declared but not used.

It is considered good programming practice to make the scope of variables as narrow as feasible so that different parts of a program do not accidentally interact with each other by modifying each other's variables. Doing so also prevents action at a distance. Common techniques for doing so are to have different sections of a program use different name spaces, or to make individual variables "private" through either dynamic variable scoping or lexical variable scoping.

Many programming languages employ a reserved value (often named null or nil) to indicate an invalid or uninitialized variable.

Typing

In statically typed languages such as Go or ML, a variable also has a type, meaning that only certain kinds of values can be stored in it. For example, a variable of type "integer" is prohibited from storing text values.

In dynamically typed languages such as Python, a variable's type is inferred by its value, and can change according to its value. In Common Lisp, both situations exist simultaneously: A variable is given a type (if undeclared, it is assumed to be , the universal supertype) which exists at compile time. Values also have types, which can be checked and queried at runtime.

Typing of variables also allows polymorphisms to be resolved at compile time. However, this is different from the polymorphism used in object-oriented function calls (referred to as virtual functions in C++) which resolves the call based on the value type as opposed to the supertypes the variable is allowed to have.

Variables often store simple data, like integers and literal strings, but some programming languages allow a variable to store values of other datatypes as well. Such languages may also enable functions to be parametric polymorphic. These functions operate like variables to represent data of multiple types. For example, a function named  may determine the length of a list. Such a  function may be parametric polymorphic by including a type variable in its type signature, since the number of elements in the list is independent of the elements' types.

Parameters
The formal parameters (or formal arguments) of functions are also referred to as variables. For instance, in this Python code segment,

>>> def addtwo(x):
...     return x + 2
...
>>> addtwo(5)
7

the variable named  is a parameter because it is given a value when the function is called. The integer 5 is the argument which gives  its value. In most languages, function parameters have local scope. This specific variable named  can only be referred to within the  function (though of course other functions can also have variables called ).

Memory allocation
The specifics of variable allocation and the representation of their values vary widely, both among programming languages and among implementations of a given language. Many language implementations allocate space for local variables, whose extent lasts for a single function call on the call stack, and whose memory is automatically reclaimed when the function returns. More generally, in name binding, the name of a variable is bound to the address of some particular block (contiguous sequence) of bytes in memory, and operations on the variable manipulate that block. Referencing is more common for variables whose values have large or unknown sizes when the code is compiled. Such variables reference the location of the value instead of storing the value itself, which is allocated from a pool of memory called the heap.

Bound variables have values. A value, however, is an abstraction, an idea; in implementation, a value is represented by some data object, which is stored somewhere in computer memory. The program, or the runtime environment, must set aside memory for each data object and, since memory is finite, ensure that this memory is yielded for reuse when the object is no longer needed to represent some variable's value.

Objects allocated from the heap must be reclaimed—especially when the objects are no longer needed. In a garbage-collected language (such as C#, Java, Python, Golang and Lisp), the runtime environment automatically reclaims objects when extant variables can no longer refer to them. In non-garbage-collected languages, such as C, the program (and the programmer) must explicitly allocate memory, and then later free it, to reclaim its memory. Failure to do so leads to memory leaks, in which the heap is depleted as the program runs, risks eventual failure from exhausting available memory.

When a variable refers to a data structure created dynamically, some of its components may be only indirectly accessed through the variable. In such circumstances, garbage collectors (or analogous program features in languages that lack garbage collectors) must deal with a case where only a portion of the memory reachable from the variable needs to be reclaimed.

Naming conventions

Unlike their mathematical counterparts, programming variables and constants commonly take multiple-character names, e.g.  or . Single-character names are most commonly used only for auxiliary variables; for instance, , ,  for array index variables.

Some naming conventions are enforced at the language level as part of the language syntax which involves the format of valid identifiers. In almost all languages, variable names cannot start with a digit (0–9) and cannot contain whitespace characters. Whether or not punctuation marks are permitted in variable names varies from language to language; many languages only permit the underscore ("_") in variable names and forbid all other punctuation. In some programming languages, sigils (symbols or punctuation) are affixed to variable identifiers to indicate the variable's datatype or scope.

Case-sensitivity of variable names also varies between languages and some languages require the use of a certain case in naming certain entities; Most modern languages are case-sensitive; some older languages are not. Some languages reserve certain forms of variable names for their own internal use; in many languages, names beginning with two underscores ("__") often fall under this category.

However, beyond the basic restrictions imposed by a language, the naming of variables is largely a matter of style. At the machine code level, variable names are not used, so the exact names chosen do not matter to the computer. Thus names of variables identify them, for the rest they are just a tool for programmers to make programs easier to write and understand. Using poorly chosen variable names can make code more difficult to review than non-descriptive names, so names that are clear are often encouraged.

Programmers often create and adhere to code style guidelines that offer guidance on naming variables or impose a precise naming scheme. Shorter names are faster to type but are less descriptive; longer names often make programs easier to read and the purpose of variables easier to understand. However, extreme verbosity in variable names can also lead to less comprehensible code.

Variable types (based on lifetime)
We can classify variables based on their lifetime. The different types of variables are static, stack-dynamic, explicit heap-dynamic, and implicit heap-dynamic. A static variable is also known as global variable, it is bound to a memory cell before execution begins and remains to the same memory cell until termination. A typical example is the static variables in C and C++. A Stack-dynamic variable is known as local variable, which is bound when the declaration statement is executed, and it is deallocated when the procedure returns. The main examples are local variables in C subprograms and Java methods. Explicit Heap-Dynamic variables are nameless (abstract) memory cells that are allocated and deallocated by explicit run-time instructions specified by the programmer. The main examples are dynamic objects in C++ (via new and delete) and all objects in Java. Implicit Heap-Dynamic variables are bound to heap storage only when they are assigned values. Allocation and release occur when values are reassigned to variables. As a result, Implicit heap-dynamic variables have the highest degree of flexibility. The main examples are some variables in JavaScript, PHP and all variables in APL.

See also

 Control variable (programming)
 Non-local variable
 Temporary variable
 Variable interpolation
 Scalar (mathematics)

Notes

References

Programming language concepts
Data types
Type theory


The following is a list of episodes of Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!, NPR's news panel game, that aired during 2005.  All episodes, unless otherwise noted, feature Peter Sagal as host and Carl Kasell as announcer/scorekeeper, and originate from the Chase Bank Auditorium in Chicago.  Dates indicated are the episodes' original Saturday air dates.  Job titles and backgrounds of the guests reflect their status at the time of their appearance.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

External links
Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! Archives on NPR.org
WWDT.Me, an unofficial Wait Wait historical site

Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!
Wait Wait Don't Tell Me
Wait Wait Don't Tell Me


The 1901 College Football All-America team is composed of college football players who were selected as All-Americans by various individuals who chose College Football All-America Teams for the 1901 college football season.  The only two individuals who have been recognized as "official" selectors by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) for the 1901 season are Walter Camp and Caspar Whitney, who had originated the College Football All-America Team 13 years earlier in 1889. Camp's 1901 All-America Team was published in Collier's Weekly, and Whitney's selections were published in Outing magazine.

Consensus All-Americans

In its official listing of "Consensus All-America Selections," the NCAA designates players who were selected by either  Camp or Whitney as "consensus" All-Americans.  Using this criteria, the NCAA recognizes 18 players as "consensus" All-American for the 1901 football season.  The consensus All-Americans are identified in bold on the list below ("All-Americans of 1901") and include the following:
Edward Bowditch, an end from Harvard who later had a distinguished military and diplomatic career, including stints as Secretary and Vice Governor of Moro Province in the Philippines, aide-de-camp to Gen. John J. Pershing during World War I, inspector general of the New York National Guard, and as a member of the Harbord Commission and the Wood-Forbes Mission.
Paul Bunker, a tackle for Army whose posthumously published account of his time as a Japanese prisoner of war became a best-seller.  A portion of the U.S. flag flown at Corregidor was saved from burning by Bunker and kept hidden as a patch inside his shirt; the patch remains on display in the West Point museum.
Dave Campbell, an end for Harvard who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1958.
Charles Dudley Daly, a quarterback for Harvard who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1951.  In 2008, Sports Illustrated sought to answer the question, "Who would have won the Heisman from 1900-1934?" Its selection for 1901 was Daly of Army, a player who put on "a one-man show" against Navy, scoring all 11 of Army's points.
Bill Morley, a halfback for Columbia who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1971.   He became a prominent cattle and sheep rancher in New Mexico.
Neil Snow, an end for Michigan who scored five touchdowns in the 1902 Rose Bowl and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1960.
Bill Warner, a guard for Cornell who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1971.  Warner later served as the head football coach at Cornell, North Carolina, Colgate, St. Louis, and Oregon.
Harold Weekes, a halfback for Columbia who was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1954.

Concerns of Eastern bias
The All-America selections by Camp and Whitney were dominated by players from the East and the Ivy League in particular.  In 1901, 17 of the 18 consensus All-Americans came from Eastern universities, and 14 of 18 played in the Ivy League.  The undefeated Harvard Crimson team had eight players who were designated as consensus All-Americans.  The only four consensus All-Americans from schools outside the Ivy League were Neil Snow of Michigan, Paul Bunker and Charles Dudley Daly of Army, and Walter Bachman of Lafayette.

The dominance of Eastern players led to criticism over the years that the All-America selections were biased against players from the leading Western universities, including Chicago, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Notre Dame.  During the 1901 season, Fielding H. Yost's "Point-a-Minute" team at Michigan compiled an 11–0 record and outscored its opponents by the unprecedented total of 550 to 0. Four Michigan players were chosen for All-Western teams: end Neil Snow, halfback Willie Heston, quarterback Boss Weeks, and tackle Bruce Shorts.  Another strong team from the West was Wisconsin which compiled a 9–0 record and outscored opponents 316 to 0.  Yet, only one player from a western school, Snow of Michigan, was recognized as a first-team All-American in 1901.  Caspar Whitney named two Wisconsin players, tackle Art Curtis and halfback Al "Norsky" Larson, as second-team All-Americans.

Unofficial selectors
In addition to Camp and Whitney, other sports writers and publications selected All-America teams in 1901, though such lists have not been recognized as "official" All-America selections by the NCAA.  The list below includes the All-America selections made by the New York Post and The Philadelphia Inquirer.  Only four players were unanimously selected by Camp, Whitney, the New York Post, and The Philadelphia Inquirer.  They were Dave Campbell, Oliver Cutts, Charles Dudley Daly, and Robert Kernan.

All-Americans of 1901

Ends
Dave Campbell, Harvard (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-2; NYP-1; PI-1)
Ralph Tipton Davis, Princeton (WC-1; CW-2; NYP-2; PI-1)
Edward Bowditch, Harvard (WC-2; CW-1; NYP-1)
Neil Snow, Michigan (College Football Hall of Fame) (CW-1)
Joseph R. Swan, Yale (WC-2; NYP-2)
Howard Henry, Princeton (WC-3)
Charley Gould, Yale (WC-3)

Tackles

Oliver Cutts, Harvard (WC-1; CW-1; NYP-1; PI-1)
Paul Bunker, Army (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-2; NYP-1)
Crawford Blagden, Harvard (WC-2; CW-1; NYP-2)
Williamson Pell, Princeton (WC-3; NYP-2)
James Hogan, Yale (PI-1)
Arthur Curtis, Wisconsin (CW-2)
George Goss, Yale (WC-3)

Guards

Bill Warner, Cornell (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; NYP-1; PI-1)
William George Lee, Harvard (WC-1; CW-2; NYP-2)
Charles A. Barnard, Harvard (WC-2; CW-1)
Sanford Hunt, Cornell (WC-2; CW-1)
Herman Olcott, Yale (WC-3; NYP-1)
Martin Wheelock, Carlisle (WC-2 [as T], PI-1)
J. F. Dana, Princeton (NYP-2)
M. F. Mills, Princeton (CW-2)
John Teas, Penn (WC-3)

Centers
Henry Holt, Yale (WC-1; CW-2; NYP-1)
Walter E. Bachman, Lafayette (WC-2; CW-1)
Charles Sprague Sargent, Harvard (PI-1)
Elbridge Howe Green, Harvard (NYP-2)
Hubert Fisher, Princeton (WC-3)

Quarterbacks
Charles Dudley Daly, Army (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-1; NYP-1; PI-1)
John de Saulles, Yale (WC-2; NYP-2)
Alfred A. Brewster, Jr., Cornell (CW-2)
Jimmy Johnson, Carlisle (WC-3)

Halfbacks
Robert Kernan, Harvard (WC-1; CW-1; NYP-1; PI-1)
Harold Weekes, Columbia (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; NYP-1)
Bill Morley, Columbia (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-3; CW-1)
Marshall S. Reynolds, Penn (PI-1)
Adam Casad, Army (NYP-2)
George B. Chadwick, Yale (CW-2; NYP-2)
Al "Norsky" Larson, Wisconsin (CW-2)
Henry Purcell, Cornell (WC-2)
A. W. Ristine, Harvard (WC-2)
Willie Heston, Michigan (WC-3)

Fullbacks
Thomas Graydon, Harvard (WC-1; CW-1; NYP-1)
David Dudley Cure, Lafayette (WC-2; CW-2; NYP-2)
Henry Schoellkopf, Cornell (WC-3)

Key
 WC = Walter Camp published in Collier's Weekly
 CW = Caspar Whitney published in Outing magazine
 NYP = New York Post
 PI = The Philadelphia Inquirer, selected by Dr. N.P. Stauffer

Bold = Consensus All-Americans

See also
 1901 All-Southern college football team
 1901 All-Western college football team

References

All-America Team
College Football All-America Teams


Daniel Frost may refer to:
 Daniel M. Frost (1823–1900), United States Army general
 Daniel E. Frost (1819–1864), American journalist, politician and soldier
 Daniel Frost (earth scientist) (born 1970), British earth scientist

See also
 Danial Frost, Singaporean racing driver
 Dan Frost (born 1961), Danish track cyclist


Greenville Station is a community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in  Cumberland County .

References
 Greenville Station on Destination Nova Scotia

Communities in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia
General Service Areas in Nova Scotia


Ernesto Pugibet, or, Ernest Pugibet in French, (May 12, 1853 - March 5, 1915) was a French Mexican entrepreneur. He is regarded as one of the key figures in Mexico's industrial revolution, at the turn of the 20th century, and a pioneer of early advertising.

Biography
He was born in Saint-Martory, Haute-Garonne, France, in 1853. He left his motherland in 1875  heading for Cuba where he would learn about the tobacco industry. In 1879 he immigrated to Mexico where he would later establish the cigarette factory known as El Buen Tono. He married Guadalupe de la Portilla in 1887 and fathered three children, Juan, Ernesto and Ana Maria. He died on March 5, 1915, in Paris, France.

References

Mexican company founders
1853 births
1915 deaths
French emigrants
Expatriates in the Spanish Empire
Immigrants to Mexico
Tobacco in Mexico
20th-century French businesspeople
20th-century Mexican businesspeople


Urnula is a genus of cup fungi in the family Sarcosomataceae, circumscribed by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849. The genus contains several species found in Asia, Europe, Greenland, and North America. Sarcosomataceae fungi produce dark-colored (brown to black), shallow to deep funnel-shaped fruitbodies with or without a stipe, growing in spring. The type species of the genus is Urnula craterium, commonly known as the devil's urn or the gray urn. Urnula species can grow as saprobes or parasites having an anamorphic state. The anamorphic form of U. craterium causes Strumella canker, on oak trees.

Taxonomy
Elias Magnus Fries circumscribed the new genus Urnula in 1849, and set what was then known as Peziza craterium as the type species. The genus name means "little urn"; the specific epithet is derived from the Latin cratera, referring to a type of bowl used in antiquity.

Description

Imperfect states
The life cycle of Urnula craterium allows for both an imperfect (making asexual spores, or conidia) or perfect (making sexual spores) form; as has often happened in fungal taxonomy, the imperfect form was given a different name, because the relationship between the perfect and imperfect forms of the same species was not then known. The imperfect stage of Urnula craterium is the plant pathogenic species Conoplea globosa, known to cause a canker disease (Strumella canker) of oak and several other hardwoods.

Species
U. craterium (Schwein.) Fr. (1851)
U. groenlandica Dissing (1981) – Greenland
U. helvelloides Donadini, Berthet & Astier (1973)
U. hiemalis Nannf. (1949) – Northern Europe; Alaska
U. mediterranea (M.Carbone, Agnello & Baglivo) M.Carbone, Agnello & P.Alvarado (2013)
U. mexicana
U. padeniana M.Carbone, Agnello, A.D.Parker & P.Alvarado (2013)
U. philippinarum Rehm (1914) – Philippines
U. torrendii Boud. (1911) – Europe
U. versiformis Y.Z.Wang & C.L.Huang (2014) – Taiwan
U. viridirubescens (Bagnis) Boud. (1907)

The European species provisionally named Urnula brachysperma by François Brunelli in 1997 is not yet validly published.

Several species once classified in Urnula have since been transferred to other genera in the Sarcosomataceae or the Chorioactidaceae. Peck's 1894 Urnula geaster is now type species of the genus Chorioactis, while Urnula pouchetii Berthet & Riousset 1965 in now in Neournula (Chorioactidaceae). Urnula lusitanica, published in 1911 by Torrend and Boudier, is now Donadinia lusitanica. Urnula megalocrater Malençon & Le Gal 1958, Urnula platensis Speg. 1898, and Urnula rugosa Le Gal 1958 are now all classified in the genus Plectania.

Habitat and distribution
Urnula species can grow as saprobes or parasites having an anamorphic state. Fruitbodies of U. craterium and U. hiemalis tend to persist in one location for many growing seasons, sometimes even for several decades.

References

Pezizales genera
Pezizales
Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries
Taxa described in 1849


The liver span is a measurement performed during physical examination to determine the size of the liver and identify possible hepatomegaly.

It is the distance between the lower border of the liver in the mid-clavicular line obtained by palpation, and the upper border of the liver in the mid-clavicular line detected by percussion (the upper border of the liver lies behind the ribs and can not be palpated). More accurate methods of estimating liver span include ultrasound and cross-sectional imaging (computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging).

Normal liver span is , but varies with age, height, and weight. Depending on the physician's technique, estimates of the same liver span can vary by , on average.

References

Liver anatomy


Arttu Seppälä (born 18 March 1987) is a Finnish football player currently playing for VPS Vaasa.

He formerly played for KPV and in the 2009 season on loan for VPS Vaasa from FC Inter Turku.

References

1987 births
Living people
Finnish men's footballers
FC Inter Turku players
Vaasan Palloseura players
Veikkausliiga players
Men's association football wingers
People from Lapua
Sportspeople from South Ostrobothnia


Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2, stylized as Ninja Gaiden Σ2, is a port of the 2008 Xbox 360 video game Ninja Gaiden II, and was developed by Team Ninja exclusively for the PlayStation 3 in 2009. It includes the entirety of the original story mode as well as various changes to the game's design, along with updated textures and a 720p resolution. The game changes Ninja Gaiden II in a similar, but not identical way to how Ninja Gaiden Sigma changed the original Ninja Gaiden. A port for the PlayStation Vita, titled Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 Plus (Ninja Gaiden Σ2+), was released in 2013.

Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 was released for the Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One as part of the Ninja Gaiden: Master Collection on June 10, 2021.

Gameplay

In comparison to the original version of Ninja Gaiden II, the game features new large-scale bosses, an online co-operative gameplay mode with three new playable characters (Ayane, Momiji, Rachel) and the PlayStation Network Trophy support. Unlike the first game, the Sixaxis motion sensing of the PlayStation 3 controller was not used for "charging" the Ninpo magic, but instead utilized as a secret way to jiggle the breasts of female characters.

While Sigma 2 has additional content not in the original Ninja Gaiden II, a large amount of content was also removed from the game, or altered, such as a drastically reduced enemy count within gameplay. With Team Mission mode, where two players can play at once in cooperative gameplay, the second character will be CPU-controller partner if there is no human partner or the player is offline. In Story mode, Karma Scoring is removed and now only done in Chapter Challenge. Tests of Valor were also removed, scattering the rewards across Ryu's chapters.

In the gameplay control system, the action button changed from RB/R1 to circle, circle is now also the shuriken button. Other ranged weapons were separated to the R2 button. This allowed both the Bow/Cannon to be equipped at the same time as the shuriken. The player cannot unequip the bow or cannon. Thus, the two weapons bulk up Ryu's appearance even though they do not appear in cutscenes. Keys were completely removed. Doors simply pop open now. Now (R1) tells the player where to go. Projectile spam was greatly reduced from NGII. Healing items were increased and are the only thing one can buy. Most chests now contain yellow, blue, or red essence. Players no longer can hold onto Life of the Gods, Lives of Thousand Gods, or Spirit of the Devil; instead, they are automatically consumed upon pickup.

Changes were made to Ryu's weapons. Enma's Fang, a greatsword, was added as a new melee weapon. The Incendiary Shuriken were removed for two reasons, opening paths and their power due to the removal of the ammo count, and is instead Ayane's main projectile weapon. The Fiend's Bane Bow, now with unlimited ammo, had its Ultimate Technique removed. The Howling Cannon, a heavy cannon with a slow projectile speed, served as a replacement. Additional removed weapons include the Windmill Shuriken and the Harpoon Gatling Gun. The Weapon Upgrade system was also altered to restrict upgrades, allowing only one upgrade at a time per shop. In addition, weapons can only be upgraded at shops where a blue flame is lit; items can be bought in both types of the shop.

Enemies' health was raised to compensate fewer enemies appearing on screen. Five new bosses were added, replacing two old boss encounters. There is one new boss for each alternate character's chapter (including returning bosses from Ninja Gaiden: Dragon Sword and the 2004 Ninja Gaiden), a Dragon to replace the double Quetzalcoatl fight (though Quetzalcoatl can still be fought alone as in Ninja Gaiden II), and two giant statues: a giant Buddha Statue and a Statue of Liberty animated by Alexei. The Tunnel Worm was omitted, causing Ryu to fall through a tunnel leading from dark night to bright day. Most flying enemies were removed due to infinite ammo.

Finally, almost all the gore has been removed in the PlayStation 3 version. Purple mist now bursts from enemies, along with reduced blood splashes. Dismembered body parts no longer stay on the ground, but vanish. Additionally, cinematics have been altered to remove dismemberment, dissection and blood effects. In the Japanese version of Sigma 2 the player can only decapitate monsters and non-humans; even the pause menu and game over screens are colored blue instead of red to reflect this change.

The Sigma 2 Plus version for the PlayStation Vita, however. restored all the gore with the exception of the Japanese version. Its exclusive features are Ninja Race and Tag Missions.

Plot
The game's plot is based on that in Ninja Gaiden II. Exclusive to the Sigma version of the game are three new chapters starring three alternate playable characters: Ayane (a kunoichi from the Mugen Tenshin ninja clan, a friendly clan who helps Ryu, originally from the Dead or Alive series), Momiji (a female member of the Hayabusa clan who uses a naginata and was introduced in Ninja Gaiden: Dragon Sword) and Rachel (a Fiend hunter from the Holy Vigoor Empire who is in possession of the "Fiend's Blood" curse and first appeared in the 2004's Ninja Gaiden).

Development and release

Though Team Ninja developed the title, the series' creator Tomonobu Itagaki did not design it, as he left Team Ninja after completing Ninja Gaiden II. Yosuke Hayashi, director of Ninja Gaiden Sigma, produced and directed NGS2. Hayashi as the new director of Team Ninja had the game ported from its original Xbox 360 engine to the engine used to create Ninja Gaiden Sigma. The game's native resolution became 720p, compared to the original 585p in the original Xbox 360 version, with an increased use of bloom lighting effect. Eurogamer commented that the game "has the visual edge, not just thanks to its massively increased resolution but also through the accomplished use of the RSX's pixel shaders."

As a trade off for increased resolution, the amount of on-screen action has been reduced in the PS3 version to keep the game running at an acceptable speed. Eurogamer pointed out that there are fewer enemies spawned at one time in the PS3 version of the game, and the developers "blatantly remove polygons in the Sigma edition in order to maintain frame-rate." Also of note is the reduction of bloodshed and gore-related violence than the Xbox 360 version. Sprays of blood have been replaced by purple mist, and dead enemies and severed limbs will vanish from the battlefield "almost instantly" after killing an enemy. Hayashi had many textures replaced to vastly improve the visual appeal of each environment, but left most character textures unchanged.

Those who purchased the Collector's Edition of Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 were treated to a comic version of the prologue, titled The Vampire War, and the original soundtrack. The Collector's Edition was limited to GameStop in North America and HMV for the UK. Pre-ordering either edition at GameStop warranted a code for a special Sigma 2 costume, mildly resembling Joe Hayabusa's own outfit, which that costume along with others can be purchased from the PlayStation Store.

Reception

Ninja Gaiden Σ 2 has an overall Metacritic rating of 83/100. The game received an 8.4 from IGN and an 8.5 from Game Informer. In 2012, ScrewAttack included it on their 2012 list of top ten "games that make you want to bone".

References

External links

Ninja Gaiden Sigma 2 at MobyGames

2009 video games
Action-adventure games
Cooperative video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Ninja Gaiden games
Nintendo Switch games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Vita games
Team Ninja games
Koei Tecmo games
Video game remakes
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in Italy
Video games set in New York City
Video games set in Russia
Video games set in South America
Video games set in Tokyo
Video games set in the 21st century
Windows games
Xbox One games


Ruyangosaurus (Ruyang County lizard) is a genus of titanosauriform sauropod dinosaur recovered from the Early Cretaceous Haoling Formation of China. The type species is R. giganteus, described in 2009 by Lü Junchang et al.

Description

Along with Huanghetitan and Daxiatitan, Ruyangosaurus is among the largest dinosaurs discovered in Cretaceous Asia. In 2016 Gregory S. Paul gave a length of 30 meters (98 ft) and a weight of 50+ tonnes (55 short tons) - making it a 'mega-sauropod'. According to another estimate, Ruyangosaurus was probably about 35 meters (115 ft) long, as evidenced by its 207 cm long femur and 127 cm long right tibia. In 2020 Molina-Perez and Larramendi gave a lower estimation of 24.8 meters (81.4 ft) and 34 tonnes (37.5 short tons).

Classification

The describers of Ruyangosaurus assigned it to Andesauridae. However, Andesauridae is not monophyletic and, as such, is no longer used.

Comprehensive phylogenetic analyses of Titanosauriformes conducted by Philip Mannion and colleagues in 2013 found Ruyangosaurus to be in a polytomy with Andesaurus and other basal titanosaurs and near-titanosaur somphospondyls, supporting the original description's assertion of phylogenetic proximity of it and Andesaurus, though not the precise taxonomic assignment, with further modifications of the dataset resolving similar conclusions. However, not all phylogenetic analyses have supported its position as a somphospondyl. A phylogenetic dataset following the description of additional material for Ruyangosaurus to be a non-titanosauriform macronarian, closely related to Yunmenglong.

The phylogenetic analysis of Mannion et al. in 2019 incorporated these updated discoveries into their earlier analysis, along with additional new knowledge for other mid-Cretaceous Asian taxa considered close to Titanosauria. They found Ruyangosaurus to either be close to Andesaurus as a basal titanosaur when all characters were considered equally important, or in a large clade of early titanosaurs potentially given the name Euhelopodidae related to taxa like Yongjinglong and Huanghetitan ruyangensis. Two trees of the results are shown below, equal weighting displaying the results of basal titanosauria, and relationships within Euhelopodidae of extended-implied weighting with a mild down-weighting of highly variable characters (k=9).

Habitat
Ruyangosaurus shared its habitat with Xianshanosaurus, "Huanghetitan" ruyangensis, Yunmenglong, Luoyanggia, and Zhongyuansaurus. The horizon of Ruyangosaurus was originally described as being of "early Late Cretaceous" age, but recent work has assigned it an Aptian-Albian Age based on fieldwork and analysis of invertebrate and microfossil assemblages.

See also
 List of dinosaurs
 2009 in paleontology

References

Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Titanosaurs
Fossil taxa described in 2009
Taxa named by Lü Junchang
Paleontology in Henan


In algebra, a commutative ring R is said to be arithmetical (or arithmetic) if any of the following equivalent conditions hold:
 The localization  of R at  is a uniserial ring for every maximal ideal  of R.
 For all ideals , and ,

 For all ideals , and ,

The last two conditions both say that the lattice of all ideals of R is distributive.

An arithmetical domain is the same thing as a Prüfer domain.

References

External links

Ring theory


Highway 123 (AR 123, Ark. 123, and Hwy. 123) is a designation for two state highways in Arkansas. One route begins at Salmon Lane in Boone County and runs  north to US Highway 65 Business (US 65B) in Harrison. A second route begins at Highway 103 in Clarksville and runs  northeast to US 65 and US 65B in Western Grove. A suffixed route, designated Highway 123Y runs near Lurton, giving non-truck travelers access to Highway 7. All three routes are maintained by the Arkansas Department of Transportation (ArDOT).

Route description

Harrison

The route begins at Salmon Lane south of Harrison and west of Bellefonte in Boone County. It runs directly north as a section line road to North Arkansas Community College. Shortly after passing the college, Highway 123 intersects US 65B, where it terminates. As of 2016, the route had an annual average daily traffic (AADT) of 600 vehicles per day (VPD).

Clarksville to Western Grove

Highway 123 begins in the Arkansas River Valley in Clarksville, but quickly becomes a winding mountain highway, spending most of its length in the Ozark Mountains. The route is one of the few north–south corridors in the dense and sparsely populated forest, and passes many campsites, rivers, and hiking trails for recreational use. The route is a rural, two-lane road its entire length.

Highway 123 begins in Clarksville at Highway 103 in a residential subdivision. It runs east past Johnson Regional Medical Center and the historic Pioneer House before entering Lamar, where it overlaps US 64. Near downtown Lamar, Highway 123 turns north from US 64, forming an overlap with Highway 164 to Hagarville. North of Hagarville, the route enters the Ozark National Forest, becoming a winding rural road. It enters the Piney Creeks Wildlife Management Area (WMA), where it passes the Haw Creek Falls Recreation Area, bridges Big Piney Creek on a historic structure, crosses the Ozark Highlands Trail near Big Piney Creek, and forms the southern border of the Hurricane Creek Wilderness Area in the northeast corner of Johnson County.

The highway enters the northwest corner of Pope County, intersecting Highway 7 and Highway 16 at Sand Gap. The routes begin an overlap northbound, passing the Thomas J. Hankins House, listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In Newton County, the concurrency ends at Lurton, with Highway 7 and Highway 16 turning northwest toward Jasper and St. Paul. A wye connection provides non-truck travelers access to Highway 7 and Highway 16 at Lurton. Highway 123 winds north to Mount Judea, where an officially designated exception with Highway 74 forms. Highway 123/Highway 74 serve as the eastern terminus of Highway 374 south of Piercetown, when Highway 74 turns west toward Jasper. Highway 123 continues north, passing through the western side of the Gene Rush WMA and crossing the Buffalo National River near Carver Day Use Area, a river landing and campsite maintained by the National Park Service (NPS). Highway 123 runs north to Western Grove, where it terminates at US 65 and US 65B.

History

Highway 123 was created by the Arkansas State Highway Commission (ASHC) after the 1926 Arkansas state highway numbering, appearing on the 1927 state highway map. The highway started at Highway 23 in St. Paul and ran north to Highway 7 near Freeman Springs. By the 1929 map, the route had been deleted from Highway 23 in St. Paul to a hanging end south of Oark, with the west end being moved from Clarksville to US 64 in Lamar, and the east end moving to Highway 7 and Highway 16 at Pelsor. The highway's routing remained unchanged until 1936 or the first half of 1937, when the section between Oark and Clarksville became Highway 103, with the former alignment of Highway 103 to Western Grove becoming Highway 123. This alignment change resulted in a Highway 123 alignment between Lamar and Western Grove very similar to the highway's present-day routing. It was extended to Clarksville in 1963.

The Harrison route was created on March 26, 1975 from US 65B to North Arkansas Community College. It was extended south to Salmon Lane on January 30, 1980. The extension was made at the request of the County Judge of Boone County, in exchange for decommissioning Highway 397 near Omaha.

Major intersections
Mile markers reset at some concurrencies.

Lurton loop

Highway 123Y Spur (AR 123Y, Ark. 123Y, Hwy. 123Y, and Lurton Loop) is a  spur route at Lurton. It is an unsigned state highway.

Route description
The route provides more direct access for northbound traffic to Highway 7. Due to its steep grades and curves, trucks are not allowed on the route.

History
Highway 123Y is a former alignment of Highway 7. It was removed from the state highway system on October 31, 1956 following realignment of Highway 7, but was restored November 9, 1960.

Major intersections

See also

 List of state highways in Arkansas

References

External links

123
Transportation in Boone County, Arkansas
Transportation in Johnson County, Arkansas
Transportation in Pope County, Arkansas
Transportation in Newton County, Arkansas
Harrison, Arkansas micropolitan area


Juanita Quigley (24 June 1931 – 29 October 2017) was an American child actress in motion pictures of the 1930s and 1940s. She had a sister, Rita Quigley, who was also a child actress.

Career
Juanita Quigley was billed as "Baby Jane" in several early roles. Her screen debut was as Claudette Colbert's three-year-old daughter in Imitation of Life (1934). She went on to play featured parts in several films, including The Man Who Reclaimed His Head (1934) and was Jean Harlow's niece in Riffraff (1936). Quigley became a familiar face to moviegoers of the era, but major roles for children so young were few and she often played bits as well as featured roles. She was one of the most popular child stars of her day, and was Universal Pictures' youngest star in 1934.

Quigley was briefly involved in the Our Gang film series. In 1940, she was the guest-starring lead in The New Pupil when cast as Sally, who briefly takes "Alfalfa" (played by Carl Switzer) away from Darla Hood. Two years later, she reprised the character in Going to Press (1942), the only time in the MGM era where the female lead was played by someone other than Darla Hood (who had recently left the series) or Janet Burston.

Quigley acted alongside her older sister, Rita Quigley, in  Whispering Footsteps (1943). Her last major role was in National Velvet (1944), in which she played Elizabeth Taylor's sister.

Later career
Quigley made only a handful of small appearances after National Velvet, her last being in 1950. At the age of 20, in August 1951, she became a Catholic religious sister,  Sister Quentin Rita in the order of the Daughters of Mary and Joseph, teaching at Precious Blood Catholic School. After several years in her convent, she left the vocation and married Dr. Donald Robert Schultz in 1964. The couple had two children, Erik and Marta, before his death in 2012.

Inaccurate documentation exists that Juanita made an uncredited appearance as an extra in the locally filmed Porky's II: The Next Day.

Juanita Quigley died in Sudbury, Massachusetts, on 29 October 2017, aged 86. She and her husband Donald R. Schultz (1927–2012) are buried at the National Memorial Cemetery of Arizona in Phoenix.

Filmography

References

Bibliography
 Willson, Dixie (1935). Little Hollywood Stars. Akron, OH, and New York: Saalfield Pub. Co.

External links

1931 births
2017 deaths
Actresses from Los Angeles
American child actresses
American film actresses
Burials in Arizona
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American Roman Catholic nuns


The 1898 College Football All-America team is composed of American football players who were selected as the best players at their positions by various organizations that chose College Football All-America Teams that season. The organizations that chose the teams included Collier's Weekly selected by Walter Camp and the Syracuse Herald.

The 1898 season marked the first time players from the west were named to the All-American teams. Michigan center William Cunningham and Chicago fullback Clarence Herschberger were the first two western players to receive the recognition.  Prior to 1898, all of the prior All-America football teams had been selected from among five Ivy League teams – Harvard, Princeton, Yale, Penn, and Cornell.

Key

 WC = Walter Camp for Collier's Weekly
 CW = Casper Whitney for Harper's Weekly
 H = Syracuse Herald, Syracuse, NY
 NYS = New York Sun, selected by Hugh H. Janeway, ex-Princeton player
 NYET = New York Evening Telegram
 OUT = Outing Magazine
 LES = Leslie's Weekly by Charles E. Patterson
Bold = Consensus All-American

All-Americans of 1898

Ends
Lew Palmer, Princeton (WC-1; CW-1; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-2; LES-1)
John Hallowell, Harvard (WC-1; CW-1; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-2; LES-2)
N. T. Folwell, Penn (WC-3; H)
Art Poe, Princeton (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-2; H; OUT-1; LES-1)
Francis Douglas Cochrane, Harvard (WC-2; OUT-1)
Walter Smith, Army (WC-3)
Chadwell, Williams (LES-2)

Tackles
Art Hillebrand, Princeton (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-1; H; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-1; LES-1)
Burr Chamberlain, Yale (OUT-1; LES-1; WC-1 [g]; CW-1 [g]; H [g]; NYS-1 [g])
Percy Haughton, Harvard (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-2; NYET-1; OUT-2; LES-2)
Allen Steckle, Michigan (WC-2)
Malcolm Donald, Harvard (OUT-2)
Edwin Sweetland, Cornell (WC-3)
Robert C. Foy, Army (WC-3)
S. M. Goodman, Penn (LES-2)

Guards
Truxtun Hare, Penn (WC-1 [t]; H [t]; NYS-1 [t]; NYET-1 [t]; OUT-1 [g]; LES-1 [g])
Gordon Brown, Yale (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-1; NYS-1; NYET-1; LES-1)
Walter Boal, Harvard (WC-2; CW-1; OUT-1)
Josiah McCracken, Penn (WC-2; H; OUT-2; LES-2)
Big Bill Edwards, Princeton (OUT-2)
C. A. "Brute" Randolph, Penn State (WC-3)
Daniel A. Reed, Cornell (WC-3; LES-2)

Centers
Pete Overfield, Penn (WC-1; H; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-1; LES-1)
William Cunningham, Michigan (WC-2; CW-1)
Percy Malcolm Jaffrey, Harvard (WC-3; OUT-2)
Booth, Princeton (LES-2)

Quarterbacks

Charles Dudley Daly, Harvard (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; CW-1; H; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-2; LES-1)
Frank Hudson, Carlisle Indians (OUT-1)
Walter S. Kennedy, Chicago (WC-2)
Leon Kromer, Army (WC-3)
Charles Street, Michigan (LES-2)

Halfbacks
Benjamin Dibblee, Harvard (WC-1; CW-1; H; NYS-1; NYET-1; OUT-1; LES-1)
John H. Outland, Penn (namesake of the Outland Trophy) (WC-1; NYET-1; OUT-1)
Malcolm McBride, Yale (CW-1)
Leicester Warren, Harvard (WC-2; NYS-1)
Richardson, Brown (WC-2; LES-2)
Allen E. Whiting, Cornell (OUT-2; LES-2)
Alfred H. Durston, Yale (OUT-2)
Raymond Benedict, Nebraska (WC-3)
Raymond, Wesleyan (WC-3)

Fullbacks
Clarence Herschberger, Chicago (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-1; H; OUT-1; LES-1)
Charles Romeyn, Army (WC-3; CW-1; NYS-1)
Bill Reid, Harvard (H; NYET-1; OUT-2; LES-1)
Pat O'Dea, Wisconsin (College Football Hall of Fame) (WC-2)
Wheeler, Princeton (LES-2)

See also
 1898 All-Southern college football team
 1898 All-Western college football team

References

All-America Team
College Football All-America Teams


Carolyn Anne Burton (born 30 March 1955) is an Australian politician. Born in Perth, Western Australia, she was a finance officer before entering politics. On 12 September 2008, she was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Council in a countback after the resignation of Graham Giffard; like Giffard, she is a member of the Labor Party. Her term expired on 21 May 2009.

References

1955 births
Living people
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
Australian Labor Party members of the Parliament of Western Australia
Politicians from Perth, Western Australia
21st-century Australian politicians
Women members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
21st-century Australian women politicians


Highway 268 (AR 268, Ark. 268, and Hwy. 268) is a designation for two state highways in Marion County. One route of  runs from Highway 14 to Marion County Road 227 (CR 227, B Rodgers Cir) and CR 259 (Locust Rd). A second route in south Marion County runs  from Highway 14 to the Buffalo National River. Both routes are maintained by the Arkansas State Highway and Transportation Department (AHTD).

Route description

Western Marion County
The route begins at Highway 14 in northeast Marion County within the Ozark Mountains. The route serves as a short rural route near Bull Shoals Lake, running northeast to and intersection, where it meets Marion CR 227 (B Rodgers Cir) and CR 259 (Locust Rd). The roadway continues east as CR 259/Locust Rd, with CR 227 running north from the intersection.

Buffalo River
Highway 268 begins at Highway 14 in southern Marion County near the unincorporated community of Mull. The route runs east to the Buffalo National River. This access point on the river was formerly owned and operated by the Arkansas Department of Parks and Tourism as Buffalo River State Park, but was re-designated as the United States' first National River under National Park Service jurisdiction in 1972.

History
The section in western Marion County was added to the state highway system on May 23, 1973, pursuant to Act 9 of 1973 by the Arkansas General Assembly. The act directed county judges and legislators to designate up to  of county roads as state highways in each county.

Major intersections

See also

 List of state highways in Arkansas

References

External links

268
Transportation in Marion County, Arkansas


Ivan "Vane" Stefan Ivanović (9 June 1913 – 4 April 1999) was a Yugoslav-British athlete, shipowner, political activist, diplomat, writer and philanthropist. One of the founders of the European Movement and the consul general of Monaco in London, he devoted most of his life to the idea of Yugoslav unity.

Background
Vane Ivanović was born in 1913 in Osijek, Austria-Hungary to a Jewish Croat father and a Serb mother. His father, Ivan Rikard Ivanović, was originally born with the surname Kraus but like so many Jewish families feeling persecuted by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, they changed their name and converted to Catholicism. Ivan Rikard subsequently became a representative in Croatia's Parliament. His mother, Milica (b. 26 February 1888) was a sister of Dušan Popović, a leading Serb politician in the ruling Croat-Serb Coalition. Svetozar Pribićević, the other leading Serb in the Coalition, was the best man at Rikard and Milica's wedding in July 1912, while Ivan Lorković, member of Ivan Rikard Ivanović's party and the leading Croat in the Coalition, was Ivanović's godfather. Ivanović had a younger brother, Vladimir, born 1917, and a younger sister, Daška, born in 1915.

Whereas his family background clearly contributed to the development of Ivanović's strong Yugoslav identity, his life in Britain and the education he received there at Westminster School and at Peterhouse, Cambridge (where he read economics) made him a staunch Anglophile. A rather dandyish figure who often supported an impressive cigar, Ivanović appeared to Serbs and Croats an English gentleman who spoke a slightly archaic Croat; to the British he was considered a no less exotic 'Eastern gentleman'. Despite spending much time in Britain, Ivanović never sought to be naturalised. Although he did not hold a Yugoslav passport, he chose to remained stateless until he could become a citizen of the Republic of Croatia in 1990.

Sports
A well-known athlete, Ivanović was a member of the Yugoslav team at the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, running the 110-metre and 400-metre hurdles. He was the undisputed Yugoslav champion in both disciplines throughout the 1930s. At the event, he was among the number of athletes who refused to give Hitler the Nazi salute. In 110m he reached the semi-finals in Berlin and in 400m hurdles he held the Yugoslav record for 17 years, from 1936 until 1953.

Ivanović maintained his love of sport throughout his life. His only concession to age (in his 80s) was to cut back his runs around Hyde Park to alternate days. He was also an avid scuba diver. One of the pioneers of the sport, he contributed greatly to its development in Europe and the Bahamas. He wrote a number of books on spearfishing, of which one in particular, "Modern Spearfishing" (1974), remains a classic among diving enthusiasts.

Shipping
After his parents' divorce in the early 1920s, Ivanović's mother remarried Božidar "Božo" Banac in London on 9 November 1921. Banac lived in London where he ran a shipping business, Jugoslovenski Lloyd, Ltd., (Yugoslav Lloyd), then Yugoslavia's largest shipping company which operated vessels in the Atlantic, Adriatic and Mediterranean waters. Ivanović and his siblings then moved in with their new stepfather. Banac, a native of Dubrovnik and a believer in Yugoslav unity, had helped the creation and activities of the Yugoslav Committee, a group of Croat, Slovene and Serb politicians and intellectuals also based in London. In 1937 he was made director of his stepfather's company.

World War II
In 1914, Banac had placed his ships at the disposal of the British war effort. The family did the same at the outbreak of World War II, when Ivanović, acting on behalf of his then ailing stepfather, placed 10 out of the 22 steamers owned by Yugoslav Lloyd in the service of the Ministry of War Transport. Thus, Banac and Ivanović were the first shipowners from a neutral country to join the Allies.

After the invasion of Yugoslavia by Germany, Italy, and their external and internal allies in April 1941, Ivanović organized other Yugoslav shipowners into the "Yugoslav Shipping Committee". Their aim was to prevent the capture of the Yugoslav mercantile fleet, still in neutral waters, by the Nazis.

In the summer of 1943, Ivanović joined the Yugoslav section of the Political Warfare Executive (PWE) the propaganda arm of Britain's Special Operations Executive. Even though most of the fleet of Yugoslav Lloyd had either been sunk or captured by this point, there were still enough independently owned Yugoslavian ships participating in the Allied effort under flags of convenience.

In his memoirs, Ivanović explained why he did not return to his occupied country to join Josip Broz Tito's or Draža Mihailović's resistance movements: "I had no desire to forget the enemy and engage in a fratricidal war among my fellow countrymen, especially as I did not wholly agree with either side." He spent the rest of the war between London, Bari and Cairo and was eventually demobilized as a Major in the British army. Because of the Communist seizure of power in Yugoslavia, he remained in Britain as a political refugee. In April 1945, Božidar "Božo" Banac, Ivanović's stepfather died.

Post-war years
After the war, and despite the fact that most of his pre-war fleet had been either destroyed or nationalized by the new Yugoslav authorities, Ivanović resumed a successful career in shipping.

In February 1949 Ivanović's biological father died in Genoa-Quinto, Italy. That same year his sister was remarried to Lt. Col. Neil McLean, DSO, who had also been a member of Special Operations Executive during the war. That same year Ivanović founded the "Benevolent Association of Free Citizens of Yugoslavia", a charity financed mainly by himself. Through this organization and as a private individual he helped innumerable refugees, students, artists and political dissidents escape Tito's dictatorship.

During the Cold War years, along with other like-minded Yugoslavs, Ivanović organized many discussions about the fate of his homeland, which led to the two-volume collection "A Democratic Alternative", published in 1963, which warned that the establishment of independent states in the Balkans would spawn 'fatal conflicts'. Ivanović would continue to help his fellow countrymen right up until his death, sponsoring a number of postgraduate students who fled the 1990s conflict in Yugoslavia, and was also one of the founders of Jean Monnet's European Movement, heading the Yugoslav Committee for more than three decades.

In 1967, Ivanović was appointed by Prince Rainier III to the post of consul general of Monaco in London. His mother, Milica, subsequently moved there permanently and died in Monaco three years later. In 1977, he published his auto-biography entitled: LX, Memoirs of a Jugoslav.

In 1982, the final memorandum of the "Democratic Alternative" argued that Yugoslavia could only survive as a democratic community of sovereign nations, and that any other scenario would almost inevitably lead to a civil war. Ivanović lived long enough to witness the awful fulfillment of this prophecy with the outbreak of the Yugoslav wars. In 1990 Ivanović became a citizen of the Republic of Croatia. He died in London on 4 April 1999. His father liked to point out that Ivanović was the first Yugoslav in the family. Born on the eve of unification, he died as its last remnants collapsed.

In October 1939 Ivanović married June Fisher with whom he had two sons, Ivan Božidar ("Božo") and Andrija; and one daughter, Minja. His son Božo succeeded him as director of Ivanovic & Co. and as Consul of Monaco upon his death.

References

Bibliography
 Submarine Spearfishing by Vane Ivanović (Kaye-Ward, London, 1951)
 Meštrović Genij by Vane Ivanović (Essay, Notre-Dame Archives, Indiana 1962)
 Democratic Yugoslavia: Vol. 1: An Outline for Discussion by Vane Ivanović (Izvor, 1968)
 Democratic Yugoslavia: Vol. 2: An Outline for Discussion by Vane Ivanović (Izvor, 1972)
 Modern Spearfishing by Vane Ivanović (Kaye-Ward, London, 1974)
 LX, Memoirs of a Jugoslav by Vane Ivanović (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London, 1977)
 Yugoslav Democracy on Hold by Vane Ivanović (Dodir, London, 1996)

External links
Obituary
Kingston University/Vane Ivanović Lecture
Kingston University/Vane Ivanović Library
Kingston University/Vane Ivanović Library
Kingston University/Vane Ivanović Archive
Kingston University/Vane Ivanović Project
Classic Dive Books
Sports background

1913 births
1999 deaths
People from Osijek
Croatian Austro-Hungarians
Croatian people of Jewish descent
Croatian emigrants to England
Yugoslav emigrants to the United Kingdom
Yugoslav diplomats
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Athletes (track and field) at the 1936 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Yugoslavia
Ambassadors of Monaco to the United Kingdom
British people of Croatian-Jewish descent
Underwater divers
Croatian people of Serbian descent
Yugoslav male hurdlers
British people of Serbian descent


The Erie Western Railway  was a Class III railroad operating in Illinois and Indiana from 1977 until 1979, operating a segment of the former Erie Lackawanna mainline that was not included in the Conrail Final System Plan.

History

The Erie Western was incorporated in August 1977 and began operations under an Interstate Commerce Commission car service order on September 25, 1977, to operate freight service for 158 miles on the former Erie Lackawanna Railway main line from the Indiana/Ohio state line near Wren, Ohio west to Hammond, Indiana.  The railroad also operated a 27-mile branch line extending from Decatur, Indiana to Portland, Indiana.  The Erie Western also possessed ICC-granted rights to operate from Hammond to Chicago on trackage rights over the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad.

The Erie Western was created because the former main line of the Erie Lackawanna Railway, which went bankrupt in 1972, was not included in the federal government's creation of Conrail, prompting the Erie Western to be formed by shippers and others who wanted to retain and preserve rail service.
The railroad was operated by Craig Burroughs' Joliet, Illinois-based Trans-Action Associates.

Conrail began operations on the Erie Lackawanna and other Northeastern rail lines on April 1, 1976. The Erie Lackawanna mainline west of Marion, Ohio, was not conveyed to Conrail because of the Erie Lackawanna's 11th hour entry into the Final System Plan. The ownership of this line remained with the Erie Lackawanna Estate, which was a holding company to which all of the railroad's outstanding debt was  transferred. However, since all locomotives and rolling stock were conveyed to Conrail, Conrail was responsible for continuing freight service to customers along the Erie Lackawanna mainline. The condition of this service was only until a suitable short line could assume operations. Conrail's local freight service lasted from April 1976 until September 1977 when Erie Western was formed and began operations.

The Erie Western's headquarters office was at 10 W. Franklin Street in Huntington, Indiana.

The railroad began operations with seven locomotives: three Alco C420s (which previously had belonged to the Long Island Rail Road) and four Alco RS-3s.

Commodities hauled include grain, lumber, fertilizer, steel, food products, manufactured goods and plastic.

The railroad failed and discontinued operations on June 24, 1979.  Operations were replaced by a short-lived operator, the Chicago & Indiana Railroad (CINR).  The Chicago & Indiana discontinued operations on December 31, 1979.

After the failure of both the Erie Western and Chicago and Indiana, the Erie Lackawanna Estate realized that the real estate value of this right of way could be used to offset the debts incurred during and after Erie Lackawanna's bankruptcy. Realizing that profitable local freight service was no longer achievable, mostly due to the increase in trucking shipments, the Erie Lackawanna Estate sold the mainline, and all wayside signalling and structures, to L.B. Foster Company. L.B. Foster's sole intent was to remove the trackage and sell the ties, rails, and ballast to other railroads, and sell the physical right of way to local farmers and developers. The Erie Lackawanna right of way was mostly removed by 1983.

North Judson-Monterey segment

After December 31, 1979, the Tippecanoe Railroad Co. took over operations of a 16-mile stretch of the railroad from North Judson, Indiana to Monterey, Indiana that was known as the JK Line.  In the spring of 1990, the Tippecanoe Railroad was sold to another operator, Daniel R. Frick, and renamed J.K. Line.  In 2003, the operator of J.K. Line, the Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway, applied for and later received permission from the federal government to abandon the 16-mile line.

The line has been removed and has been named the Monterey Bike Trail.

Footnotes

References

Defunct Indiana railroads
Defunct Illinois railroads
Railway companies established in 1977
Railway companies disestablished in 1979


Charles F. Wheeler  (December 15, 1915 – October 28, 2004) was an American cinematographer.

Biography
Wheeler did much of his work for Walt Disney. He served as a combat photographer in the United States Navy during World War II. He died in 2004 after developing Alzheimer's disease. In 1970 he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography; along with Osamu Furuya, Shinsaku Himeda, and Masamichi Satoh; for Tora! Tora! Tora!. He had also been nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Babe, a biopic about Babe Zaharias.

Partial filmography
Duel at Diablo (1966)
The Bubble (1966)
C.C. and Company (1970)
Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970)
Silent Running (1972)
The War Between Men and Women (1972)
Slaughter's Big Rip-Off (1973)
Bad Ronald (1974)
The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case (1976) (TV)
Freaky Friday (1976)
The Cat from Outer Space (1978)
Christmas Eve on Sesame Street (1978) (uncredited)
C.H.O.M.P.S. (1979)
The Last Flight of Noah's Ark (1980)
Condorman (1981)
The Pursuit of D. B. Cooper (1981)
The Best of Times (1986)

References

External links

American cinematographers
People from Memphis, Tennessee
Deaths from dementia in California
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
1915 births
2004 deaths
United States Navy personnel of World War II
American war photographers


Clairvaux may refer to:

Places
Clairvaux-d'Aveyron, a commune in the Aveyron department in southern France
Clairvaux-les-Lacs, a commune in the Jura department of France
Lacs de Clairvaux, two lakes located in Clairvaux-les-Lacs
Scorbé-Clairvaux, a commune in the Vienne department in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region of western France
Clairvaux, a former commune in France, now part of Ville-sous-la-Ferté
Clairvaux Abbey, a former Cistercian site
Clairvaux Prison, built on the site of the abbey
Clairvaux MacKillop College in Brisbane, Australia
Abbey of New Clairvaux, a rural Trappist monastery in northern California
Mount Clairvaux, a mountain on the Continental Divide and the boundary of British Columbia and Alberta, Canada

People
Alcher of Clairvaux, atwelfth-century monk of Clairvaux
Geoffrey of Clairvaux, Bernard's secretary and biographer
Nicholas of Clairvaux
Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the most famous abbot
Gerard of Clairvaux (died 1138), Bernard's older brother
Gerard of Clairvaux (died 1177), abbot of Clairvaux, the first Cistercian martyr

Arts, media, and entertainment
 Chapters 29-32 of James Rollins' sixth Sigma Force novel, The Doomsday Key, are named "Clairvaux, France", as the city Clairvaux in Ville-sous-la-Ferte, Clairvaux Abbey, and Cairvaux Prison play major roles in the plot


Kaminia () is a village in the northeast of the island of Lemnos, Greece. It is a community of the municipal unit of Moudros.  From 1918 until 1998, it was an independent community.  The population in 2011 was 234 for the village and 243 for the community, which includes the village Vroskopos. It is located in the southeastern peninsula of the island, 5 km east of Moudros, 6 km northwest of Fisini and 7 km south of Kontopouli. Its elevation is about 60 m.  Its area is 12.847 km2, of which 7.60 km2 are arable. According to the Köppen climate classification, Kaminia has a Hot-Summer Mediterranean climate(Csa).

Population

History

The village was first mentioned in 1346 in a document of the Great Lavra monastery on Mount Athos. During the Turkish rule, all of its residents were Greek. It had 90 families in 1874, and a community school was opened in that year. After the column of Kaminia was discovered in 1885, the village was visited by many tourists.
In the 1920s and the 1930s, excavations by the Italian Archaeological School revealed the prehistoric settlement of Poliochne.  A new school building was built in 1932, which was closed in 1994. Many of its residents emigrated after World War II, mainly to Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The inhabitants are mainly farmers and shepherds. At present mainly cereals and wine are cultivated, cotton was grown around 1970.

Localities

Poliochne

The Bronze Age settlement Poliochne has been excavated near the beach of Vroskopos. It is believed to have been one of the most ancient towns in Europe.

Vroskopos

Vroskopos (also Voroskopos) is a small settlement on the coast, 2 km southeast of Kaminia. It was named after the nearby promontory. A settlement at the site of Vroskopos is evidenced by tombs from the 11th to 13th century. It was first mentioned by Florentine traveler Buondelmonti in 1418. A fortress was built in the 13th century. In the 15th century the coastal areas, including Vroskopos, were abandoned, but in the late 16th and 17th centuries the port was used again. The castle and the village were probably destroyed around 1656 in the Fifth Ottoman-Venetian War. Moreover, pirate attacks forced the inhabitants to move to inland villages such as Kaminia. By the 20th century Vroskopos was settled again as the sea port of Kaminia. Tourist facilities were built, and in 2011 Vroskopos had 9 permanent inhabitants.

See also

 List of settlements in the Lemnos regional unit
 Lemnos stele

Sources
Vasiliki Tourptsoglou-Stefanidou: Journeys and Geographic Sources of the Island of Lemnos (15th-20th Centuries)
Belitsos, Theodoros, Lemnos and its villages by Th. Belitsos 1994.
Lemnos/Limnos Province CD Rom (Cdrom Επαρχείου Λήμνου = CD Rom Eparcheiou Limnou): Lovable Lemnos
Belitsos, Theodoros: Lemnos and its villages, 1994
Belitsos, Theodoros: Kaminia in Lemnos, 2004 A lot of people who live in Kaminia and Lemnos generally came from Egypt. Kaminia has a mild Mediterranean climate.

References

Populated places in Lemnos


Gilbert Maxwell (February 13, 1910-November 1979) was a poet, New York actor, and author.

Books
Gilbert, who was a friend of Tennessee Williams, wrote several books, including Tennessee Williams and Friends: an Informal Biography (1965) and Helen Morgan: Her Life and Legend New York: Hawthorn Books. .. (1974).

Poetry
Maxwell published poetry in Poetry magazine between 1933 and 1937. These included his poems Mortality, Boy and Hawk, Farewell, From a Piazza in the South, Symbol for Static Grief, and Forfeits.

Transcripts of his poems are located in the archives of the University of Florida.

Final years
Gilbert spent his final years in Florida and died in North Miami Beach, Florida, in November 1979.

Bibliography
 Look to the Lightning.  New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1933. (Poetry)
 Stranger's Garment.  New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1936.  (Poetry)
 The Dark Rain Falling.  Prairie City, IL: Press of James A. Decker, 1942.  (Poetry)
 The Sleeping Trees.  Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1949.  (Fiction)
 Go Looking: Poems, 1933-1953.  Boston: Bruce Humphries, 1954.  (Poetry)
 Tennessee Williams and Friends.  New York: The World Publishing Company, 1965.  (Biography).
 Helen Morgan: Her Life and Legend.  New York: Hawthorn Books, 1974.  (Biography)

References

1910 births
1979 deaths
Male actors from New York City
Male actors from Miami
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American poets
People from North Miami Beach, Florida


USS Katydid (SP-95) was an armed motorboat that served in the United States Navy as a patrol vessel from 1917 to 1919.

Katydid was built as a civilian motorboat in 1912 by William Hoff at New Rochelle, New York. Anticipating the entry of the United States into World War I the following month, the U.S. Navy purchased her on 27 March 1917 from her owner, Arnold G. Dana, for use as a patrol boat. Assigned to the 3rd Naval District on 4 April 1917, she was commissioned on 10 May 1917 as USS Katydid (SP-95).

In 1917, Katydid operated in New York Harbor and nearby waters serving as launch to the training ship  and troop transport USS President Grant (ID-3014). Subsequently, she deployed to France.

Katydid was laid up on 9 December 1919. She was transferred to the United States Department of War on 18 February 1920 for service with the United States Army Ordnance Department at Neville Island, Pennsylvania.

References

1912 ships
Patrol vessels of the United States Navy
World War I patrol vessels of the United States
Ships built in New York (state)


John Shute (died 1563) was an English artist and architect who was born in Cullompton, Devon. His book, The First and Chief Grounds of Architecture, was the first work in English on classical architecture. Shute's patron was John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, for whom he built a residential wing at Dudley Castle. He was also known as a painter of miniatures.

See also
Kenilworth Castle

Notes

References
Morris, R. K. (2010): Kenilworth Castle English Heritage

Further reading
Shute, John (1563). The first and chief groundes of architecture used in all the auncient and famous monymentes & with a farther & more ample discouse uppon the same, than hitherto hath been set out by any other

Year of birth missing
1563 deaths
Architects from Devon
16th-century English painters
English male painters
16th-century English architects
People from Cullompton