Tibet () was a de facto independent state in East Asia that lasted from the collapse of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty in 1912 until its annexation by the People's Republic of China in 1951.

The Tibetan Ganden Phodrang regime was a protectorate of the Qing dynasty until 1912. When the provisional government of the Republic of China was formed, it received an imperial edict giving it control over all the territories of the Qing dynasty. However, it was unable to assert any authority in Tibet.  The Dalai Lama declared that Tibet's relationship with China ended with the fall of the Qing dynasty and proclaimed independence.  Tibet and Outer Mongolia also signed a treaty proclaiming mutual recognition of their independence from China. With its proclamation of independence and conduct of its own internal and external affairs in this period, Tibet is regarded as a "de facto independent state" as per international law, although its independence was not formally recognized by any foreign power.

After the 13th Dalai Lama's death in 1933, a condolence mission sent to Lhasa by the Kuomintang-ruled Nationalist government to start negotiations about Tibet's status was allowed to open an office and remain there, although no agreement was reached.

The era ended after the Nationalist government of the Republic of China lost the civil war against the Chinese Communist Party and Tibet was annexed into the newly formed People's Republic of China.

History

Fall of the Qing dynasty (1911)

Tibet came under the rule of the Qing dynasty of China in 1720 after the Qing expelled the forces of the Dzungar Khanate. But by the end of the 19th century, Chinese authority in Tibet was no more than symbolic. Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1911–1912, Tibetan militia launched a surprise attack on the Qing garrison stationed in Tibet after the Xinhai Lhasa turmoil. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the Qing officials in Lhasa were then forced to sign the "Three Point Agreement" for the surrender and expulsion of Qing forces in central Tibet. In early 1912, the Government of the Republic of China replaced the Qing dynasty as the government of China and the new republic asserted its sovereignty over all the territories of the previous dynasty, which included 22 Chinese provinces, Tibet, and Outer Mongolia. This claim was provided for in the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor signed by the Empress Dowager Longyu on behalf of the six-year-old Xuantong Emperor: "...the continued territorial integrity of the lands of the five races, Manchu, Han, Mongol, Hui, and Tibetan into one great Republic of China" (...). The Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China adopted in 1912 specifically established frontier regions of the new republic, including Tibet, as integral parts of the state.

Following the establishment of the new Republic, China's provisional President, Yuan Shikai, sent a telegram to the 13th Dalai Lama, restoring his earlier titles. The Dalai Lama spurned these titles, replying that he "intended to exercise both temporal and ecclesiastical rule in Tibet." In 1913, the Dalai Lama, who had fled to India when the Qing sent a military expedition to establish direct Chinese rule over Tibet in 1910, returned to Lhasa and issued a proclamation that stated that the relationship between the Chinese emperor and Tibet "had been that of patron and priest and had not been based on the subordination of one to the other." "We are a small, religious, and independent nation," the proclamation stated.

In January 1913, Agvan Dorzhiev and three other Tibetan representatives signed a treaty between Tibet and Mongolia in Urga, proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. The British diplomat Charles Bell wrote that the 13th Dalai Lama told him that he had not authorized Agvan Dorzhiev to conclude any treaties on behalf of Tibet. Because the text was not published, some initially doubted the existence of the treaty, but the Mongolian text was published by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 1982.

Simla Convention (1914)

In 1913–1914, a conference was held in Simla between the UK, Tibet, and the Republic of China. The British suggested dividing Tibetan-inhabited areas into an Outer and an Inner Tibet (on the model of an earlier agreement between China and Russia over Mongolia). Outer Tibet, approximately the same area as the modern Tibet Autonomous Region, would be autonomous under Chinese suzerainty. In this area, China would refrain from "interference in the administration." In Inner Tibet, consisting of eastern Kham and Amdo, China would have rights of administration and Lhasa would retain control of religious institutions.

When negotiations broke down over the specific boundary between Inner and Outer Tibet, the boundary of Tibet defined in the convention also included what came to be known as the McMahon Line, which delineated the Tibet-India border, in the Assam Himalayan region. The boundary included in India the Tawang tract, which had been under indirect administration of Tibet via the control of the Tawang monastery.

The Simla Convention was initialled by all three delegations, but was immediately rejected by Beijing because of dissatisfaction with the boundary between Outer and Inner Tibet. McMahon and the Tibetans then signed the document as a bilateral accord with a note denying China any of the rights under the convention until it signed. The British Government initially rejected McMahon's bilateral accord as being incompatible with the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention.

The 1907 Anglo-Russian Treaty, which had earlier caused the British to question the validity of Simla, was renounced by the Russians in 1917 and by the Russians and British jointly in 1921. Tibet, however, altered its position on the McMahon Line in the 1940s. In late 1947, the Tibetan government wrote a note presented to the newly independent Indian Ministry of External Affairs laying claims to Tibetan districts south of the McMahon Line. According to Alastair Lamb, by refusing to sign the Simla documents, the Chinese Government had escaped giving any recognition to the McMahon Line.

After the death of the 13th Dalai Lama in 1933

Since the expulsion of the Amban from Tibet in 1912, communication between Tibet and China had taken place only with the British as mediator. Direct communications resumed after the 13th Dalai Lama's death in December 1933, when China sent a "condolence mission" to Lhasa headed by General Huang Musong.

Soon after the 13th Dalai Lama died, according to some accounts, the Kashag reaffirmed its 1914 position that Tibet remained nominally part of China, provided Tibet could manage its own political affairs. In his essay Hidden Tibet: History of Independence and Occupation published by the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives at Dharamsala, S.L. Kuzmin cited several sources indicating that the Tibetan government had not declared Tibet a part of China, despite an intimation of Chinese sovereignty made by the Kuomintang government. Since 1912, Tibet had been de facto independent of Chinese control, but on other occasions it had indicated willingness to accept nominal subordinate status as a part of China, provided that Tibetan internal systems were left untouched, and provided China relinquished control over a number of important ethnic Tibetan areas in Kham and Amdo. In support of claims that China's rule over Tibet was not interrupted, China argues that official documents showed that the National Assembly of China and both chambers of parliament had Tibetan members, whose names had been preserved all along.

China was then permitted to establish an office in Lhasa, staffed by the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission and headed by Wu Zhongxin (Wu Chung-hsin), the commission's director of Tibetan Affairs,
which Chinese sources claim was an administrative body—but the Tibetans claim that they rejected China's proposal that Tibet should be a part of China, and in turn demanded the return of territories east of the Drichu (Yangtze River). In response to the establishment of a Chinese office in Lhasa, the British obtained similar permission and set up their own office there.

The 1934 Khamba Rebellion led by Pandastang Togbye and Pandatsang Rapga broke out against the Tibetan Government during this time, with the Pandatsang family leading Khamba tribesmen against the Tibetan Army.

1930s to 1949

In 1935, Lhamo Dhondup was born in Amdo in eastern Tibet and recognized by all concerned as the incarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama.  Similar to his
predecessor Thubten Gyatso who was approved by the Central Government of China in 1877 to be exempted from the lot-drawing process using Golden Urn to become the 13th Dalai Lama On 26 January 1940, the Regent Reting Rinpoche requested the Central Government of China to exempt Lhamo Dhondup from the lot-drawing process using the Golden Urn to become the 14th Dalai Lama, and the Chinese government approved. After a ransom of 400,000 silver dragons had been paid by Lhasa to the Hui Muslim warlord Ma Bufang, who ruled Qinghai (Chinghai) from Xining, Ma Bufang released him to travel to Lhasa in 1939. He was then enthroned by the Ganden Phodrang government at the Potala Palace on the Tibetan New Year.

The Kuomintang Government 'ratified' the current 14th Dalai Lama, and that Kuomintang representative General Wu Zhongxin presided over the ceremony; both the ratification order of February 1940 and the documentary film of the ceremony still exist intact. Wu Zhongxin (along with other foreign representatives) was present at the ceremony. Reports from contemporary newspapers, sourced directly from Lhasa, also give witness to these ceremonies. For example, the Associated Press on Feb 22, 1940 writes:

Regarding the ceremony, according to Associated Press reports dated Feb 23, 1940:

Likewise, according to United Press reports dated Feb 22, 1940:

Billings Gazette Sun reports dated Feb 18, 1940:

Britain, who had an interest in Tibet at the time and wished to undermine Chinese sovereignty over it, had a representative, Sir Basil Gould, who claims to have been present at the ceremony, and opposes the above diverse international sources that China presided over it. He claims that:

Tibetan author Nyima Gyaincain wrote that based on Tibetan tradition, there was no such thing as presiding over an event, and claims that the Han Chinese word "" (to preside or organize) was used in many places in communication documents. The meaning of the word was different than what we understand today. He added that Wu Zhongxin spent a lot of time and energy on the event, his effect of presiding over or organizing the event was very obvious.

In 1942, the U.S. government told the government of Chiang Kai-shek that it had never disputed Chinese claims to Tibet. In 1944, the USA War Department produced a series of seven documentary films on Why We Fight; in the sixth series, The Battle of China, Tibet is incorrectly called a province of China. (The official name is Tibet Area, and it's not a province.) In 1944, during World War II, two Austrian mountaineers, Heinrich Harrer and Peter Aufschnaiter, came to Lhasa, where Harrer became a tutor and friend to the young Dalai Lama, giving him sound knowledge of Western culture and modern society, until Harrer chose to leave in 1949.

Tibet established a Foreign Office in 1942, and in 1946 it sent congratulatory missions to China and India (related to the end of World War II). The mission to China was given a letter addressed to Chinese President Chiang Kai-shek which states that, "We shall continue to maintain the independence of Tibet as a nation ruled by the successive Dalai Lamas through an authentic religious-political rule." The mission agreed to attend a Chinese constitutional assembly in Nanjing as observers.

Under orders from the Kuomintang government of Chiang Kai-shek, Ma Bufang repaired the Yushu airport in 1942 to deter Tibetan independence. Chiang also ordered Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of Tibet in 1942. Ma Bufang complied, and moved several thousand troops to the border with Tibet. Chiang also threatened the Tibetans with bombing if they did not comply.

In 1947, Tibet sent a delegation to the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi, India, where it represented itself as an independent nation, and India recognised it as an independent nation from 1947 to 1954. This may have been the first appearance of the Tibetan national flag at a public gathering.

André Migot, a French doctor who travelled for many months in Tibet in 1947, described the complex border arrangements between Tibet and China, and how they had developed:

In 1947–49, Lhasa sent a trade mission led by Finance Minister Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa to India, China, Hong Kong, the US, and the UK. The visited countries were careful not to express support for the claim that Tibet was independent of China and did not discuss political questions with the mission. These Trade Mission officials entered China via Hong Kong with their newly issued Tibetan passports that they applied at the Chinese Consulate in India and stayed in China for three months. Other countries did, however, allow the mission to travel using passports issued by the Tibetan government. The U.S. unofficially received the Trade Mission. The mission met with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee in London in 1948.

Annexation by the People's Republic of China

In the year 1949, seeing that the Communists were gaining control of China, the Kashag government expelled all Chinese officials from Tibet despite protests from both the Kuomintang and the Communists. On 1 October 1949, the 10th Panchen Lama wrote a telegraph to Beijing, expressing his congratulations for the liberation of northwest China and the establishment of the People's Republic of China, and his excitement to see the inevitable liberation of Tibet. The Chinese Communist government, led by Chairman Mao Zedong, which came to power in October, lost little time in asserting a new Chinese presence in Tibet. In June 1950, the British government stated in the House of Commons that His Majesty's Government "have always been prepared to recognise Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but only on the understanding that Tibet is regarded as autonomous". In October 1950, the People's Liberation Army entered the Tibetan area of Chamdo, defeating sporadic resistance from the Tibetan Army. In 1951, representatives of the Tibetan authorities, headed by Ngapoi Ngawang Jigme, with the Dalai Lama's authorization, participated in negotiations in Beijing with the Chinese government. It resulted in the Seventeen Point Agreement which affirmed China's sovereignty over Tibet. The agreement was ratified in Lhasa a few months later. China described the entire process as the "peaceful liberation of Tibet".

Politics

Government

Military

After the 13th Dalai Lama had assumed full control over Tibet in the 1910s, he began to build up the Tibetan Army with support from the United Kingdom, which provided advisors and weapons. This army was supposed to be large and modern enough to not just defend Tibet, but to also conquer surrounding regions like Kham which were inhabited by Tibetan peoples. The Tibetan Army was constantly expanded during the 13th Dalai Lama's reign, and had about 10,000 soldiers by 1936. These were adequately armed and trained infantrymen for the time, though the army almost completely lacked machine guns, artillery, planes, and tanks. In addition to the regular army, Tibet also made use of great numbers of poorly armed village militias. Considering that it was usually outgunned by their opponents, the Tibetan Army performed relatively well against various Chinese warlords in the 1920s and 1930s. Overall, the Tibetan soldiers proved to be "fearless and tough fighters" during the Warlord Era.

Despite this, the Tibetan Army was wholly inadequate to resist the People's Liberation Army (PLA) during the Chinese invasion of 1950. It consequently disintegrated and surrendered without much resistance.

Postal service

Tibet created its own postal service in 1912. It printed its first postage stamps in Lhasa and issued them in 1912. It issued telegraph stamps in 1950.

Foreign relations

The division of China into military cliques kept China divided, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled. But his reign was marked with border conflicts with Han Chinese and Muslim warlords, which the Tibetans lost most of the time. At that time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang) and western Kham (Khams), roughly coincident with the borders of the Tibet Autonomous Region today. Eastern Kham, separated by the Yangtze River, was under the control of Chinese warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in Amdo (Qinghai) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled after 1928 by the Hui warlord Ma Bufang of the family of Muslim warlords known as the Ma clique, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of Amdo (Qinghai). Southern Kham, along with other parts of Yunnan, belonged to the Yunnan clique from 1915 till 1927, then to Governor and warlord Long (Lung) Yun until near the end of the Chinese Civil War, when Du Yuming removed him under the order of Chiang Kai-shek. Within territory under Chinese control, war was being waged against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai during the Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai.

In 1918, Lhasa regained control of Chamdo and western Kham. A truce set the border at the Yangtze River. At this time, the government of Tibet controlled all of Ü-Tsang and Kham west of the Yangtze River, roughly the same borders as the Tibet Autonomous Region has today. Eastern Kham was governed by local Tibetan princes of varying allegiances. Qinghai was controlled by ethnic Hui and pro-Kuomintang warlord Ma Bufang. In 1932, Tibet invaded Qinghai, attempting to capture southern parts of Qinghai province, following contention in Yushu, Qinghai, over a monastery in 1932. Ma Bufang's Qinghai army defeated the Tibetan armies.

During the 1920s and 1930s, China was divided by civil war and occupied with the anti-Japanese war, but never renounced its claim to sovereignty over Tibet, and made occasional attempts to assert it.

In 1932, the Muslim Qinghai and Han-Chinese Sichuan armies of the National Revolutionary Army led by Ma Bufang and Liu Wenhui defeated the Tibetan Army in the Sino-Tibetan War when the 13th Dalai Lama tried to seize territory in Qinghai and Xikang. They warned the Tibetans not to dare cross the Jinsha river again. A truce was signed, ending the fighting. The Dalai Lama had cabled the British in India for help when his armies were defeated, and started demoting his Generals who had surrendered.

In 1936, after Sheng Shicai expelled 30,000 Kazakhs from Xinjiang to Qinghai, Hui led by General Ma Bufang massacred their fellow Muslim Kazakhs, until there were 135 of them left.

From Northern Xinjiang, over 7,000 Kazakhs fled to the Tibetan-Qinghai plateau region via Gansu and were wreaking massive havoc so Ma Bufang solved the problem by relegating the Kazakhs into designated pastureland in Qinghai, but Hui, Tibetans, and Kazakhs in the region continued to clash against each other.

Tibetans attacked and fought against the Kazakhs as they entered Tibet via Gansu and Qinghai.

In northern Tibet, Kazakhs clashed with Tibetan soldiers and then the Kazakhs were sent to Ladakh.

Tibetan troops robbed and killed Kazakhs 400 miles east of Lhasa at Chamdo when the Kazakhs were entering Tibet.

In 1934, 1935, 1936–1938 from Qumil Eliqsan led the Kerey Kazakhs to migrate to Gansu and the amount was estimated at 18,000, and they entered Gansu and Qinghai.

In 1951, the Uyghur Yulbars Khan was attacked by Tibetan troops as he fled Xinjiang to reach Calcutta.

The anti-communist American CIA agent Douglas Mackiernan was killed by Tibetan troops on 29 April 1950.

Economy

Currency

The Tibetan government issued banknotes and coins.

Society and culture

Traditional Tibetan society consisted of a feudal class structure, which was one of the reasons the Chinese Communist Party claims that it had to liberate Tibet and reform its government.

Professor of Buddhist and Tibetan studies, Donald S. Lopez, stated that at the time:

These institutional groups retained great power until 1959.

The 13th Dalai Lama had reformed the pre-existing serf system in the first decade of the 20th century, and by 1950, slavery itself had probably ceased to exist in central Tibet, though perhaps persisted in certain border areas. Slavery did exist, for example, in places like the Chumbi Valley, though British observers like Charles Bell called it 'mild', and beggars (ragyabas) were endemic. The pre-Chinese social system, however, was rather complex.

Estates (shiga), roughly similar to the English manorial system, were granted by the state and were hereditary, though revocable. As agricultural properties, they consisted of two kinds: land held by the nobility or monastic institutions (demesne land), and village land (tenement or villein land) held by the central government, though governed by district administrators. Demesne land consisted, on average, of one-half to three-quarters of an estate. Villein land belonged to the estates, but tenants normally exercised hereditary usufruct rights in exchange for fulfilling their corvée obligations. Tibetans outside the nobility and the monastic system were classified as serfs, but two types existed and functionally were comparable to tenant farmers. Agricultural serfs, or "small smoke" (düchung), were bound to work on estates as a corvée obligation (ula) but they had title to their own plots, owned private goods, were free to move about outside the periods required for their tribute labor, and were free of tax obligations. They could accrue wealth and on occasion became lenders to the estates themselves, and could sue the estate owners: village serfs (tralpa) were bound to their villages but only for tax and corvée purposes, such as road transport duties (ula), and were only obliged to pay taxes. Half of the village serfs were man-lease serfs (mi-bog), meaning that they had purchased their freedom. Estate owners exercised broad rights over attached serfs, and flight or a monastic life was the only venue of relief. Yet no mechanism existed to restore escaped serfs to their estates, and no means to enforce bondage existed, though the estate lord held the right to pursue and forcibly return them to the land.

Any serf who had absented himself from his estate for three years was automatically granted either commoner (chi mi) status or reclassified as a serf of the central government. Estate lords could transfer their subjects to other lords or rich peasants for labor, though this practice was uncommon in Tibet. Though rigid structurally, the system exhibited considerable flexibility at ground level, with peasants free of constraints from the lord of the manor once they had fulfilled their corvée obligations. Historically, discontent or abuse of the system, according to Warren W. Smith, appears to have been rare. Tibet was far from a meritocracy, but the Dalai Lamas were recruited from the sons of peasant families, and the sons of nomads could rise to master the monastic system and become scholars and abbots.

See also
 Arunachal Pradesh
 South Tibet

 Captive Nations
 Flag of Tibet
 Four Rugby Boys
 Ganden Phodrang
 Historical money of Tibet
 History of Tibet (1950–present)
 Kashag
 Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission
 Tibet Area (administrative division)
 Tibet under Qing rule

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

 Berkin, Martyn. The Great Tibetan Stonewall of China (1924) Barry Rose Law Publishes Ltd. .
 Chapman, F. Spencer. Lhasa the Holy City (1977) Books for Libraries. ; first published 1940 by Readers Union Ltd., London.

History of Tibet
Former countries in Asia
Former theocracies
.1912
.
.
.
.1950
Disputed territories in Asia
Former countries in Chinese history
Former unrecognized countries
Former monarchies
Former monarchies of Asia
Neutral states in World War II
1912 establishments in Tibet
1912 establishments in Asia
1951 disestablishments in Asia
1951 disestablishments in China
20th century in Tibet


Antarctic whales are any whales which are known to reside near Antarctica for at least part of the year.  This includes:
Arnoux's beaked whale
Blue whale
Dwarf sperm whale
Fin whale
Gray's beaked whale
Humpback whale
Minke whale
Antarctic minke whale
Pygmy right whale
Pygmy sperm whale
Sei whale
Southern bottlenose whale
Southern right whale
Sperm whale
Strap-toothed whale

Cetaceans
Animal common name disambiguation pages


A pressure point is an area on the human body that may produce significant pain or other effects when manipulated.

Pressure point may also refer to:

Pressure point (first aid), a point on the body where direct pressure is applied to constrict blood flow in the event of bleeding
Acupuncture point, in traditional Chinese medicine
Varmam, the corresponding concept in Tamil traditional medicine and martial arts
"Reflex points", in reflexology

In popular culture
Pressure Point (1962 film), starring Sidney Poitier and Bobby Darin
Pressure Point (2001 film), a Canadian film
Pressure Point (album), by Freestylers
"Pressure Point" (song), from The Zutons' 2004 album Who Killed...... The Zutons?
Pressure Points: Live in Concert, a 1984 live album by progressive rock band Camel


CHSB-FM is a Canadian radio station that broadcasts a Christian Radio format on the frequency 99.3 FM in Bedford, Nova Scotia and serving the northern suburbs of Halifax. The station is branded as Hilltop FM.

Owned by the Bedford Baptist Church, the station originally received CRTC approval on July 26, 2006 to operate on 89.1 FM; however, a technical change to broadcast at its current frequency 99.3 FM received approval on September 26, 2008, due to potential interference from a nearby radio station in Kentville, CIJK-FM 89.3, which received CRTC approval to broadcast in 2007.

References

External links

Hsb


Jakobus Cornelis (Jacques) Bloem (10 May 1887, Oudshoorn – 10 August 1966, Kalenberg) was a Dutch poet and essayist. Between 1921 and 1958 he published fourteen volumes of poetry. In 1949 he won the Constantijn Huygensprijs, one of the country's highest literary awards, and in 1952 the P. C. Hooft Award for his literary oeuvre.
In 1965, in rapidly declining health, he was awarded the highest Dutch-language literary award, the Prijs der Nederlandse Letteren.
He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Dubbed the poet of unfulfilled desire, he is hailed as one of the 100 greatest Netherlanders of the twentieth century.

The Dutch poetry award J.C. Bloem-poëzieprijs is named after him.

Life
In his early years, Bloem was a great admirer of the symbolist poetry of Charles Baudelaire; it is, however, for a relatively simple, almost naive poem that he is best remembered in the Netherlands, "Domweg Gelukkig in de Dapperstraat", "simply (or foolishly) happy in the Dapperstraat", a market street in East Amsterdam. The poem also lent its title to a popular anthology of Dutch poetry. His legacy, beside his poetry, remains a bit controversial: he was suspected of antisemitism and of sympathizing, at least initially, with the German Nazi government, and in a recent biography the possibility of his having been homosexual was proposed. Still, his importance to the country was reaffirmed at the fortieth anniversary of his death, a celebration of his life and work in Paasloo, where he and his wife Clara Eggink were buried.

Select bibliography
Het verlangen. 1921.
Media vita. 1931.
Nederlaag. 1937.
Sintels. 1945.
Quiet though sad: gedichten ’s-Gravenhage, A.A.M. Stols, 1946.
Verzamelde gedichten. ’s-Gravenhage, A. A. M. Stols, 1947.
Verzamelde Beschouwingen. ’s-Gravenhage, A.A.M. Stols, 1950.
Afscheid. ’s-Gravenhage: L. J. C. Boucher, 1957.
Poëtica. Amsterdam: Athenaeum/Polak & Van Gennep, 1969.
Ongewild archief. ’s-Gravenhage: BZZTôH, 1977. .

References

1887 births
1966 deaths
20th-century Dutch poets
Dutch male poets
Constantijn Huygens Prize winners
P. C. Hooft Award winners
Prijs der Nederlandse Letteren winners
Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau
People from Alphen aan den Rijn
20th-century Dutch male writers


Lucius Vibius Sabinus was a Roman Senator who lived in the 1st century. His daughter Vibia Sabina married the emperor Hadrian.

Biography
Little is known about his family, but Sabinus came from a family of consular rank. He may have been related to Lucius Junius Quintus Vibius Crispus, three times consul, and his brother Quintus Vibius Secundus, consul in 86.

Sabinus became the second husband of Trajan's niece Salonia Matidia; he and Matidia had a daughter, Vibia Sabina (August 13th 83-136/137). Sabinus may have died soon after his daughter's birth, for in his funeral speech for Matidia, the emperor Hadrian alludes to her long widowhood.  Vibia Sabina married her distant maternal cousin and Trajan's heir, the future emperor Hadrian sometime before the year 101.

Ronald Syme has argued that a pair of fragmentary inscriptions from Asisium refer to Sabinus; If correct, this would mean he was a member of the septemviri epulonum, one of the four most prestigious ancient Roman priesthoods. Syme has also argued that, based on a reading preserved in later copies of the Fasti Consulares indicating that Sabinus and Arrius Antoninus were consular colleagues, which means he was suffect consul in the year 97—a reading Theodor Mommsen had judged as unreliable. Anthony Birley accepted Syme's argument. In his own study on the suffect consuls of the year 97, Fausto Zevi rejected Syme's argument on several grounds, and argued that "Sabinus" in the later fasti was a corruption for "Piso"—Calpurnius Piso, the name which this portion of the Fasti Ostienses supports. Zevi also dismisses the identification of Sabinus with the inscriptions from Asisium as based on insufficient information.

Based on an inscription that preserves Hadrian's funeral oration on his dead wife Matidia, Sabinus had died no later than the year 98.

References

Further reading
 Julian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps : a Life and Times (London: Routledge, 1997) ,

External links
 R. Scott Moore, "The Stemmata [sic] of the Good Emperors"

1st-century Romans
Ancient Roman politicians
Senators of the Roman Empire
Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome
Epulones of the Roman Empire
Sabinus


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 2001.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 2001 at the Internet Movie Database

2001
Bengali

2001 in Indian cinema


Lucius Mindius is an unattested Roman Aristocrat who lived in the Roman Empire in the second half of the 1st century. Mindius was a Roman Senator of Consular rank. Little is known on his origins. In 84, Mindius married Salonia Matidia, the niece of future Roman Emperor Trajan, becoming her second husband. Matidia was previously widowed from her first marriage to suffect consul Lucius Vibius Sabinus, who left Matidia a daughter Vibia Sabina.

In 85, Matidia bore Mindius a daughter called Mindia Matidia, commonly known as Matidia Minor or Matidia the Younger. Like Matidia's first marriage, Matidia's marriage to Lucius Mindius was short-lived. Shortly after the birth of Mindia Matidia, Lucius Mindius had died. In 86 Matidia married the consul Lucius Scribonius Libo Rupilius Frugi Bonus.

Sources
 http://www.roman-emperors.org/goodemp2.htm
 Julian Bennett, Trajan: Optimus Princeps, a Life and Times, Illustrated edition (Routledge, 1997) ,

85 deaths
1st-century Romans
Nerva–Antonine dynasty
Senators of the Roman Empire
Ancient Romans from unknown gentes
1st-century births
Year of birth unknown
Mindii


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 2000.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 2000 at the Internet Movie Database

2000
Bengali
 Bengali
2000 in Indian cinema


Howard Bretherton (13 February 1890, in Tacoma, Washington – 12 April 1969, in San Diego, California) was an American film director, film editor.

Career
He began his career as a propman and then became a film editor during the early 1920s for MGM. He directed his first film, While London Sleeps, in 1926, and thereafter spent more than three decades working mostly as a film director. Of the roughly 100 pictures he directed, most of them were westerns and action/adventure films. The final film he directed was Night Raiders in 1952. Afterwards, he occasionally worked as a director in television through 1958.

Partial filmography

As director

 While London Sleeps (1926)
 The Black Diamond Express (1927)
 The Bush Leaguer (1927)
 One Round Hogan (1927) (lost)
 Turn Back the Hours (1928)
 Across the Atlantic (1928)
 The Greyhound Limited (1929)
 From Headquarters (1929)
 The Redeeming Sin (1929)
 The Time, the Place and the Girl (1929)
 The Argyle Case (1929)
 Second Choice (1930)
 Isle of Escape (1930)
 Once Over, Light (1931)
 The Match King (1932) (co-directed with William Keighley)
 Ladies They Talk About (1933) (co-directed with Keighley)
 The Singer of Naples (1935) (co-directed with Moreno Cuyar)
 Dinky (1935) (co-directed with D. Ross Lederman)
 Hop-Along Cassidy (1935)
 Secret Valley (1937)
 It Happened Out West (1937)
 County Fair (1937)
 Star Reporter (1939)
 Undercover Agent (1939)
 Boys' Reformatory (1939)
 Irish Luck (1939)
 Sky Patrol (1939)
 Danger Flight (1939)
 Navy Secrets (1939)
Hidden Enemy (1940)
 Chasing Trouble (1940)
 Laughing at Danger (1940)
 Up in the Air (1940)
 Pirates of the Prairie (1942)
 Rhythm Parade (1942)
 Dawn on the Great Divide (1942)
 Santa Fe Scouts (1943)
 Riders of the Rio Grande (1943)
 Beyond the Last Frontier (1943)
 Whispering Footsteps (1943)
 The San Antonio Kid (1944)
 Law of the Valley (1944)
 The Big Show-Off (1945)
 Gun Smoke (1945)
 The Monster and the Ape (1945)
 Renegades of the Rio Grande (1945)
 Who's Guilty? (1945 serial)
 The Trap (1946)
 Trail of the Mounties (1947)
 The Prince of Thieves (1948)
 Triggerman (1948)
 Night Raiders (1952)

As editor
 One Week of Love (1922)
 Children of Dust (1923)
 Beau Brummel (1924)
 A Self-Made Failure (1924)
 A Successful Calamity (1932)
 Heroes for Sale (1933)
 Baby Face (1933)
 The House on 56th Street (1933)
 Heat Lightning (1934)
 Smarty (1934) (uncredited)

As associate producer
 Identity Unknown (1945)

References

Further reading
 They collaborated on Heroes for Sale (1933).

External links

American film directors
American film editors
1890 births
1969 deaths


In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throws or field goals. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball, where a player's career is at most four seasons under normal circumstances, it is considered a notable achievement to reach the 1,000-points scored threshold. In even rarer instances, players have reached the 2,000- and 3,000-point plateaus (no player, whether male or female, has ever scored 4,000 or more points at the Division I level). The top 25 highest scorers in NCAA Division I women's basketball history are listed below. While the NCAA's current three-division format has been in place since the 1973–74 season, it did not sponsor women's sports until the 1981–82 school year; before that time, women's college sports were governed by the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW).

To be listed in the NCAA record book, a player must have been active in at least three seasons during the era in which the NCAA governed women's sports—although for those players who qualify for inclusion in the record book, AIAW statistics are included. Most notably, Lynette Woodard of Kansas, whose career total of 3,649 points makes her the all-time women's college basketball scoring leader, is not recognized as the NCAA career leader because her entire college career (1977–81) predated NCAA sponsorship of women's sports.

Some players among the top 25 scorers in Division I history played in the era before the three-point line was officially adopted in women's basketball on an experimental basis in 1986–87 and fully in 1987–88. All of the players with a dash through the three-point field goals column were affected by this rule. Valorie Whiteside of Appalachian State is the only three-point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three-point shot, and she only played in one season in which the use of the three-pointer was mandatory.

The three-point distance was first marked at  from the center of the basket, the same distance then used in NCAA men's basketball. From that point through the 2007–08 season, the three-point lines remained at . On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men's three-point line back to ; the women's line remained at the original distance until it was moved to match the men's distance effective in 2011–12. The men's distance was changed to match the FIBA standard of  in a two-phase implementation that took effect in 2019–20 in Division I and 2020–21 in Divisions II and III, but the women's distance was not changed until 2021–22, when it was moved to match the men's distance.

The only player on this list to be enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame is Cheryl Miller.

Only two players among the top 25 played basketball in more than four seasons. Rachel Banham of Minnesota tore her ACL 10 games into her senior season of 2014–15. She qualified for a medical hardship waiver, popularly known as a "medical redshirt", that allowed her to compete in a fifth season. Ashley Joens of Iowa State benefited from a blanket NCAA waiver that did not count the 2020–21 season, heavily impacted by COVID-19, against the athletic eligibility of any basketball player. Only one player among the top 25 played at more than one school, namely Alysha Clark, who played two seasons at Belmont before transferring to Middle Tennessee.

Key

Top 25 career scoring leaders

Footnotes

References
General

Specific

Scoring, career
Lists of college women's basketball players in the United States


Lawrence or Larry Hoffman may refer to:
Larry Hoffman (baseball) (1878–1948), 1900s infielder for the Chicago Orphans
Lawrence A. Hoffman (born 1942), liturgiologist
Lawrence J. Hoffman, American lawyer


William Charles Achi (1858–1928) was a Hawaiian lawyer and politician. He was of Chinese and Native Hawaiian descent.

William Charles Achi was born December 16, 1858 at Kohala, Hawaii, to Lum and Kinilau (Lualoa) Achi, he was the great great grandson of Puou, one of the warriors of King Kamehameha I. He was educated at Hilo Boarding School, the Lahainaluna Seminary, Maui, and at Oahu College (now Punahou School) in Honolulu in 1882.

Achi read law in the office of William Richards Castle in Honolulu, and was admitted to the courts of Hawaii in February, 1887. In 1897, he was elected as a Representative to the Legislature of the Republic of Hawaii. The following year, he was elected Councilor of State at the session of the Legislature. After the annexation of Hawaii by the United States, Achi was elected in November 1900 one of the first senators to new Legislature of the Territory of Hawaii. He was re-elected in November, 1902. He was a delegate to Municipal Charter Convention and made a strong fight for a modern city charter for Honolulu in 1916. He was elected an alternate to the Republican National Convention in Chicago in 1916.

Achi married Maria (Isabella) Alapai on June 15, 1883 but they divorced. Their son, William Charles Achi Jr. (1889–1947), became an attorney, and was eventually appointed by Woodrow Wilson to be a territorial judge.

References

1858 births
1928 deaths
Hawaiian Kingdom people
Native Hawaiian politicians
Lahainaluna School alumni
Punahou School alumni
Hilo Boarding School alumni
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law


Dirk Heidolf (born 14 September 1976, Hohenstein) is a German former road racer of solo motorcycles at Grand Prix level.

His best seasons were in 2002 and 2007 when he finished the year in twentieth place in the 250 cc world championship. He ran his own team in the Moto3 World Championship called Racing Team Germany.

Races by year

(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position, races in italics indicate fastest lap)

References

1976 births
Living people
People from Hohenstein-Ernstthal
People from Bezirk Karl-Marx-Stadt
German motorcycle racers
Sportspeople from Saxony
125cc World Championship riders
250cc World Championship riders


(born January 13, 1958) is a Japanese composer.

Biography
Yasuraoka was born in Tokyo and studied with composers Teruyuki Noda (野田暉行) and Akira Miyoshi graduating Tokyo University of the Arts in 1984 with a master's degree in music composition.  He has received several awards and distinctions including the 1st Prize in Composition at the Music Competition of Japan (日本音楽コンクール) in 1980 and the 1982 Japan Symphony Foundation Composition Award for his Symphony.  He was recipient of the 1994 Kenzo Nakajima Music Award (中島健蔵音楽賞).

In 1985, Yasuraoka organized Art Respirant, a chamber orchestra of young performing artists and composers.

Currently Yasuraoka is professor at Toho Gakuen School of Music and Tokyo University of the Arts.  He is a member of the 21st Century Music Association (21世紀音楽の会) and a director of the Japan Society for Contemporary Music (日本現代音楽協会).

Selected works
The works of Yasuraoka are published by the Japan Federation of Composers, Zen-On Music, Ongaku-no-tomo Sha and Tokyo Academia Music.
Orchestra
 Symphony (1982)

Concertante
 Métamorphose concertante (協奏的変容) for Violin, Cello and Orchestra (1991)
 Concerto Grosso No.1 "Animatori" (1993)
  for Viola and Orchestra (1995–1996)
 Antiphon for 25 Solo Strings (1996)

Chamber music
 Capriccio for Clarinet, Cello and Piano (1980)
 Projection for Violin and Piano (1984)
 Offrande (オフランド, Offering) for Viola Solo (1990)
  for Solo Percussion (1992)
 Aria for Violin Solo (1992)
 Melodia (メロディア) for 4 Flutes (1993)
 Passaggio, Concertino for Marimba and 9 Instruments (1997)
  for Harp Solo (2000)
 Aria Scomposta for Violin and Piano (2005)

Vocal
 Discantus (ディスカントゥス), Vocalise for Soprano, Violin, Cello and Piano (1994)

External links
 Akio Yasuraoka profile at Tokyo University of the Arts
 Art Respirant

References

1958 births
20th-century classical composers
20th-century Japanese musicians
21st-century classical composers
21st-century Japanese musicians
Academic staff of Toho Gakuen School of Music
Japanese classical composers
Japanese male classical composers
Living people
Tokyo University of the Arts alumni
20th-century Japanese male musicians
21st-century Japanese male musicians


Iain Boal is an Irish social historian of technics and the commons, based as an independent scholar in Berkeley, California and London.

Biography
He was one of the co-founders of the Retort collective, an association of radical writers, teachers, artists, and activists in the Bay Area from the 1990s to the present. He co-edited Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information (1995). He co-authored Afflicted Powers: Capital and Spectacle in a New Age of War (2001), along with T.J. Clark, Joseph Matthews and Michael Watts. In 2012, he published The Green Machine - a world history of the bicycle (Notting Hill Editions, out of print). Since 2005 or earlier, he has also been working on a book about The Long Theft: Episodes in the History of Enclosure. As of 2022, he was working on an edited volume Archives of Dissent, which is under contract to be published by PM Press.

The historians Robert Proctor and Londa Schiebinger have credited Boal with coining the term "Agnotology" in 1992  to describe the intentional production of ignorance or doubt, often for commercial gain. Originally conceived to explain the behavior of tobacco companies, it has gained more recent currency in the context of commercially motivated climate change denial.

Personal life
He is married to the archivist Gillian Boal.

Publications
 Boal, Iain and James Brook, Resisting the Virtual Life: The Culture and Politics of Information City, (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1995)
 As member of Retort, "Blood for Oil?" in London Review of Books (2005)
 As member of Retort, Afflicted Powers: Capital and Spectacle in a New Age of War (2009)

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
20th-century Irish historians
21st-century Irish historians
Social historians
Writers from Berkeley, California
Independent scholars
Irish expatriates in the United States


SE, Se, or Sé may refer to:

Arts and entertainment
 Sé (album), by Lúnasa, 2006
 Se (instrument), a traditional Chinese musical instrument

Businesses and organizations
 Sea Ltd (NYSE: SE), tech conglomerate headquartered in Singapore
 Slovenské elektrárne, electric utility company in Slovakia
 Societas Europaea, a European Union public company
 XL Airways France, IATA airline designator SE
 Southeastern (train operating company), or SE Trains Limited, in England

Places
 Sè, Atlantique, Benin
 Sè, Mono, Benin
Subprefecture of Sé, São Paulo, Brazil
Sé (district of São Paulo)
Sé (São Paulo Metro), a station
Sé, Hungary
Sé, Macau
Sé (Angra do Heroísmo), Terceira, Azores, Portugal
Sé (Braga), Portugal
Sé (Bragança), Faro, Portugal
Sé (Funchal), Madeira, Portugal
Sé, Lamego, Portugal
Sé (Lisbon), Portugal
Sé, Portalegre, Portugal
Sé (Porto), Portugal
 SE postcode area, London, England
 Sergipe (SE), a state of Brazil
 Sweden, ISO country code SE

Language
 Se (kana) (せ and セ), a Japanese kana
 Northern Sami language, ISO 639-1 code se
 Standard English, in linguistics
 Se (letter) (Ս,ս) an Armenian letter

Science and technology
 Se (unit of measurement), a Japanese unit of area
 .se, Internet country code top-level domain for Sweden
 Selenium, symbol Se, a chemical element
 Standard error, of a statistic
 Status epilepticus, a medical state of persistent seizure
 Synthetic environment, a computer simulation
 iPhone SE (disambiguation), several uses
 Macintosh SE, an Apple personal computer

Other uses
 Southeast (direction)
 S. E. (name), initials used used by several people
 Lisbon Cathedral, or simply the Sé, Portugal
 Sé da Guarda, Portugal
 Split end, a type of wide receiver in American football
 Somatic experiencing, a method of alternative therapy

See also
 Single-ended (disambiguation)
 Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE)
 Windows 11 SE, a computer operating system


Night Raiders is a 1952 American western film directed by Howard Bretherton with a screenplay by Maurice Tombragel.  The film was written as a star vehicle for Whip Wilson, who portrayed himself in the film. The plot of the film involves Whip saving a town from a corrupt Sheriff and his goons. The film also stars Fuzzy Knight as Tex, Lois Hall as Laura Davis, Tommy Farrell as Jim Dugan, Terry Frost as Mike Lorch, Lane Bradford as Henchman Talbot, and Marshall Reed as Sheriff Ernie Hodkins. The film's sets were designed by the art director Martin Obzina.

Cast
 Whip Wilson as Marshal Whip Wilson
 Fuzzy Knight as 	Tex
 Lois Hall as Laura Davis
 Tommy Farrell as 	Marshal Jim Dugan
 Terry Frost as Mike Lorch
 Lane Bradford as 	Talbot - Henchman
 Marshall Reed as 	Sheriff Ernie Hodkins
 Steve Clark as Charley Davis
 Iron Eyes Cody as 	Cherokee - Henchman
 Boyd Stockman as 	Al - Henchman

References

Bibliography
 Pitts, Michael R. Western Movies: A Guide to 5,105 Feature Films. McFarland, 2012.
 Rainey, Buck. Sweethearts of the Sage: Biographies and Filmographies of 258 actresses appearing in Western movies. McFarland & Company, 1992.

External links

1952 films
1952 Western (genre) films
American Western (genre) films
American black-and-white films
Monogram Pictures films
1950s American films
1950s English-language films
Films directed by Howard Bretherton


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 1999.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 1999 at the Internet Movie Database

1999
Bengali
1999 in Indian cinema


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 1998.

A-Z of films

References
 3. www.bangodarshan.com - samaj - chalachchitra

External links
 Tollywood films of 1998 at the Internet Movie Database

1998
Bengali
 Bengali
1998 in Indian cinema


Winning Group Arena, is an indoor arena in Brno, Czech Republic. The capacity of the arena is 7,700 people and it was built in 1982. It is currently home to the HC Kometa Brno ice hockey team.

Until 2011, the arena was named Hala Rondo. However, after Kajotbet started sponsoring the arena, it was renamed Kajot Arena. After the end of the contract, it was called "Rondo Hall" again until a new sponsorship with DRFG was signed in 2015, renaming the arena to DRFG Arena.

References

External links

Indoor ice hockey venues in the Czech Republic
Buildings and structures in Brno
Sport in Brno
Sports venues completed in 1982
1982 establishments in Czechoslovakia
20th-century architecture in the Czech Republic


William Charles Achi Jr. (July 1, 1889 – June 17, 1947) was a Hawaiian attorney and territorial judge, as well as composer.

Biography
William Charles Achi Jr. was born July 1, 1889, in Honolulu. His father, William Charles Achi, was a political figure in both the Kingdom of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii, following annexation by the United States.

Achi attended a diverse collection of colleges, beginning with St. Louis College in Honolulu in 1904, followed by Oahu College in 1908, Stanford University from 1909 to 1911 (where he was a member of both the Stanford varsity baseball team and the Stanford University Symphony Orchestra), Yale University from 1911 to 1912, and the University of Chicago from 1912 to 1913. He completed his B.A. at the University of Michigan in 1914, becoming the first Native Hawaiian to receive a degree from that institution, thereafter receiving a B.L. from the University of Michigan Law School in 1917. He authored of number of college songs during this period, including "Sons of the Stanford Red", "Sons of Eli" and "Fight, Men of Michigan", and wrote a comic opera, the "Pranks of Paprika", while at the University of Chicago.

Admitted to the territorial courts on November 6, 1917, he was in private practice with his father until 1919. On November 19, 1919, Achi was appointed to a four-year term as judge of the Fifth Circuit Court of the Territory of Hawaii by President Woodrow Wilson. He was continually reappointed to the position until July 14, 1934, when Franklin D. Roosevelt instead appointed Carrick Hume Buck. The replacement was motivated, at least in part, by an internal feud between territorial delegate Lincoln L. McCandless and Achi's close friend, Honolulu mayor John H. Wilson.

Achi married Rebecca Kaulani Kruce at Kainaliu in the Kona District of the island of Hawaii, on June 7, 1911.  They had six children: William Charles III, Richard Kelii, Mary Ann, Rebecca Kaohuleilani, Lincoln Leleiwi, and Stanley Alapai. He died in a Honolulu hospital on June 17, 1947.

References

1889 births
1947 deaths
Territory of Hawaii judges
Native Hawaiian politicians
University of Michigan Law School alumni
University of Michigan alumni
20th-century American judges


The Berawan – Lower Baram languages are a group of half a dozen languages spoken in Borneo.

Languages
Berawan
Lower Baram: Belait, Kiput, Lelak, Narom, Tutong

References


The history of optical recording can be divided into a few number of distinct major contributions. The pioneers of optical recording worked mostly independently, and their solutions to the
many technical challenges have very distinctive features, such as
reflective disc (Compaan and Kramer)
transparent disc (Gregg)
floppy disc (Russell)
rigid disc (Compaan and Kramer)
focused laser beam for read-out through transparent substrate (Compaan and Kramer).

Gregg 1958
Laserdisc technology, using a transparent disc, was invented by David Paul Gregg in 1958 (and patented in 1970 and 1990). By 1969 Philips had developed a videodisc in reflective mode, which has great advantages over the transparent mode. MCA and Philips decided to join their efforts. They first publicly demonstrated the videodisc in 1972. Laserdisc was first available on the market, in Atlanta, on December 15, 1978, two years after the VHS VCR and four years before the CD, which is based on Laserdisc technology. Philips produced the players and MCA produced the discs. The Philips/MCA cooperation was not successful, and discontinued after a few years. Several of the scientists responsible for the early research (John Winslow, Richard Wilkinson and Ray Dakin) founded Optical Disc Corporation (now ODC Nimbus).

Russell 1965
While working at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, James Russell invented an optical storage
system for digital audio and video, patenting the concept in 1970.

The earliest patents by Russell, US 3,501,586, and 3,795,902 were filed in 1966, and 1969. respectively. He built prototypes, and the first was operating in 1973.

Russell had found a way to record digital information onto a photosensitive plate in tiny dark spots, each spot one micrometre from centre to centre, with a laser that wrote the binary patterns. Russell's first optical disc was distinctly different from the eventual compact disc product: the disc in the player was not read by laser light. A key characteristic of Russell's invention is that a laser is not used for the reading the disc, instead the entire disc or oblong sheet to be read is illuminated by a large playback light source at the back of the transparent foil. As a result, the information density is relatively low.

By 1985, Russell held over 25 patents to various technologies related to optical recording and playback.
Russell's intellectual property was purchased by Optical Recording Corporation (ORC) in Toronto in 1985, and this firm notified a number of CD manufacturers that their CD technology was based on patents held by ORC. In 1987, ORC signed an agreement with Sony whereby Sony paid for licensing of the technology. Further licenses followed from Philips and others. Warner Communications did not sign, and was sued by ORC. In 1992, the large CD manufacturer, now called Time Warner, was ordered to pay
ORC US$30 million in patent violations.

In the 1970 patent, the spot diameter was around 10 micrometres. Thus, the areal information density was around a factor hundred less than that of the CD as later developed. Russell continued to refine the concept throughout the 1970s. Philips and Sony, however, were able to put far greater resources into the parallel development of the concept, arriving at a smaller and more sophisticated product in just a few years. Russell's various partners and ventures failed to produce a single consumer product.

Korpel 1968
Adrianus Korpel
worked for the Zenith Electronics Corporation, when he developed very early optical videodisc systems, including holographic storage.

Kramer and Compaan 1969
The Philips development of the videodisc technology began in 1969 with efforts by Dutch physicists Klaas Compaan and Piet Kramer to record video images in holographic form on disc. Their prototype Laserdisc shown in 1972 used a laser beam in reflective mode to read a track of pits using an FM video signal. Together with MCA, Philips brought the optical videodisk to market in 1978. The cooperation between Philips and MCA did not last long, and discontinued after a few years.

Immink and Doi 1979
The Compact Disc (CD), which is based on MCA/Philips Laserdisc technology, was developed by a taskforce of Sony
and Philips in 1979–1980. Toshi Doi and Kees Schouhamer Immink created the digital technologies that turned the analog Laserdisc into a high-density low-cost digital audio disc. The CD, available on the market since October 1982, remains the standard physical medium for sale of commercial audio recordings

Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 mm and can hold up to 80 minutes of audio (700 MB of data).  The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 mm; they are sometimes used for CD singles or device drivers, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. The technology was later adapted and expanded to include data storage CD-ROM, write-once audio and data storage CD-R, rewritable media CD-RW, Super Audio CD (SACD), Video Compact Discs (VCD), Super Video Compact Discs (SVCD), PhotoCD, PictureCD, CD-i, and Enhanced CD. CD-ROMs and CD-Rs remain widely used technologies in the computer industry. The CD and its extensions have been extremely successful: in 2004, worldwide sales of CD audio, CD-ROM, and CD-R reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.

See also
Computer data storage
Digital recording
Digital signal (signal processing)
Optical disc

References

Audiovisual introductions in 1958
Audio storage
Video storage
Digital audio
Digital media
Optical disc authoring
Sound recording technology


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 1996.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 1996 at the Internet Movie Database

1996
Lists of 1996 films by country or language
 Bengali
1996 in Indian cinema


Etonkids International Educational Group (simplified Chinese: 伊顿国际教育集团; traditional Chinese: 伊頓國際教育集團) is an early education and K-12 services provider in the People's Republic of China.

The group operates three kindergarten brands: Etonkids International Kindergarten (simplified Chinese: 伊顿国际幼儿园; Traditional Chinese: 伊頓國際幼兒園); Etonkids Bilingual Kindergarten (Simplified Chinese: 伊顿双语幼儿园; Traditional Chinese: 伊頓雙語幼兒園); and Etonkids Huizhi Kindergarten (Simplified Chinese: 伊顿慧智幼儿园; Traditional Chinese: 伊頓慧智幼兒園).

The group manages kindergarten campuses in major Chinese cities and China's only indigenous American Montessori Society affiliated teacher-credentialing program. The group's headquarters are in Beijing, China.

Group details

History

Founded in 2002, Etonkids states "our goal is to improve overall early education standards in China through establishing the country’s leading family of kindergartens."

Programs

Etonkids International Kindergarten
Etonkids International Kindergartens feature a native English-speaking teacher in every classroom, and caters largely to wealthy Chinese families, with a minority of student coming from expatriate families. A mixture of English and Chinese is used in the classrooms.

Etonkids Bilingual Kindergarten
Etonkids Bilingual Kindergarten features native English and Chinese speaking teachers in the classroom and hosts a mixture of expatriate and local Chinese and families.

Etonkids Huizhi Kindergarten
Etonkids Huizhi Kindergarten caters largely to local Chinese families seeking international style Montessori bilingual early education.

Other programs
Etonkids campuses offer extra-curricular activities that vary by school term. These include areas of art and dance, various sports and martial arts, themes in ESL and CSL.

Etonkids Beginnings classes are held weekly at Etonkids campuses and are usually centered on a musical or artistic theme in which moms and dads and babies 18 months or younger bond with one another and interact with other families.

Training

Montessori teaching credentials
Etonkids' Montessori teacher credentialing programs are MACTE-accredited and AMS-affiliated, and are offered in both English and Chinese. The course consists of a summer intensive session followed by an academic year-long internship inside a Montessori classroom. The Early Childhood or Nursery Montessori credential is awarded to graduates.

References

External links

Educational institutions established in 2002
International schools in Beijing
2002 establishments in China


is the seventh studio album by Japanese rock band GO!GO!7188. The limited release first press also included a DVD featuring PV's for the single "Futashika Tashika" and a live performance, "Omata Kara no Live Eizou."

Track listing

Notes and references

External links
 GO!GO!7188 Official Website Discography (Japanese)

GO!GO!7188 albums
2009 albums


is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Ryuhei Tamura. It is the story about a first year student at a school for juvenile delinquents. It was first published in 2008 as a one-shot in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump, subsequently winning the fourth Gold Future Cup. The manga was then serialized in the same magazine, from February 2009 to February 2014, and then transferred to Jump Next!! as Beelzebub Another, where it ran from May 2014 to March 2015.

The Pierrot+ studio produced an original video animation (OVA) adaptation, which premiered at the Jump Super Anime Tour in October 2010. This was followed by a 60-episode anime television series, which aired in Japan between January 2011 and March 2012.

Plot

The story follows Tatsumi Oga, who is a first year student at a school for juvenile delinquents called Ishiyama High. The story starts with Oga telling his best friend, Takayuki Furuichi, the strange story of how he found a baby. One day while doing 'laundry' by the river, he saw a man floating downstream. Oga pulled him to shore but the man split in half, revealing a baby boy inside. This baby turned out to be the son of the great demon king, and Oga has been chosen as the one to raise him, along with the baby's maid, Hilda. The manga follows Oga's life as he tries to raise the child while enrolled at Ishiyama High.

In the early chapters, he attempts to 'pass on' Beel to other students at Ishiyama, thinking that if he can find someone stronger and more evil than himself, the baby will attach himself to that person instead. He decides to try to pass the baby on to the Tōhōshinki, Ishiyama High's strongest four students. Oga meets and fights Hajime Kanzaki, the first member of the Touhoushinki and the one who is closest to dominating the school; however, Oga defeats Kanzaki, which causes Beel to find him even more appealing.

Later, Oga then discovers a peculiar symbol etched on the back of his right hand. Hilda explains that it is the fly king's seal, more commonly known as the Zebul spell, and serves as the family crest of the royal family. The appearance of the seal means that he has officially made a contract with Beel. She also explains that the more evil the bearer of the seal is, the more complex the design of the seal will become. Oga attempts to prevent the seal from growing by avoiding fights with other students, but gives up when Himekawa, the second member of the Touhoushinki, captures Hilda and Furuichi. Oga then infiltrates Himekawa's base to rescue them and defeats him by using the Zebul blast for the first time. The consequences of using the seal's power cause the crest to stretch across his arm. Hilda comments after looking at the crest that the amount of energy it used would have driven a normal human mad.

While visiting the park, Oga then meets a girl named Aoi and her brother, Kouta. Oga asks her immediately to go out with him, which causes a misunderstanding that stays within Aoi's heart. Oga tells Beel to fight Kouta, possibly as a joke, but Kouta accepts the challenge and easily pushes Beel off a bench. This event sparks a rivalry between the two babies. It is later revealed that Aoi, who was in disguise the whole time, is in fact Aoi Kunieda, then, the leader of the Red Tails and another member of the Touhoushinki.

Aoi, who was then away from school during the earlier events of the manga, has returned to Ishiyama High to defeat Oga in order to prevent him from causing any more trouble within the school. When they encounter each other in battle, she realizes that she has already met Oga in the park, but he doesn't recognize her. After he dodges her attacks twice, he notices Beel's interest in Aoi and asks her to become Beel's mother. Although he means for her to replace him as a parent, his request causes another misunderstanding similar to the one in the park. The fight is postponed, and Hilda soon arrives to give Beel his milk. The MK5 make their debut in the story, only to be defeated in a five panel pattern which appears again later in the story. After the fight, Beel senses something which turns out to be the last of the Toushinki, Tojo. Oga, however, does not notice.

Aoi sees Oga and Hilda's fight with the MK5, and believes the rumors that they are husband and wife. She is challenged by Hilda to a fight so she can test her ability, but the fight ends quickly with Hilda deciding that Aoi isn't on the same level as Oga. At the same time, Oga is confronted by Chiaki and Nene. Two female students tell Aoi that Oga injured the two of them, which later turns out to be MK5.

Aoi fights Oga to avenge her two classmates, while Oga assumes that she wants to accept the role of becoming Beel's parent. At the same time, Nene wakes up in the infirmary and goes to warn Aoi of MK5's trap, which turns out to be Miwa's scheme. MK5, however, prevents anyone from interrupting Aoi and Oga's fight. Nene is about to get shot, but Natsume appears and fights with MK5 to allow Nene to tell Aoi. She was unfortunately too late, as Aoi seems to have defeated Oga, and she comes just in time for Miwa and Ikari to take over.

Oga suddenly gets back up and defeats Ikari and Miwa with ease. It is then shown that Furuichi and Hilda have been watching the whole time. Oga, Furuichi, Hilda and baby Beel go to the beach in search of Tojo to hand baby Beel over to him, not knowing that this is a plot set up by Kanzaki and Himekawa, who want Tojo and Oga to crush each other. Aoi goes to the beach as well to warn Oga of Tojo's strength. Oga and the gang have troubles searching for Tojo and are sent on a wild goose chase. Oga decides to write a letter of challenge to Tojo and have Aoi pass it to him. Aoi attempts to tear it up, but one of Tojo's henchmen finds it. They are supposed to meet between the two rocks at 5 PM. Oga is confronted by the MK5 once again, but quickly defeats them and arrives late. Tojo has left after crushing several motorcycle gangs, which inspires Oga to find Tojo. Later, baby Beel starts feeling sick and it appears that he's come down with a cold. However, Oga's tattoo mysteriously vanishes, and later that night Beel disappears. Hilda kicks Oga out of the house and leaves to find help in the demon world. Oga goes off to find Beel, but runs into Tojou, who, as it turns out, has Beel on his back. After a scuffle, Tojo comes out as the victor, and asks Oga to challenge him again sometime. Once Oga gets home, he is in a surprise to find Hilda there waiting for him, with a strange demon doctor known as Dr. Furucas, and his assistant, Lamia. Furucas reveals that the cold is actually Beel's way of coping with a rise of his power, by keeping the energy within himself, and that he cut off the link between him and Oga to protect him. Lamia then injects Oga with a drug that allows him to re-establish the connection with Beel. Oga then goes to confront Tojo with the aid of the three other Tohoshinki. Once he makes it to Tojo, Beel returns to normal and goes back to Oga. Tojo and Oga then have one final duel in which Oga is victorious, but baby Beel's influx of power causes him to destroy Ishiyama.

Due to their school being destroyed, the students of Ishiyama can only go to their sister school, Saint Ishiyama. Initially, they are constantly looked down on, but after a volleyball match against the Six Knights, the negative views towards them stop. During the volleyball match, Oga's demonic power is displayed due to a fight with someone who had a grudge on him, though it is covered up by the Saint Ishiyama president who claimed that it is just a trick. The president turned out to be a demon himself.

A new teacher soon arrives to replace the one teaching the Ishiyama group, knocking out both Oga and Tojo on the same day before carrying them to the classroom. The teacher, Zenjiro Saotome, later appears when Oga, Hilda and Aoi are attacked by Hecadoth, and puts up a fight against the demon. Later, Naga and Graphel, the other two demons who came to the world in search of Oga, appear before Saotome, but Saotome uses his Spellmaster spell to attack them. After realizing that he is a Spellmaster who is too powerful for them to win against, Naga uses a teleporting jewel to take the three demons back to Demon World. After that, Saotome, the spellmaster, although having Oga refuse, ends up training him. After successfully powering up, Oga confronts the demons and defeats them. He later battles with other human-demon contractors and is brutally defeated before eventually gaining more strength and defeating the strongest contractor. The last chapter displays him returning from an adventure to the demon world with another baby on his shoulder.

Media

Manga

Beelzebub, written and illustrated by Ryuhei Tamura, was first published as one-shot pilot chapter in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on August 11, 2008, subsequently winning the fourth Gold Future Cup. It was later serialized for five years in the same magazine from February 23, 2009, to February 24, 2014. A spin-off series, entitled , ran in Shōnen Jump Next!! from May 7, 2014, to March 13, 2015. Shueisha collected its 246 chapters in twenty-eight tankōbon volumes, released from July 2, 2009, to May 1, 2015.

Anime

An anime adaptation has been produced by Pierrot Plus. An original video animation was shown during the Jump Super Anime Tour between October 23 and November 21, 2010. The TV anime premiered on January 9, 2011, on Yomiuri TV and other NNS stations and ended on March 25, 2012. The series' cast included Katsuyuki Konishi as Oga, Miyuki Sawashiro, Shizuka Itou, Aki Toyosaki, Tomokazu Seki, and Takahiro Mizushima. Crunchyroll simulcasted the series in North America and Europe two hours after airing. However, some episodes were postponed and rescheduled following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The series ended on March 25, 2012, with a total of 60 episodes. The series airs with English subtitles on Animax Asia in Southeast Asia, although it is edited to cover Baby Beel's nudity with a diaper. The series has been licensed in North America by Discotek Media in 2015. Muse Communication has licensed the series in Asia-Pacific and streamed on Muse Asia YouTube channel.

Music
Opening themes
 by Hiroaki Takeuchi (OVA)
 by Group Tamashii (Eps 1–10), and used in the final episode (Eps 60) ending
 by On/Off (Eps 11–23)
"Hey!!!" by Flow (Eps 24–35)
"Baby U" by MBLAQ (Eps 36–48)
 by Lc5 (Eps 49–60)
Ending themes
"Answer" by no3b (Episodes 1–10)
 by Shoko Nakagawa (Eps 11–23)
 by Tomato n'Pine (Eps 24–35)
 by Nozomi Sasaki (Eps 36–48)
 by 9nine (Eps 49–59)

Video games
Oga appears as a playable character, assisted by Baby Beel, in the Jump crossover fighting game J-Stars Victory VS. Aoi, Hilda, and Alaindelon appear in the game's story mode as non-playable characters.

Notes

References

External links
 Official Anime Website

2009 manga
2008 manga
2010 anime OVAs
2011 anime television series debuts
Action anime and manga
Anime series based on manga
Comedy anime and manga
Demons in anime and manga
Discotek Media
Manga adapted into television series
Muse Communication
Studio Signpost
Shōnen manga
Shueisha manga
Shueisha franchises
Supernatural anime and manga
Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation original programming


The Punan languages or Rejang-Sajau languages are a group of mutually intelligible isolects spoken by the Punan and related peoples of Borneo in Indonesia and Malaysia.

Classification
Smith (2017) classifies Punan dialects as follows:
Sru (Seru) †
Punan Tubu-Bah
Punan Tubu, Punan Bah, Sajau, Latti
Punan
Beketan (Bukitan), Punan Lisum, Punan Aput, Ukit, Buket (Bukat)

Austroasiatic influence
Kaufman (2018) notes that some Proto-Punan words (Smith 2017) are of likely Austroasiatic origin, including the following.

 *-iap ‘count’
 *hen ‘3. pronoun’
 *buhak ‘white’
 *obet ‘animal trap (general)’

References


The 1996 College Football All-America Team is composed of the following All-American Teams: Associated Press, Football Writers Association of America, American Football Coaches Association, Walter Camp Foundation, The Sporting News and Football News.

The College Football All-America Team is an honor given annually to the best American college football players at their respective positions. The original usage of the term All-America seems to have been to such a list selected by football pioneer Walter Camp in the 1890s. The NCAA officially recognizes All-Americans selected by the AP, AFCA, FWAA, WCFF, TSN, and FN to determine Consensus All-Americans.

Offense

Quarterback
Danny Wuerffel, Florida (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Jake Plummer, Arizona St. (AP-2, FWAA-Writers)
Peyton Manning, Tennessee (AP-3)

Running backs
Byron Hanspard, Texas Tech  (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Troy Davis, Iowa State (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Warrick Dunn, Florida St. (AP-2, FWAA-Writers)
Darnell Autry, Northwestern  (AP-2, AFCA-Coaches)
Ron Dayne, Wisconsin (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-3)
Corey Dillon, Washington (AP-3)

Wide receivers
Marcus Harris, Wyoming (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, FN)
Ike Hilliard, Florida (AP-3, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, FN)
Reidel Anthony, Florida  (AP-1, TSN)
Rae Carruth, Colorado (AP-2, TSN)
Keith Poole, Arizona State (AP-2)
Kevin Lockett, Kansas St. (AP-3)

Tight end
David LaFleur, LSU (AP-3, Walter Camp)
Tony Gonzalez, California (AP-2, TSN, FN)
Itula Mili, BYU (AFCA-Coaches)
Pat Fitzgerald, Texas (AP-1)

Guards/tackles
Orlando Pace, Ohio St. (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Juan Roque, Arizona St. (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, FN)
Benji Olson, Washington (AP-1, TSN, FN)
Scott Sanderson, Washington State (AP-3, TSN)
Chris Naeole, Colorado  (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp, FN)
Dan Neil, Texas (AP-2, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN)
Steve Scifres, Wyoming  (AP-2, FWAA-Writers)
Chris Dishman, Nebraska (AP-2)
Walter Jones, Florida St. (AP-2)
Ben Kaufman, Texas Tech (AP-3)
Adam Meadows, Georgia (AP-3)
Jerry Wunsch, Wisconsin (AP-3)

Center
Aaron Taylor, Nebraska  (AP-2, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, FN)
Rod Payne, Michigan  (AFCA-Coaches)
K. C. Jones, Miami (Fla.) (AP-1)
Billy Conaty, Virginia Tech (TSN)
Jeff Mitchell, Florida (AP-3)

Defense

Linemen
Grant Wistrom, Nebraska (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, TSN, FN)
Reinard Wilson, Florida St. (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp, FWAA-Writers)
Peter Boulware, Florida St. (AP-1, FWAA-Writers, TSN, FN)
Mike Vrabel, Ohio State  (AP-2, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp)
Derrick Rodgers, Arizona St. (AP-1, FWAA-Writers)
Jared Tomich, Nebraska (AP-2, Walter Camp)
Cornell Brown, Virginia Tech (AP-2, Walter Camp)
Michael Myers, Alabama (TSN)
Tarek Saleh, Wisconsin (FN)
William Carr, Michigan (AP-2)
Greg Ellis, North Carolina (AP-3)
Leonard Little, Tennessee (AP-3)
Darrell Russell, USC (AP-3)

Linebackers
Canute Curtis, West Virginia (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches-DL, FWAA-Writers, TSN, FN)
Pat Fitzgerald, Northwestern (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, FN)
Jarrett Irons, Michigan  (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp)
Matt Russell, Colorado (AP-1, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN)
Jason Chorak, Washington (AP-3 {as DL], TSN, FN)
Dwayne Rudd, Alabama  (AP-2, AFCA-Coaches)
Anthony Simmons, Clemson (AP-3, TSN)
Keith Mitchell, Texas A&M (AP-3, FN)
Andy Katzenmoyer, Ohio St. (AP-2)
Brian Simmons, North Carolina (AP-2)
Takeo Spikes, Auburn (AP-2)
Tyrus McCloud, Louisville (AP-3)
Antwaune Ponds, Syracuse (AP-3)

Backs
Chris Canty, Kansas St. (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Dré Bly, North Carolina (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN)
Charles Woodson, Michigan (College Football Hall of Fame) (AP-1, FWAA-Writers)
Shawn Springs, Ohio St. (AP-2, AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp, FN)
Kevin Jackson, Alabama (AP-1, AFCA-Coaches, FWAA-Writers, Walter Camp, TSN, FN)
Kim Herring, Penn State (AP-2, TSN)
Kevin Abrams, Syracuse (AFCA-Coaches)
Sam Madison, Louisville  (AP-3, FN)
Bryant Westbrook, Texas (AP-2)
Kenny Wheaton, Oregon (AP-2)
Eric Allen, Indiana (AP-3)
Ronde Barber, Virginia (AP-3)
Steve Rosga, Colorado (AP-3)

Specialists

Placekicker
Marc Primanti, N.C. St. (AP-1, FWAA-Writers, TSN, FN)
Cory Wedel, Wyoming (AFCA-Coaches, Walter Camp)
Rafael Garcia, Virginia (AP-2)
Damon Shea, Nevada (AP-3)

Punter
Noel Prefontaine, San Diego St. (AP-1, FWAA-Writers)
Brad Maynard, Ball State (AP-2, AFCA, Coaches, Walter Camp)
Bill Marrinangle, Vanderbilt (TSN)
Toby Gowin, North Texas (AP-3)

All-purpose / kick returners
Tim Dwight, Iowa (FWAA-Writers)
Kevin Faulk, LSU (AP-1)
Terry Battle, Arizona St. (AP-2, TSN)
Beau Morgan, Air Force (AP-3)

See also
 1996 All-Big Ten Conference football team
 1996 All-SEC football team

References

All-America Team
College Football All-America Teams


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 1995.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 1995 at the Internet Movie Database

1995
Bengali
1995 in Indian cinema
 Bengali films


While London Sleeps is a 1926 Warner Bros. film about a police-dog, Rinty, who helps Scotland Yard defeat a dangerous criminal organisation known as the Mediterranean Brotherhood that operates out of the Limehouse district of London. Walter Morosco wrote the screenplay. It was the first of many films directed by Howard Bretherton, and one of several created for Rin Tin Tin, a German Shepherd dog used in films during the 1920s and 1930s. The film was also released with a Vitaphone sound-on-disc soundtrack with a music score and sound effects, and only the sound discs survive today. The British release prints censored the more horrific aspects of the film.

George Kotsonaros only appeared in two horror films, this one and The Wizard (1927), and he played a beast-man in both movies. He died in a car accident in Alabama in 1933.

Plot
Inspector Burke of Scotland Yard concentrates all his forces on the capture of London Letter, a notorious criminal leader in the Limehouse district who possesses both Rinty, a splendid dog, and a man-beast monster called The Monk who ravages and kills at his master's command. Burke almost apprehends the gang in the midst of an attempted theft, but Rinty's uncanny perceptions foil Burke's coup, and Foster is killed for betraying the gang. When Rinty loses in a fight against another dog, Burke's daughter, Dale, rescues Rinty from London Letter's abuse, and he becomes devoted to his new mistress. At the criminal's order, the monster kidnaps Dale and imprisons her. Burke and his men wound London Letter while on his trail, and Rinty finds him dying. In a ferocious battle, Rinty kills the monster by tearing out his throat.

Cast
Rin Tin Tin as Rinty
Helene Costello as Dale Burke
Walter Merrill as Thomas Hallard
John Patrick as Foster
Otto Matieson as London Letter
George Kotsonaros as The Monk
De Witt Jennings as Inspector Burke
Carl Stockdale as Stokes
Les Bates as Long Tom

Box office
According to Warner Bros records the film earned $235,000 domestically and $97,000 foreign.

Preservation status
No prints of this film are known to survive suggesting it is lost. It is on the Lost Film Files list for missing Warner Bros., but the soundtrack survives intact on Vitaphone disks in the UCLA Film and Television Archive.

See also
List of early sound feature films (1926–1929)
List of early Warner Bros. sound and talking features

References

External links

1926 films
American silent feature films
1926 crime films
American black-and-white films
Films about dogs
Warner Bros. films
Lost American films
American serial killer films
Films directed by Howard Bretherton
Films set in London
American crime films
Rin Tin Tin
1926 lost films
Early sound films
1920s American films


Theodora Angelina (; 1190 – 23 June 1246) was the wife of Leopold VI of Austria, by whom she had several children. As a child, she was used by her grandfather, Emperor Alexios III Angelos, as a political tool to gain the allegiance of the regional strongmen Ivanko and Dobromir Chrysos. Her betrothals or marriages to them were cut short as both were successively captured by the Emperor.

Identity
The identity of Leopold VI's wife has long been disputed by scholars. The medieval sources only recorded her name, Theodora, and that she was the granddaughter of a Byzantine emperor (Theodoram neptam regis Graecorum duxit uxorem, Theodoram neptem regis Grecie). Modern scholars, beginning with Georg Juritsch in 1894, have offered different opinions on who that emperor was, with some considering Theodora the granddaughter of Isaac II Angelos (), while others held that it was Alexios III Angelos (). Still others interpreted the neptis not as granddaughter as in Classical Latin, but as niece, or even great-niece, which was the more common meaning of the word in the Middle Ages.

She has now been conclusively identified as the daughter of Isaac Komnenos Vatatzes, the grandson of the Byzantine general Theodore Vatatzes and the purple-born princess Eudokia Komnene, daughter of Emperor John II Komnenos (), and of Anna Komnene Angelina, the second daughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos).

Life
Her parents married in or slightly before 1190, and Theodora was born shortly after, since in 1203 she was just entering her fourteenth year.

Betrothal to Ivanko and Dobromir Chrysos
Her father was promoted to the rank of sebastokrator when Alexios III acceded to the throne in 1195, but in the summer of the same year, he was captured during a campaign against Bulgarian rebels under Asen, and imprisoned in the Bulgarian capital, Tarnovo, where he died in spring 1196.

According to one story relayed by the contemporary chronicler Niketas Choniates, Isaac played a role in the assassination of Asen by the disaffected Bulgarian boyar Ivanko: Isaac reportedly promised Ivanko the hand of Theodora, in exchange for the deed. Isaac died before Asen's murder, but after Ivanko killed Asen and fled to the Byzantine court, where he entered Imperial service, Emperor Alexios III betrothed him to Theodora to cement his allegiance. Due to her young age—Choniates describes the bride-to-be as "a child mouthing baby talk"—the marriage, if there ever was one, was never consummated; Theodora remained in Constantinople, while Ivanko rose in revolt in 1199, only to be captured and imprisoned by a ruse.

Shortly after, Theodora was used by Alexios III to gain the allegiance of another regional Balkan warlord, Dobromir Chrysos, who in 1201 had risen in revolt along with the disaffected Byzantine general Manuel Kamytzes. Chrysos was already married to Kamytzes' daughter, but readily accepted the Emperor's offer, and surrendered the fortresses of Pelagonia (modern Bitola) and Prilep, that he had captured, to the Emperor's forces. Shortly after, Alexios III turned on Chrysos as well, and took him prisoner.

Marriage to Leopold VI of Austria and offspring

In 1203, Theodora married a distant cousin, Leopold VI, Duke of Austria. Her husband died in 1230 and she subsequently became a nun at Klosterneuburg Monastery. She died there on 23 June 1246, reportedly of grief for the death of her son, Frederick II, in battle against the Hungarians eight days before.

Leopold and Theodora had seven children:
 Margaret, Duchess of Austria (1204 - February 28, 1266)
 Agnes of Austria (February 19, 1205 - August 29, 1226)
 Leopold of Austria (1207–1216) fell from a tree and died
 Henry II, Duke of Mödling (1208 - November 28, 1228)
 Gertrude of Austria (1210–1241)
 Frederick II, Duke of Austria (25 April 1211 - June 15, 1246)
 Constantia of Austria (April 6, 1212 - June 5, 1243)

Representations in art
Theodora is shown on the late 15th-century  of the House of Babenberg at the Klosterneuburg Monastery north of Vienna. Along with her husband she is also one of the historical figures of the , a monumental mechanical clock in Vienna city center.

References

Sources

Year of birth uncertain
1190 births
1246 deaths
Theodora
Austrian royal consorts
13th-century Byzantine women
13th-century Byzantine people
13th-century Austrian women
13th-century Austrian people
Mothers of monarchs


The Kenyah languages are a group of half a dozen or so closely related languages spoken by the Kenyah peoples of Borneo. They are:
 Kenyah proper (a dialect cluster, incl. Madang), Sebob, Tutoh (Long Wat), Wahau Kenyah, Uma’ Lung / Uma’ Lasan.

Ethnologue says that the Punan–Nibong languages are related to Uma’ Lasan, Glottolog that they are outside the Kenyah languages.

Classification
Soriente (2008) proposes a Kayan-Kenyah grouping.
Proto–Kayan-Kenyah
Kenyah
Upper Pujungan
Usun Apau
Penan
West Penan
East Penan
Kayanic
Lebu Kulit
Mboh
Ngorek
Kayan

However, Smith (2015) rejects Soriente's grouping, and argues that Kenyah and Kayan are separate groups. Smith (2015) proposes the following classification.
Proto-Kenyah
Highland
Highland A dialects: Lepo Gah, Lepo Sawa, Lepo Laang, Lepo Baha, Lepo Maut, Lepo Ké, Bakung, Lepo Ndang
Highland B dialects: Lepo Tau, Badeng, Uma Lasan, Uma Alim, Òma Lóngh
Lowland
Western Lowland dialects: Lebo' Vo'
Eastern Lowland dialects: Lebu Kulit, Lebuq Timai, Uma Pawa, Uma Ujok,  Uma Kelap/Kelep
Penan-Sebop
Penan
Sebop

This classification of Kenyah languages was updated in a second publication, "Penan, Sebop, and Kenyah internal classification". There, it was shown that Penan and Sebop subgroup specifically with the Western-Lowland branch of Lowland Kenyah. This subgrouping was repeated in the dissertation, "The languages of Borneo: a comprehensive classification".
Proto-Kenyah
Highland
Highland A dialects: Lepo Gah, Lepo Sawa, Lepo Laang, Lepo Baha, Lepo Maut, Lepo Ké, Bakung, Lepo Ndang
Highland B dialects: Lepo Tau, Badeng, Uma Lasan, Uma Alim, Òma Lóngh
Lowland
Western Lowland dialects: Lebo' Vo', Eastern Penan, Western Penan, Sebop
Eastern Lowland dialects: Lebu Kulit, Lebuq Timai, Uma Pawa, Uma Ujok,  Uma Kelap/Kelep

Austroasiatic influence
Kaufman (2018) notes that many Proto-Kenyah words (Smith 2017) are of likely Austroasiatic origin, including the following (Note: The Austroasiatic branch reconstructions are from Paul Sidwell's reconstructions).

 *saləŋ ‘black’ (cf. Proto-Palaungic *laŋ; Proto-Bahnaric *sla(ː)ŋ ‘clear, transparent’)
 *makaŋ ‘brave’
 *dəŋ ‘deaf’ (cf. Proto-Katuic *tuŋ; Mon daŋ)
 *pətat ‘divorce’ (cf. Mon )
 *naʔ ‘give’ (cf. Proto-South-Bahnaric *ʔaːn; Khmu ʔan)
 *biləŋ ‘green’
 *mə-bʰuh ‘help, assist’
 *laʔu ‘hungry’
 *adaŋ ‘must’
 *iəŋ ‘mosquito’
 *kabiŋ ‘left (side)’
 *pilaw ‘smooth’ (cf. Proto-Katuic *phiil)
 *biʔən ‘time’ (cf. Proto-Palaungic *bən ‘(future) time’)
 *nəmbam ‘tomorrow’
 *ait ‘sand’
 *luaŋ ‘seed’
 *su ‘grandchild’ (cf. Proto-Palaungic *cuʔ)

Vo words of likely Austroasiatic origin include:

 ɟen ‘bring’
 pikəp ‘narrow’
 mamoŋ ‘pregnant’
 imaʔ ‘rain’ (cf. Proto-Austroasiatic *gmaʔ)
 lañaʔ ‘fast/quick’ (cf. Proto-Vietic *m-laɲ; Proto-North-Bahnaric *raɲ)
 məɲon ‘sit’ (cf. Proto-Palaungic *-ɟɔn)
 ʄap ‘ten’ (cf. Khmer  < Chinese?)
 sah ‘seed’ (cf. Proto-Palaungic *ʄak)

References


Debra Evans (born 1953) is an American writer known for her books on issues related to contemporary Christian spirituality, reproductive health, women's wellness, and family relationships. She has written over 22 non-fiction books.

Biography
She was born to John Cleve Munger and Nancy Allen Munger at St. Joseph Hospital, Pontiac, Michigan. In 1968, Evans created and edited an alternative newspaper, The Zeitgeist, and poetry magazine, Cinnamon Crust. Shortly after completing studies at Royal Oak's Kimball High School in 1969, Evans entered Justin Morrill College at Michigan State University as an Art and English major. She met David Evans in 1969 and married him in 1970. Following David's graduation in 1970 from MSU, the couple returned to Oakland County.

While studying at Wayne State University in early 1971, she embraced faith in Jesus Christ. Between 1971 and 1974, Evans and her husband founded and managed Predmore Farm, a residential Christian community located in Oakland Charter Township, now the centennial site of Cranberry Lake Farm, a  park where members of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra perform an annual summer concert.  After giving birth to her first child at home on the farm in 1972, Evans became a childbirth educator and breastfeeding advisor, later working as one of the nation’s first paid lactation consultants through her employment with Dr. David Gustafson at William Beaumont Hospital in Royal Oak.

Until her retirement from the field in 2003, she remained involved in health education and midwifery advocacy. Evans taught classes as a part-time instructor at Lansing Community College (1978–1981) and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (1984–1988). She also served in Michigan as state coordinator of the International Childbirth Education Association (1979–1981) and member of the Department of Health’s Task Force on Perinatal Education (1980–1981); in Nebraska as member of the Lincoln-Lancaster Health Department Task Force on Children and Youth, Teen Pregnancy Subcommittee (1983–1984) and the State of Nebraska Breastfeeding Promotion Task Force (1988–1990); in Georgia as member of the DeKalb County Disabilities Council (1991–1993) and president of Atlanta Bethany Christian Services (1991–1993); and in Texas as board member and chair of the State of Texas Midwifery Board (1998–2003). As a founding board member of the Firelight Foundation, Evans also advocated for the needs of children affected by HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa.

In 1978, she developed and taught Parents Preparing in Christ (PPC), a class series for expectant Christian couples in Michigan (1978–1981) and Nebraska (1982–1990). Immediately after her graduation in 1983 from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (BA, University Studies in Family Wellness and Reproductive Health), Evans wrote her first non-fiction book, The Complete Guide to Childbirth, based on her research for the PPC curriculum. Following the book’s publication in 1986, she has continued to author many additional works, including Beauty and the Best, Kindred Hearts,  Blessing Your Husband, and Blessing Your Grown Children.

In 1988 and 1989, Evans was a finalist for the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association (ECPA) Gold Medallion Awards in the Marriage and Family (The Mystery of Womanhood) and Inspirational (Fragrant Offerings) categories, as well as for Christianity Today’s 1990 Critics’ Choice and Reader’s Choice Awards (Without Moral Limits). Reviews of her books have appeared in The Annals of Pharmacotherapy, The Austin American Statesman, Christian Herald, First Things, The Lincoln Journal, Marriage & Family Living, Publishers Weekly, Religion & Society, Southwestern Journal of Theology, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, and Today’s Christian Woman. From 1989-1996, Evans served as contributing editor of Christian Parenting Today.

Since 1986, Evans has appeared as a featured guest on over five hundred radio and television interviews. Her participation in the panel discussion on reproductive technology and embryonic stem cell research (taped on March 7, 1990 by Family Christian Broadcasting Network–KFCB, Concord, California) was awarded the 1990 Angel Award for Best Network Documentary.

Her seventh book, Without Moral Limits, resulted in invitations for Evans to serve as a member of the Colloquium on Medical Ethics held at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (1989) and the Christianity Today Institute Forum on Birth Control (1991), with subsequent statements and articles published in the New England Journal of Medicine (1990) and Christianity Today (1991). She was a signatory of the statement, “On human embryos and medical research: an appeal for ethically responsible science and public policy."

Evans relocated to Texas in 1993, where she resides with her husband in Austin. Since completing her latest book, she continues to serve and support her local church community as a mentor, leader, and prayer partner.

Works
Non-fiction
Blessing Your Grown Children: Affirming, Helping, and Establishing Boundaries (2012)
Blessing Your Husband: Understanding and Affirming Your Man (2009)
Blessing Your Husband (2003)
Soul Satisfaction (2001)
Without Moral Limits: Women, Reproduction, and Medical Technology (2000)
The Christian Woman’s Guide to Childbirth (1999)
Women of Courage (1999)
The Christian Woman’s Guide to Personal Healthcare (1998)
Women of Character (1997)
Ready or Not, You’re a Grandparent (1997)
The Christian Woman’s Guide to Sexuality (1997)
Kindred Hearts (1997)
Six Qualities of Women of Character (1996)
Beauty and the Best (1993)
The Woman’s Complete Guide to Personal Health Care (1991)
Blessed Events (1990)
Without Moral Limits (1989)
Preparing for Childbirth (1989)
Fragrant Offerings (1988)
Beauty for Ashes (1988)
Heart & Home (1988)
The Mystery of Womanhood (1987)
The Complete Book on Childbirth (1986)

Audiobook
Read by Debra Evans: Six Qualities of Women of Character (1996)

General editor
Christian Parenting Answers: Before Birth to Five Years (1994)

Books contributed to
Evans has also contributed chapters to several books, including:
Beyond Today (2000), edited by John MacArthur
Breakfast for the Soul (1998) compiled by Judith Couchman
One Holy Passion (1998) compiled by Judith Couchman
Christian Parenting Answers: Before Birth to Five Years (1994)

References

Articles by Evans
 Friendship in Marriage
 When to Wean
 Sex Ed at Home
 Building Friendship in Marriage
 Your Child Today: Birth to Twelve Months

External links
Official Website
 Tyndale House Publishers
 Crossway Books
 Cranberry Lake Farm
 Firelight Foundation

1953 births
Living people
21st-century American women writers
20th-century American women writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American non-fiction writers
American religious writers
Women religious writers
Evangelical writers
American family and parenting writers
American health and wellness writers
American women non-fiction writers
American medical writers
Women medical writers
American self-help writers
Writers from Michigan


A list of films produced by the Tollywood (Bengali language film industry) based in Kolkata in the year 1994.

A-Z of films

References

External links
 Tollywood films of 1994 at the Internet Movie Database

1994
Lists of 1994 films by country or language
1994 in Indian cinema
1994 films


Raja Sri Brahdamba Dasa Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman Bahadur (20 October 1829 – 15 April 1886) was the ruler of princely state of Pudukkottai from 13 July 1839 to 15 April 1886.

Early life

Ramachandra Tondaiman was born in Pudukkottai on 20 October 1829 to Raghunatha Tondaiman, the Raja of Pudukkottai and his second wife, Rani Kamalambal Ayi Sahib. He was educated in private and succeeded to throne at the age of nine on the death of his father with the British political agent at Pudukkottai acting as the regent.

Reign

Pudukkottai was administered by a regent in the early years of Ramachandra's reign. Soon after his accession, Ramachandra was awarded the style of "His Excellency" by the British government. In 1844, Ramachandra, formally, assumed control of the government.

Ramachandra's administration was allegedly marked by extravagance and financial mismanagement. He was punished by the British government who twice revoked the permission to use the style "His Excellency" in 1859 and 1873. In 1878, at the advice of Sir T. Madhava Rao, the Madras government appointed A. Seshayya Sastri, former Diwan of Travancore as the Diwan of Pudukkottai. Sastri reformed the administration and rebuilt the city of Pudukkottai as per modern principles of town planning. The Pudukulam and Pallavankulam tanks in the city were renovated and a Post and Telegraph Office was inaugurated in 1884. At Sastri's suggestion, Ramachandra renovated many Hindu temples in the state. In 1881, Ramachandra officially adopted the hereditary title "Brihadambadas" with the consent of Sastri.

Ramachandra was awarded the style "His Highness" on 16 May 1884 along with an 11-gun salute. He was awarded the Prince of Wales medal in 1875 and the Empress of India Medal in gold in 1877.

Family

Ramachandra Tondaiman married Rani Brihadambal Rajammani Bayi Sahib on 13 June 1845. The couple had two daughters.

 Kamalambal Rajammani Bayi Sahib (d. 24 January 1903)
 Mangalambal Rajammani Bayi Sahib (d. 1873)

Ramachandra married for a second time, to Janaki Subbammal, the eldest daughter of the zamindar of Neduvasal on 31 August 1848. The couple had a son and a daughter

 Sivarama Raghunatha Tondaiman (died 1867)
 Brihadambal Rajammani Bayi Sahib (1852–1903)

Since Sivarama Raghunatha Tondaiman, Ramachandra Tondaiman's only son predeceased him, Ramachandra adopted Martanda Bhairava Tondaiman, son of his daughter Brihadambal, and designated him heir-apparent to the throne.

Patronage of music

Ramachandra Tondaiman patronised music and organised Carnatic music concerts in his palace. Ramachandra Tondaiman, himself, was a prolific composer and set his drama Kuruvaji Nataka to music and had it enacted at the Viralimalai Murugan temple.

Notes

1829 births
1886 deaths
Hindu monarchs
Indian Hindus
Pudukkottai state