Frank O'Driscoll Hunter (December 8, 1894 – June 25, 1982) was a World War I flying ace, being credited by the United States Army Air Service with downing nine enemy aircraft. Hunter became an advocate of fighter aircraft strategy and tactics. In World War II he served as commanding general of the VIII Fighter Command and, later, the First Air Force.

Early career
Hunter was born in Savannah, Georgia on December 8, 1894. He was educated at Hotchkiss School, Connecticut, and in Lausanne, Switzerland. He enlisted in the Aviation Section, Signal Reserve, as a flying cadet on May 18, 1917.

World War I service

He went to France in September 1917 and received further training at the 3rd Aviation Instruction Center at Issoudun, France. Assigned to the 103rd Aero Squadron in May 1918, on his first combat patrol Hunter downed two German planes and landed safely despite being wounded. By the end of the war he had nine German planes to his credit, earning him recognition as an ace. Hunter was the last pilot remaining with the squadron before its return to the United States, transferring out on January 24, 1919.

He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross with four oak leaf clusters, more than any person other than Eddie Rickenbacker who received six oak leaf clusters to the DSC. His achievements in aerial combat earned him the French Croix de Guerre with palm. He left the Army for a short time after the war, but returned with a commission in the Regular Army Air Service in 1920.

Between the world wars
When he entered the Regular Army in 1920 he attended Field Artillery School and Air Service Observation School at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. He graduated in September 1921 and transferred to Ellington Field, Texas, for duty with the 1st Pursuit Group. In July 1922, he went to Selfridge Field, Michigan, as commanding officer of the 94th Squadron, and in October 1922, entered the Air Service Tactical School at Langley Field, Virginia, returning to his command of the 94th Squadron when he graduated in June 1923. In July 1925 he became Operations Officer of Selfridge Field.

He transferred to Camp Anthony Wayne, Pennsylvania., in September 1926 as a pilot with the Composite Air Corps Squadron, and returned to Selfridge Field in December 1926. He next served in Washington, D.C., in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps, and in December 1930 went to Rockwell Field, California, as commanding officer of the 95th Pursuit Squadron. He assumed command of the 17th Pursuit Group there in October 1931.

In November 1933 he was assigned as executive officer of the 1st Pursuit Wing at March Field, California, and in February 1934 became chief of operations, Western Zone Air Mail Operations, with headquarters at March Field. In May 1934 he returned to his duties as executive officer of the 1st Pursuit Wing. He was ordered to Albrook Field, Panama Canal Zone, in July 1934, as adjutant and operations officer of the 19th Composite Wing. In December 1934 he became operations and training officer and intelligence officer at Albrook Field.

He transferred to Barksdale Field, Louisiana, in November 1936 as commanding officer of the 79th Pursuit Squadron, and in July 1937 became operations officer for the 3rd Wing there. He then went to Maxwell Field, Alabama, in July 1939 as commanding officer of the 23rd Composite Group.

World War II service
In May 1940 the citizens of Savannah, Georgia., named the Savannah Municipal Airport the Hunter Municipal Airfield, later Savannah Army Air Base, Hunter Air Force Base, then Hunter Army Air Field in his honor. In July 1940 he was attached to the Office of the Military Attaché in London, England, as a Military Observer. He returned to the United States in December 1940 and was stationed at Orlando Army Air Base, Fla., as commanding officer of the 23rd Composite Group. In February 1942, he was assigned to Headquarters Army Air Forces, Washington, D.C., and in May 1942 joined the Eighth Air Force at Bolling Field, Washington, D.C. That same month he accompanied that organization to the European Theater of Operations, with headquarters in London, as commanding general, VIII Fighter Command. In this position he affected the first trans-Atlantic flight of AAF planes without the loss of life or equipment. He also directed the first P-47 fighter-bomber sweeps over the continent.

It was upon Brigadier General Hunter's recommendation that the Eagle Squadrons (which had American pilots in the service of the United Kingdom) were transferred from the Royal Air Force to become the 4th Fighter Group in September 1942.

In May 1943, Hunter was relieved of his command for his failure to obey a directive issued by his superior, General Ira C. Eaker mandating use of wing tanks on P-47 fighters. He returned to the United States in August 1943 and was named commanding general of the First Air Force, where he was charged with training replacement air crews. His tenure in this command was marred by his involvement in maintaining racial segregation in the U. S. Army, thus provoking the Freeman Field Mutiny of the Tuskegee Airmen.

In 1944 the Earl of Halifax, then Britain's ambassador to the U.S., presented to General Hunter, in the name of the King of England, the CBE, "Commander of the military division of the most excellent order of the British Empire." Just a year earlier the general had been awarded the Legion of Merit for "exceptional services" in planning and executing the movement of air echelons of the Twelfth Air Force from Great Britain to North Africa. His other awards include the Distinguished Flying Cross and Purple Heart.

Among the units under Hunter's command was the all Negro 477th Bombardment Group stationed at Freeman Field in Seymour, Indiana.  Hunter was commanding general when 104 African-American were subjected to military court martial for trying to integrate the base's officer club in early 1945.  Hunter earned the reputation of being a rabid racist. This information is omitted from Hunter's biography because the U.S. Army Air Forces' strict segregation policy.

In October 1945 he was assigned to a detachment of patients at Air Force Regional Hospital, Miami District, and later was admitted to Walter Reed General Hospital.

He was rated a command pilot, combat observer and technical observer. Throughout his lengthy flying career, he survived three bail outs, one of which was from an altitude of 500 feet over a frozen lake, and two broken backs, both of which kept him in the hospital for a year. He became known as one of the Army's top stunt, test and racing pilots.

Post World War II

General Hunter retired from the Army Air Forces on March 31, 1946, and returned to his home state of Georgia.  He died on 25 June 1982 in Savannah, Georgia.

The Georgia Historical Society houses and makes available for research a collection of General Hunter's papers. The collection, comprising news clippings, photographs, commendations and awards, and personal and military correspondence, documents the life and military career of Frank O'Driscoll Hunter from 1917 to 1982. In 1989 Hunter was inducted into the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame.

Effective dates of promotion
 Sergeant, Enlisted Reserve Corps – May 18, 1917
 1st lieutenant, Officers Reserve Corps – September 19, 1917
 Discharged – February 24, 1919
 1st lieutenant – July 1, 1920 (accepted on November 28, 1920)
 Captain – January 17, 1921
 Major (temporary) – March 15, 1935; (permanent) November 1, 1936
 Lieutenant colonel (temporary) – March 1, 1940; (permanent) October 9, 1940
 Colonel (temporary) – April 19, 1941
 Brigadier general (temporary) – April 20, 1942
 Major general (temporary) – November 3, 1943
 Major general (retired list) – March 31, 1946

Awards and decorations
Included among his 10 awards for valor and service, in addition to receiving five awards of the Distinguished Service Cross, Hunter was decorated with the Army Distinguished Service Medal and the Silver Star. He was also awarded a Legion of Merit, Distinguished Flying Cross and Purple Heart.

He was also rated a Combat Observer and Technical Observer.

World War I citations

Lieutenant Frank Hunter of the American Expeditionary Forces Air Service in World War I received five Distinguished Service Cross citations:

"Frank O'D. Hunter, First Lieutenant, Air Service, pilot, 103d Aero Squadron. For extraordinary heroism in action in the region of Ypres, Belgium, June 2, 1918. Lieut. Hunter, while on patrol, alone attacked two enemy biplanes, destroying one and forcing the other to retire. In the course of the combat he was wounded in the forehead. Despite his injuries he succeeded in returning his damaged plane to his own aerodrome."
"A bronze oak leaf, to be worn with the Distinguished Service Cross, for extraordinary heroism in action in the region of Champey, France, September 13, 1918. He, accompanied by one other mono-place plane, attacked an enemy patrol of six planes. Despite numerical superiority and in a decisive combat, he destroyed one enemy plane and, with the aid of his companion, forced the others within their own lines."
"A second bronze oak leaf, for extraordinary heroism in action near Verneville, France, September 17, 1918. Leading a patrol of three planes, he attacked an enemy formation of eight planes. Although out-numbered, they succeeded in bringing down four of the enemy. Lieut. Hunter accounted for two of these."
"A third bronze oak leaf, for extraordinary heroism in action in the region of Liny-devant-Dun, France. While separated from his patrol he observed an allied patrol of seven planes (Breguets) hard pressed by enemy formation of 10 planes (Fokker type). He attacked two of the enemy that were harassing a single Breguet and in a decisive fight destroyed one of them. Meanwhile five enemy planes approached and concentrated their fire upon him. Undaunted by their superiority, he attacked and brought down a second plane."
"A fourth bronze oak leaf, for extraordinary heroism in action in the region of Bantheville, France. While on patrol he encountered an enemy formation of six monoplanes. He immediately attacked and destroyed one enemy plane and forced the others to disperse in confusion."

On 23 October 1918, International News Service staff & war correspondent Newton C. Parke wrote an article that described one of the missions that Hunter flew over France:

Assignments
 1939–1940 Commanding officer of the 23d Composite Group, Maxwell Field, Alabama
 1940 Military observer and assistant air attaché at the American Embassies in Paris, France and London, England
 1940–1942 Commanding officer of the 23d Composite Group, Orlando, Florida
 1942–1943 Commanding general of the VIII Interceptor (later, Fighter) Command, High Wycombe, England
 1943–1945 Commanding general of the First Air Force, Mitchel Field, New York
 1946 Retired (disability in line of duty)

See also

 Tuskegee Airmen
 List of World War I flying aces from the United States

References

Bibliography
 Over the Front: A Complete Record of the Fighter Aces and Units of the United States and French Air Services, 1914–1918 Norman L. R. Franks, Frank W. Bailey. Grub Street, 1992. , .
 The Tuskegee Airmen: Mutiny at Freeman Field. James C Warren. Conyers, 2001. , .

External links
Frank O'Driscoll Hunter papers at the Georgia Historical Society
USAF Biography Page
Generals of World War II

1894 births
Military personnel from Georgia (U.S. state)
Hotchkiss School alumni
Recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)
United States Army Air Service pilots of World War I
United States Army Air Forces generals
1982 deaths
Air Corps Tactical School alumni
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
American World War I flying aces
United States military attachés
United States Army Air Forces generals of World War II


Oleg Vyacheslavovich Trifonov (; born 9 June 1981) is a Russian former professional footballer.

Club career
He made his debut in the Russian Premier League in 2000 for FC Rotor Volgograd. He played 3 games in the UEFA Cup 2005–06 for FC Zenit St. Petersburg.

References

1981 births
Sportspeople from Sochi
Living people
Russian men's footballers
Russia men's under-21 international footballers
Men's association football midfielders
PFC Dynamo Stavropol players
FC Rotor Volgograd players
FC Zenit Saint Petersburg players
FC Kuban Krasnodar players
PFC Krylia Sovetov Samara players
FC Volga Nizhny Novgorod players
FC Sokol Saratov players
FC Angusht Nazran players
Russian Premier League players
FC Sportakademklub Moscow players


Franklin the Turtle is a Canadian children's book franchise. All of the books in the original series were authored by Paulette Bourgeois and illustrated by Brenda Clark since 1986.

The book series has been adapted twice into television series: the 1997 animated series Franklin and its 2011 CGI-animated spin-off series, Franklin and Friends. The first books in the "Franklin and Friends" series were adapted by Harry Endrulat, while later books were adapted by Caitlin Drake Smith.

Actors like Noah Reid, Richard Newman, and Elizabeth Saunders played roles in the television show.

Books
Franklin in the Dark, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 08/11/1986.
Hurry Up, Franklin, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Scholastic (New York, NY), 04/09/1989.
Franklin Fibs, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/24/1991.
Franklin Is Lost, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 02/02/1992.
Franklin Is Bossy, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 05/17/1993.
Franklin Is Messy, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 11/22/1994.
Franklin Plays the Game, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 01/17/1995.
Franklin Wants a Pet, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/14/1995.
Franklin Goes to School, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 08/22/1995.
Franklin's Blanket, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 11/07/1995.
Franklin and the Tooth Fairy, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Scholastic (New York, NY), 02/06/1996.
Franklin Has a Sleepover, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Scholastic (New York, NY), 04/09/1996.
Franklin's Halloween, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 08/13/1996.
Franklin's School Play, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 11/26/1996.
Franklin's Bad Day, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), Scholastic (New York, NY), 01/21/1997.
Franklin Rides a Bike, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/18/1997.
Franklin's New Friend, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 08/26/1997.
Finders Keepers for Franklin, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 01/06/1998.
Franklin and the Thunderstorm, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/10/1998.
Franklin's Valentines, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 06/30/1998.
Franklin's Secret Club, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 09/01/1998.
Franklin's Christmas Gift, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 11/03/1998.
Franklin's Class Trip, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/02/1999.
Franklin's Neighbourhood, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 09/07/1999.
Franklin Goes to the Hospital, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 03/21/2000.
Franklin's Baby Sister,  illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 10/17/2000.
Franklin and Harriet, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids can press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 02/27/2001.
Franklin's Thanksgiving, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 10/16/2001.
Franklin says ''I Love You'', illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 04/02/2002.

With Sharon Jennings

Franklin Says Sorry, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Library Book, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Duckling, illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Celebrates, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Magic Show, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Baby-Sitter, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Stays Up, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Surprise, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Soap Box Derby, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Stop Watch, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Makes a Deal, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Picnic, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Baby, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY)
Franklin's Bicycle Helmet, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Canoe Trip, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Snoops, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and the Big Kid, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Runs Away, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Forgives, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin and Otter's Visit, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Wants A Badge, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin's Reading Club, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin the Detective, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),
Franklin Forgets, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY)
Franklin and the Contest, illustrated by Brenda Clark,Scholastic (New York, NY),

Collections
Franklin's Classic Treasury (contains Franklin in the Dark, Franklin Fibs, Franklin Is Bossy, and Hurry Up, Franklin), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Scholastic (New York, NY), 1999.
Franklin's Classic Treasury, Volume II (contains Franklin Is Lost, Franklin Wants a Pet, Franklin's Blanket, and Franklin and the Tooth Fairy), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2000.
Franklin's Friendship Treasury (contains Franklin Has a Sleepover, Franklin's Bad Day, Franklin's New Friend, and Franklin's Secret Club), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2000.
Franklin's School Treasury (contains Franklin Goes to School, Franklin's School Play, Franklin's Class Trip, and Franklin's Neighborhood), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2001.
Franklin's Holiday Treasury (contains Franklin's Halloween, Franklin's Valentines, Franklin's Christmas Gift, and Franklin's Thanksgiving), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2002.
Franklin's Family Treasury (contains Franklin Goes to the Hospital, Franklin's Baby Sister, Franklin and Harriet and Franklin Says I Love You), illustrated by Brenda Clark, Kids Can Press (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), 2003.

External links
 List of books by Paulette Bourgeois at answers.com

Canadian children's books
Canadian picture books

Series of children's books
Fictional turtles
Children's books about turtles
Children's books about families
Children's books about friendship
Book series introduced in 1987


Human is a surname of German and English origin which is particularly common in South Africa, the United States and Australia, and may refer to:

 John Human (1912–1991), English cricketer
 Roger Human (1909–1942), English cricketer
 Shirene Human (born 1980), South African figure skater
 Daan Human (born 1976), South African rugby union footballer
 Kost Human, South African rugby league footballer
 Pote Human (born 1959), South African rugby union footballer

See also
Humann


Inspiration is a 1931 American pre-Code Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer romantic melodrama film adapted by Gene Markey from the Alphonse Daudet short novel Sappho (1884). The film stars Greta Garbo, Robert Montgomery, Lewis Stone and Marjorie Rambeau. It was directed by Clarence Brown and produced by Irving Thalberg. The cinematography was performed by William H. Daniels, the art direction by Cedric Gibbons and the costume design by Adrian.

Plot

Yvonne Valbret is a Parisian kept woman who poses as an artist's model. She falls in love with a young student of foreign diplomacy, André Montell. When André learns of her past and her multiple lovers, he leaves her. But finding Yvonne living in poverty when their paths cross again, he pays for her to live in his country cottage outside Paris and they engage in a platonic relationship. He soon reveals his intent to marry another woman as Yvonne begs him not to desert her. André eventually realizes that he loves Yvonne and decides to choose love over career. When he comes to the cottage to tell her, he is met by one of Yvonne's old lovers pleading with her to return to him. She immediately decides to marry André, but fearing that their relationship will ruin his career, she chooses her old lover and writes André a farewell note while he is sleeping.

Cast
Greta Garbo as Yvonne Valbret
Robert Montgomery as Andre Montell
Lewis Stone as Raymond Delval
Marjorie Rambeau as Lulu
Judith Vosselli as Odette
Beryl Mercer as Marthe, Yvonne's maid
John Miljan as Henry Coutant, the sculptor
Edwin Maxwell as Uncle Julian Montell
Oscar Apfel as M. Vignaud
Joan Marsh as Madeleine Dorety
Zelda Sears as Aunt Pauline
Karen Morley as Liane Latour
Gwen Lee as Gaby
Paul McAllister as Jouvet
Arthur Hoyt as Gavarni
Richard Tucker as Galand

Reception
The film earned approximately $1,127,000 in its worldwide distribution, resulting in a $286,000 profit for MGM.

References

Further reading
 Mark A. Vieira. Greta Garbo: A Cinematic Legacy. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 2005;

External links

 Film information at Garbo Forever

1931 films
American drama films
1931 drama films
American black-and-white films
Films based on French novels
Films based on works by Alphonse Daudet
Films directed by Clarence Brown
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
Films produced by Irving Thalberg
1930s English-language films
1930s American films


Sergey Superata is a Soviet sprint canoer who competed in the 1980s. He won ten medals at the ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships with five golds (K-2 500 m: 1981, 1982; K-2 1000 m: 1981, 1982; K-4 10000 m: 1989), three silver (K-2 500 m: 1983, (K-4 1000 m: 1983, 1985) and two bronzes (K-2 500 m: 1985, 1986).

References

Living people
Soviet male canoeists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Russian male canoeists
ICF Canoe Sprint World Championships medalists in kayak


Balu Sankaran was a professor, scientist and recipient of the Padma Shri and Padma Vibushan awards. He helped establish an artificial limbs manufacturing corporation and a rehabilitation institute.

Biography
Sankaran was born in Tamil Nadu on 4 September 1926. He graduated with a medical degree from Stanley Medical College in Chennai in 1948. He travelled to United States and England and received training from Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center during 1951–1955 and Manchester Royal Infirmary in 1955.

Career
After he returned to India from Manchester UK. Dr. Balu Sankaran taught few months in the Department of Anatomy at KMC Manipal before joining AIIMS Delhi.
Sankaran began his career as an Assistant Professor of Orthopedic Surgery in All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) in 1956. After 7 years as an Assistant Professor, he was promoted to Associate Professor in 1963 and continued with AIIMS till 1967. While working in AIIMS, he conducted basic medical research as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow at University of Chicago in United States. After his stint at AIIMS, he accepted a position as Professor in Maulana Azad Medical College till 1970. He served as a Director of Central Institute of Orthopedics during 1970 till 1978. He was offered to serve as the Director of World Health Organization in Geneva in 1981 and remained with WHO till 1987. He also served as the Chairman of the Rehabilitation Council of India between 1992 and 1994.

While working as a Director of Central Institute of Orthopedics, He helped set up the Artificial Limbs Manufacturing Corporation of India at Kanpur in 1972 and helped establish National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research at Olatpur near Bhubaneshwar in 1975 and remained Chairman of the Corporation till 1981. He worked as a Professor Emeritus at St Stephen's Hospital, Delhi.

Death
He died on 20 June 2012 after a brief illness.

Awards
He received Padma Shri award in 1972 for the trauma care and rehabilitation provided to soldiers injured in 1971 Bangladesh war, while stationed at Safdarjung Hospital. He also received Padma Vibushan award for medicine in year 2007.

References

External links

National Institute of Rehabilitation Training and Research

1926 births
2012 deaths
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in medicine
Recipients of the Padma Shri in medicine
Indian medical academics
Academic staff of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi
Academic staff of Delhi University
20th-century Indian medical doctors
Medical doctors from Tamil Nadu


The Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG), established in 2007, provides an assessment of the quality of governance in African countries. The IIAG is compiled by 81 indicators and 265 variables from 54 data projects, coming from 47 independent African and international data sources. Published every two years, the IIAG is one of the world’s most comprehensive collections of data on African governance.

The IIAG provides a framework for citizens, governments, institutions, academics and business to assess the delivery of public goods and services, and policy outcomes, across Africa.

The Foundation defines governance as the provision of the political, social, economic and environmental goods that a citizen has the right to expect from their state, and that a state has the responsibility to deliver to its citizens. The IIAG assesses progress under four main conceptual categories: Security & Rule of Law, Participation, Rights & Inclusion, Foundations for Economic Opportunity, and Human Development.

Scholars, development professionals, analysts, and policymakers have used the IIAG to benchmark governance performance across a number of dimensions at national, regional and continental levels. Scores and ranks are available for the latest 10-year period, enabling the analysis of trends over time. All underlying data used in the construction of the IIAG is freely available and transparently published alongside a comprehensive methodology.

History

The Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) is a key initiative of the Mo Ibrahim Foundation that was first published in 2007. The most recent iteration, the 2022 IIAG, was published in January 2023 and covers the period 2012-2021.

The index was initially produced in association with Harvard University; academic and technical assistance has subsequently been provided by a range of African academics and research bodies.

The IIAG is published every two years and receives extensive media attention from across the African continent and in the international media.. The Ibrahim Index has been used by civil society and government bodies across the continent to monitor governance. One example is in, where political opponents of President Uhuru Kenyatta used the 2022 IIAG to challenge his administration’s record on governance.

In 2007, critics suggested that the IIAG was limited by its focus on the 48 Sub-Saharan African countries, ignoring Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt. Aside from these five additions, the IIAG first included South Sudan, which became a separate country in 2011, in its 2015 iteration.

Methodology

The Ibrahim Index of African Governance (IIAG) is a composite Index that is published every two years and provides a statistical measure of governance performance in 54 African countries.

The IIAG governance framework comprises four dimensions (categories):

 Security & Rule of Law
 Participation, Rights & Inclusion

 Foundations for Economic Opportunity

 Human Development

These categories are made up of 16 sub-categories, consisting of 81 indicators. For the latest IIAG, 265 variables have been collected from 47 independent sources.

The IIAG is refined and revised on a biannual basis to continually improve its measurement of governance. Improvements are a result of either methodological changes, or based on the inclusion of new data. Equally, if previously included measures undergo fundamental methodological changes or do not meet the criteria for inclusion anymore, it may be necessary to exclude them from future iterations. It is also necessary to update previously published data if retrospective revisions are made to data at source.

As a result of these changes, the entire IIAG dataset is re-calculated with each new iteration, in accordance with best practices. The retrospective revision means that score and rank comparisons between years should be made entirely within the latest available IIAG iteration.

Ahead of the 2020 IIAG, the structure of the Index was changed so that the vast majority of indicators are now composed of more than one single variable collected from source.  This is based on the understanding that composite scores constitute the key value added of the IIAG dataset, and aims to provide a clearer, more complete and more stable framework.

Furthermore, since the 2020 iteration, the IIAG is also accompanied by the Citizens’ Voices dataset. All variables collected for this complementary dataset are sourced from Afrobarometer, the leading pan-African research institution conducting public opinion surveys. Even though Citizens’ Voices is calculated as a separate index and its scores are not counted in the calculation of IIAG scores, this dataset mirrors the IIAG framework and helps contextualise the official and expert assessment data in the IIAG with the reality on the ground as perceived by citizens.

How to read the results
The IIAG provides score, rank and 10-year trends for all governance measures included in the dataset, and these are available for each country, as well as for multinational groupings such as the continent, African geographical regions and Regional Economic Communities (RECs).

Scores
Each governance measure is given a score out of 100.0 to quantify a country’s performance for each data year. Scores are rounded to one decimal point and show each country’s performance in relation to the other 54 African countries.

Ranks
The 54 countries represented in the IIAG are ranked for each governance measure based on their respective scores and countries are sorted by performance. If two or more countries share the same score, they are given the same place in the ranking table.

10-year trends
10-year trends offer additional insights into the scores and ranks by showing the change in score between the last and the first data years of the given period. For example, the 2022 IIAG 10-year trends compare each country’s performance for each governance measure in 2021 and 2012.

Indicators
The latest IIAG comprises 81 indicators, grouped into four broad categories: Security & Rule of Law, Participation, Rights & Inclusion, Foundations for Economic Opportunity, and Human Development. The Overall Governance score is arrived at by calculating the unweighted average of the four IIAG categories.

Security and Rule of Law

The 21 indicators in the Security & Rule of Law category are divided into four sub-categories: Security & Safety, Rule of Law & Justice, Accountability & Transparency and Anti-Corruption.

The Security & Safety sub-category includes five indicators measuring Absence of Armed Conflict,  Absence of Violence against Civilians, Absence of Forced Migration, Absence of Human Trafficking & Forced Labour and Absence of Crime.

The Rule of Law & Justice sub-category includes six indicators measuring Executive Compliance with the Rule of Law, Impartiality of the Judicial System, Judicial Process, Equality before the Law, Law Enforcement and Property Rights.

The Accountability & Transparency sub-category includes five indicators measuring Institutional Checks & Balances, Absence of Undue Influence on Government, Civic Checks & Balances, Disclosure of Public Records and Accessibility of Public Records.

The Anti-Corruption sub-category includes five indicators measuring Anti-Corruption Mechanisms, Absence of Corruption in State Institutions, Absence of Corruption in the Public Sector, Public Procurement Procedures and Absence of Corruption in the Private Sector.

Participation, Rights and Inclusion

The 19 indicators in the Participation, Rights & Inclusion category are divided into four sub-categories: Participation, Rights, Inclusion & Equality and Women’s Equality.

The Participation sub-category includes four indicators measuring Freedom of Association & Assembly, Political Pluralism, Civil Society Space and Democratic Elections.

The Rights sub-category includes five indicators measuring Personal Liberties, Freedom of Expression & Belief, Media Freedom, Digital Rights and Protection against Discrimination.

The Inclusion & Equality sub-category includes five indicators measuring Equal Political Power, Equal Political Representation, Equal Civil Liberties, Equal Socioeconomic Opportunity and Equal Access to Public Services.

The Women’s Equality sub-category includes five indicators measuring Political Power & Representation of Women, Equal Rights & Civil Liberties for Women, Socioeconomic Opportunity for Women, Equal Access to Public Services for Women and Laws on Violence against Women.

Foundations for Economic Opportunity

The 20 indicators in the Foundations for Economic Opportunity category are divided into four sub-categories: Public Administration, Business & Labour Environment, Infrastructure and Rural Economy.

The Public Administration sub-category includes five indicators measuring Civil registration, Capacity of the Statistical System, Tax & Revenue Mobilisation, Budgetary & Financial Management and Effective Administration.

The Business & Labour Environment sub-category includes six indicators measuring Regional Integration, Economic Diversification, Business & Competition Regulations, Access to Banking Services, Labour Relations and Secure Employment Opportunities.

The Infrastructure sub-category includes five indicators measuring Transport Network, Access to Energy, Mobile Communications, Internet & Computers and Shipping & Postal Network.

The Rural Economy sub-category includes four indicators measuring Rural Land & Water Access, Rural Market Access, Rural Economy Support and Rural Representation & Participation.

Human Development

The 21 indicators in the Human Development category are divided into four sub-categories: Health, Education, Social Protection & Welfare and Sustainable Environment.

The Health sub-category includes six indicators measuring Access to Healthcare, Access to Water & Sanitation, Control of Communicable Diseases, Control of Non-Communicable Diseases, Child & Maternal Health and Compliance with International Health Regulations.

The Education sub-category includes five indicators measuring Equality in Education, Education Enrolment, Education Completion, Human Resources in Education and Education Quality.

The Social Protection & Welfare sub-category includes five indicators measuring Social Safety Nets, Poverty Reduction Policies, Socioeconomic Inequality Mitigation, Decent Housing and Food Security.

The Sustainable Environment sub-category includes five indicators measuring Promotion of Environmental Sustainability, Enforcement of Environmental Policies, Air Quality, Sustainable Use of Land & Forests and Land & Water Biodiversity Protection.

Criticism

Some scholars have questioned the effectiveness of the Index and particularly the need for civil society to engage with its results, pointing out that there does not often exist in Africa a strong and effective civil society.

2022 Ibrahim Index of African Governance Overall Governance rankings

Previous IIAG Indexes

2019 IIAG Index

2013 IIAG Index

*Sudan and South Sudan are not included in the IIAG.

2014 IIAG Index

2015 IIAG Index

References

External links
IIAG online data portal
2022 Index Report

Political corruption
Politics of Africa
Index numbers


Lodewijck Huygens (13 March 1631 – 1 July 1699) was a Dutch diplomat.

Life
Huyghens was the third son of the diplomat Constantijn Huygens and Suzanna van Baerle. His two older brothers were Constantijn Huygens, Jr. and the scientist Christiaan Huygens.
He was admitted to the Orange College of Breda in 1649, but in 1651 got into trouble for fighting a duel. Soon after this he was sent on a diplomatic mission to England.

Starting in 1669, Huygens and his brother Christiaan did some of the earliest work on life expectancy based on death statistics in London published by John Graunt.

In 1672 the newly appointed Stadtholder William III of Orange, later King William III of England and Ireland and William II of Scotland, appointed Huygens as sheriff of Gorinchem. His actions as sheriff eventually resulted in considerable strife between local factions, whereby Huygens was faced with a formidable opponent, Jacob van der Ulft.

Accusations of corruption against Huygens eventually resulted in a criminal case before the Provincial Court of Holland and Zeeland, yet in 1678 Huygens was allowed to return to his office of sheriff of Gorinchem. Strife and conflict in the city of Gorinchem continued after His return, which ultimately resulted in his fall from grace, with his patron William III giving him less support after 1685. Huygens was persuaded to give up his office as sheriff of Gorinchem and was appointed a member of the Admiralty of the Meuse instead.

Personal life
On 5 May 1674, when he was aged 43, Huyghens married Jacoba Teding van Berkhout (1645–1711), a daughter of Paulus Teding van Berkhout and Jacomina van der Vorst. They had eight children, but only the first three sons survived infancy: Constantijn, born 10 March 1675 at Gorinchem, Gorkum, Louis Diederik, born 2 May 1676 at the Hague, Delft, and Paulus, born 24 August 1677 at Gorinchem. Their other five children all died within a few days of birth, apart from Maurits, born about 1686, who died before he was one year old. Susanna Christina was born and died circa 1679, Christiaan Hendrik was born 19 April 1680 at Gorinchem and died a few days later, Christiaan Philips, born 29 July 1681 at Gorinchem, died a few hours after, as did Adriaan, born 18 August 1682.

References

Bibliography
 Edward Chaney, The Grand Tour and the Great Rebellion (Slatkine, Geneva and C.I.R.V.I. Moncalieri, 1985).
Herbert H. Rowen, American historian, (1916–1999),  John de Witt, Statesman of the True Freedom (Cambridge University Press, 1986, New edition (2002)). 236 pages. .
Herbert H. Rowen  John de Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, 1625–1672. Princeton University Press. (1978), 950 pages. . Bibliography: pages 895 – 928.
Quentin Skinner, born November 1940, is now the Barber Beaumont Professor of the Humanities at Queen Mary, University of London. In his Visions of politics : Vol III, Hobbes and Civil Science, Pp. xvii + 386. New York: Cambridge University Press, (2002), he mentions Lodewijck Huygens as being influenced by Thomas Hobbes, (1588–1679).
 H.F. de Wit, Gorcums Heren. Regentenpolitiek 1650–1750 (Gorinchem 1981, 20–31)
A.G.H. Bachrach and R.G. Collmer, Lodewijck Huygens The English Journal 1651-1652 (Leiden:  E.J. Brill/Leiden University Press (1982)

See also
 Constantijn Huygens, Jr. – brother

1631 births
1699 deaths
17th-century Dutch diplomats
Diplomats from The Hague
Lodewijck


The Neckar Valley Railway, or Neckar Valley Main Line () is a railway line from Heidelberg via Eberbach and Mosbach to Bad Friedrichshall-Jagstfeld in southwestern Germany. Today it is administered by the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Neckar (Rhine-Neckar Transport Authority) and is partly worked by the Rhine-Neckar S-Bahn.

History

The Heidelberg–Neckargemünd section of the line was built in 1862 as part of the Baden Odenwald Railway (Baden Odenwaldbahn), running from the Heidelberg via Neckargemünd, Meckenheim, Neckarbischofsheim, Aglasterhausen, Obrigheim, Neckarelz, Mosbach, Oberschefflenz, Seckach, Osterburken, Königshofen and Lauda to Würzburg. Construction of the line was authorised by a law of 27 April 1860. The Heidelberg–Neckargemünd section was opened on 23 October 1862.

Although the most obvious option for the route between Neckargemünd and Neckarelz would have been to build the line  along the Neckar, this would have meant running through Neckarsteinach and Hirschhorn, which were on the territory of  the Grand Duchy of Hesse, so a hillier and longer route to the south was selected.

About ten years later, as a result of the Franco-Prussian War, the affected states became part of the German Empire, so it was agreed to build the Neckargemünd–Neckarsteinach–Eberbach–Neckarelz–Jagstfeld line, which was opened on 24 May 1879. Trains between Heidelberg and Würzburg now run over this line.

Further development until 2003

Through trains ran from Heidelberg via the Neckar Valley Railway both towards Würzburg and towards Heilbronn.

A second track was built on the line from Heidelberg to Neckarelz between 1907 and 1914. The line was opened through the Königstuhl tunnel to the new marshalling yard on 2 March 1914.

Between 1920 and 1930, the line was upgraded for higher axle loads.

After the Neckar bridge was blown up in 1945 at the end of World War II, the halt of Neckarbrücke was established near Kleingemünd on 9 March, allowing trains to run to the east. On 23 June 1946 continuous operations were resumed, but initially only over a single track; this meant that trains had to cross at Kleingemünd. Double track was restored on this section on 15 September 1958.

Heidelberg Hauptbahnhof was moved from the city centre to its current location in 1955, which also the course of the Neckar Valley Railway was changed between Heidelberg Hauptbahnhof and Karlstor station. Since then, the Neckar Valley Railway has used the route through the 2487-meter-long Königstuhl Tunnel, which had previously only used freight trains to the Heidelberg marshalling yard. The old tunnels on the outskirts of Heidelberg's Old Town are now used by road traffic (Adenauerplatz–Karlstor); The reconstruction of the Schlossberg and Spital tunnels cost Deutsche Mark (DM) 11.5 million and was approved on 13 September 1968.

From the 1950, many of Deutsche Bundesbahn's main lines were electrified including the Neckar Valley Railway between Heidelberg and Heilbronn. The section to Heidelberg Karlstor was electrified on 22 May 1955. Electrification was completed on 14 September 1972. The first electric services ran from Heidelberg to Stuttgart on 21 September and regular electrical services commenced on 1 October 1972.

The Neckarsteinach signal box was taken out of service on 1 October 1986. On 5 March 1990, Neckarsteinach station was downgraded from a Bahnhof (station) of class 3 to a Haltepunkt (halt).

Until the mid-nineties there was long-distance services on the Neckar Valley Railway, but these have since been completely abandoned. This rail service was last operated as an InterRegio pair between Emden and Stuttgart, after D-Züg services like Amsterdam–Munich or Wilhelmshaven–Lindau had disappeared from the timetable.

In 1983 and 1984, a portion of the Rheingold ran from Mannheim via Heidelberg, Heilbronn and Stuttgart, over the Stuttgart–Nördlingen and Nördlingen–Augsburg lines to Munich. This route was chosen despite the longer times for touristic reasons. The service was cancelled due to low utilisation and the lack of compatibility with the Intercity network.

In early 1996, the track was adapted for DM 18 million for the use of tilting Regional-Express services and equipped with the Geschwindigkeitsüberwachung Neigetechnik (GNT) system. This reduced the travel time from 103 minutes to 68 minutes.

Until the introduction of the new train designations (RE/RB) there were mainly local trains on the line, but also three pairs of Heckeneilzuge ("hedgerow expresses", that is they stopped at all stations on rural sections, but ran as expresses near cities) ran from Frankfurt via Hanau and Erbach to Stuttgart and from Eberbach to Heilbronn over the Neckar Valley Railway.

The line from Heidelberg marshalling yard to Königstuhl junction was closed on 30 November 1997.

Since 2003: opening of the Rhine-Neckar S-Bahn and future plans

Three new stations were opened with the commencement of S-Bahn operations on the Neckar Valley Railway: Heidelberg-Weststadt/Südstadt, Heidelberg-Orthopädie and Neckargemünd-Altstadt. The platform levels of the rest of the stations from Heidelberg to Neckarelz were increased to 76 centimetres to allow level access to the S-Bahn. All platforms have a length of 140 metres.

Further development
The Mosbach-Neckarelz−Bad Friedrichshall-Jagstfeld−Heilbronn section was incorporated in the network of the Heilbronn Stadtbahn at the regular change to the 2014/2015 timetable on 14 December 2014. The trains of the new  S 41 service reverse in Neckarelz station and then run over the Neckarelz–Osterburken railway to Mosbach station.

Operations

Vehicle use and station facilities
All stations of the Neckar Valley Railway served by the Rhine-Neckar  S-Bahn have been rebuilt to provide barrier-free access for the disabled and equipped with protection from the weather. Some major stations (for instance, Eberbach and Neckarelz) were retrofitted with LCD destination displays a few years before the launch of S-Bahn services. Increasing the platforms to 76 cm above the running surface made possible a level entrance to the class 425.2 S-Bahn electric multiple units. The following rolling stock are used:
Class 111 locomotives with Silberling carriages on RE3 services between Mannheim and Heilbronn (some trains on weekdays)
Class 425.1 and 425.4 electric multiple units on RE3 services between Mannheim and Heilbronn
class 425.2 electric multiple units on S-Bahn services.
 class ET 2010 (occasionally GT8-100D/2S) on the Heilbronn–Mosbach Stadtbahn services.

Passenger services
During the day services on the line run hourly on lines S1 (Homburg (Saar)–Kaiserslautern–Mannheim–Heidelberg–Osterburken) and S2 (Kaiserslautern–Mannheim–Heidelberg (on weekdays starting or ending at Eberbach or Mosbach) of the Rhine-Neckar S-Bahn and every two hours Regional-Express services operate on the Mannheim–Eberbach–Heilbronn route. The start or end of some of these RE services on Saturdays, Sundays and public holidays is at Stuttgart. While S2 services end on alternative hours in Eberbach or Mosbach, S1 services run every hour to Osterburken to give good connections to the trains on the Franconia Railway between Stuttgart and Würzburg.

Until 13 December 2014, Regionalbahn services ran between Neckarelz and Bad Friedrichshall-Jagstfeld on the Neckarelz–Stuttgart–Ulm route each hour. These services mostly used double-deck carriages. On occasion and in the peak hours Silberling carriages were used. The double-deck carriages were hauled almost exclusively by class 146.2 electric locomotives. The Silberling carriages were hauled by Class 111 electric locomotives. All the locomotives used for Regionalbahn services on this line were based in Stuttgart.

The RB services were replaced on 14 December 2014 by Stadtbahn services on line S 41 every hour between Heilbronn station forecourt, central Heilbronn, Neckarsulm, Bad Friedrichshall, Mosbach-Neckarelz (with reversal) and Mosbach (Baden). In addition, hourly Stadtbahn services run between Mosbach (Baden) and Mosbach-Neckarelz to connect with the RE3 (Mannheim–Bad Friedrichshall–Heilbronn). In Neckarsulm, there is a four-minute connection to the shortened Regionalbahn services to Stuttgart, which also reach Heilbronn Hbf faster because they do not pass through the city centre. However, this transfer is often criticised as not working because of delays, especially in the afternoon.

Freight
Freight trains are mostly scheduled in the early mornings and the late evenings. These are mostly complete trains, consisting of wagons carrying cars or coal or of tank cars, operated by DB Schenker Rail Deutschland. But private transport companies also operate freight on the Neckar Valley Railway, for example, TX Logistik, Häfen und Güterverkehr Köln and BCB.

References

Footnotes

Sources

External links

 Timetable of 1944: p. 1, p. 2, p. 3

Railway lines in Baden-Württemberg
Railway lines in Hesse
1862 establishments in Germany
Railway lines opened in 1862
Transport in Heidelberg
Buildings and structures in Rhein-Neckar-Kreis
Buildings and structures in Bergstraße (district)
Buildings and structures in Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis
Buildings and structures in Heilbronn (district)
Rhine-Neckar S-Bahn
Heilbronn Stadtbahn


OSO 7 or Orbiting Solar Observatory 7 (NSSDC ID: 1971-083A), before launch known as OSO H is the seventh in the series of American Orbiting Solar Observatory satellites launched by NASA between 1962 and 1975.  OSO 7 was launched from Cape Kennedy (now Cape Canaveral) on 29 September 1971 by a Delta N rocket into a 33.1° inclination, low-Earth (initially 321 by 572 km) orbit, and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 9 July 1974.
It was built by the Ball Brothers Research Corporation (BBRC), now known as Ball Aerospace, in Boulder Colorado.

While the basic design of all the OSO satellites was similar, the OSO 7 was larger [total spacecraft mass was 635 kg (1397 lb)] than the OSO 1 through OSO 6, with a larger squared-off solar array in the non-rotating "Sail", and a deeper rotating section, the "Wheel".

Sail instruments
The "Sail" portion of the spacecraft, which was stabilized to face the Sun in all the OSO series satellites, carried two instruments on OSO 7, which continuously viewed the Sun during orbit day.
These were:

 The GSFC X-Ray and EUV Spectroheliograph (covering the wavelength range 2 to 400 Å), under the direction of P.I. Dr. Werner M. Neupert of the NASA GSFC which imaged the Sun in the Extreme Ultraviolet and soft X-ray bands, to determine the temperature and distribution of matter in the corona above active regions and during solar flares.
 The NRL White-Light Coronagraph and Extreme Ultraviolet Corona Experiment, directed by Dr. Richard Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory, which imaged the while light corona, using an occulting disk, allowing comparison between the structure of the corona and the active regions on the solar surface.

Wheel instruments
The rotating "Wheel" component of the spacecraft, which provided overall gyroscopic stability to the satellite, carried four instruments, which looked radially outwards and scanned across the Sun every 2 seconds.
Two of these were solar-observing instruments, and the other two were cosmic X-ray instruments:
 UCSD Hard Solar X-Ray Monitoring instrument, P.I. Prof. Laurence E. Peterson. covered the 2–300 keV energy range using proportional counter and NaI scintillator detectors, plus three small charged-particle detectors for monitoring the local radiation environment.
 UNH Solar Gamma-Ray Monitor. P.I. Prof. Edward Chupp, observed 0.3–10 MeV solar flare gamma rays with a NaI(Tl) scintillation spectrometer in a CsI(Na) active anti-coincidence shield.
 MIT Cosmic X-Ray Experiment, P.I. Prof. George W. Clarke, observed cosmic X-ray sources in the range 1.5 to 9 Å.  This instrument used proportional counters to observe cosmic X-ray sources in the 1 to 60 keV range, in five broad logarithmically spaced energy bands, with about 1° angular resolution.
 UCSD Cosmic X-ray Experiment, P.I. Prof. Laurence E. Peterson. This instrument, which had a field of view (FWHM) about 6°, looked out perpendicular to the Wheel spin axis, sweeping a great circle on the sky every 2 seconds.  As the Wheel spin axis moved to keep the Sail instruments pointed at the Sun, it scanned the whole sky every 6 months.  It featured a 1 cm thick NaI(Tl) scintillation detector that covered the energy range from ~7 keV to ~500 keV in 126 PHA channels, with an effective area of 100 cm2 at the lower energies.  The detector was enclosed in a thick CsI(Na) anti-coincidence scintillation shield with 10 holes bored through it, which defined the optical field of view of the detector.  Events were individually recorded and telemetered, with time and pulse height tagged for each, at a maximal rate of 3.2 per second.

Scientific results
Among the notable scientific results from OSO 7 were:

 All-sky hard X-ray surveys by the MIT and UCSD cosmic instruments.
 The first observation of solar gamma ray (γ) line emission, due to electron/positron annihilation at 511 keV, from solar flares in early August 1972, by the UNH spectrometer. Long legendary in NASA due to the hazard to human spaceflight, it would have incurred a potentially fatal radiation dose had astronauts been in space at time and outside the Earth's protective magnetosphere (as is the case during much of a lunar Apollo mission).
 The first clear detection of a  coronal mass ejection (CME), by the NRL instrument.
 Observations of the hard X-ray spectra of the AGN NGC 4151 and Cen A
 Position and spectral variability of the 14 May 1972 cosmic gamma-ray burst

Near loss at launch
The OSO 7 was nearly lost at launch, due to a loss of hydraulic pressure in the second-stage guidance control system ~7 seconds prior to second-stage engine cutoff.  The nominal plan was for the spacecraft to be separated from the second stage with the spin axis normal to the Sun direction, so that the sail could be oriented to the Sun, allowing the batteries to be fully charged on orbit.  As it was, the orbit was slightly eccentric instead of circular, and the orientation of the spacecraft immediately after launch was unknown, so that the sail could not acquire Sun lock.  The spacecraft was launched with its batteries fully charged, giving approximately 12 hours for the controllers, directed by NASA's John Thole, to recover before the spacecraft lost power and command ability.  Several hours passed as engineers attempted to interpret the signal strength from the tumbling spacecraft in terms of its transmitting antenna pattern.  Finally, an hour or two before the end, Thole decided to abandon caution and "start slewing", and by luck and skill, control was regained.

Because the resulting orbital apogee was ~572 km instead of the planned ~350 km for the nominal circular orbit, several times each day OSO 7 passed fairly deeply into the Van Allen radiation belts, so that bombardment by high energy protons made it somewhat radioactive.  The activity then decayed slowly during other times of the day.  The complexly varying instrument internal radioactivity complicated the analysis of data from the sensitive X-ray and gamma-ray instruments on board.

P78-1
The flight spare for OSO H was later acquired by the U.S. Air Force, modified and re-instrumented, and then launched in 1979 as P78-1 (also known as Solwind), the satellite which was shot down by the USAF in a successful anti-satellite missile test in 1985.  OSO 7 and P78-1 were not identical in appearance, but more similar to each other than either were to the earlier OSO 1 through OSO 6 spacecraft, or to the final OSO 8.

References

External links

 OSO 7

Satellites orbiting Earth
Spacecraft launched in 1971
Spacecraft which reentered in 1974


Edouard Espinosa (1872–1950) was a British ballet dancer and teacher. He was also the co-founder of the Royal Academy of Dancing and established the British Ballet Organization.

Personal life
Espinosa was born in London in 1872 to Spanish Jewish parents Léon Espinosa and Mathilda Oberst. He had two brothers (Marius and Leo) and three sisters (Judith, Ray, and Lea), all of whom became dancers and teachers.

In 1874, the Espinosas moved to London, then to Paris in 1888. Shortly after, Edouard resided in a boarding school while his parents toured in Bordeaux, Brussels, and Berlin. Due to an injury, Léon stopped dancing, allowing his children to pick up the art.

He married Eve Louise Kelland, and had two children Edward Kelland-Espinosa and Yvette Espinosa.

Career

Before dance
After Espinosa's father's injury stopped him from dancing, the Espinosa children became the family's financial support. Beginning at age twelve, Edouard picked up odd jobs "selling embroidery supplies, toys and Bohemian crystal, before becoming a sales representative for dental wares. Being briefly apprenticed to a local dentist, he even managed to botch his one and only tooth extraction ... before belatedly beginning his ballet training at the age of eighteen."

Dancer
Beginning at age 18, Espinosa trained in ballet under his father, Léon Espinosa. Although Espinosa had background in ballroom dancing, he was not a great ballet dancer. According to his father, "He [had] terrible feet, but wonderful knees." Through hard work, Espinosa slowly improved until he was able to perform as a soloist.

In 1889, Espinosa debuted at the Old London Aquarium.  The performance went so poorly the manager warned that if had not been an Espinosa, he would have been finished with the company.

From 1891-1896, he danced with the Lyceum Theatre under the guidance of Henry Irving, then danced under Charles Frohman in New York for a season in 1893. Between 1896 and 1939, Espinosa was "Maître de Ballet for the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, Empire Theatre, and Alhambra Theatre. During this time, he danced numerous shows, including Chu Chin Chow (1916), The Maid of the Mountains (1917), and The Last Waltz (1922).

In addition to performing, Espinosa worked with his father, Léon Espinosa, producing and choreographing for music hall, pantomime and plays throughout Britain and abroad. He was particularly adept at teaching and analysing steps. Espinosa codified the steps his father taught, and this code became the basis for the first structured syllabus of its kind to be devised internationally.

Dance teacher
While Espinosa was a great dancer, his greatest influence on ballet was as a teacher. In 1896, he opened his first ballet school, and in 1908, he established the British Normal School of Dancing, "the first to hold examinations and issue certificates."

During this time, Espinosa became friends with Phillip J. S. Richardson, who wrote for and eventually purchased Dancing Times. The two fretted over the number of unqualified ballet teachers and considered ways to alleviate this issue.

Royal Academy of Dance
In 1920, Espinosa and Richardson had ongoing meetings with other ballet greats, including Phyllis Bedells, Lucia Cormani, Adeline Genée, Tamara Karsavina, Ninette de Valois, and Anton Dolin to discuss the state of ballet and aimed to establish an “association which would make it its duty to see that all teachers taught correctly.”  Eventually, the group founded the Association of Operatic Dancing, later known as the Royal Academy of Dance (RAD).

Three months after the founding of RAD, the school held the first ballet examinations.

During this time, Espinosa wrote The Elementary Technique of Operatic Dancing, originally called the Syllabus of Elementary Technique, which was published in 1928.

British Ballet Organization
In 1929, Espinosa broke away from the RAD and established the British Ballet Organization (BBO) with his wife a year later. By the time Espinosa left the Association of Operative Dancing, many of his students had become prominent teachers in various parts of the British Isles, and they formed the BBO's nucleus. Over the years, the organization expanded, offering a syllabus and examinations in dance. It extended its influence to South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and India, as well as all over the British Isles.

Espinosa taught many who would go on to have successful careers, including Dame Ninette de Valois, who in turn taught Celia Franca, the founder of the National Ballet of Canada.

After his death, his son, Eduard Kelly Espinosa, and daughter, Ivette, took over control of the BBO.

The Espinosa Family Home
Woolborough House in London (39 Lonsdale Road) was the Espinosa family home from 1913. On the formation of the British Ballet Organization (BBO), it became the organization's headquarters. In 1932, a studio was built alongside the house which has continued to host classes and BBO examinations and provides rehearsal space for many leading dance companies and professional artists. In 2015, the BBO moved to Battersea Reach.

Many famous students studied with Espinosa at Woolborough House, including Phyllis Bedells and Ninette de Valois.

Bibliography

See also
 Royal Academy of Dance

References

External links
 http://bbo.org.uk

1872 births
1950 deaths
Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
British male ballet dancers
British choreographers
Ballet masters
19th-century British ballet dancers
20th-century British ballet dancers


Ivan Ivanovich Yershov (; born 22 May 1979) is a former Russian professional footballer.

Club career
He made his debut in the Russian Premier League in 2001 for FC Chernomorets Novorossiysk. He played 2 games in the UEFA Cup 2001–02 with FC Chernomorets Novorossiysk.

In September 2018, he tested positive for trimetazidine and meldonium, admitted his use and was banned pending further investigation.

References

External links
 Player page by sportbox.ru

1979 births
Living people
People from Murmansk Oblast
Russian men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Russian Premier League players
Russian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Ukraine
FC Chernomorets Novorossiysk players
FC Lada-Tolyatti players
FC Metallurg Lipetsk players
FC Volgar Astrakhan players
FC Arsenal Tula players
Doping cases in association football
Russian sportspeople in doping cases
Sportspeople from Murmansk Oblast
FC Dnipro-2 Dnipropetrovsk players


Pommern (1912–1935) was a British bred Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. In a racing career which lasted from 1914 to June 1916 he ran ten times and won seven races. As a three-year-old in 1915 he won the 2000 Guineas at Newmarket and the wartime substitutes for The Derby and the St. Leger Stakes to win a version of the English Triple Crown. After winning his only race as a four-year-old in 1916, he was retired to stud where he had limited success.

Background
Pommern was an elegant, good-looking bay horse officially bred by his owner Solomon Joel who bought the mare Merry Agnes for 500 guineas in 1911 when she was already pregnant with the future Derby winner. The mating of Merry Agnes and Joel's stallion Polymelus was actually arranged by the mare's previous owner Sir Alan Johnstone. Polymelus was a five-time British Champion sire and a horse that Thoroughbred Heritage calls one [of] the most influential British stallions of the 20th century. Merry Agnes, was by St. Hilaire whose sire St. Simon, was one of the most successful sires in the history of British racing. Pommern was inbred to the stallion Hampton (see below). Pommern was reportedly named after a German friend of Mr Joel. Given the period, the name was rather unfortunate, as it was also borne by a German battleship which was erroneously reported to have been sunk by British submarines in July 1915. Joel sent his colt to his private trainer Charles Peck at Newmarket, Suffolk.

Race record

1914: two-year-old season
Pommern showed little form in his first two races, finishing unplaced in races at Royal Ascot in June and at Newmarket's July meeting. He showed much improved form in the Richmond Stakes at Goodwood later in July, winning easily by two lengths from nine opponents. In October he ran in the £3,000 Imperial Produce Stakes at Kempton in which he was set to receive eight pounds from King Priam, who up till that time had been regarded as the best two-year-old of the season. Pommern dominated the race, leading from the start and pulling clear inside the final furlong to win by four lengths from King Priam with Follow Up third. After these successes, the leading jockey Steve Donoghue was contracted to ride the horse in the following year's Classics

1915: three-year-old season
The First World War led to a restricted and restructured racing schedule in 1915, with many racecourses being used by the military or closed to conserve resources. As many important races could not be run at their usual venues, wartime substitute races were run at alternative courses, with Newmarket being particularly favoured.

Joel took Pommern's prospects for the Classics seriously, paying £1,000 for a horse to act as his lead horse in exercise gallops. On his first appearance as a three-year-old Pommern ran in the Craven Stakes at Newmarket. He was defeated by a colt named Rossendale, but as Pommern was conceding fifteen pounds to the winner it was considered a creditable performance. Ten days later he started the 2/1 favourite for the 2000 Guineas on 28 April in a field of sixteen runners. Ridden by Donohue, he won by three lengths and a head from Tournament and The Vizier.

With Epsom unavailable, a substitute "New Derby Stakes", with much a prize reduced from £6,500 to £2,400, was run at Newmarket on 15 June, two weeks later than originally planned. Pommern was made 11/10 favourite against sixteen opponents. He won the race by two lengths from Let Fly, with Rossendale a further three lengths back in third. The winning time of 2:32.8 was more than two seconds faster than any time recorded for the Derby at the more demanding and fractionally longer Epsom course. According to the Glasgow Herald, Pommern won the race "in the style of a really great horse".

There was no "New St Leger" in 1915 as the authorities at Doncaster Racecourse refused to allow the name of their race to be used at a different venue and the Newmarket substitute race was therefore called the September Stakes. The race was run over fourteen furlongs, shorter than the traditional Leger distance by 130 yards and carried prize money of only £1,250, less than a fifth of that won by Black Jester at Doncaster in 1914. Pommern started the 1/3 favourite and won by three lengths from the New Oaks Stakes winner Snow Marten with Achtoi six lengths back in third. It is usual to rank Pommern as a Triple Crown winner, despite the revised conditions of the second and third legs. On his final start of the year, Pommern won the Limekiln Stakes over ten furlongs at Newmarket, carrying 134 pounds and beating two opponents by seven lengths in impressive style.

Pommern's earnings for the season totaled £11,200, enabling Polymelus to claim the title of Champion sire for the second year in succession.

1916: four-year-old season
Pommern was scheduled to be retired to stud, but in January 1916 Joel announced the horse would return to the racecourse. His only race of the year came at Newmarket, where he contested the June Stakes, a wartime substitute for the Coronation Cup. He won the mile and a half race from Russley, with the filly Silver Tag in third. According to press reports, Joel turned down an offer of £30,000 for his colt, and indicated that even a record £50,000 would not be sufficient. Pommern was a late withdrawal from the Champion Stakes in October, with some commentators suggesting that Joel did not wish to risk the horse's reputation against Lord Falmouth's 2000 Guineas winner Clarissimus.

Assessment
In their book A Century of Champions, Tony Morris and John Randall rated Pommern a "superior" winner of both the 2000 Guineas and the Derby and the fifty-second best British horse of the 20th century.

At the end of his three-year-old season, Pommern was assigned a weight of 125 pounds in the Cambridgeshire Handicap, five pounds behind the four-year-old St Leger winner Black Jester.

Stud record
Pommern retired to stud alongside his sire Polymelus at Solomon Joel's Maiden Erlegh Stud in Earley, Berkshire, at an initial fee of 300 guineas. Although he met with limited success, Pommern notably sired Adam's Apple (2000 Guineas Stakes, £11,750), Glommen (Goodwood Cup,  £8,767), Pondoland (£10,345) and was the damsire of the 1934 1000 Guineas Stakes winner, Campanula.

Pommern was euthanized on 26 June 1935 at age twenty-three.

Pedigree

Pommern was inbred 3x3 to Hampton, meaning that the stallion appears twice in the third generation of his pedigree. He was also inbred 3x4 to the broodmare Distant Shore.

References

1912 racehorse births
1935 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom
Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom
Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing winners
Thoroughbred family 16-g
Epsom Derby winners
2000 Guineas winners
St Leger winners


The anime and manga fandom is a worldwide community of fans of anime and manga. Anime includes animated series, films and videos, while manga includes manga, graphic novels, drawings, and related artworks. The anime and manga fandom traces back to the 1970s, with numerous countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Japan, China, and Malaysia participating in it.

Otaku

Otaku is a Japanese term for people with obsessive interests, including anime or manga. In its original context, the term otaku is derived from a Japanese term for another's house or family ( otaku), which is also used as an honorific second-person pronoun. The modern slang form, which is distinguished from the older usage by being written only in hiragana (おたく) or katakana (オタク or, less frequently, ヲタク), or rarely in rōmaji, appeared in the 1980s. In the anime Macross, first aired in 1982, the term was used by Lynn Minmay as an honorific term. It appears to have been coined by the humorist and essayist Akio Nakamori in his 1983 series , printed in the lolicon magazine Manga Burikko. Animators like Haruhiko Mikimoto and Shōji Kawamori used the term among themselves as an honorific second-person pronoun since the late 1970s. After its wild spread usage by other Japanese people, however, it became pejorative and increasingly offensive in the 1990s, implying that a person is socially inept. Otaku can be seen as being similar to the English terms geek or nerd.

However, the term started to be used by anime and manga fans themselves again starting in the 2000s, in a more general and positive way, and today it is often used by those outside of the fandom to refer to fans of anime or manga. However, older generation otaku, like Otaking (King of Otakus) Toshio Okada, in his book Otaku Wa Sude Ni Shindeiru (オタクはすでに死んでいる) said the newer generation of self-proclaimed otakus are not real otakus, as they lack the passion and research sense into a particular sub-culture subject and are only common fans which only overspent in buying products.

History of the community

Anime and manga fandom traces back to at least the 1970s when fans of the series Space Battleship Yamato banded together to get it back on the air after it stopped airing on Japanese television. In Japan, anime and manga are referred to collectively as the content industry: anime, video games, manga, and other related merchandise are different types of media focused around the same content.

English-language fan communities
The fan community in the English-speaking world began in the 1970s and steadily grew. According to Japanophile Fred Patten, the very first fan club devoted to Japanese animation was the Cartoon/Fantasy Organization, which began in Los Angeles in 1977. Its growth characterized by waves that Gilles Poitras as well as Bruce Lewis and Cathy Sterling name as specific "generations", often instigated by a singular work.

In the Philippines, GMA-7 began airing Voltes V in 1978. It was the first exposure of Filipinos to Japanese animation. Voltes V soon became very popular between children all around the Philippines which led to the sudden popularity of other anime series related to the Super Robot genre in the Philippines. It was soon banned in 1979 by then president Ferdinand Marcos, four episodes before the end of the series, along with the other anime series airing at the time, supposedly for its violence and warlike themes. This, however, did not hinder the Filipinos' growing love of anime, leading to the large popularity of anime and manga throughout the Philippines.

Poitras identifies the first generation as the "Astro Boy Generation". Despite being the first and most popular animated Japanese television series, Astro Boy did not create many hardcore fans, but it exposed viewers to the medium and increased their receptivity towards it later on. The "Early Fans" or "Old Timers" generation that consumed titles like Speed Racer, Eighth Man, and Battle of the Planets as staples. These fans were much more aware that what they were consuming was Japanese and took the initiative to search for more. The "Yamato" or "Star Blazers" generation originating from the series Space Battleship Yamato that originally aired in 1979–80. Poitras states that this generation was so loyal because Star Blazers strong narration required viewers to never miss an episode. The Poitras dubs the next generation the "Robotech Generation", after the 1985 television series Robotech, is the earliest major generation in the USA and is distinguished by fans clearly recognizing anime as a Japanese product with significant differences from American animation. Fans from this generation and the Yamato Generation were to make up the significant portion of organized fandom throughout the 1980s. The film Akira, which played in art theaters in December 1989, produced a cult following that Poitras names the "Akira Generation". Akira inspired some to move on to other works but stalled many becoming an isolated work in their eyes, overshadowing the creative context of anime and manga it represented.

Then in the 1990s, Poitras states that "something new happened in the U.S.", the "Sailor Moon Generation" was born. Previous generations consisted mostly of college age fans, however in 1995 Sailor Moon was adapted into English and caught the attention of people even as young as grade school in age, many of them female. In the span of a few months, the fan demographic changed dramatically and as their interests diversified, so did the titles adapted into English. Poitras, Lewis and Sterling describe current generation of fans as the "Otaku Generation", however not necessarily applying the word "otaku" to current fans. For this generation, the release of a title onto the television in the past was unusual enough that fans often remember their first anime experience as something special. Poitras remarked that as of the "Otaku Generation", the influx of fans into the fandom is better characterized by a continuous stream than as waves as it was in the past.

In the United States, the fan community began as an offshoot of science fiction fan community, with fans bringing imported copies of Japanese manga to conventions. Before anime began to be licensed in the U.S., fans who wanted to get a hold of anime would leak copies of anime movies and subtitle them, thus marking the start of fansubs. By 1994, anime had become more common in the U.S., and had begun being translated into English and shown on television, most commonly shōnen series such as Pokémon and Astro Boy.

Marathon viewing sessions of Japanese anime television series have been a common trend in anime fandom for decades, dating back to the late 1970s to 1980s. According to an early American anime cosplayer, Karen Schnaubelt, Japanese anime were "incredibly difficult to come by" with "nothing available except broadcast TV until" VHS videotapes became commonly available in the late 1970s, allowing fans to import anime shows from Japan; she noted that a friend "would record the episodes" and then "a group of us would gather at his apartment and watch a marathon of the episodes." At comic conventions and sci-fi conventions in the 1980s, fans brought video tapes to hold marathon anime screenings; BayCon 1986, for example, held an 80-hour long anime marathon.

According to Mike Tatsugawa, the founder and CEO of the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation, the first milestone for anime in the U.S. was in the 1980s with the advent of the Internet. With the Internet, fans were able to more easily communicate with each other and thus better able to exchange fan-subtitled tapes and higher quality versions of anime. Some experts, such as Susan Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, say that Akira marked the first milestone. However, most experts agree that the next milestone was in 1992 when U.S. Renditions, a film importer, released the first English-subtitled anime videotape that year, entitled Gunbuster. According to Tatsugawa, the success of Gunbuster triggered a flurry of releases.

Due to the localization process, many people who grew up watching anime did so not realizing that it originated in Japan. After the success of Power Rangers (which first aired in 1993), U.S. television companies began broadcasting Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z in 1995 and 1996 respectively. However, due to the relative failure of the latter two (both shows brought success when aired at a later time on Cartoon Network), anime did not seem like it would become mainstream. However, the anime boom in the U.S. began with the airing of the anime series Pokémon in syndication in 1998, which served as proof to U.S. broadcasters and distributors that Japanese media could succeed in the U.S. market. It was only after Pokémon and Power Rangers left the mainstream that U.S. audiences became aware of anime's Japanese origins.

 Anime streaming outlets in the United States
In the United States there are multiple streaming outlets that fans can use to view anime and manga, while also being able to connect with those communities. One such outlet is Crunchyroll, a streaming service that lets users view popular anime from the past and new anime episodes released to the website. Crunchyroll was created in 2006 as a distribution outlet for anime. Crunchyroll has since evolved into becoming something more for fans in the anime community. They have added an addition to their website that allows anime and manga fans to get news about anime releases, events, and topics related to the community. This has also evolved to the creation of the Crunchyroll Expo. This exposition is a large-scale event in San Jose, CA that allows anime and manga fans to connect. The streaming service also features a store where you can purchase anime related products such as: figures, Japanese snacks, apparel, posters, video games and manga.

In addition, another streaming service within the United States is FUNimation. Similar to Crunchyroll, FUNimation allows you to view newly released anime while also offering a store with products similar to Crunchyroll. FUNimation's website also has a section created for events related to anime and manga that allows their members to connect at the local and national level. There is also a blog section that allows those with an account on FUNimation to connect with other fans and talk about their favorite, or maybe even least favorite, anime and episode.

Mass streaming services like Netflix and Prime Video have also expanded into licensing and distributing anime since the early-2010s.

 European fan communities (France, Italy, Spain and Germany)
In the 1970s, Japanese Animation reached Europe mainly with productions aimed at European and Japanese children with the main results being Heidi, Vicky the Vicking and Barbapapa. However, these works were not recognized as Japanese productions and did not earn much of a dedicated fanbase. Italy, Spain and France, however, grew an interest for more Japanese animation for their television programming, due to success of previous co-productions, Japan's productive output and cheap selling price in comparison to US animation. Particularly Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. Like in the Philippines, the Super Robot Genre became very popular with series such as UFO Robot Grendizer and Mazinger Z. However, many more genres got added to the mix, with space opera such as Captain Harlock, shojo shows like Candy Candy and Rose of Versailles, sports like Captain Tsubasa and more. Germany however largely rejected Anime other than western literature adaptations of Nippon Animation, with Speed Racer and Captain Future proving to be problematic. It was only during the rise of cable television during the '90s that Japanese series such as Queen Millennia, and Rose of Versailles went on air. A strong affinity for unique Japanese productions was developed among a generation of German children during this period.

 Fan communities in Malaysia
Studies of fan behavior focused more on big fan activities or conventions in the past and transitioned toward from fan communities to individual fans. There are four conventions in urban areas of Malaysia: Kota Kinabalu, Sabah; Kuching, Sarawak; Sunway, Petaling Jaya, Selangor and Kuala Lumpur. They are held four times annually between December 2012 and August 2013. According to the survey, there are about 585 people who regularly attend these conventions. Half of the respondents were aged 18–22 as of 2013 with equal numbers of both genders. More than half of the respondents were student and all respondents were consumers of Japanese media. Although those four conventions did not officially announce that their event is mainly Japanese popular culture, majority of people were fans of Japanese popular culture. Their main purpose in attending these conventions is to meet new and old friends, to have fun, and to cosplay. They regularly attend these conventions to keep their fan communities active.

 Demographics

 Age
In a nationwide survey held in 2018 by Dentsu, 64.3% of Japanese individuals among the 20-29 age group responded that they are highly interested in anime, while the corresponding figure for those aged 15–19 was 72.4%, 56% aged 30–39, 48.4% aged 40–49, 38.7% aged 50–59.

A 2022 survey held by Morning Consult showed that 42% of anime fans in the United States are Millennials, 25% are adult Gen-Z's, 21% are Gen Xers and 12% are Baby Boomers.

 Gender
In the early days of the fandom, it was predominantly male.

An analytical survey held by Forbes in 2014 revealed that half of North American anime convention attendees are female.

2022 survey data from the Morning Consult showed that the anime fandom is 61% male and 39% female.

 Ethnicity

According to Morning Consult's 2022 survey, 47% of American anime fans are White, 28% are Hispanic, 18% are Black and 7% are Asian.

 Appeal of anime and manga
One major appeal of anime is its artwork; some fans claim that its visual quality is superior to that found in most animated series made in the United States and some ignore all non-Japanese animation. One fan described enjoying anime because "there is no dividing line between special effects and what is real...it's just the way somebody imagined it". The content editor of Anime Fringe, Holly Kolodziejczak, described being amazed by anime's depth that was unlike the cartoons she had seen before: "the characters had real personalities, their own feelings and motivations for their actions, strengths and flaws that enhanced their characters. They were more like real people, and thus people could much more readily identify with them." Larry Green of Nausicaa.net agreed and added that anime discusses subjects for both adults and children whereas in the United States animation is traditionally for children. He also stated that any viewer would be able to find something to their liking due to anime's large scale of production.

Susan J. Napier, a professor of Japanese Language and Literature, stated that anime fans "find refuge in a culture that diverges from the typical American way of life." She pointed out that fascination with Japanese culture is not a new concept and has existed since the mid-19th century. For example, an 1876 painting by Claude Monet entitled La Japonaise depicts Monet's wife wearing a kimono, with Japanese hand fans shown in the background. Napier described this interest in Japan as an "escape from the Industrial Revolution ... a pastoral utopia" for many Europeans.

And A key characteristic of many anime television shows is serialization, where a continuous story arc stretches over multiple episodes or seasons. Traditional American television had an episodic format, with each episode typically consisting of a self-contained story. So it brings excitement to the viewers.

 Fan service

Fan service is material in a series which is intentionally added to please the audience. Although fan service usually refers to sexually provocative scenes, it also refers more generally to events of little plot value designed to excite viewers or simply make them take notice, such as big explosions and battle scenes. When anime and manga are translated into English by U.S. companies, the original work is often edited to remove some of the fan service to make it more appropriate for U.S. audiences. Mike Tatsugawa explained this change as a result of a difference between cultural values of Japan and the U.S. In fact, some anime seem to feature little else other than fan service as their selling point. Some believe that the prevalence of fan service indicates a lack of maturity within the fandom; an editor of Del Rey Manga joked that manga Negima!, which contained fan service, should be rated as "for immature readers 16+" rather than for "mature readers 16+".

 Fan labor

 Dōjin
Dōjin are fan-made creation that are oftentimes bought and sold through dōjin events. Dōjin consists of doujinshi (doujin magazine, could be manga, novel, or essay), doujinsoft (doujin games and software), doujin music, and doujin anime. Dōjin events aim to help creators distribute manga commercially without the need for a publisher. The oldest and largest dōjin event worldwide is Comic Market, more commonly known as Comiket. The Comiket 97 fair (December 2019) in Tokyo, Japan totaled approximately 750,000 visitors.

 Learning about Japan

 Language
Anime and manga have stimulated many young people to learn the Japanese language. In the 1970s, Naoka Takaya's Saskatoon Japanese Language School was founded with a student body consisting of primarily Japanese-Canadians interested in polishing their language skills for their return to Japan. However, popularity for the language began to rise; the Japanese Language Proficiency Test was first held in 1984 in response to growing demand for standardized Japanese language certification. Yuki Sasaki, who works for the Japanese language program at the University of Georgia, noted that when she first started in the program in 1994, most students were interested in Japanese for internal business majors; however, in 2004, students are more interested in "translating Japanese pop-song lyrics and talk excitedly about the Japanese anime character Sakura Kinomoto from Cardcaptor Sakura." Echoing this sentiment, Takaya also stated that about 60% of her students are studying Japanese because of anime.

Despite some fansubbers declaring (due to fansubbing's illegality) that they will stop distribution once a series is licensed, many fansubbed versions of anime are produced because of the stiff localization process in official translations. According to one survey only 9% of fans prefer dubbing over subs; some fans believe that the localization process degrades the quality of anime and thus look to fansubs for the purer form of Japanese culture, feeling that something is lost in translation. Most hardcore fans are motivated by the desire not to miss the jokes and puns present in Japanese anime and manga. In fact, most people interested in anime express at least a passing desire to learn Japanese, but usually choose not to, due to either time constraints or rumours about the difficulty involved in learning Japanese. Japanese terms are so well integrated into the anime and manga fan culture that during a Fanime convention, a newcomer expressed confusion at some of the announcements because she was unable to understand the Japanese words used. As fans become more proficient at Japanese; they often also become more critical toward the quality of various translations; some critique the different translations of a single series by different fansub groups.

Some fans even decide to translate professionally. In fact, fluent English speakers who know sufficient Japanese are often preferred for translating over fluent Japanese speakers who know sufficient English, as the syntax of the latter group tends to be stiff. Del Rey Manga's editor finds much of their talent through conventions.

 Japanese language in Australia Research about Japanese language in Northwood and Thomson 2012, The Japan Foundation 2011 and 2013 tells us that many people are motivated to learn the Japanese language due to interest in Japanese popular culture. People who are not formally studying Japanese but identify themselves as Japanese popular culture are ignored. However, the report in East Asian Journal of Popular Culture by Sumiko lida and William S. Armour suggest the opposite. Their 2016 study results show that people's interest and motivation to consume Japanese popular culture products does not lead them to get formal Japanese language education. Their goal was to discover the correlation of Australian fans of anime and manga with the Japanese popular culture products. The results were 47.7 (n=118) percent of the people who had some sort of Japanese education indicated that they got the motivation to learn through anime and manga. But 66.3 (132 out of 199) percent of people who said they had no prior education in Japanese also showed motivation to learn Japanese in the future. While there are still optimism about Japanese popular culture fans' would increase the number of people who wants to learn Japanese language, the actual data seems to contradict.

 Manga and anime in the Secondary English classroom Teaching anime text in an English classroom setting is something to be experimented to see how it shapes the relationship between teachers and students. Manga and anime texts are new in Western education. Australian state of New South Wales implemented manga and anime texts in their secondary English class and the results were different depending on how much students are interested in manga and anime. Students who were interested in manga and anime and called themselves 'big fans" showed very very high level of enthusiasm in class. Students showed significant and emotive level of engagement in class. Students were able to share their thoughts in manga and anime texts in their English classroom. Difference arose when a student was not interested in manga and anime texts. Frank in the experiment argued that it did not capture the majority of students to be interest in manga and anime texts. Having few students who are interested in manga and anime out of 30 students which is the average class sizes is not a majority. This results shows that implementing manga and anime texts would be different depending on the student.

 Culture
Anime and manga have also inspired many young people to learn about Japanese culture, and the anime fan community in fact encourages people to do so. Fans often learn about Japanese honorifics from anime and manga. Companies such as Del Rey Manga and GoComi add explanatory notes describing honorifics and other words and concepts that do not translate well between languages.

 Technology and the Internet

Developments on the Internet have had profound effects on the anime fan community and the way in which anime is consumed. Additionally, fan interest in anime has inspired many developments in technology. Roughly 68% of fans obtain anime through downloading from the Internet or through their friends, a much larger proportion than in any other medium. As a result, anime fans have made some of the most sophisticated advances in peer-to-peer software in order to make searching for and downloading anime online faster. Other fans have created websites that uses a custom server to search the Internet for video mirrors and new episodes, similar to search engines on how they crawl each website and saves the information gathered to the database. The search engine keeps every episodes up to date. VirtualDub, a video capture and processing utility, was first created for use on an anime film adaptation of Sailor Moon. The desire to simulate all forms of media that anime and manga comes in has caused PyTom to create Ren'Py, an open-source software engine that allows for the creation of visual novels without the need for a programming background. Anime fans have also developed image upscaling tools, some using Artificial intelligence. Examples of such tools are waifu2x, Bigjpg and Anime4K. The Combined Community Codec Pack (CCCP, a play on the initials of the former Soviet Union) was originally created for the playback of anime fansubs.

Several online communities have been formed where fans can come together to share and interact. Sites that offer file sharing services are popular and influential where people can gain easy access to anime and manga. Fandom has also resulted in the creation of anime and manga fan communities on sites where people can share fan art, one of the most common ways for fans to express their love of anime. These communities tend to do more than just share files. Like most forums on the Internet, they discuss topics that they are interested in and want to know more about. These anime forums are becoming places for people to discuss the plot, characters, and styles of anime and manga. Since the 2010s, many anime fans have begun widely using social media platforms like YouTube, Facebook, Reddit and Twitter (which has added an entire "anime and manga" category of topics) to discuss and follow the latest news of their favorite anime and manga series.

In Japan, anime discussion forums were popular in the 2000s and, in 2009, fans of the anime adaptation of Haruhi Suzumiya popularized them with the Japanese-speaking side of the internet-using part of that community.

 Sightseeing in Japan

Many anime fans dream of one day visiting Japan. A large number of well-known travel agencies from Japan have begun offering anime tours. In 2003, the company Pop Japan Travel was founded to help customers experience Japan's content industry (including anime, games, food, and fashion) by allowing them to visit studios and meet artists, among other activities. Many different museums dedicated to the industry exist throughout Japan, such as the Suginami Animation Museum in Tokyo and the Tezuka Osamu Manga Museum in the Hyogo Prefecture. Other popular locations include places where people can enjoy anime-related activities, such as shopping for related merchandise or singing anime theme songs. Additionally, fans enjoy visiting real-life locations that serve as settings for some anime, and locations where live-action movies were filmed. For example, the popularity of Lucky Star brought many of its fans to the real-life settings of the anime, beginning in April 2007.Places to Visit for Anime and Manga Fans'''

 Akihabara: A popular location for anime fans to visit is Akihabara, located in Tokyo. Known as the Electric Town, it is a major shopping area where people can buy manga, anime, and other assorted otaku merchandise. The Tokyo Anime Center is one of the most popular spots in Akihabara, where a diverse set of events take place, such as the display of new anime films, related exhibitions, talk shows featuring voice actors, and public recordings of radio programs.
The Gundam Base Tokyo: A store themed after the Gundam franchise. It opened on August 19, 2017, replacing Gundam Front Tokyo at Diver City Tokyo Plaza in Odaiba. There is Life-Sized Unicorn Gundam Statue(RX-0) which transforms every hour from Unicorn Mode to Destroy Mode.
Ghibli Museum: A museum showcasing the work of the Japanese animation studio Studio Ghibli. Located in Inokashira Park in Mitaka, it combines features of a children's museum, technology museum, and a fine arts museum. In addition to that, it includes replica of the Catbus from My Neighbor Totoro (1988), a café, bookstore, rooftop garden, and a theater for exclusive short films produced by Studio Ghibli.
Kyoto International Manga Museum: Located in Kyoto, Japan, the museum includes approximately 250,000 pieces in its collection which includes Edo period prints, pre-war magazines, classic post-war manga, and popular modern series. The museum regularly hosts events throughout the week that includes letting visitors watch manga artists work, pay for a consultation on their own drawing skills, and have their portrait drawn.
Otome Road: Otome Road is a major shopping and cultural center for anime and manga aimed at women and girls in Tokyo. Companies hold cosplay events around the area and retailers stock manga and anime that has a heavy focus on the Yaoi genre.
Universal Studios Japan: Universal Studios Japan holds events as collaborations with the companies behind popular anime series like Attack on Titan,'' as part of the Cool Japan anime campaign.

See also
Anime club
Anime convention
Cosplay
Science fiction fandom
Editing of anime in American distribution
Japanese pop culture in the United States
Japanophilia
ACG (subculture)

References

External links

 An online forum dedicated to anime and manga in general
 Daily anime recommendations, quotes and life lessons

Japanophilia
Nerd culture
Internet memes introduced in 2009
2000s fads and trends


Leeds School Centred Initial Teacher Training ( SCITT) is a collaboration of schools in England from the north of Leeds and Bradford together with Leeds Trinity University which offers teacher training at the secondary level.  It offers courses in design and technology (including food technology), ICT, music and science.

History
Leeds SCITT developed as a bottom-up initiative, with its origins in 2002 at a departmental level.  Design technology teachers in two schools initially considered ways of supporting local teacher training and teacher recruitment into their curriculum area and investigated the School Centred Initial Teacher Training model.  Subsequently, other schools were approached and the group sought the involvement of Leeds Trinity University, as the regional HEI with whom they had a close working relationship.  The first group of teachers completed the Leeds SCITT programme in July 2005.

Organisation
Leeds SCITT is based on a combination of four lead and a number of associate schools.  Lead schools are responsible for initial subject application tuition and teaching placement training. Associate schools provide opportunities for complementary and contrasting school-based training. The schools in the SCITT include denominational and non-denominational schools; inner-city, suburban and semi-rural; and 11-16 and 11-19 age ranges.  The combination of lead and associate schools enables trainees to work with trainees from diverse cultural and socio-economic backgrounds.

External links
Leeds SCITT

Teacher training programs
Education in Leeds