The Gaels ( ;  ;  ;  ) are an ethnolinguistic group native to Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. They are associated with the Gaelic languages: a branch of the Celtic languages comprising Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic.

Gaelic language and culture originated in Ireland, extending to Dál Riata in western Scotland. In antiquity, the Gaels traded with the Roman Empire and also raided Roman Britain. In the Middle Ages, Gaelic culture became dominant throughout the rest of Scotland and the Isle of Man. There was also some Gaelic settlement in Wales, as well as cultural influence through Celtic Christianity. In the Viking Age, small numbers of Vikings raided and settled in Gaelic lands, becoming the Norse-Gaels. In the 9th century, Dál Riata and Pictland merged to form the Gaelic Kingdom of Alba. Meanwhile, Gaelic Ireland was made up of several kingdoms, with a High King often claiming lordship over them.

In the 12th century, Anglo-Normans conquered parts of Ireland, while parts of Scotland became Normanized. However, Gaelic culture remained strong throughout Ireland, the Scottish Highlands and Galloway. In the early 17th century, the last Gaelic kingdoms in Ireland fell under English control. James VI and I sought to subdue the Gaels and wipe out their culture; first in the Scottish Highlands via repressive laws such as the Statutes of Iona, and then in Ireland by colonizing Gaelic land with English-speaking Protestant settlers. In the following centuries Gaelic language was suppressed and mostly supplanted by English. However, it continues to be the main language in Ireland's Gaeltacht and Scotland's Outer Hebrides. The modern descendants of the Gaels have spread throughout the rest of the British Isles, the Americas and Australasia.

Traditional Gaelic society was organised into clans, each with its own territory and king (or chief), elected through tanistry. The Irish were previously pagans who had  many gods, venerated the ancestors and believed in an Otherworld. Their four yearly festivals – Samhain, Imbolc, Beltane and Lughnasa – continued to be celebrated into modern times. The Gaels have a strong oral tradition, traditionally maintained by shanachies. Inscription in the ogham alphabet began in the 4th century. The Gaels' conversion to Christianity accompanied the introduction of writing in the Roman alphabet. Irish mythology and Brehon law were preserved and recorded by medieval Irish monasteries. Gaelic monasteries were renowned centres of learning and played a key role in developing Insular art; Gaelic missionaries and scholars were highly influential in western Europe. In the Middle Ages, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts. The Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the belted plaid and kilt. They also have distinctive music, dance, festivals, and sports. Gaelic culture continues to be a major component of Irish, Scottish and Manx culture.

Ethnonyms

Throughout the centuries, Gaels and Gaelic-speakers have been known by a number of names. The most consistent of these have been Gael, Irish and Scots. In Latin, the Gaels were called Scoti, but this later came to mean only the Gaels of Scotland. Other terms, such as Milesian, are not as often used. An Old Norse name for the Gaels was Vestmenn (meaning "Westmen", due to inhabiting the Western fringes of Europe). Informally, archetypal forenames such as Tadhg or Dòmhnall are sometimes used for Gaels.

Gael
The word "Gaelic" is first recorded in print in the English language in the 1770s, replacing the earlier word Gathelik which is attested as far back as 1596. Gael, defined as a "member of the Gaelic race", is first attested in print in 1810. In English, the more antiquarian term Goidels came to be used by some due to Edward Lhuyd's work on the relationship between Celtic languages. This term was further popularised in academia by John Rhys; the first Professor of Celtic at Oxford University; due to his work Celtic Britain (1882).

These names all come from the Old Irish word Goídel/Gaídel. In Early Modern Irish, it was spelled Gaoidheal (singular) and Gaoidheil/Gaoidhil (plural). In modern Irish, it is spelled Gael (singular) and Gaeil (plural). According to scholar John T. Koch, the Old Irish form of the name was borrowed from an Archaic Welsh form Guoidel, meaning "forest people", "wild men" or, later, "warriors". Guoidel is recorded as a personal name in the Book of Llandaff. The root of the name is cognate at the Proto-Celtic level with Old Irish fíad 'wild', and Féni, derived ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *weidh-n-jo-. This latter word is the origin of Fianna and Fenian.

In medieval Ireland, the bardic poets who were the cultural intelligentsia of the nation, limited the use of Gaoidheal specifically to those who claimed genealogical descent from the mythical Goídel Glas. Even the Gaelicised Normans who were born in Ireland, spoke Irish and sponsored Gaelic bardic poetry, such as Gearóid Iarla, were referred to as Gall ("foreigner") by Gofraidh Fionn Ó Dálaigh, then Chief Ollam of Ireland.

Irish

A common name, passed down to the modern day, is "Irish"; this existed in the English language during the 11th century in the form of Irisce, which derived from the stem of Old English Iras, "inhabitant of Ireland", from Old Norse irar. The ultimate origin of this word is thought to be the Old Irish Ériu, which is from Old Celtic *Iveriu, likely associated with the Proto-Indo-European term *pi-wer- meaning "fertile". Ériu is mentioned as a goddess in the Lebor Gabála Érenn as a daughter of Ernmas of the Tuatha Dé Danann. Along with her sisters Banba and Fódla, she is said to have made a deal with the Milesians to name the island after her.

The ancient Greeks, in particular Ptolemy in his second century Geographia, possibly based on earlier sources, located a group known as the Iverni () in the south-west of Ireland. This group has been associated with the Érainn of Irish tradition by T. F. O'Rahilly and others. The Érainn, claiming descent from a Milesian eponymous ancestor named Ailill Érann, were the hegemonic power in Ireland before the rise of the descendants of Conn of the Hundred Battles and Mug Nuadat. The Érainn included peoples such as the Corcu Loígde and Dál Riata. Ancient Roman writers, such as Caesar, Pliny and Tacitus, derived from Ivernia the name Hibernia. Thus the name "Hibernian" also comes from this root, although the Romans tended to call the isle Scotia, and the Gaels Scoti. Within Ireland itself, the term Éireannach (Irish), only gained its modern political significance as a primary denominator from the 17th century onwards, as in the works of Geoffrey Keating, where a Catholic alliance between the native Gaoidheal and Seanghaill ("old foreigners", of Norman descent) was proposed against the Nuaghail or Sacsanach (the ascendant Protestant New English settlers).

Scots

The Scots Gaels derive from the kingdom of Dál Riata, which included parts of western Scotland and northern Ireland. It has various explanations of its origins, including a foundation myth of an invasion from Ireland and a more recent archaeological and linguistic analysis that points to a pre-existing maritime province united by the sea and isolated from the rest of Scotland by the Scottish Highlands or Druim Alban. The genetical exchange includes passage of the M222 genotype within Scotland.

From the 5th to 10th centuries, early Scotland was home not only to the Gaels of Dál Riata but also the Picts, the Britons, Angles and lastly the Vikings. The Romans began to use the term Scoti to describe the Gaels in Latin from the 4th century onward. At the time, the Gaels were raiding the west coast of Britain, and they took part in the Great Conspiracy; it is thus conjectured that the term means "raider, pirate". Although the Dál Riata settled in Argyll in the 6th century, the term "Scots" did not just apply to them, but to Gaels in general. Examples can be taken from Johannes Scotus Eriugena and other figures from Hiberno-Latin culture and the Schottenkloster founded by Irish Gaels in Germanic lands.

The Gaels of northern Britain referred to themselves as Albannaich in their own tongue and their realm as the Kingdom of Alba (founded as a successor kingdom to Dál Riata and Pictland). Germanic groups tended to refer to the Gaels as Scottas and so when Anglo-Saxon influence grew at court with Duncan II, the Latin Rex Scottorum began to be used and the realm was known as Scotland; this process and cultural shift was put into full effect under David I, who let the Normans come to power and furthered the Lowland-Highland divide. Germanic-speakers in Scotland spoke a language called Inglis, which they started to call Scottis (Scots) in the 16th century, while they in turn began to refer to Scottish Gaelic as Erse (meaning "Irish").

Population

Kinship groups

In traditional Gaelic society, a patrilineal kinship group is referred to as a clann or, in Ireland, a fine. Both in technical use signify a dynastic grouping descended from a common ancestor, much larger than a personal family, which may also consist of various kindreds and septs. (Fine is not to be confused with the term fian, a 'band of roving men whose principal occupations were hunting and war, also a troop of professional fighting-men under a leader; in wider sense a company, number of persons; a warrior (late and rare)').

Using the Munster-based Eóganachta as an example, members of this clann claim patrilineal descent from Éogan Mór. It is further divided into major kindreds, such as the Eóganacht Chaisil, Glendamnach, Áine, Locha Léin and Raithlind. These kindreds themselves contain septs that have passed down as Irish Gaelic surnames, for example the Eóganacht Chaisil includes O'Callaghan, MacCarthy, O'Sullivan and others.

The Irish Gaels can be grouped into the following major historical groups; Connachta (including Uí Néill, Clan Colla, Uí Maine, etc.), Dál gCais, Eóganachta, Érainn (including Dál Riata, Dál Fiatach, etc.), Laigin and Ulaid (including Dál nAraidi). In the Highlands, the various Gaelic-originated clans tended to claim descent from one of the Irish groups, particularly those from Ulster. The Dál Riata (i.e. – MacGregor, MacDuff, MacLaren, etc.) claimed descent from Síl Conairi, for instance. Some arrivals in the High Middle Ages (i.e. – MacNeill, Buchanan, Munro, etc.) claimed to be of the Uí Néill. As part of their self-justification; taking over power from the Norse-Gael MacLeod in the Hebrides; the MacDonalds claimed to be from Clan Colla.

For the Irish Gaels, their culture did not survive the conquests and colonisations by the English between 1534 and 1692 (see History of Ireland (1536–1691), Tudor conquest of Ireland, Plantations of Ireland, Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Williamite War in Ireland. As a result of the Gaelic revival, there has been renewed interest in Irish genealogy; the Irish Government recognised Gaelic Chiefs of the Name since the 1940s. The Finte na hÉireann (Clans of Ireland) was founded in 1989 to gather together clan associations; individual clan associations operate throughout the world and produce journals for their septs. The Highland clans held out until the 18th century Jacobite risings. During the Victorian-era, symbolic tartans, crests and badges were retroactively applied to clans. Clan associations built up over time and Na Fineachan Gàidhealach (The Highland Clans) was founded in 2013.

Human genetics

At the turn of the 21st century, the principles of human genetics and genetic genealogy were applied to the study of populations of Irish origin. The two other peoples who recorded higher than 85% for R1b in a 2009 study published in the scientific journal, PLOS Biology, were the Welsh and the Basques.

The development of in-depth studies of DNA sequences known as STRs and SNPs have allowed geneticists to associate subclades with specific Gaelic kindred groupings (and their surnames), vindicating significant elements of Gaelic genealogy, as found in works such as the Leabhar na nGenealach. Examples can be taken from the Uí Néill (i.e. – O'Neill, O'Donnell, Gallagher, etc.), who are associated with R-M222 and the Dál gCais (i.e. – O'Brien, McMahon, Kennedy, etc.) who are associated with R-L226. With regard to Gaelic genetic genealogy studies, these developments in subclades have aided people in finding their original clan group in the case of a non-paternity event, with Family Tree DNA having the largest such database at present.

In 2016, a study analyzing ancient DNA found Bronze Age remains from Rathlin Island in Ireland to be most genetically similar to the modern indigenous populations of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and to a lesser degree that of England. The majority of the genomes of the insular Celts would therefore have emerged by 4,000 years ago. It was also suggested that the arrival of proto-Celtic language, possibly ancestral to Gaelic languages, may have occurred around this time. Several genetic traits found at maximum or very high frequencies in the modern populations of Gaelic ancestry were also observed in the Bronze Age period. These traits include a hereditary disease known as HFE hereditary haemochromatosis, Y-DNA Haplogroup R-M269, lactase persistence and blue eyes. Another trait very common in Gaelic populations is red hair, with 10% of Irish and at least 13% of Scots having red hair, much larger numbers being carriers of variants of the MC1R gene, and which is possibly related to an adaptation to the cloudy conditions of the regional climate.

Demographics
In countries where Gaels live, census records documenting population statistics exist. The following chart shows the number of speakers of the Gaelic languages (Irish, Scottish Gaelic, or Manx). The question of ethnic identity is slightly more complex, but included below are those who identify as ethnic Irish, Manx or Scottish. It should be taken into account that not all are of Gaelic descent, especially in the case of Scotland, due to the nature of the Lowlands. It also depends on the self-reported response of the individual and so is a rough guide rather than an exact science.

The two comparatively "major" Gaelic nations in the modern era are Ireland (which had 71,968 "daily" Irish speakers and 1,873,997 people claiming "some ability of Irish", as of the 2022 census) and Scotland (58,552 fluent "Gaelic speakers" and 92,400 with "some Gaelic language ability" in the 2001 census). Communities where the languages still are spoken natively are restricted largely to the west coast of each country and especially the Hebrides islands in Scotland. However, a large proportion of the Gaelic-speaking population now lives in the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland, and Dublin, Cork as well as Counties Donegal and Galway in Ireland. There are about 2,000 Scottish Gaelic speakers in Canada (Canadian Gaelic dialect), although many are elderly and concentrated in Nova Scotia and more specifically Cape Breton Island. According to the U.S. Census in 2000, there are more than 25,000 Irish-speakers in the United States, with the majority found in urban areas with large Irish-American communities such as Boston, New York City and Chicago.

Diaspora

As the Western Roman Empire began to collapse, the Irish (along with the Anglo-Saxons) were one of the peoples able to take advantage in Great Britain from the 4th century onwards. The proto-Eóganachta Uí Liatháin and the Déisi Muman of Dyfed both established colonies in today's Wales. Further to the north, the Érainn's Dál Riata colonised Argyll (eventually founding Alba) and there was a significant Gaelic influence in Northumbria and the MacAngus clan arose to the Pictish kingship by the 8th century. Gaelic Christian missionaries were also active across the Frankish Empire. With the coming of the Viking Age and their slave markets, Irish were also dispersed in this way across the realms under Viking control; as a legacy, in genetic studies, Icelanders exhibit high levels of Gaelic-derived mDNA.

Since the fall of Gaelic polities, the Gaels have made their way across parts of the world, successively under the auspices of the Spanish Empire, French Empire, and the British Empire. Their main destinations were Iberia, France, the West Indies, North America (what is today the United States and Canada) and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). There has also been a mass "internal migration" within Ireland and Britain from the 19th century, with Irish and Scots migrating to the English-speaking industrial cities of London, Dublin, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff, Leeds, Edinburgh and others. Many underwent a linguistic "Anglicisation" and eventually merged with Anglo populations.

In a more narrow interpretation of the term Gaelic diaspora, it could be interpreted as referring to the Gaelic-speaking minority among the Irish, Scottish, and Manx diaspora. However, the use of the term "diaspora" in relation to the Gaelic languages (i.e., in a narrowly linguistic rather than a more broadly cultural context) is arguably not appropriate, as it may suggest that Gaelic speakers and people interested in Gaelic necessarily have Gaelic ancestry, or that people with such ancestry naturally have an interest or fluency in their ancestral language. Research shows that this assumption is inaccurate.

History

Origin legends

In their own national epic contained within medieval works such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn, the Gaels trace the origin of their people to an eponymous ancestor named Goídel Glas. He is described as a Scythian prince (the grandson of Fénius Farsaid), who is credited with creating the Gaelic languages. Goídel's mother is called Scota, described as an Egyptian princess. The Gaels are depicted as wandering from place to place for hundreds of years; they spend time in Egypt, Crete, Scythia, the Caspian Sea and Getulia, before arriving in Iberia, where their king, Breogán, is said to have founded Galicia.

The Gaels are then said to have sailed to Ireland via Galicia in the form of the Milesians, sons of Míl Espáine. The Gaels fight a battle of sorcery with the Tuatha Dé Danann, the gods, who inhabited Ireland at the time. Ériu, a goddess of the land, promises the Gaels that Ireland shall be theirs so long as they pay tribute to her. They agree, and their bard Amergin recites an incantation known as the Song of Amergin. The two groups agree to divide Ireland between them: the Gaels take the world above, while the Tuath Dé take the world below (i.e. the Otherworld).

Ancient

During the Iron Age there was heightened activity at a number of important royal ceremonial sites, including Tara, Dún Ailinne, Rathcroghan and Emain Macha. Each was associated with a Gaelic tribe. The most important was Tara, where the High King (also known as the King of Tara) was inaugurated on the Lia Fáil (Stone of Destiny), which stands to this day.

According to medieval Irish legend, High King Túathal Techtmar was exiled to Roman Britain before returning to claim Tara. Based on the accounts of Tacitus, some modern historians associate him with an "Irish prince" said to have been entertained by Agricola, Governor of Britain, and speculate at Roman sponsorship. His grandson, Conn Cétchathach, is the ancestor of the Connachta who would dominate the Irish Middle Ages. They gained control of what would now be named Connacht. Their close relatives the Érainn (both groups descend from Óengus Tuirmech Temrach) and the Ulaid would later lose out to them in Ulster, as the descendants of the Three Collas in Airgíalla and Niall Noígíallach in Ailech extended their hegemony.

The Gaels emerged into the clear historical record during the classical era, with ogham inscriptions and quite detailed references in Greco-Roman ethnography (most notably by Ptolemy). The Roman Empire conquered most of Britain in the 1st century, but did not conquer Ireland or the far north of Britain. The Gaels had relations with the Roman world, mostly through trade. Roman jewellery and coins have been found at several Irish royal sites, for example. Gaels, known to the Romans as Scoti, also carried out raids on Roman Britain, together with the Picts. These raids increased in the 4th century, as Roman rule in Britain began to collapse. This era was also marked by a Gaelic presence in Britain; in what is today Wales, the Déisi founded the Kingdom of Dyfed and the Uí Liatháin founded Brycheiniog. There was also some Irish settlement in Cornwall. To the north, the Dál Riata are held to have established a territory in Argyll and the Hebrides.

Medieval

Christianity reached Ireland during the 5th century, most famously through a Romano-British slave Patrick, but also through Gaels such as Declán, Finnian and the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. The abbot and the monk eventually took over certain cultural roles of the aos dána (not least the roles of druí and seanchaí) as the oral culture of the Gaels was transmitted to script by the arrival of literacy. Thus Christianity in Ireland during this early time retained elements of Gaelic culture.

In the Middle Ages, Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs. The smallest territory was the túath (plural: túatha), which was typically the territory of a single kin-group. Several túatha formed a mór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by an overking. Several overkingdoms formed a cóiced (province), which was ruled by a provincial king. In the early Middle Ages the túath was the main political unit, but during the following centuries the overkings and provincial kings became ever more powerful. By the 6th century, the division of Ireland into two spheres of influence (Leath Cuinn and Leath Moga) was largely a reality. In the south, the influence of the Eóganachta based at Cashel grew further, to the detriment of Érainn clans such as the Corcu Loígde and Clann Conla. Through their vassals the Déisi (descended from Fiacha Suidhe and later known as the Dál gCais), Munster was extended north of the River Shannon, laying the foundations for Thomond. Aside from their gains in Ulster (excluding the Érainn's Ulaid), the Uí Néill's southern branch had also pushed down into Mide and Brega. By the 9th century, some of the most powerful kings were being acknowledged as High King of Ireland.

Some, particularly champions of Christianity, hold the 6th to 9th centuries to be a Golden Age for the Gaels. This is due to the influence which the Gaels had across Western Europe as part of their Christian missionary activities. Similar to the Desert Fathers, Gaelic monastics were known for their asceticism. Some of the most celebrated figures of this time were Columba, Aidan, Columbanus and others. Learned in Greek and Latin during an age of cultural collapse, the Gaelic scholars were able to gain a presence at the court of the Carolingian Frankish Empire; perhaps the best known example is Johannes Scotus Eriugena. Aside from their activities abroad, insular art flourished domestically, with artifacts such as the Book of Kells and Tara Brooch surviving. Clonmacnoise, Glendalough, Clonard, Durrow and Inis Cathaigh are some of the more prominent Ireland-based monasteries founded during this time.

There is some evidence in early Icelandic sagas such as the Íslendingabók that the Gaels may have visited the Faroe Islands and Iceland before the Norse, and that Gaelic monks known as papar (meaning father) lived there before being driven out by the incoming Norsemen.

The late 8th century heralded outside involvement in Gaelic affairs, as Norsemen from Scandinavia, known as the Vikings, began to raid and pillage settlements. The earliest recorded raids were on Rathlin and Iona in 795; these hit and run attacks continued for some time until the Norsemen began to settle in the 840s at Dublin (setting up a large slave market), Limerick, Waterford and elsewhere. The Norsemen also took most of the Hebrides and the Isle of Man from the Dál Riata clans and established the Kingdom of the Isles.

The monarchy of Pictland had kings of Gaelic origin, since the 7th century with Bruide mac Der-Ilei, around the times of the Cáin Adomnáin. However, Pictland remained a separate realm from Dál Riata, until the latter gained full hegemony during the reign of Kenneth MacAlpin from the House of Alpin, whereby Dál Riata and Pictland were merged to form the Kingdom of Alba. This meant an acceleration of Gaelicisation in the northern part of Great Britain. The Battle of Brunanburh in 937 defined the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England as the hegemonic force in Great Britain, over a Gaelic-Viking alliance.

After a spell when the Norsemen were driven from Dublin by Leinsterman Cerball mac Muirecáin, they returned in the reign of Niall Glúndub, heralding a second Viking period. The Dublin Norse—some of them, such as Uí Ímair king Ragnall ua Ímair now partly Gaelicised as the Norse-Gaels—were a serious regional power, with territories across Northumbria and York. At the same time, the Uí Néill branches were involved in an internal power struggle for hegemony between the northern or southern branches. Donnchad Donn raided Munster and took Cellachán Caisil of the Eóganachta hostage. The destabilisation led to the rise of the Dál gCais and Brian Bóruma. Through military might, Brian went about building a Gaelic Imperium under his High Kingship, even gaining the submission of Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill. They were involved in a series of battles against the Vikings: Tara, Glenmama and Clontarf. The last of these saw Brian's death in 1014. Brian's campaign is glorified in the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").

The Irish Church became closer to Continental models with the Synod of Ráth Breasail and the arrival of the Cistercians. There was also more trade and communication with Normanised Britain and France. Between themselves, the Ó Briain and the Ó Conchobhair attempted to build a national monarchy.

The remainder of the Middle Ages was marked by conflict between Gaels and Anglo-Normans. The Norman invasion of Ireland took place in stages during the late 12th century. Norman mercenaries landed in Leinster in 1169 at the request of Diarmait Mac Murchada, who sought their help in regaining his throne. By 1171 the Normans had gained control of Leinster, and King Henry II of England, with the backing of the Papacy, established the Lordship of Ireland. The Norman kings of England claimed sovereignty over this territory, leading to centuries of conflict between the Normans and the native Irish. At this time, a literary anti-Gaelic sentiment was born and developed by the likes of Gerald of Wales as part of a propaganda campaign (with a Gregorian "reform" gloss) to justify taking Gaelic lands. Scotland also came under Anglo-Norman influence in the 12th century. The Davidian Revolution saw the Normanisation of Scotland's monarchy, government and church; the founding of burghs, which became mainly English-speaking; and the royally-sponsored immigration of Norman aristocrats. This Normanisation was mainly limited to the Scottish Lowlands. In Ireland, the Normans carved out their own semi-independent lordships, but many Gaelic Irish kingdoms remained outside Norman control and gallowglass warriors were brought in from the Highlands to fight for various Irish kings.

In 1315, a Scottish army landed in Ireland as part of Scotland's war against England. It was led by Edward Bruce, brother of Scottish king Robert the Bruce. Despite his own Norman ancestry, Edward urged the Irish to ally with the Scots by invoking a shared Gaelic ancestry and culture, and most of the northern kings acknowledged him as High King of Ireland. However, the campaign ended three years later with Edward's defeat and death in the Battle of Faughart.

A Gaelic Irish resurgence began in the mid-14th century: English royal control shrank to an area known as the Pale and, outside this, many Norman lords adopted Gaelic culture, becoming culturally Gaelicised. The English government tried to prevent this through the Statutes of Kilkenny (1366), which forbade English settlers from adopting Gaelic culture, but the results were mixed and particularly in the West, some Normans became Gaelicised.

Imperial

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Gaels were affected by the policies of the Tudors and the Stewarts who sought to anglicise the population and bring both Ireland and the Highlands under stronger centralised control, as part of what would become the British Empire. In 1542, Henry VIII of England declared the Lordship of Ireland a Kingdom and himself King of Ireland. The new English, whose power lay in the Pale of Dublin, then began to conquer the island. Gaelic kings were encouraged to apply for a surrender and regrant: to surrender their lands to the king, and then have them regranted as freeholds. Those who surrendered were also expected to follow English law and customs, speak English, and convert to the Protestant Anglican Church. Decades of conflict followed in the reign of Elizabeth I, culminating in the Nine Years' War (1594–1603). The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance, and brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.

In 1603, with the Union of the Crowns, King James of Scotland also became king of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilising, and believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out. Also, while most of Britain had converted to Protestantism, most Gaels had held on to Catholicism. When the leaders of the Irish Gaelic alliance fled Ireland in 1607, their lands were confiscated. James set about colonising this land with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in what became known as the Plantation of Ulster. It was meant to establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ulster's links with Gaelic Scotland. In Scotland, James attempted to subdue the Gaelic clans and suppress their culture through laws such as the Statutes of Iona. He also attempted to colonise the Isle of Lewis with settlers from the Lowlands.

Since then, the Gaelic language has gradually diminished in most of Ireland and Scotland. The 19th century was the turning point as The Great Hunger in Ireland, and across the Irish Sea the Highland Clearances, caused mass emigration (leading to Anglicisation, but also a large diaspora). The language was rolled back to the Gaelic strongholds of the north west of Scotland, the west of Ireland and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia.

Modern
The Gaelic revival also occurred in the 19th century, with organisations such as Conradh na Gaeilge and An Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of Gaelic culture and the socio-communal hegemony of the Gaelic languages. Many of the participants in the Irish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when a sovereign state was formed (the Irish Free State), post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public education. Results were very mixed however and the Gaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such as Misneach (supported by Máirtín Ó Cadhain), the Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly in Connemara; paved the way for the creation of development agencies such as Údarás na Gaeltachta and state media (television and radio) in Irish.

The last native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s, though use of the Manx language never fully ceased. There is now a resurgent language movement and Manx is once again taught in all schools as a second language and in some as a first language.

Culture

Gaelic society was traditionally made up of kin groups known as clans, each with its own territory and headed by a male chieftain. Succession to the chieftainship or kingship was through tanistry. When a man became chieftain or king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist' (tánaiste). When the chieftain or king died, his tanist would automatically succeed him. The tanist had to share the same great-grandfather as his predecessor (i.e. was of the same derbfhine) and he was elected by freemen who also shared the same great-grandfather. Gaelic law is known as the Fénechas or Brehon law. The Gaels have always had a strong oral tradition, maintained by shanachies. In the ancient and medieval era, most Gaels lived in roundhouses and ringforts. The Gaels had their own style of dress, which became the modern belted plaid and kilt in Scotland. They also have their own extensive Gaelic literature, style of music and dances (Irish dancing and Highland dancing), social gatherings (Feis and Ceilidh), and their own sports (Gaelic games and Highland games).

Language

Emergence

The Gaelic languages are part of the Celtic languages and fall under the wider Indo-European language family. There are two main historical theories concerning the origin and development of the Gaelic languages from a Proto-Celtic root: the North Atlantic-based Insular Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic and Brythonic languages have a more recent common ancestor than Continental Celtic languages, while the Q-Celtic and P-Celtic hypothesis posits that Goidelic is more closely related to the Celtiberian language, while Brythonic is closer to the Gaulish language.

Estimates of the emergence of proto-Gaelic in Ireland vary widely from the introduction of agriculture  7000–6000 BC to around the first few centuries BC. Little can be said with certainty, as the language now known as Old Irish—ancestral to modern Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx—only began to be properly recorded with the Christianisation of Ireland in the 4th century, after the introduction of the Roman script. Primitive Irish does appear in a specialised written form, using a unique script known as Ogham. The oldest examples of Ogham have survived in the form of memorial inscriptions or short epitaphs on pillar-like stone monuments (see Mac Cairthinn mac Coelboth). Ogham stones are found throughout Ireland and neighbouring parts of Britain. This form of written Primitive Irish is thought to have been in use as early as 1000 BC. The script frequently encodes a name or description of the owner and surrounding region, and it is possible that the inscribed stones may have represented territorial claims.

Contemporary

The Gaelic languages have been in steep decline since the beginning of the 19th century, when they were majority languages of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands; today they are endangered languages. As far back as the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366, the English government had dissuaded use of Gaelic for political reasons. The Statutes of Iona in 1609 and the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the Highlands (for most of its history) are also notable examples.  As the old Gaelic aristocracy was displaced or assimilated, the language lost its prestige and became primarily a peasant language, rather than one of education and government. The spread of the English language has resulted in a vast majority of people of Gaelic ancestry being unable to speak a Goidelic language.

During the 19th century, a number of Gaeilgeoir organisations were founded to promote a broad cultural and linguistic revival. Conradh na Gaeilge () was set up in 1893 and had its origins in Charles Owen O'Conor's Gaelic Union, itself a derivative of the Society for the Preservation of the Irish Language. Similar Highland Gaelic groups existed, such as An Comunn Gàidhealach. At this time, Irish Gaelic was widely spoken along the Western seaboard (and a few other enclaves) and the Gaelic League began defining it as the "Gaeltacht", idealised as the core of true Irish-Ireland, rather than the Anglo-dominated Dublin. Although the Gaelic League itself aimed to be apolitical, this ideal was attractive to militant republicans such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood, who formulated and led the Irish Revolution at the turn of the 20th century; a key leader, Pádraig Pearse, imagined an Ireland "Not merely Free but Gaelic as well – Not merely Gaelic but Free as well." Scottish Gaelic did not undergo as extensive of a politicisation at this juncture, as nationalists there tended to focus on the Lowland mythos of William Wallace rather than the Gàidhealtachd.

During the 1950s, the independent Irish state developed An Caighdeán Oifigiúil as a national standard for the Irish language (using elements from local dialects but leaning towards Connacht Irish), with a simplified spelling. Until 1973, school children had to pass Modern Irish to achieve a Leaving Cert and studying the subject remains obligatory. There are also  where children are taught exclusively through the medium of Irish. In the Gaeltacht itself, the language has continued to be in crisis under the pressure of globalism, but there are institutions such as Údarás na Gaeltachta and a Minister for Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht, as well as media outlets such as TG4 and RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta to support it. The last native Manx Gaelic speaker died in 1974, although there are ongoing attempts at revival. While the Gàidhealtachd has retracted in the Highlands, Scottish Gaelic has enjoyed renewed support with the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005, establishing the Bòrd na Gàidhlig under the devolved Scottish Government. This has seen the growth of Gaelic medium education. There are also media outlets such as BBC Alba and BBC Radio nan Gàidheal, although these have been criticised for excessive use of English and pandering to an English-speaking audience.

Religion

Pre-Christian

The traditional, or "pagan", worldview of the pre-Christian Gaels of Ireland is typically described as animistic, polytheistic, ancestor venerating and focused on the hero cult of archetypal Gaelic warriors such as Cú Chulainn and Fionn mac Cumhaill. The four seasonal festivals celebrated in the Gaelic calendar, still observed to this day, are Imbolc, Beltane, Lughnasadh and Samhain. While the general worldview of the Gaelic tradition has been recovered, a major issue for academic scholars is that Gaelic culture was oral prior to the coming of Christianity and monks were the first to record the beliefs of this rival worldview as a "mythology". Unlike other religions, there is no overall "holy book" systematically setting out exact rules to follow, but various works, such as the Lebor Gabála Érenn, Dindsenchas, Táin Bó Cúailnge and Acallam na Senórach, represent the metaphysical orientation of Gaelachas.

The main gods held in high regard were the Tuatha Dé Danann, the superhuman beings said to have ruled Ireland before the coming of the Milesians, known in later times as the aes sídhe. Among the gods were male and female deities such as The Dagda, Lugh, Nuada, The Morrígan, Aengus, Brigid and Áine, as well as many others. Some of them were associated with specific social functions, seasonal events and personal archetypal qualities. Some physical locations of importance in Ireland related to these stories include the Brú na Bóinne, Hill of Tara and Hill of Uisneach. Although the sídhe were held to intervene in worldly affairs sometimes, particularly battles and issues of sovereignty, the gods were held to reside in the Otherworld, also known as Mag Mell (Plain of Joy) or Tír na nÓg (Land of the Young). This realm was variously held to be located on a set of islands or underground. The Gaels believed that certain heroic persons could gain access to this spiritual realm, as recounted in the various echtra (adventure) and immram (voyage) tales.

Christianity

The Gaels underwent Christianisation during the 5th century and that religion, de facto, remains the predominant one to this day, although irreligion is fast rising. At first the Christian Church had difficulty infiltrating Gaelic life: Ireland had never been part of the Roman Empire and was a decentralised tribal society, making patron-based mass conversion problematic. It gradually penetrated through the remnants of Roman Britain and is especially associated with the activities of Patrick, a Briton who had been a slave in Ireland. He tried to explain its doctrines by using elements of native folk tradition, so Gaelic culture itself was not completely cast aside and to some extent local Christianity was Gaelicised. The last High King inaugurated in the pagan style was Diarmait mac Cerbaill. The 6th–9th centuries are generally held to be the height of Gaelic Christianity, with numerous saints, scholars and works of devotional art.

This balance began to unravel during the 12th century with the polemics of Bernard of Clairvaux, who attacked various Gaelic customs (including polygamy and hereditary clergy) as "pagan". The Catholic Church of the time, fresh from its split with the Eastern Orthodox Church, was becoming more centralised and uniform throughout Europe with the Gregorian Reform and military reliance on Germanic peoples at the fringes of Latin Christendom, particularly the warlike Normans. As part of this, the Catholic Church actively participated in the Norman conquest of Gaelic Ireland, with the issuing of Laudabiliter (claiming to gift the King of England the title "Lord of Ireland") and in Scotland strongly encouraged king David who Normanised that country. Even within orders such as the Franciscans, ethnic tensions between Norman and Gael continued throughout the later Middle Ages, as well as competition for ecclesiastic posts.

During the 16th century, with the emergence of Protestantism and Tridentine Catholicism, a distinct Christian sectarianism made its way into Gaelic life, with societal effects carrying on down to this day. The Tudor state used the Anglican Church to bolster their power and enticed native elites into the project, without making much initial effort to convert the Irish Gaelic masses; meanwhile, the mass of Gaeldom (as well as the "Old English") became staunchly Catholic. Due to the geopolitical rivalry between Protestant Britain and Catholic France and Spain, the Catholic religion and its mostly Gaelic followers in Ireland were persecuted for a long time. In the Scottish Highlands too, the Gaels were generally slow to accept the Scottish Reformation. Efforts at persuading Highlanders in general of the value of this primarily Lowland movement were hampered by the complicated politics of the Highlands, with religious rivalries and clan antagonism becoming entwined (a prominent example was the intense rivalry, even hatred, between the generally Presbyterian Campbells and the generally Catholic MacDonalds), but most Highlanders later converted to Presbyterianism in the 19th century during the breakdown of the clan system. In a few remote areas, however, Catholicism was kept alive and even rejuvenated to some extent by Irish Franciscan missionaries, but in most of the Highlands it was replaced by Presbyterianism.

The adoption of the Free Church of Scotland (1843–1900) in the Highlands following the Disruption of 1843 was a reassertion of Gaelic identity in opposition to forces of improvement and clearance.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
 Foras na Gaeilge – Irish agency promoting the language
 Bòrd na Gàidhlig – Scottish agency promoting the language
 Culture Vannin – Manx agency promoting the language
 The Columba Project – Pan-Gaelic cultural initiative
 Gaelic Society Collection at University College London (c. 700 items collected by the Gaelic Society of London)

Celtic ethnolinguistic groups
Ethnic groups in Argentina
Ethnic groups in Australia
Ethnic groups in Canada
Ethnic groups in Iceland
Ethnic groups in Ireland
Ethnic groups in Mexico
Ethnic groups in New Zealand
Ethnic groups in Scotland
Ethnic groups in the United States
Ethnic groups in Uruguay
Highlands and Islands of Scotland
Manx language
Ethnic groups in Northern Ireland


Six Days in Fallujah is a tactical first-person shooter video game developed by Highwire Games and published by Victura. Set in the Second Battle of Fallujah of the Iraq War over the span of six days in November 2004, the game follows the United States Marine Corps' 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines (3/1) as they fight the Iraqi insurgency in the city of Fallujah, Iraq. Its campaign follows two perspectives: a squad of Marines from 3/1 deployed to battle the insurgents, and an Iraqi family attempting to escape the city in the midst of the battle.

Originally developed by Atomic Games, Six Days was announced in 2009, with a release slated for 2010, published by Konami; however, controversy surrounding the game's appropriateness and handling of its contentious and then-very-recent subject matter led to Konami departing the project, and Atomic Games' bankruptcy in 2011 left the game on hold indefinitely. Around 2016, Victura and Highwire began developing a revived version of the game, which was announced in February 2021. After several delays, Six Days in Fallujah was released in early access on Microsoft Windows on June 22, 2023, and will be released on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X/S in 2024.

Gameplay

Development

Background

According to Atomic Games president Peter Tamte, Six Days was conceived in the early 2000s, when one of their divisions was tasked with developing military simulation programs for the U.S. Marine Corps, and some Marines from 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines were assigned to assist as technical advisors. However, shortly into development, 3/1 was deployed to Iraq and participated in the Second Battle of Fallujah. The inspiration for the game came from a U.S. Marine who participated in the battle and suggested a video game based on it. Tamte later stated that "When they came back from Fallujah, they asked us to create a video game about their experiences there, and it seemed like the right thing to do."

Tamte stated that the goal of Six Days from the start was to create the most realistic military shooter possible, and that "Ultimately, all of us are curious about what it would really be like to be in a war. I've been playing military shooters for ages, and at a certain point when I'm playing the game, I know it's fake. You can tell a bunch of guys sat in a room and designed it. That's always bothered me." He further elaborated that adapting the battle into a video game as opposed to a different form of media came from how "[t]here are things that you can do in video games that you cannot do in other forms of media. And a lot of that has to do with presenting players with the dilemmas that the Marines saw in Fallujah and then giving them the choice of how to handle that dilemma. And I think at that point, you know—when you watch a movie, you see the decisions that somebody else made. But when you make a decision yourself, then you get a much deeper level of understanding."

Atomic Games development
The team at Atomic Games interviewed over 70 individuals, composed of returning U.S. Marines, Iraqi civilians, Iraqi insurgents, war historians, and senior military officials, and learned the psychological complexity of the battle. The game's director, Juan Benito, elaborated that "Through our interviews with all of the Marines, we discovered that there was an emotional, psychological arc to the Battle of Fallujah." According to one of the developers who worked on the game, the development team also consulted non-fiction books about the battle as part of their research, such as Patrick K. O'Donnell's We Were One: Shoulder to Shoulder with the Marines Who Took Fallujah, incorporating their recollections into the game's events and story-line.

Atomic Games described Six Days as a survival horror game, but not in the traditional sense: the fear in Six Days comes not from monsters or the supernatural, but from the irregular tactics and ruthlessness of the combatants in Fallujah. Benito stated that "Many of the insurgents had no intention of leaving the city alive, so their entire mission might be to lie in wait, with a gun trained at a doorway, for days just waiting for a Marine to pop his head in. They went door-to-door clearing houses, and most of the time the houses would be empty. But every now and then, they would encounter a stunningly lethal situation... which, of course, rattled the Marines psychologically." GamePro stated that for Benito, depicting the fear and misery of the battle was a top priority: "These are scary places, with scary things happening inside of them. In the game, you're plunging into the unknown, navigating through darkened interiors, and 'surprises' left by the insurgency. In most modern military shooters, the tendency is to turn the volume up to 11 and keep it there. Our game turns it up to 12 at times but we dial it back down, too, so we can establish a cadence."

Atomic Games stated that Six Days would feature destructible and degradable environments using a custom rendering engine, which they claimed surpassed the destructible environments of the Battlefield series, let alone any game released or in development at the time. Atomic Games clarified these destructible environments were not a "goofy, out-of-place marketing gimmick", but a deliberate feature to reflect the actual Battle of Fallujah, during which U.S. Marines used explosives to breach buildings and demolish structures insurgents were hiding in. Tamte stated the game would feature "a meticulously recreated in-game version of Fallujah, complete with real life Marines lending their names and likenesses, as well as recreations of specific events from the battle. It's almost like time travel. You're experiencing the events as they really happened."

Cancellation
On April 27, 2009, it was announced that Konami, the intended publisher of Six Days, had suspended its role as its publisher due to controversy, though the game would remain in development by Atomic Games. On August 6, 2009, Atomic Games stated they were unable to obtain a new publisher and would let go of some staff. IndustryGamers reported the following day that, per a source, "Out of 75 people, less than a dozen are left and about a third of that isn't even developers. The remaining team is basically a skeleton cleanup crew that will be gone soon too. They are trying to downplay the extent of these layoffs, but the reality is that Atomic is pretty much dead."

On March 2, 2010, IGN reported that Six Days was finished and would be released as planned. However, this never happened, and Atomic Games' bankruptcy in 2011 left the game's future uncertain.

On August 8, 2012, it was revealed that Sony may have once considered publishing the title; indeed, a report in 2021 confirmed Sony Interactive Entertainment's Santa Monica Studio had developed the game at one point. On August 26, 2012, Tamte informed Digital Spy that Six Days was "definitely not canceled" and remains "very important". In 2018, Tamte again stated that the game was not cancelled, that the assets were still intact, and that it would eventually be finished and released at an undetermined future date.

Revival
In February 2021, it was announced that Victura, a company formed by Peter Tamte in 2016, would release the game later the same year, and that Highwire Games—including former Bungie developers who worked on Halo and Destiny—had been contracted as developers. This revived version would feature extensive commentary from U.S. Marines and Iraqi civilians, as well as two playable campaigns: one in which the player controls a squad of Marines to hunt down insurgents while avoiding civilian casualties, and another where the player controls a patriarch of an Iraqi civilian family as they attempt to escape war-torn Fallujah.

After a dearth of reports over its developmental status throughout the year, the developers announced that the game would be delayed to 2022 due to a lack of manpower, resources, and time. The game was later delayed again to some time in 2023 with no announcement. In May 2023, it was announced that the game would release in early access for Windows on June 22 of that year. There were no further delays, and Six Days released in early access on Steam on June 22, 2023. PlayStation and Xbox versions are confirmed for a future release, and are still in development.

Controversy
Shortly after the initial announcement of the game, Six Days was met with significant criticism. Critics of Six Days, ranging from Coalition veterans to Iraqi civilians to anti-war groups, argued that the battle was too recent for the game to be in good taste compared to games about earlier conflicts (the game's initial slated release year of 2010 was only six years after the battle); that the game would be unable to effectively handle its controversial subject matter; that important context and information, such as the civilian casualties of the battle or why the 2003 invasion of Iraq happened, would be excluded or twisted to suit a pro-American narrative; and that even if the developers had good intentions with the game, adapting the battle into a video game would trivialize it as a form of entertainment. British anti-war group Stop the War Coalition called the game "sick" and alleged it erased the atrocities of the battle, which they described as "amongst the worst of the war crimes carried out in an illegal and immoral war".

The decision to revive the game's development in 2021 drew additional criticism, with a number of critics, including the Council on American–Islamic Relations, calling for it to be denied licensing from Sony, Microsoft, and Valve, if not canceled entirely. Some features in the game were also criticized after its release; for instance, James Troughton of TheGamer noted interview footage and information presented in loading screens were all from U.S. Marines and thus only presented an American perspective on the battle without any commentary from Iraqi civilians.

Developer response
In a 2009 interview with Joystiq, Peter Tamte, responding to criticism, stated that "As we've watched the dialog that's taken place about the game, there is definitely one point that we want people to understand about the game. And that is, it's not about the politics of whether the U.S. should have been there or not. It is really about the stories of the Marines who were in Fallujah and the question, the debate about the politics, that is something for the politicians to worry about. We're focused now on what actually happened on the ground."

In a later interview with GamesIndustry after the game's revival in 2021, Tamte addressed another source of criticism—how the game would handle the atrocities of the battle and the Iraq War, and whether they would be part of gameplay or depicted at all—stating, "We're not asking players to commit atrocities in the game. Are we effectively sanitizing events by not doing that? I don't think that we need to portray the atrocities in order for people to understand the human cost. We can do that without the atrocities." Tamte added that the game would not attempt to push a political position on the Iraq War or its necessity, though it would "give players the context for why they're in the city, why this battle exists", and would show sides of the conflict beyond just the American perspective; he further denied allegations that the game was propaganda, and stated the U.S. government was not funding or benefiting from the game and that, though he had developed training simulators for the U.S. military, he had not been associated with that in over a decade.

In response to criticism that Six Days only shows the American perspective of the battle, Highwire announced plans to add proper perspectives from civilians and other Coalition militaries by 2024.

References

External links

Six Days in Fallujah at IGN

Cancelled PlayStation 3 games
Cancelled Xbox 360 games
First-person shooters
Iraq War video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Obscenity controversies in video games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation 4 Pro enhanced games
PlayStation 5 games
Survival video games
Tactical shooter video games
Upcoming video games scheduled for 2023
Video games about the United States Marine Corps
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 2004
War video games
Windows games
Xbox Cloud Gaming games
Xbox One games
Xbox One X enhanced games
Xbox Series X and Series S games


Sir George Townsend Boag KCIE CSI (1884–1969) was a British Indian civil servant, statistician and administrator who served as the Acting Governor of Odisha from 11 August 1938 to 8 December 1938.

Early life

George Townsend Boag was born on 12 November 1884 to Rev. George Boag, the Vicar of Winster in Westmorland. He gained admission to Westminster School on 21 January 1897 and studied at the school from 1897 to 1903. He was a Mure Scholar for the year 1901. He obtained his baccalaureate and master's degrees from the University of Cambridge. In 1907, he passed the Indian Civil Service examinations and was allotted to the Madras Presidency.

In India

Madras Presidency

Boag arrived in India in 1908 and served as a special settlement officer from 1912 to 1918. He was appointed to the Indian Nutrition Board and served as the Collector of Transtuffs from 1912 to 1918. From 1920 to 1922, Boag served as Superintendent of Census Operations for the Presidency succeeding J. C. Molony. Boag served as the Municipal Commissioner for Madras from 1923 to 1925. He was the Chief Secretary of Madras Presidency from 1925 to 1928 and 1934 to 1938. Boag served as the District Collector of West Godavari in 1930  before being appointed the Superintendent of the Madras Presidency Archives succeeding A. V. Venkatarama Ayyar on 19 August 1930. Boag served as a member of the Indian Tariff Board from 1931 to 1933.

Odisha

On 11 August 1938 the Governor of Odisha, Sir John Austen Hubback proceeded on a leave. Boag was appointed Acting Governor of Odisha in his stead and served from 11 August 1938 to 8 December 1938. As the Acting Governor of Odisha, he inaugurated the opening session of the Odisha Legislative Assembly on 29 August 1938.

On 12 September 1938 severe agitations broke out in the princely state of Dhenkanal demanding the abolition of stringent taxes. The situation turned  violent as the agitations intensified. The Eastern States Agency, a federation of princely states of which Dhenkanal formed a part, resorted to police action. Large scale arrests were carried out and there was police firing in some areas. As a result of the disturbances in the neighbouring Dhenkanal, a large number of refugees poured into Odisha. Boag kept the Viceroy of India regularly updated with the events at Dhenkanal. The influx of refugees reached such alarming proportions that refugee camps had to be established along the border towns.

On 8 December 1938 Sir John Austen Hubback returned from leave and resumed his duties as Governor of Odisha. Boag was transferred back to Madras Presidency where he served as a member of the Special Advisory Council during Governor's rule and was given charge of the public, finance and revenue departments. He served in the Council from 1939 to 1943. On 1943, he was appointed Diwan of Cochin and served from 1943 to 1944.

Honours

George Townsend Boag was made a Companion of the Indian Empire in 1928 and a Companion of the Star of India in 1936. He was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1941.

Boag's residence

Boag's official residence in Madras city was located at T. Nagar. The street in which it was situated was named Boag Road in his honour. The house was later purchased by Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu. In 1959, it was bought by Tamil film actor Sivaji Ganesan who renamed it Annai Illam. Today, the house is owned by the actor's family who continue to reside here.

Works

Notes

1884 births
1969 deaths
People educated at Westminster School, London
Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Companions of the Order of the Star of India
Governors of Odisha
People from Westmorland
Diwans of Cochin


Westpac Rescue Helicopter can refer to:
 Westpac Life Saver Rescue Helicopter Service, Australia
 Westpac Rescue Helicopter (New Zealand), New Zealand


Founded in Steinbach, Manitoba in 1941, Steinbach Credit Union (SCU) is a Canadian financial institution that provides a range of products and services to over 100,000 consumer, business, and agricultural members. With more than $9 billion in assets, SCU is among the largest credit unions in Manitoba, and in the top 10 in Canada. SCU offers everything from day-to-day banking—both in branch and online—to wealth management and lending solutions.

Locations
SCU has three branches in Manitoba, located in Steinbach and Winnipeg. In addition to three full-service branches, SCU has a business lending centre (2445 Pembina Hwy), a member contact centre (St. Mary’s Rd.), as well as several stand-alone ATM locations in both Steinbach and Winnipeg.

History
SCU’s story began in 1941 when a group of friends and businessmen came together to discuss the idea of establishing a credit union for the Steinbach community.

No one could have imagined that what began as a list of transactions in a 5¢ scribbler stuffed into the crowded drawer of a bookkeeper’s office desk would grow to become one of the largest single branch credit unions in Canada—a fact that remained true until SCU opened its second branch in Winnipeg in 2003.

References
Board of Directors | Steinbach Credit Union (scu.mb.ca)

Executive leadership | Steinbach Credit Union (scu.mb.ca)

Annual reports | Steinbach Credit Union (scu.mb.ca)

Locations and hours | Steinbach Credit Union (scu.mb.ca)

About SCU | Steinbach Credit Union (scu.mb.ca)

External links

Credit unions of Manitoba
Banks established in 1941
Companies based in Manitoba
Steinbach, Manitoba
1941 establishments in Manitoba


USS Coyote (SP-84) was United States Navy patrol boat, training vessel and supply boat in commission from 1917 to 1919.

Coyote was a civilian motorboat completed in 1897. The U.S. Navy purchased her from her owner, Sylvester Sparling of Evanston, Illinois, for World War I service on 7 April 1917 and commissioned her as USS Coyote (SP-84) the same day.

Coyote was assigned to the 9th Naval District for patrol duty at Great Lakes Naval Training Station at Great Lakes, Illinois, and at Chicago, Illinois. She also was used also to instruct enlisted men and transport supplies, being laid up each winter when the Great Lakes iced over.

Coyote was stricken from the Navy List on 17 June 1919 and sold on 13 December 1919.

References

Department of the Navy: Naval Historical Center: Online Library of Selected Images: Civilian Ships: Coyote (American Motor Boat, 1897) Served as USS Coyote (SP-84) in 1917-1919
NavSource Online: Section Patrol Craft Photo Archive: Coyote (SP 84)

Patrol vessels of the United States Navy
World War I patrol vessels of the United States
1897 ships


Hyacinthe François Joseph Despinoy or Despinois (22 May 1764– 29 December 1848) became a French general during the French Revolutionary Wars, but Napoleon Bonaparte removed him from command. Afterward he held minor positions.

Early career
Born in Valenciennes, Despinoy joined the French royal army in July 1780 as a gentleman-cadet in the Barrois Regiment (later the 50th Line Infantry). Promoted to sous-lieutenant in 1784 and lieutenant in 1791, he was a captain of grenadiers in 1792 when the War of the First Coalition broke out. He quickly rose in rank to chef de battalion in 1793 and fought in several minor actions.

During the Siege of Toulon, Despinoy served as chief of staff to General Jacques François Dugommier. He received promotion to general of brigade after being severely wounded during the siege. He was posted to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees where he distinguished himself at the siege of Collioure. In November 1794 he presented the captured Spanish flags to the Convention and gave a stirring speech. He was later captured at Puycerda but freed at the Peace of Basle in 1795.

Under Bonaparte
In 1796, Despinoy joined Bonaparte's Army of Italy and fought at the Battle of Mondovì. Promoted to general of division in June 1796, he directed the siege of the citadel of Milan until its surrender. Bonaparte removed him from the command of his division "for refusing to engage the Austrians on 3 August" during the Battle of Lonato. On 14 August 1796, Bonaparte wrote of him, Without energy or audacity. Is not a natural soldier, is not loved by his men, does not lead them into action. Has high principles, a good mind, sound political views. A good commander in the interior."

Despinoy later served as governor of the fortresses of Perpignan in 1801 and Alessandria from 1803 to 1814. He was named a commandant of the Legion d'honneur but never again entrusted with a combat command.

Bourbons
King Louis XVIII of France named Despinoy commander of the 1st military division in January 1816 and shortly after he was ennobled as a Count. After commanding other interior posts, he led the 12th military division at Nantes where he resisted the Revolution of 1830. He was arrested and retired from duty. He died in 1848.

References
 Chandler, David. Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan, 1979.

Footnotes

See also
Battle of Castiglione

1764 births
1848 deaths
People from Valenciennes
Military governors of Paris
French generals
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars


Sanxia District () is a district in the southwestern part of New Taipei, Taiwan. It is the second largest district in New Taipei City by area after Wulai District.

Name
The old name of Sanxia, Sa-kak-eng () refers to the meeting of the Dahan River, Sanxia River, and . In 1920, Taiwan's Japanese government administratively designated the town as , Kaizan District, Taihoku Prefecture.

History
After the first coffee plants on Taiwan were imported by the British to Tainan in 1884, the first significant small-scale cultivation took place in Sanxia District.

On December 25, 2010, Sanxia Township was upgraded to Sanxia District after the upgrade of Taipei County.

Geography
It has an area of 191.45 km2 and a population of 115,443 (February 2023).

Government institutions

 National Academy for Educational Research

Education
University
 National Taipei University Sanxia Main Campus (國立臺北大學三峽校區本部)

Senior High schools
 Mingde High school (市立明德高中)
 BeiDa High School (市立北大高中)
 Tsz-Shiou Senior High school (辭修高中)

Junior High schools
 Sanxia Junior High school (市立三峽國中)
 Anxi Junior High school (市立安溪國中)

Others
 National Academy for Educational Research Preparatory office-Planning Objectives

Tourist attractions
 Zushi Temple - The most important religious site in Sanxia. Originally built in 1769 by Fukienese immigrants to Taiwan, it has been rebuilt three times, of which the last effort (beginning 1947) is the masterpiece of renown Taiwanese artist Li Mei-shu. It is considered by many to be the most intricately sculpted temple in Taiwan.
 Sanxia Old Street - A business street built during the Japanese rule, it is a very well preserved example of baroque-style architecture of the time. The street features stores selling art, ceramics, and local specialty foods (most notably Bull Horn Croissants).
 New Taipei City Hakka Museum - the largest Hakka cultural center in Taiwan exhibiting the culture, history, and influence of the Hakka people in Taiwan and abroad.
 Li Mei-shu Memorial Gallery
 Sanxia History Museum - preserves artistic and cultural artifacts from Sanxia's past.
 Manyueyuan National Forest Recreation Area
 National Taipei University Arts Boulevard
 Sanxia Agricultural Specialty Products Museum
 Tourism Factory of Cha-Shan-Fang Soap
 Pigs of God (神豬()) Contest - The largest event held at Zushi Temple around Chinese New Year where farmers compete to raise the fattest pig. The fattest pig is then sacrificed at the temple but not to the main deity, Zushi-Ye (祖師爺()) as he was formerly a Buddhist monk. Controversial to animal rights activists, Zushi Temple is one of the few places in Taiwan that still practice this tradition.
 Sanxia Indigo Blue Dye Festival - A celebration of Sanxia's past as a major dyeing center in northern Taiwan.

Transportation
 Car — Sanxia is served by Freeway No. 3. (San-ying Interchange)
 Bus — Sanxia is accessible by bus from Taipei (buses 702, 703, 705, 706,939), Taoyuan District, and Yingge (Blue 19).
 Train — Although Sanxia does not have a train station, it is accessible by bus from Yingge Train Station across the river.
 MRT — Accessible via the Tucheng Line of the Taipei Metro to Yongning (永寧()). Bus 916 from exit 1 connects to Sanxia on Highway 3. In addition Bus 910 leaves from Fuzhong (府中()) station in Banqiao. Both routes are multi-section tickets, paying on entry or exit.

Notable natives
 Li Mei-shu, former painter, sculptor, and politician

See also
 New Taipei City

References

External links

 Sanxia tourist information (English)

Districts of New Taipei


Pingxi District (; also spelled Pinghsi), is a rural district in New Taipei, Taiwan. The source of the Keelung River is in Jingtong, which is inside Pingxi District. It was an important coal mining town in the early 20th century. Its population of 4,253 as of February 2023 is the smallest among the districts of New Taipei City.

Tourist attractions
 Sky Lantern Festival:  In Pingxi, every year during the Lantern Festival, people have their wishes written on sky lanterns, and release them to the skies during the Pingxi International Sky Lantern Festival.
 Jingtong Coal Memorial Park
 Jingtong Mining Industry Museum
 Lingjiao Waterfall
 Shifen Waterfall
 Taiwan Coal Mine Museum
 Jingtong Old Street
 Shifen Old Street

Transportation

Pingxi is served by the Pingxi Line of Taiwan Railways, which includes:
 Dahua Station
 Shifen Station
 Wanggu Station
 Lingjiao Station
 Pingxi Station
 Jingtong Station

Notable natives
 Lin Hung-chih, member of Legislative Yuan (2005–2016)

See also

 New Taipei

References

External links

Districts of New Taipei


William Benedict (April 16, 1917 – November 25, 1999), was an American actor, perhaps best known for playing "Whitey" in Monogram Pictures' The Bowery Boys series.

Early years
Benedict was born in Haskell, Oklahoma, After his father's death when Billy was three years old, his mother supported him and his two sisters. He took part in school theatricals, and on leaving school he made his way to Hollywood.

Career
Benedict's first film was $10 Raise (1935) starring Edward Everett Horton, which launched the blond-haired young man on a busy career. He almost always played juvenile roles, such as newsboys, messengers, office boys, and farmhands.

In 1939, when Universal Pictures began its Little Tough Guys series to compete with the popular Dead End Kids features, Billy Benedict was recruited into the cast. These films led him into the similar East Side Kids movies (usually playing a member of the East Side gang, but occasionally in villainous roles). The East Side Kids became The Bowery Boys in 1946, and Benedict stayed with the series (as "Whitey") through the end of 1951.

Other films included My Little Chickadee (1940) starring W. C. Fields and Mae West, The Ox-Bow Incident (1943), Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster (1955), The Sting (1973) and Farewell, My Lovely (1975). Benedict never shook his juvenile image completely, and continued to play messengers and news vendors well into his sixties. He also worked often in television commercials, and in television series, including The Andy Griffith Show, All in the Family, and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson.

Death
Benedict died at age 82 on November 25, 1999, at Los Angeles' Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, following heart surgery.

Selected filmography

Television

References

External links

American male film actors
Male actors from Oklahoma
20th-century American male actors
1917 births
1999 deaths
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
People from Haskell, Oklahoma


USS Whippet has been the name of more than one United States Navy ship, and may refer to:

 , a patrol boat in commission from 1917 to 1919
 , a tanker in commission from 1944 to 1946

United States Navy ship names


The 2009 Virginia Cavaliers football team represented the University of Virginia in the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season as a member of the Coastal Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). The Cavaliers were led by ninth-year head coach Al Groh. The previous season, Groh fired his offensive coordinator, his son Mike Groh, and replaced him with Gregg Brandon, who had himself been fired as the head coach at Bowling Green. Brandon installed the spread offense at Virginia. The Cavaliers finished the season 3–9, 2–6 in conference play and failed to qualify for a bowl game. Following the conclusion of the season Virginia dismissed Al Groh as head coach and hired Mike London as his replacement.

Schedule

Personnel

References

Virginia
Virginia Cavaliers football seasons
Virginia Cavaliers football


Christian Israel Vargas Claros (born 8 September 1983, in Cochabamba) is a Bolivian football manager and former player who played as a right back. He is the currently manager of Aurora's youth sides.

His former clubs include Wilstermann, The Strongest and Blooming.

Vargas has earned 4 caps with the Bolivia national team. He was a member of the squad that participated in the 2011 Copa América.

Club titles

References

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Cochabamba
Bolivian men's footballers
Bolivia men's international footballers
Men's association football defenders
C.D. Jorge Wilstermann
Club Blooming players
The Strongest players
Club San José players
Club Bolívar players
C.D. Jorge Wilstermann players
Club Real Potosí players
Club Aurora players
Bolivian Primera División players
2011 Copa América players
Bolivian football managers
Club Aurora managers


Two vessels have served the United States Navy under the name USS Georgiana:

 was launched in 1791. She served as a merchantman, packet ship for the British East India Company (EIC), a whaler, a warship of the navy of the United States of America, and a merchant vessel again. She was condemned as leaky and sold in 1818.
 was an armed yacht that served the United States Navy as a patrol vessel from 1917 to 1918.

United States Navy ship names


In winemaking, clarification and stabilization are the processes by which insoluble matter suspended in the wine is removed before bottling. This matter may include dead yeast cells (lees), bacteria, tartrates, proteins, pectins, various tannins and other phenolic compounds, as well as pieces of grape skin, pulp, stems and gums. Clarification and stabilization may involve fining, filtration, centrifugation, flotation, refrigeration, pasteurization, and/or barrel maturation and racking.

Clarifying wine

In wine tasting, a wine is considered "clear" when there are no visible particles suspended in the liquid and, especially in the case of white wines, when there is some degree of transparency. A wine with too much suspended matter will appear cloudy and dull, even if its aroma and flavor are unaffected; wines therefore generally undergo some kind of clarification.

Before fermentation, pectin-splitting enzymes and, for white wine, fining agents such as bentonite may be added to the must in order to promote the eventual agglomeration and settling of colloids. Pectins are structural molecules in the cell walls of fruits which have the important function of 'gumming' plant cells together. The pectin content of grapes increases steadily throughout ripening, reaching levels of about 1 g/L, although it varies by varietal and pre-fermentation handling processes. Large pectin molecules can affect the amount of juice yielded at pressing, ease of filtration and clarification, and extraction of tannins. Grapes contain natural pectolytic enzymes responsible for softening the grape berries during ripening, but these are not active under wine-making conditions (due to pH level, SO2, and alcohol.) Therefore, fungal pectolytic enzymes are often added to white must to break up pectins, decrease the viscosity of the juice, and speed up settling. In red musts, this increases color and tannin extraction.

After fermentation, the force of gravity may eventually cause the wine to "fall bright" or clarify naturally, as the larger suspended particles gradually settle to the bottom of the storage vessel. The wine can then be siphoned or "racked" off the compact solids into a new container. But this process may take many months, or even years, as well as several rackings, in order to produce a perfectly clear wine. Producers can accelerate the process by using fining agents, filtration and/or flotation.

Fining

In winemaking, fining is the process where a substance (fining agent) is added to the wine to create an adsorbent, enzymatic or ionic bond with the suspended particles, producing larger molecules and larger particles that will precipitate out of the wine more readily and rapidly. Unlike filtration, which can only remove particulates (such as dead yeast cells and grape fragments), fining can remove soluble substances such as polymerized tannins, coloring phenols and proteins; some of these proteins can cause haziness in wines exposed to high temperatures after bottling. The reduction of tannin can reduce astringency in red wines. Many substances have historically been used as fining agents, including dried blood powder. There are two general types of fining agents — organic compounds and solid/mineral materials.

Organic compounds used as fining agents are generally animal based, a possible cause of concern to vegans. The most common organic compounds used include egg whites, casein derived from milk, gelatin and isinglass obtained from the bladders of fish. Pulverized minerals and solid materials can also be used, with bentonite clay being one of the most common, thanks to its effectiveness in absorbing proteins and some bacteria. Activated carbon from charcoal is used to remove some phenols that contribute to browning as well as some particles that produce "off-odors" in the wine. In a process known as blue fining, potassium ferrocyanide is sometimes used to remove any copper and iron particles that have entered the wine from bentonite, metal winery and vineyard equipment, or vineyard sprays such as Bordeaux mixture. Because potassium ferrocyanide may form hydrogen cyanide its use is highly regulated and, in many wine producing countries, illegal. Silica and kaolin are also sometimes used.

Some countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, have wine labeling laws that require the use of fining agents that may be an allergenic substance to appear on the wine label. A study conducted by the University of California, Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology, however, found that no detectable amount of inorganic fining agents, and only trace quantities of proteinaceous agents, are left in the wine.

There is the risk of valuable aromatic molecules being precipitated out along with the less desirable matter. Some producers of premium wine avoid fining, or delay it in order to leach more flavor and aroma from the phenols before they are removed.

Filtration

While fining clarifies wine by binding to suspended particles and precipitating out as larger particles, filtration works by passing the wine through a filter medium that captures particles larger than the medium's holes. Complete filtration may require a series of filtering through progressively finer filters. Many white wines require the removal of all potentially active yeast and/or lactic acid bacteria if they are to remain reliably stable in bottle, and this is usually achieved by fine filtration.

Most filtration in a winery can be classified as either the coarser depth filtration or the finer surface filtration. In depth filtration, often done after fermentation, the wine is pushed through a thick layer of pads made from cellulose fibers, diatomaceous earth, or perlite. In surface filtration, the wine passes through a thin membrane. Running the wine parallel to the filter surface, known as cross-flow filtration, will minimize the filter clogging. The finest surface filtration, microfiltration, can sterilize the wine by trapping all yeast and, optionally, bacteria, and so is often done immediately prior to bottling. An absolute rated filter of 0.45 µm is generally considered to result in a microbially stable wine and is accomplished by the use of membrane cartridges, most commonly polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Certain red wines may be filtered to 0.65 µm, to remove yeast, or to 1.0 µm to remove viable brettanomyces only.

Flotation
The winemaking technique of flotation was adapted from the froth flotation process used in the mining industry for ore refining. In this process, small bubbles of air (or compressed nitrogen) are injected into the bottom of a tank. As the bubbles rise through the must, grape solids, including phenolic compounds prone to oxidation and browning, will tend to cling to the bubbles, creating a froth that can be removed from the wine. This must be done prior to fermentation, since yeast will inhibit the flocculation involved.

Stabilization

As a complex chemical mixture dependent on the activity of microorganisms, wine can be unstable and reactive to changes in its environment. Once bottled, a wine may be exposed to extremes of temperature and humidity, as well as violent movement during transportation and storage. These may cause cloudiness, sedimentation and/or the formation of tartrate crystals; more seriously, they may also cause spoilage or the production of carbonic gas.

Temperature instability
Tartaric acid is the most prominent acid in wine with the majority of the concentration present as potassium bitartrate. During fermentation, these tartrates bind with the lees, pulp debris and precipitated tannins and pigments. While there is some variation according to grape variety and climate, usually about half of the deposits are soluble in the wine, but on exposure to low temperature they may crystallize out unpredictably. The crystals, though harmless, may be mistaken for broken glass, or simply reckoned unattractive by consumers. To prevent this the wine may undergo "cold stabilization", in which it is cooled to near its freezing point to provoke crystallization before bottling. In some white wines there are significant quantities of proteins that, being "heat-unstable", will coagulate if exposed to excessively fluctuating heat; the use of fining agents such as bentonite can prevent the haze this causes.

Microbiological instability

A wine that has not been sterilized by filtration might well still contain live yeast cells and bacteria. If both alcoholic and malolactic fermentation have run to completion, and neither excessive oxygen nor Brettanomyces yeast are present, this ought to cause no problems; modern hygiene has largely eliminated spoilage by bacteria such as acetobacter, which turns wine into vinegar. If there is residual sugar, however, it may undergo secondary fermentation, creating dissolved carbon dioxide as a by-product. When the wine is opened, it will be spritzy or "sparkling". In a wine intended to be still this is regarded as a serious fault; it can even cause the bottle to explode. Similarly, a wine that has not been put through complete malolactic fermentation may undergo it in bottle, reducing its acidity, generating carbon dioxide, and adding a diacetyl butterscotch aroma. Brettanomyces yeasts add 4-ethylphenol, 4-ethylguaiacol and isovaleric acid horse-sweat aromas. These phenomena may be prevented by sterile filtration, by the addition of relatively large quantities of sulfur dioxide and sometimes sorbic acid, by mixing in alcoholic spirit to give a fortified wine of sufficient strength to kill all yeast and bacteria, or by pasteurization.

Pasteurization gives a kosher wine of the type called mevushal, literally "cooked" or "boiled", that can be handled by non-Jews and non-observant Jews without losing its kosher status. Typically, the wine is heated to  for a minute, then cooled to , at which temperature it remains for up to three days, killing all yeast and bacteria. It may then be allowed to cool, or be bottled "hot" and cooled by water sprays. Since pasteurization affects a wine's flavor and aging potential it is not used for premium wines. A gentler procedure known as flash pasteurization involves heating to  for a few seconds, followed by rapid cooling.

Other methods of stabilization
Clarification tends to stabilize wine, since it removes some of the same particles that promote instability. The gradual oxidation that occurs during barrel aging also has a naturally stabilizing effect.

Premium wine production
Some producers prefer not to thoroughly clarify and stabilize their wines, believing that the processes involved may diminish a wine's aroma, flavor, texture, color or aging potential. Wine experts such as Tom Stevenson note that they may improve wine quality when used with moderation and care, or diminish it when used to excess. Winemakers deliberately leave more tartrates and phenolics in wines designed for long aging in bottle so that they are able to develop the aromatic compounds that constitute bouquet. The consumers of some wines, such as red Bordeaux and Port, may expect to see tartrates and sediment after aging in bottle.

References

Winemaking
Filtration


R. G. Chandramogan  is a dairyman and entrepreneur from Tamil Nadu. He is the Chairman of Hatsun Agro Product Ltd, the largest private sector dairy company in India. The company's well-known brands Arun, Arokya and Hatsun are leaders in the segments of ice creams, milk and curd amongst private dairies in India. He is one of the first generation of entrepreneurs from Thiruthangal, Sivakasi. He is one among the 100 India Billionaires, with a fortune of $2.5 billion.

He has a net worth of US$2.5 billion as of March 2022.

Early life and career
Chandramogan was born in Thiruthangal, Virudhunagar District, Tamil Nadu. He founded Arun Icecreams.

In an interview with Sify, he shared his interest in sports especially in playing badminton and has won the veteran's championship for two years. He also enjoys reading books.

References

External links

moneycontrol.com

Businesspeople from Tamil Nadu
Tamil businesspeople
Living people
Food and drink in India
Businesspeople in the food industry
Year of birth missing (living people)


The Parker Jeanie's Teenie, or JT-1, is a single-seat, single-engine sport aircraft first built in the United States in 1967 and marketed for homebuilding. It was featured on the cover of a Popular Mechanics magazine issue in May, 1968. The caption on the cover read, "Build This 'Flying Volkswagen' For Less Than $600!." The cost of materials has increased since the article's publication but the initial popularity of Parker's Jeanie's Teenie was high. The Teenie would be certified in the Experimental category in the US. A pilot license is required to fly one, as it is not considered an ultralight aircraft in the United States.

Development
Calvin Parker developed the first prototype Jeanie's Teenie in Daphne, Alabama. He was not an aeronautical engineer but while working for a large US aircraft manufacturer, enlisted the help of an aircraft engineer. The goal was to provide the average person with a metal aircraft design that could be built using common tools. An engineering study produced the requirements for a safe minimal design that Parker then doubled to ensure durability. The prototype was named after his daughter Jeanie, who helped Parker during the development process.

Design
Jeanie's Teenie was conceived as an airplane that could be built using only hand tools that would be possessed by the average person in the late 1960s. It was intended to be within reach of someone with no previous experience in building an airplane, or in metal work. To this end, the parts were laid out in such a way that they did not require complex jigs or frames of any kind. The materials were also selected because they could be obtained at a typical hardware store of the day. The sheet metal called for in the design was 2024-T3, in .020 and .040 inch thicknesses.

Power is derived from a Volkswagen air-cooled engine with modifications laid out by the designer in the plans.

The fuselage is a monocoque design. The outer wings are detachable to facilitate transportation to an airport. To simplify construction, each wing rib is a single piece and slides onto the main spar. This technique helps in rib alignment. The main spar utilizes a special channel that allows the outer wings to flex and minimizes the amount of material required to brace the wings. Additionally, the airplane is not equipped with flaps. The tail features an all flying tailplane, or stabilator.

The landing gear is tubular steel with springs for shock absorption. The landing gear is a fixed tricycle configuration with nose wheel steering through rudder bar deflection. The main gear is designed to fail in the event of excessive stress, thus preventing damage to the wing structure. The tricycle configuration also eases handling.

The cockpit is minimal, equipped with instrumentation for day, VFR flying. Aileron and elevator control is affected through use of a side stick. This makes ingress/egress of the tight cockpit simpler and prevents leg movements from imparting motion to the stick inflight. Rudder control is actuated by the use of a rudder bar rather than individual pedals, thus reducing complexity.

The Jeanie's Teenie is constructed primarily of aluminum, with stainless steel and steel making up the balance. Parts are made from sheet, angle, and tubular stock. The aluminum sheet and extruded angles are limited to two required thicknesses, thus simplifying purchases. Components are fastened using steel mandrel blind rivets of various length. The sheet metal is formed over wooden templates traced from the full sized plans. Very little welding is required, and is generally limited to the landing gear, motor mounts, and small control linkages. The airplane is small enough that it can be built in a garage, on a large table.

The flight characteristics of the design were intended to be quick but not oversensitive, for mild aerobatics and handling in rough air. The side stick controller also necessitated full control authority by wrist movement alone. With a fuel capacity of seven gallons and a typical cruise power setting, the Jeanie's Teenie has an endurance of nearly three hours. The Jeanie's Teenie had a reputation for being quick on the controls. The stabilator design gave the airplane a great deal of pitch sensitivity. The scale of the airplane requires careful attention to weight and balance. As the plane was intended for simple, cheap VFR flying, builders should resist the urge to install extraneous equipment or features that would increase the weight of the vehicle. It is a design that benefits greatly from frugality and minimalism. Deviation from the plans may significantly alter the flight characteristics of the airplane and present a safety hazard.

Plans for the Jeanie's Teenie were available through Popular Mechanics Magazine.

Variants
Teenie Two
The Jeanie's Teenie design was eventually improved upon by the designer, Calvin Parker, and became known as the Teenie Two. The Teenie Two design became the inspiration for another airplane designed by Gary Watson, called the Watson Windwagon. A redesign of the Watson Windwagon by Morry Hummel, led to the popular Hummelbird airplane. A closer derivative of the Teenie Two optimized for aerobatics, was developed by Bradley Aerospace and called the Bradley Aerobat.
Bandito
A highly modified enclosed canopy variant built by Bert Matzke and Clarance Brueggeman.

Specifications

See also

References

External links
 Now: Teenie Two, by Kevin Brown, Popular Mechanics, May 1971, pp. 94ff. Google books
 Build This ‘Flying Volkswagen’ For Less Than $600!, by Kevin B. Brown, Popular Mechanics, May 1968, pp. 120ff. (about Jeanies Teenie, predecessor of the Teenie Two).

1960s United States sport aircraft
Homebuilt aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1967
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft


Martin George Galvin (February 21, 1937 – August 6, 2018) was a prize-winning American poet and teacher. He taught at the Writer's Center in Bethesda, Maryland, St. Joseph's College in Emmitsburg, MD and Walt Whitman High School in Bethesda.

Life
Galvin grew up in Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He attended Catholic schools including  St. John's High School, Manayunk, Pennsylvania, from which he graduated in a class of 15. After graduating from Villanova University with a BA degree in Liberal Arts, he continued his education and received his Masters and his Ph.D. degrees in American Literature from the University of Maryland, College Park while teaching literature at St. Joseph's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland. After moving to the Washington, D.C. area in the early 1970s, he taught creative writing and poetry at Walt Whitman High School, Bethesda, Maryland. Before his death, he had most recently taught at the Writer's Center in Bethesda, Maryland.

Family
He and his wife, Theresa, have two daughters, Brenna and Tara. They divided their time between Chevy Chase, Maryland and Ocean View, Delaware.

Work
His poetry, fiction and essays have appeared in The Atlantic Monthly, Best American Poetry 1997, Beltway Poetry Quarterly, D.C. Poets Against the War, Delaware Poetry Review, Four Quarters, Midwest Quarterly, Orion, Poet Lore, Poetry, Poetry East, and Texas Review.

Selected works

Articles

Books

 'A Way To Home: New and Selected Poems,' (Poets Choice Publishing, 2017)
 "Sounding the Atlantic," (Broadkill River Press, 2010)

 Appetites (Bogg Publications, 2000). OP.
 Making Beds (Sedwick House, 1989). OP.
 Wild Card (Washington Writers Publishing House, 1989)

Anthologies

"The Poet Upstairs", Washington Writers Publishing House, 1997;
"70 on the 70's", Ashland College, 1981;
"Anthology of Magazine Verse", Los Angeles, 1981, 1983, 1985;
"Songs from Unsung Worlds", Boston, 1985;

Awards
His book of poems Wild Card was the winner of the 1989 Columbia Prize for poetry judged by Howard Nemerov.  He was also the recipient of the 1992 Poet Lore Narrative Poetry Award.

References

External links
http://www.martingalvin.com
Burghers of Calais by Martin Galvin
Audio interview on Library of Congress website
"Innisfree 15, fall 2012. A Closer Look: Martin Galvin, plus a selection of 20 poems

1937 births
American male poets
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
Villanova University alumni
Saint Joseph College and Mother Seton Shrine faculty
Poets from Philadelphia
2018 deaths


Port Felix is a small community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in the Municipality of the District of Guysborough in Guysborough County.

Geography
Surrounded by islands such as Goat of Burying Island, Potato Island, Sheep Island, Hog Island, Tanner Island and Ebber Island; it is situated on the eastern shore of Guysborough County, 22 km from Canso.

History
Up until 1869, Port Felix, Guysborough County, was originally known as Molasses Harbour. Early Acadian settlers named it because a keg of molasses washed up on shore. The early Acadian settlers arrived about 1797 from Chezzetcook, where they had been living since about 1758 after the fall of Louisbourg. Following the American Revolution, many Loyalists flocked to Nova Scotia, and the Acadian settlers were refused land grants in the Chezzetcook area, so many left that area, traveling down the eastern shore and settling in Molasses Harbour (Port Felix), Charlos Cove and Larry's River. Port Felix is scenic, with its harbour and rugged coastline.

References
Port Felix on Destination Nova Scotia
Port Felix History

"Guysborough County History": https://web.archive.org/web/20091023141942/http://geocities.com/Heartland/Acres/6783/HISTORY.HTM).

Communities in Guysborough County, Nova Scotia
General Service Areas in Nova Scotia


SG Adenstedt is a German football club from the city of Adenstedt, Lower Saxony. The club has its roots in the establishment of the gymnastics club Turnverein Adenstedt in 1894. A football department was formed within the association in 1914; today the sports club also has departments for handball and tennis.

History
The footballers went their own way as the independent club Eiche Adenstedt in 1918, which was renamed Spielvereinigung Adenstedt in 1926. SV was reunited with parent club TV in 1935 to become Turn- und Spielevereinigung 1894 Adenstedt. They resumed their identity as SG in 1945.

The club spent a single season as a third division side in the Amateurliga Niedersachsen-Ost in 1959–60 and was sent down after a 17th-place finish. They currently play in the 2. Kreisklasse Peine (X).

References

External links
 Official team site
 Das deutsche Fußball-Archiv historical German domestic league tables

Football clubs in Germany
Association football clubs established in 1914
Football clubs in Lower Saxony
1914 establishments in Germany