Legal aid in the United States is the provision of assistance to people who are unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system in the United States. In the US, legal aid provisions are different for criminal law and civil law. Criminal legal aid with legal representation is guaranteed to defendants under criminal prosecution (related to the charges) who cannot afford to hire an attorney. Civil legal aid is not guaranteed under federal law, but is provided by a variety of public interest law firms and community legal clinics for free (pro bono) or at reduced cost. Other forms of civil legal aid are available through federally-funded legal services, pro bono lawyers, and private volunteers.

Criminal legal aid

Before 1932, there was no mechanism for legal aid for criminal defendants. Modern criminal legal aid developed from a series of landmark court decisions throughout the 1900s. In Powell v. Alabama, nine black youths from Alabama, also known as the “Scottsboro Boys,” were not appointed counsel during a 1932 sexual assault case. Two white females, Victoria Price and Ruby Bates, claimed that these men raped them, bringing them to court. During trial however, testimony and evidence from the medical examination of these women refuted the rape charges. Although they faced capital punishment, the “Scottsboro Boys” did not have the opportunity to see an attorney. Most were illiterate, and none had any knowledge of criminal law. All criminal defendants, except for one, were sentenced to death.

Eventually, the case reached the U.S. Supreme Court, where in a vote of 7-2, the Court overruled the conviction of the "Scottsboro Boys.” The Court stated the trial court’s actions denied them the right to counsel in criminal cases under the Sixth Amendment. This case marked the first time that the Court reversed a state court conviction because there was a failure to appoint counsel.

The Supreme Court clarified Powell in Betts v. Brady (1942). Betts concerned a criminal defendant indicted for robbery in Maryland. However, he could not afford counsel and requested one, which was ultimately denied by the trial judge. The majority in Betts reasoned that individual states assigning counsel to indigent defendants was not required unless there are special circumstances like being illiterate or mentally challenged. Instead, the Court considered Powell’s holding to apply only in federal courts. Therefore, denying the defendant’s request did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause.

In 1963, Gideon v. Wainwright reconsidered the Betts decision. Gideon was charged with breaking and entering, a felony under Florida law. He appeared at trial without an attorney and requested for one, but was denied by the judge. Despite representing himself during trial, the jury found Gideon guilty and sentenced him to five years. He eventually appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court where the Court asserted that criminal defendants have the fundamental right to counsel in all cases, without regard for financial circumstances. They unanimously found that the Sixth Amendment right to counsel for defendants is “fundamental and essential to fair trials” in the United States, noting that “any person … who is too poor to hire a lawyer, cannot be assured a fair trial unless counsel is provided for him.”

These landmark cases led to the creation of public defenders at the state and federal level. Today, the federal government and some states have public defender offices who represent indigent defendants—people who cannot afford attorney fees. At the federal level, there are over 80 federal defender organizations, while at the state level there are over 500 local defender offices. While public defenders receive funding from the government, they must remain ethically bound and independent at all times when handling cases.

Civil legal aid

A concerted movement towards substantive civil legal aid in the United States did not develop until the mid-1900s. The earliest developments trace back to 1876, with the first known legal aid society, the German Immigrants' Society, being founded in New York. By 1965, there were around 157 legal aid organizations across the country, serving almost every major city. The landmark Supreme Court decision Gideon v. Wainwright guaranteed the right to counsel in criminal matters, but left the issue of civil aid unresolved. Critically, following Gideon v Wainwright, the Court did not extend a guarantee of legal aid to civil matters in Lassiter v Department of Social Services, holding that the provision was less necessary in matters where liberty was not at stake.

The movement towards extending Gideon to civil matters continues to gain momentum, even as states such as New York and California lead the way in establishing more substantive legal aid systems.

Legal aid for civil cases is currently provided by a variety of public interest law firms and community legal clinics, who often have "legal aid" or "legal services" in their names. Public interest practice emerged from the goal of promoting access to equal justice for the poor and this was inspired from the legal services disparity amongst European immigrants. Such firms may impose income and resource ceilings as well as restrictions on the types of cases they will take, due to the sheer volume of potential clients and the general lack of funding for such work.

Common types of cases taken as legal aid include:

 Denial or deprivation of government benefits
 Evictions
 Domestic violence
 Immigration status
 Discrimination

In 2006, the American Bar Association adopted a resolution that defined such issues as "basic human needs," and urged the Federal government to provide legal services in such instances. Some legal aid organizations serve as outside counsel to small nonprofit organizations that lack in-house counsel.

Most typical legal aid work involves counseling, informal negotiation, and appearances in administrative hearings, as opposed to formal litigation in the courts. However, the discovery of severe or recurring injustice with a large number of victims will sometimes justify the cost of large-scale impact litigation. Education and law reform activities are also sometimes undertaken.

History

Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO)
The first legal aid program to exist at the federal level was implemented though the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), founded in 1965. the OEO was established through the Economic Opportunity Act as part of the Johnson administration's War on Poverty. The first director of OEO, Sargent Shriver, moved the organization towards the provision of legal aid. In an interview in which Shriver was asked which program from the War on Poverty he most preferred, he replied that "I am proudest of Legal Services because I recognized that it had the greatest potential for changing the system under which people's lives were being exploited."

Legal Services for the Poor
The United States' first attempt at providing legal remedy came about in 1965. The Office of Economic Opportunity created the Legal Services for the Poor program, under the direction of Sargent Shriver. The ideology behind the program used the "justice model", as it went beyond providing access to legal aid. Its focus was to dismantle barriers faced by those unable to afford legal protections on grounds of discrimination based upon race, gender, and/or class. In this way, the state sought to alleviate poverty using legal remedies, tackling the legal causes of poverty. This approach was employed in the "war on poverty" under the Johnson administration. The new pool of antipoverty lawyers worked to transform the lives of those oppressed by poverty en masse. Using a unique combination of understanding poverty-causing factors while pursuing economic justice, this work aimed to transform the social world that constructed and produced poverty conditions.

In the late 1960s, however, the US saw backlash as those who faced marginalization and poverty became the recipients of economic and social program boons. The "justice model" would be replaced by the "access to justice" model in response to the rapid societal changes occurring within American society under the Nixon administration. This new approach would be crafted under the Legal Services Corporation (LSC), and would have a more individualistic focus with limited social impact, as the United States does not stipulate that legal services are a right to be guaranteed. "Access to justice" is the model that legal aid offices and services would follow for future organizations.

Legal Services Corporation (LSC)
Civil legal aid appeared as early as the 1870s. In the early 1960s, a new model for legal services emerged. Foundations, particularly the Ford Foundation, began to fund legal services programs located in multi-service social agencies, based on a philosophy that legal services should be a component of an overall anti-poverty effort. In 1974, Congress created the Legal Services Corporation (LSC) to provide federal funding for civil (non-criminal) legal aid services. By 1975, the Legal Service Corporation had taken over the function of OEO, leaving its organizational structure largely unchanged. Funding usually comes from the federal government Legal Services Corporation (LSC), Interest on Lawyer Trust Accounts, charities, private donors, and some state and local governments. Legal aid organizations that take LSC money tend to have more staff and services and can help more clients, but must also conform to strict government regulations that require careful timekeeping and prohibit lobbying and class actions. Organizations that receive LSC funding cannot take funding from non LSC sources to pursue legislative efforts that contradict LSC regulations. In addition to lobbying and class actions, LSC organizations cannot purse abortion related litigation and cannot advance certain state or federal welfare challenges. LSC organizations are not able to conduct workshops related to political activities and advocacy as well. Many legal aid organizations refuse to take LSC money, and can continue to file class actions and directly lobby legislatures on behalf of the poor. Many organizations that provide civil legal services are heavily dependent on Interest on Lawyer Trust Accounts for funding. Some civil aid organizations accept private donations and grants if they refuse LSC funding.

However, even with supplemental funding from LSC, the total amount of legal aid available for civil cases is still grossly inadequate. Demand for legal services remains high. In 2018, an estimated 58.5million Americans were eligible for LSC programs. According to LSC's first annual Justice Gap report, initiated by LSC president Helaine M. Barnett in 2005, all legal aid offices nationwide, LSC-funded or not, are together able to meet only about 20 percent of the estimated legal needs of low-income people in the United States. The widely released 2005 report, "Documenting the Justice Gap in America: The Current Unmet Civil Legal Needs of Low-Income Americans," concludes that 86% of civil legal problems facing Americans have received inadequate or no legal assistance in the past year. The report also finds that 71% of low-income households were at some point in need of civil legal services within the year. The report states that "in 2017, low-income Americans approached LSC-funded legal aid organizations for support with an estimated 1.7 million problems. They will receive only limited or no legal help for more than half of these problems due to a lack of resources."

Legal aid at the state level
The provision of legal services on a federal level through the LSC is largely inadequate, and leaves a large volume of unmet demand. In the absence of a major decision from the Supreme Court affirming the right to civil counsel, as came to pass with criminal matters through Gideon v. Wainwright, States have been left to their own devices to fulfill the high demand for legal services.

A significant development in this area came as every state, beginning with Florida, created some version of an Interest on Lawyer Trust Accounts program.

New York
Historically, civil legal aid in the United States began in New York with the founding of the Legal Aid Society of New York in 1876. In 2017, New York City became the first place in the US to guarantee legal services to all tenants facing eviction with the passage of the "Right to Counsel Law". The bill was originally introduced in 2014 by New York City Council Members Mark D. Levine and Vanessa Gibson before being expanded into its current form. Funding for legal services centered around eviction and housing will increase over the course of five years, reaching $155million by 2022. The services are to be implemented by the New York City Office of Civil Justice (OCJ) to households making no more than 200% of the federal poverty line.

The legislation includes a provision for OCJ to provide annual reports to monitor the progress and effectiveness of the services being provided. The 2017 reports finds that evictions have declined by 27% since 2013, and that "over the four-year period of 2014 through 2017, an estimated 70,000 New Yorkers remained in their homes as a result of the decreased evictions."

California
The 2009 Sargent Shriver Civil Counsel Act created a number of pilot programs that advanced representation in civil aid cases regarding basic human needs to assess the benefits of civil legal aid, and the logistics of wider implementation. A 2017 study examined 10 of these legal aid programs, and found that recipients of aid had greatly improved prospects in eviction cases. 67% of cases settled, an increase of 33% compared to self pro per (self represented) cases. Critically, the study found that, "while all Shriver clients received eviction notices, only 6% were ultimately evicted from their homes." If income requirements are not met, legal aid organizations in California funded by the Legal Services Corporation cannot provide services to constituents.  This disproportionately affects Latinos/as living in California.

The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed an ordinance in 2012 declaring its intention to make San Francisco the first city to guarantee a right to counsel. In June 2018, San Francisco implemented a "Right to Counsel" program guaranteeing legal representation to tenants facing eviction.

Currently, the Los Angeles City Counsel is considering "Right To Counsel" legislation that may look very similar to those being enacted in New York and San Francisco.

Wisconsin
The Wisconsin Supreme Court joined the Interest on Lawyer Trust Accounts movement in 1986 with the establishment of the Wisconsin Trust Account Foundation.

Pro bono
The problem of chronic underfunding of legal aid is that it traps the lower middle class in no-man's-land: too rich to qualify for legal aid, too poor to pay an attorney in private practice. To remedy the ongoing shortage of legal aid services, some commentators have suggested that mandatory pro bono obligations ought to be required of all lawyers, just as physicians working in emergency rooms are required to treat all patients regardless of ability to pay. Such proposals have been mostly fought off by bar associations successfully. In their 1993 Model Rule 6.1, the American Bar Association emphasized the importance of attorneys providing a minimum of fifty hours of free legal assistance to low-income litigants annually. To justify this requirement, the American Bar Association has referenced the larger movement to incorporate larger ideals that are central to the legal profession, such as public service and advancing the public good, in actionable ways. Since then, pro bono legal work has become institutionalized in large firms. Before the 1990s, pro bono legal work was provided mainly by small firms; however, by the end of the 1990s, pro bono was distributed "through a network of structures designed to facilitate the mass provision of free services by law firm volunteers acting out of professional duty". 1/3 of Latino lawyers perform pro bono work and 49% of Latino lawyers report to meet this 50 hour annual quota with 8.3% report to providing 200 hours or more. Pro bono services are sometimes awarded by Courts in cases related to employment, sex discrimination, consumer credit and fraud amongst others.

A notable exception is the Orange County Bar Association in Orlando, Florida, which requires all bar members to participate in its Legal Aid Society, by either serving in a pro bono capacity or donating a fee in lieu of service. Even where mandatory pro bono exists, however, funding for legal aid remains severely insufficient to provide assistance to a majority of those in need. Along with challenges in funding, legal scholars argue that the current pro bono system “fails to incentive high-quality legal assistance ... [because it] cannot replace the expertise and experience of seasoned lawyers". The concern is that, since pro bono services are often viewed as an opportunity for professional development for less experienced attorneys, the emphasis shifts away from the quality of services provided for a client to the attorney's growth. Moreover, access to pro bono services is often hindered by geographic access, particularly in rural areas where populations are widely dispersed. Thus, even with an increase in pro bono services, the delivery of these services remains a challenge that stands in the way of addressing the justice gap as a whole.

The term pro bono came into official existence in 1919. Reginald Herber Smith uncovered in his study of how drastically different the poor and rich prevailed in legal matters within the U.S. What Smith honed in on was need for lawyers to serve the "financially unservable", or those that could least afford legal services, but would also significantly benefit from such services. The issue with that notion however, means that a lawyer would not be compensated for their skills, knowledge, and time. Today, there are the "no costs to you" contingent contracts advertised to make a profit in the long run, in addition to the recommendation that private lawyers offer at least 50 hours of pro bono services per year in providing legal aid to those that cannot afford their services.  To be clear, there is no mandate requiring any law firm or legal service providers to part take in either of these processes, only a recommendation that all lawyers "should aspire to" serve, and lawyers who wish to extend themselves in such a capacity must decide to render their services free of charge.

Organizations that offer pro bono services are designed to benefit those in underrepresented groups such as immigrants and refugees. Immigrant lawyers face barriers in their lawyer-client relationships due to the lack of access to justice placed by administrative and political barriers. When it comes to offering legal aid to immigrants in the United States, pro bono services are an important resource for immigrants, but very few can access adequate legal aid. Additionally, there are ethical questions raised by legal aid critiques as to whether or not immigrants should be able to utilize pro bono legal aid services due to their lack of citizenship status. The 14th Amendment calls for equal protection despite national origin, but undocumented non-citizens are not required to be granted equal access under federal law. This tends to bar immigrants from equal access to justice and due process.

Lawyer-client relationships in pro bono services
A significant debate around pro bono services focuses on the lawyer-client relationship and the distribution of power within it. Since the 1970s, civil rights and public interest organizations have coined and used the concept of "lawyer domination", which is a perception that lawyers act according to their personal beliefs about what path of action would be best for the client. For low-income or minority clients, their submission to the lawyers’ control and authoritative decision-making was seen as the "price of access to the courts". With the lack of financial leverage that clients have over their counsel, lawyers have historically held more paternalistic attitudes to pro bono work, as opposed to a more collaborative approach. From the perspective of legal services lawyers, the assumption is that the "client is interested in a result and comes to you presumably because you know the best way, or the way that is most likely to get that result [...] So, there has to be some reliance on the expertise of the attorney in establishing and suggesting ways to proceed". In thirty-two percent of cases, lawyers referenced making strategic decisions with no participation from the client at all.

Critics argue that interactions between lawyers and clients should be dictated by the guidelines laid out in the American Bar Association's Code of Professional Responsibility. Aside from this code, there is no other description or guidelines for client-lawyer relationships and a great deal of variation, as a result, in practice. The conflict of interest provision of the code ensures that attorneys prioritize loyalty to their clients' goals over their individual interests or external interests. Generally, the code equips lawyers with more power over the 'means' and leaves clients with responsibility for the major decisions of a case (including if a client wants to settle or appeal).

When it comes to immigration courts, relationships between lawyers and their clients are essential to winning deportation cases. This relationship tends to be strained in immigration courts due to the high caseloads and tight deadlines that immigrant lawyers face. The American Bar Association's Code of Professional Responsibility does not include guidelines for immigration lawyers to address the trauma that their clients experience.

Trauma-informed litigation
The litigation process in immigration courts is challenging for immigrants, as well as for lawyer-client relationships. Research has indicated a “triple trauma paradigm” that immigrants face: trauma suffered during the migration journey, trauma in relocating, and trauma again in the asylum or immigration process. The trauma of applying for relief before an immigration court is given the least public attention. During the litigation process in immigration courts, immigration lawyers place a large emphasis on the traumatic stories immigrants have faced in order to help build their case against deportation.Though consulted, immigrants play a very minimal role in decision-making when it comes to presenting their case in front of a court. The lawyers ultimately make the final decisions and tend to make trauma the centerpiece of representation in court. This process brings up many ethical questions in regards to immigration law as an institution, and legal aid for immigrants as a sector.

Administrative legal aid
A few states (e.g., California) have also guaranteed the right to counsel for indigent defendants in "quasi-criminal" or administrative law cases like involuntary terminations of parental rights and paternity actions.

Community-based legal aid
The creation of community-based legal aid organizations typically form in response to people facing disenfranchisement or lack of services, when they are unable to pay for a lawyer. An example of such a community based legal aid program is the creation of the New York's Legal Aid Society, founded in 1876 to help German immigrants deal with a series of issues experienced within their communities. The lack (or inability to navigate and understand the U.S. legal system) led to German-Americans to develop this site to assist the people, who were vulnerable to wage abuse, criminalization, and other legal issues that plagued their lives.  Other organizations would use legal means as practical steps in transforming fundamental American social values and culture.  The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), are two of the most recognized legal aid service providers within the U.S., but would come about later, founded in 1909 and 1920s respectively.  Legal aid organizations were formed outside the legitimization scope of the state, using law to pursue, challenge, and change existing legislation that worked against the most vulnerable citizens based upon grounds of race, gender, citizenship, and other categories by which the poor were disadvantaged.

Legal clinics have become centers of legal aid, advice, and sites of holistic approaches to poverty.  Within these spaces, the poor have access to justice, along with a less specialized legal pool of knowledge addressing the more common complaints that impact the day to day on-goings of life, also known as the "generalists" approach, creating a type of "one stop shop" which attempts to have all the legal needs of a client met in a single space, cutting down expenses of having to have multiple lawyers in multiple sites for multiple legal issues. These sites also take into consideration the cultural and social considerations that contribute to the mental and social aversions to be able to seek legal aid by disadvantaged populations.  A crucial part of this model is to meet the client where they are, or at least, be in a location that is actually feasible, and convenient for the client to visit.  Insert neighborhood legal clinics, and their multifaceted approach to a multifaceted issue. Because poverty law "is not a specialized field," there can be multiple issues a single client may experience, possibly simultaneously, and may not be all related to one particular case, or interwoven to such a degree that addressing one part of the problem leads to a chain reaction of sorts to affect all the moving parts.

Impact
In 2003, a study was published that linked civil legal aid to a marked decline in rates of Intimate partner violence (IPV). Programs funded by the LSC closed 120,944 cases involving domestic violence in 2017 alone. In the decade following this study, a considerable body of research began to take shape investigating the positive impact of civil legal aid. Studies have established legal aid as providing such benefits as decreasing homelessness as well as the need for emergency shelters through reducing evictions. Over the last two decades, civil legal aid services have shown to save the homes of more than 6,000 tenants in New York according to the 1996 study by the Association of the Bar of the City of New York. Because of the fragmented nature of civil legal aid in the US, cost benefit analyses are often specific to a given State. A 2010 article that gathered multiple other studies found that the benefits go beyond reducing domestic violence rates, finding that access to aid also brings more funds into a state by helping individuals receive federal benefits, protecting children, and aiding select groups such as seniors and veterans who are often exploited. A report from the ABA Day in Washington lists a State by State cost benefit analysis, finding a return on investment as high as 9:1 in Alabama in 2015.

East Bay Community Law Center (EBCLC)
The East Bay Community Law Center provides free legal services to Alameda County residents. There are a variety of legal clinics from Berkeley Boalt Law School and legal divisions within the EBCLC and each has its own criteria establishing potential clients' eligibility for receiving their services. The EBCLC has two locations in Berkeley with one location on University Ave and one on Adeline Street. The EBCLC provides Clean Slate Services, Community Economic Justice Clinic Services, Consumer Justice and General Clinic Services, Education Defense and Justice for Youth Services, Health and Welfare Services, Housing Services, and Immigration services.

Advancing Justice: Asian Law Caucus
Advancing Justice: Asian Law Caucus is a Bay Area organization that provides legal services, encourages community empowerment, and facilities policy advocacy for immigrants of Asian descent. They provide pro bono legal aid ranging from class action lawsuits to direct services through legal clinics in San Francisco. Additionally, the Asian Law Caucus organizes community movements to raise awareness for immigrants and refugees of Asian descent. The Asian Law Caucus' work is centered around immigrants, refugees, incarcerated people, and low-income workers.

The Fair Debt Buying Practices Act
Born out of the work of community collaboration, the Fair Debt Buying Practices Act harks back to the original perspective of legal aid; the attainment of justice and fundamental change to a system from the ground up, creating a meaningful societal transformation of out from under poverty, shifting the culture under which American social spaces operate. This was achieved through an effort to serve the community, via an open door General Clinic event, leading the EBCLC to become aware of a disproportionately large number of clients all being sued over credit card debt.  Because the General Clinic allowed for all clients experiencing forms of various legal matters to seek legal assistance, it was able to capture clients along with evidence and data that supported the position that this particular occurrence was a targeted business strategy, preying upon the legally ignorant, marginalized, and poorest citizens.  The ability to deliver legal remedies to the clients was only one part of the solution deployed by EBCLC.  The other half enlisted the collaborative efforts of community members, academic and educational forces (i.e. law students serving the clinic) along with legal proposals to change the laws that allowed for this legal poverty trap to exist.

Limitations of civil legal aid in the Latino community
Legal services available for Latino and Hispanic clients vary. This clientele can include Spanish speaking and undocumented clients. Latinos often mistake notaries as legal organizations and they turn to notaries for legal advice that they are unqualified to give. The relationship between the Hispanic community and legal aid services can be described as low in confidence. 44% of Hispanics say they have little confidence courts will treat them fairly and 49% believe they will be treated fairly. 19% of Latinos say they or an immediate family member have attended court or have been involved in a criminal matter with brief attorney services. Institutional limitations such as income cut off quotas are a main deterrence in obtaining certain legal aid services for Latinos. For many Hispanic clients, poverty, family composition, and demographics determine social and legal aid needs. Non-legal issues such as stalking, domestic abuse, visa expiration, and language barrier can also affect a client's ability to access legal aid. Lack of diverse racial consciousness can prevent lawyers from providing adequate services for Latino/a and Hispanic clients. At the criminal level, public defenders often do not speak Spanish, and they tend to recommend plea-bargaining over trials for Latino and Hispanic clients.

Serving Latino and Hispanic clients
If Latino clients have negative encounters with the criminal justice system in their specific counties of origin, they may struggle to understand the legal system of the United States. When providing legal services for Latino clients, legal practitioners should ask what nationality or ethnic group the client is from. Attorneys and legal aid providers should not assume Latino or Hispanic clients speak Spanish. They should confirm what languages the client does speak. It is recommended that legal organizations have Spanish translated documents about legal proceedings so that Spanish speaking clients can understand legal terminology. Undocumented Latinos can suffer additional immigration consequences because the legal representation received by Latino clients in this field of law lack cultural and immigration background.

Latino lawyers
Latino lawyers serve as resources for advocacy and leadership in the Latino/a community. They are more likely to be a part of a small firm or work in the field of public service and non profit legal services. Latinos make up 3% of lawyers, and are inadequately represented as partners or associates of large law firms, prosecutors, and defense attorneys.

List of Legal Aid Organizations by State

Pennsylvania
Legal Aid of Southeastern Pennsylvania: Serves Bucks, Montgomery, Chester, and Delaware County

Community Legal Services: Serves Philadelphia County

Mid-Penn Legal Services: Serves Adam, Bedford, Berks, Blair, Centre, Clearfield, Cumberland, Dauphin, Franklin, Fulton, Huntingdon, Juniata, Lancaster, Lebanon, Mifflin, Perry, Schuylkill, and York Counties

Illinois

Land of Lincoln: Serves Clinton, Fayette, Monroe, Randolph, St. Clair, Washington, Adams, Bond, Brown, Calhoun, Greene, Hancock, Jersey, Macoupin, Madison, Montgomery, Pike, Schuyler, Cass, Christian, Logan, Mason, Menard, Morgan, Sangamon, Scott, Shelby, Champaign, Clark, Coles, Crawford, Cumberland, De Witt, Douglas, Edgar, Effingham, Ford, Jasper, Macon, Moultrie, Piatt, Vermilion, Alexander, Clay, Edwards, Franklin, Gallatin, Hamilton, Hardin, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Lawrence, Marion, Massac, Perry, Pope, Pulaski, Richland, Saline, Union, Wabash, White, and Williamson

Prairie State Legal Services: Serves McLean, Livingston, Woodford, Henderson, Knox, McDonough, Warren, Grundy, Will, Iroquois, Kankakee, Bureau, LaSalle, Putnam, Fulton, Marshall, Peoria, Stark, Tazewell, Henry, Lee, Mercer, Rock Island, Whiteside, Boone, Carroll, Jo Daviess, Ogle, Stephenson, Winnebago, Lake, Dekalb, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, and McHenry Counties

New York City
New York Legal Assistance Group (NYLAG)

The Legal Aide Society

See also
 Contract attorney
 Legal clinic
 Public defender
 Legal Aid Society
 Legal Aid Society of Cleveland
 New York Legal Assistance Group
 Legal Aid in Texas: Texas Legal Services Center, Texas Rio Grande Legal Aid

References

Further reading
 Batlan, Felice. Women and Justice for the Poor: A History of Legal Aid, 1863–1945. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015) xx, 232 pp.
 Houseman, Alan W.  andLinda E. Perle. Securing Equal Justice for All (Washington, DC: CLASP, 3rd rev. ed. 2013)
 Johnson, Earl. To Establish Justice for All: The Past and Future of Civil Legal Aid in the United States: The Past and Future of Civil Legal Aid in the United States (ABC-CLIO, 2013)
 Spiegel, Mark. "Legal Aid 1900 to 1930: What Happened to Law Reform?." DePaul Journal for Social Justice (2015). online

External links
 Legal Services Corporation (lsc.gov)

Law of the United States


Darren Dennehy (born 21 September 1988) is an Irish former footballer who played as a defender for Everton, Cardiff City, Hereford United, Gillingham & Barnet in England, before returning home to play for Cork City, St Patrick's Athletic & Limerick in the League of Ireland Premier Division, alongside his older brother Billy at all three clubs.

Career

Everton
Born in County Kerry, Dennehy began his career at Everton progressing from the youth system, but did not make a first team appearance at the club. In July 2008, Dennehy was left go by Everton and joined Championship side Cardiff City on a free transfer.

Cardiff City
After not making a first team appearance at Cardiff during the season, Dennehy spent two weeks training at League One side Hereford United before signing on a one-month loan deal, making his debut the following day in a 1–0 defeat against Southend United. He made just two more appearances for Hereford, in consecutive 3–0 defeats to Scunthorpe United and Swindon Town, before his season was ended when he contracted glandular fever while away with the Republic of Ireland under-21 side.

After returning to Cardiff for the remainder of the 2008–09 season he rejoined Hereford on a six-month loan deal in July 2009, where he made a total of ten appearances in all competitions before returning to Cardiff in late December. On 21 January he joined Football League One side Gillingham on loan. He made his debut for the Gills on 23 January 2010 in a goalless draw with Colchester United and played in all seven matches he was available for during his loan spell before extending his loan deal until late April, returning to Cardiff on 29 April.

Barnet
On 12 July 2010, Dennehy joined Football League Two side Barnet on a free transfer, making his debut on the opening day of the 2010–11 season in a 2–1 defeat to Chesterfield. Dennehy missed the rest of the 2010–11 season after sustaining a foot injury in the 3–1 home win against Cheltenham Town on 4 September 2010. Dennehy made his comeback in the Football League Trophy victory against Colchester United a year later. In May 2012, Dennehy left Barnet due to the expiry of his contract.

Cork City
On 12 January 2013 Dennehy signed for League of Ireland club Cork City. His brother Billy Dennehy also signed for City for the 2014 season after being released by Shamrock Rovers. After 2 successive seasons as runners up in the league to Dundalk, as well as 2015 FAI Cup runners up to the same opposition, it was announced that the two Dennehy brothers would not remain at Cork for the 2016 season.

St Patrick's Athletic
On 9 December 2015, Dennehy signed for Dublin club St Patrick's Athletic, along with older brother Billy.

Career statistics
Correct as of 10 April 2021.

Honours

St Patrick's Athletic
League of Ireland Cup (1): 2016

References

External links

Darren Dennehy profile at the Cardiff City website

1988 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Tralee
Association footballers from County Kerry
Republic of Ireland men's association footballers
Republic of Ireland men's under-21 international footballers
Republic of Ireland men's youth international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Everton F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Hereford United F.C. players
Gillingham F.C. players
Barnet F.C. players
English Football League players
Cork City F.C. players
St Patrick's Athletic F.C. players
Limerick F.C. players
League of Ireland players


Vice-Admiral Thomas Pringle (died 8 December 1803) was a British officer of the Royal Navy. He served during the American War of Independence, and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.

Family and early life
He was born into a wealthy Scottish family, the only son of Walter Pringle, a prosperous West Indies plantation owner. He served in North America in 1775, as first lieutenant of . Stationed at Quebec as American forces approached, Pringle was sent to Britain in November 1775 aboard the merchant vessel Polly, with despatches warning of the imminent American attack.

Command
Pringle was briefly captain of the armed ship Lord Howe. He left her and in October 1776, he commanded the Royal Navy fleet on Lake Champlain in the Battle of Valcour Island, where he defeated a smaller American fleet under the command of Benedict Arnold. On his return to England in November 1776 he was promoted to post-captain. In January 1777, he was given command of , assigned to the West Indies station. He served well there, capturing a number of American naval vessels, transports, and privateers, including the
Virginia State Navy brig Mosquito on 5 June 1777, and the privateer Johnston on 29 November 1777. His most notable prize was  on 10 July 1778, captured in company with James Richard Dacres's .

Pringle operated for the next two years with Admiral Samuel Barrington's fleet, seeing action at the Battle of St. Lucia on 14/15 December 1778, and at the Battle of Grenada on 6 July 1779. Pringle sailed home with Barrington and paid off Ariadne for a refit in early 1780. In July 1780 he was given command of , a 32-gun frigate, in which he served as part of the North American fleet for the next two years. He also operated in British waters, capturing the privateer Moustic in the English Channel on 20 January 1782.

The Nelson connection
In April 1782 he escorted a convoy from Cork to Quebec. Joining him for this task, and placed under his command, was Captain Horatio Nelson, in command of the frigate . Nelson was not looking forward to the tedious and difficult task of escorting a convoy through the Atlantic storms, nor did he rate Pringle highly, thinking that Pringle wanted to go to Canada only because of the money he could make shipping specie. In the event Nelson found the voyage to be not as bad as he had feared and also realised that he had misjudged Pringle, subsequently declaring that Pringle was 'my particular friend, and a man of great honour.' Nelson and Pringle's friendship was an enduring one. The day after Nelson's marriage to Frances Nisbet in 1787 Pringle wryly remarked that the navy had lost its 'greatest ornament', so expressing his concern that a wife got in the way of a successful naval career.

The Peace, and the French Revolutionary Wars
Pringle returned to Britain at the end of 1782, in time to capture another privateer in the Channel, this time the Légère on 11 December 1782. Daedalus was assigned to patrol the Shetland fisheries in 1783, before Pringle paid her off in July 1784. He is recorded to have recommissioned the hulked 74-gun third rate  in October 1787 as a receiving ship at Chatham Dockyard, though had moved later that month to take command of the new 90-gun second rate .

In May 1790 he was put in command of , a 100-gun first-rate that served briefly as Admiral Samuel Barrington's flagship. In October 1793 he was given command of the 74-gun , joining Lord Howe's fleet. Pringle was therefore present at the Glorious First of June the following year, where his ship had two killed and nine wounded. He was awarded the Naval Gold Medal for his part in the action, and promoted to rear-admiral that year.

Flag rank
In 1795 Pringle, by now a rear-admiral, raised his flag aboard the 74-gun  and served in the North Sea. He later removed to , and sailed to South Africa to take command of the Cape of Good Hope Station in May 1796. He was in Saldanha Bay under Vice-Admiral George Elphinstone when a squadron of the Batavian Navy under Rear-Admiral Engelbertus Lucas was forced to surrender on 17 August 1796. His legacy as commander of the navy on the Cape station was commemorated in the naming of Pringle Bay.

In 1797, he had to put down a mutiny aboard his flagship which was anchored in the harbour.  The seamen aboard the ship had threatened their captain, George Hopewell Stephens, with a court-martial composed of members of the crew on charges of cruelty and mistreatment. The mutinous spirit was temporarily quashed with a general pardon, while Stephens requested a regular court-martial to clear his name. While this was held aboard , Pringle sent a ship to recall the Tremendouss previous captain, Charles Brisbane. Stephens was honourably acquitted at the court-martial and returned to duty, but shortly afterwards the crew of the Tremendous broke out into open mutiny, this spreading to other ships in the harbour. Pringle, who was onshore at the time, ordered the batteries around the harbour to be manned, and aimed at the Tremendous, the source of the mutiny. With over 100 guns pointed at his flagship he demanded the crews return to obedience and give up the ringleaders within two hours, or he would order the Tremendous destroyed. Realising that Pringle was sincere in his intent, the mutineers surrendered 10 minutes before Pringle's deadline passed. The ringleaders were handed over and order was restored to the fleet.

On 14 February 1799, Pringle was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White, and on 1 January 1801, to Vice Admiral of the Red. He died in Edinburgh on 8 December 1803.

Notes

References

Further reading
 Contains correspondence concerning the mutiny on board the Tremendous.

1803 deaths
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Royal Navy vice admirals
Year of birth missing


The SIPA S.1000 Coccinelle was a French-built light civil utility aircraft of the 1950s.

Design
The Coccinelle was designed by Yves Gardan for SIPA as a very low cost all-metal trainer of very simple construction, intended for aero club use. It was a two-seat side-by-side low-winged aircraft with fixed-tricycle undercarriage and incorporated a number of standard automobile parts.

Production and service

The prototype first flew on 11 June 1955. Series production by Société Industrielle pour l'Aéronautique (SIPA) was planned to commence in 1956, but only two further examples were completed with the last being exported to Argentina.

In 2001, the first and third aircraft remained airworthy in France and Argentina, respectively. By 2010 F-BHHL no longer appeared on the French civil register, but in March 2013 LV-GFG remained active in Argentina.

Specifications (S.1000 Coccinelle)

References

Notes

Bibliography

1950s French civil utility aircraft
S1000
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1955


St. Patrick's Secondary School, Bukhakunga is a rural district mixed secondary school in Kakamega North District, Kenya.

History
The school was established in  1975 as a Harambee School, sponsored by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Kakamega. It became a government school in 1989. The school motto is "Keen to succeed".  Bukhakunga SS has a partnership with Community Education Services (CES) Canada and CES Kenya.  Since 2005 youth orphaned by HIV/Aids have received tuition scholarships to attend Bukhkunga SS.  Ten students are supported each year by Canadian students in Dufferin Peel Secondary Catholic Schools located in Ontario, Canada.

Co-curricular activities
In 2002, the school appeared at the Western Provincial Science Congress held in Butere Girls' High School. In 2004, the school participated in choral verses during the Kenya Secondary Secondary School Music Festival up to National level.

Staff
Discipline is enforced by the Deputy Principal, Madam Rebbah Barasa and the Principal, Mr Musi Ferdinand. The teaching staff includes Mr Gilbert Ochieng' Shikuku for Physics and Mathematics, Mr Wesonga Patrick for Biology and Agriculture, Mr Otuma for Mathematics and Business Studies, Mr Etemesi Tom Charles for Swahili and History and Government and Mr Musi Ferdinand for Swahili and Geography.

National examination registration
The School National Examination Code is 614601.

Student population and welfare
The school population is about 500 students, the ratio of girls to boys being about 1:2. Most of the students come from the nearby primary Schools, including Mutsuma, Musidi, Bukhakunga, Sawawa, Namirama, Mayuge, Burundu, and Imbiakalo. A few students are beneficiaries of Canadian Education Society Scholarships, a non-governmental organisation based in the Provincial Capital, Kakamega.

Facilities
There is a bore-hole supplying the school and neighbouring homes with water. The school has some land for agriculture projects.

Some milk animals are reared to supply the staff with milk. The school has a single laboratory shared by all Science students in Physics, Chemistry and Biology. There are some books for reference donated to the school from Canada, though no formal library. The school has purchased examination preparation books. The school has a playground that hosts local football matches.

Accessibility
There is road network coverage to and from the school, but the roads to the west of the school become muddy during rain seasons. There is mobile phone network coverage around the School.

References

Western Province
High schools and secondary schools in Kenya
1975 establishments in Kenya
Educational institutions established in 1975


The Arboretum du Puy du Fou is an arboretum within the Grand Parc du Puy du Fou, a theme park located on La Papinière, Les Epesses, Vendée, Pays de la Loire, France. It is open daily in the summer; an admission fee is charged.

See also
 Puy du Fou
 List of botanical gardens in France

References
 Grand Parc du Puy du Fou

Puy du Fou, Arboretum du
Puy du Fou, Arboretum du


Le Ban de la Roche () is the name of an ancient seigneurie, later a county. It is situated in Alsace, France, Département du Bas-Rhin. This small region is referred by its old Ancien régime name because of its strong identity and because it is relatively different from its neighbors, including the fact that it was a Lutheran community surrounded by Catholic villages. There was an Amish farm in the village of Neuviller.

Villages

The Seigneurie included eight villages: Rothau (Seigneurie-seat), Wildersbach, Neuviller-la-Roche (along with hamlets La Haute Goutte and Riangoutte), Waldersbach, Bellefosse, Belmont, Fouday (with the hamlet Trouchy) and Solbach.

History
One of the most important lords of Ban de la Roche was Georges-Jean de Veldenz () (1543–1592), son-in-law of the king of Sweden, and founder of the city of Phalsbourg. Count de Veldenz bought Le Ban de la Roche for its mining possibilities.

There were many witchcraft trials held in Le Ban de la Roche between the years 1620-1630.

Ban de la Roche was on the Amish centre. There was an Amish farm ("cense" in the local way of speaking) called Sommerhof in La Haute Goutte.

Beginning in 1736, many emigrants traveled to the United States to the state of Pennsylvania aboard ship Princess Augusta. The 19th century emigrants went to Ohio and Illinois.

It was a land of Lutheran pietism and religious intolerance.

Notable people
It is also the land of the famous minister and philanthropist J. F. Oberlin, whose parish was Waldersbach.
Frédérique Brion, who had a love affair with Goethe, briefly lived in Rothau
Gustave Brion was an artist who illustrated Victor Hugo's masterpieces Les Misérables and Notre-Dame de Paris
Philippe-Frédéric de Dietrich, Count of Le Ban de la Roche, Maire of Strasbourg, an industrialist, a scientist and a man of the Lumières, a friend of La Fayette; La Marseillaise, the French national hymn, was at first sung in his parlour in Strasbourg; he was guillotined.

Twin city in Iowa
Le Ban de la Roche is twinned with Woolstock, Iowa, where many Bandelarochians emigrated.

Notes

External links
An English-language site about Princess Augusta
 Amish places in the neighbourhood, with many photos of farms and cemeteries.

Bas-Rhin
History of Alsace


Cape St. Mary's (French:Cap-Sainte-Marie) is a community in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia, located in the District of Clare in Digby County . The harbor is home to a $5,000,000 dollar a year fishery that supports a fleet of 42 fish harvesters, 14 vessels, and nine transient ships. In 2014 a hydrographic survey was conducted by the Fisheries and Oceans Canada and found that the harbor was in need of major dredging to protect the local fleet.  Cape St. Mary's is scheduled for a major capital construction project that will improve the harbor by adding a new breakwater and groyne extension.

References

Cape St. Mary's

Communities in Digby County, Nova Scotia
General Service Areas in Nova Scotia


Cleobora is a monotypic genus of ladybird native to Tasmania and the southern states of mainland Australia. Its only recognized species is Cleobora mellyi, the Tasmanian ladybird or southern ladybird.

C. mellyi was introduced to New Zealand in 1977 as a biological control agent, with mixed results.

References

External links

 Cleobora mellyi at the Atlas of Living Australia

Coccinellidae
Beetles of Australia
Beetles described in 1850

Coccinellidae genera


Tanna japonensis, also called the evening cicada or , is a species of cicada, a family of insects, and a member of the genus Tanna. It is distributed throughout East Asia, and is most common in Japan. Its shrill call can be heard most often in the morning and evening.

One of its possible kanji names (茅蜩) is derived from the character (茅) for a category of grasses that includes Miscanthus sinensis, a type of reed that it inhabits. In Japan, it is also known as  because of the noise that it makes.

Characteristics
The adult male has a body length of , the female is . The male's abdomen is longer and thicker than that of the female, making it easy to distinguish between them. In addition, the intra-abdominal cavity of the male is more developed, giving it a more resonant call.

The body is coloured reddish-brown with green around the compound eye and in the centre and back of the thorax; mountain dwelling specimens tend to be darker.

Habitat
In Japan, their habitat ranges from temperate Hokkaido in the far north to subtropical Amami Ōshima, close to Taiwan (variants and subspecies, such as T. j. ishigakiana), and live in a wide range of habitats. They live in the cypress, cedar, and hardwood forests, from the mountainous regions in Hokkaido to the plains of northern Kyūshū, and even in southern Kyushu, they can be found in slightly higher mountain elevations.

Ecology

The parasitic moth Epipomponia nawai uses the animal as a host for its eggs.  The T. japonensis can also come under attack from flesh flies.

Call

The peak time for hearing T. japonensis is autumn, but they can also be heard at the end of summer in some regions. From September until mid-October, their calls can be heard almost every day.

The males call with a distinctive, melancholy sound. This occurs before sunrise, and they often sing at twilight or after sunset, in dusk, when the temperature has dropped, or when it becomes cloudy. The call changes with temperature, being correlated with the firing rate of the tymbal nerve.

In Japan, the sound is popularly associated with melancholy, and it has been the subject of literature, and television shows, such as "Summer Evening" and , feature it as a sound effect or a plot point. Their calls are quite loud, but do not carry well over distance.

Subspecies
T. j. ishigakiana is found in Ishigaki, an island in Okinawa. Though once listed on the red list, they are no longer thought to be endangered. Their cry is a more metallic sound with a faster tempo.

References

Tanna (genus)
Hemiptera of Asia
Insects described in 1892


This is the following episode list for Nick Jr.'s Olivia. The series ran for two seasons between 2009 and 2015.

Series overview

Episodes

Season 1 (2009–2010)

Season 2 (2010–2015)
In season 2, Ian is wearing a small planet on his T-shirt and he has a deeper voice and Francine, Daisy, Julian and Olivia's Mom have different voices. In season 1, Ian has a default shirt. Olivia's Mom has the same color clothes.

.

References

Episodes
Lists of American children's animated television series episodes
Lists of British animated television series episodes
Lists of Nickelodeon television series episodes


Merlin - Bard Of The Unseen is the 11th studio album by the Dutch progressive rock band Kayak. This concept-album is a new version of side 1 of their 1981 album Merlin, with nine new songs added.

At concerts in 2003, the band played this rock-opera in its entirety. Singer Cindy Oudshoorn was credited as special guest on the album, but became a permanent member of the band after the tour.

Track listing

 "Merlin" - 7:50
 "Tintagel" - 2:49
 "The Future King" - 2:58
 "The Sword In The Stone" - 3:43
 "When The Seer Looks Away" - 4:18
 "Branded" - 3:51
 "At Arthur's Court" - 3:15
 "The Otherworld" - 7:59
 "The Purest Of Knights" - 5:48
 "Friendship And Love" - 5:13
 "The King's Enchanter" - 2:31
 "Niniane (Lady Of The Lake)" - 7:08
 "The Last Battle" - 8:11
 "Avalon" - 3:44

Words by Irene Linders and Ton Scherpenzeel. Music by Ton Scherpenzeel, except tracks 3, 5, 8, 13: Pim Koopman

Lineup
 Ton Scherpenzeel - keyboards, vocals, percussion
 Pim Koopman - drums, backing vocals, voice-over
 Bert Heerink - lead and backing vocals
 Bert Veldkamp - bass guitar
 Joost Vergoossen - guitars
 Rob Vunderink - guitars, lead and backing vocals

Guest musicians
 Cindy Oudshoorn - lead and backing vocals
 The New Philharmonic Orchestra

References

External links
Official homepage

Kayak (band) albums
2003 albums
Works based on Arthurian legend


The Bilton Gala is a community event that takes place in Bilton, Harrogate, North Yorkshire on the first Bank Holiday in May each year.

The first Bilton Gala took place in 1977 to mark the Queen’s Silver Jubilee. Since then it has grown, and is now such a large event that it has spread to the fields adjoining Richard Taylor C of E School where it has traditionally been held.

The Bilton Gala use the funds raised at the main event to donate to local charities, groups and organisations. In 2008, the Gala set up a Charitable Trust, the Bilton Community Fund, to manage the ever increasing funds raised each year. The funds are available in the form of grants and awards to groups, organisations and individuals in the Bilton area of Harrogate.

Billowby bear is the Gala mascot. Billowby enjoys visiting local schools and organisations, and often delivers grants to successful applicants in person.

Gala Queen/King
The Gala is overseen by the Gala Queen and her two attendants who are elected each year by the committee and upstanding members of the local community. Children from local schools, or who live in the community, are encouraged to apply each year for the three coveted roles and it is a great honour to be selected. In 2008, the Gala decided to move with the times and widen its criteria in order to attract a potential Gala King. The Gala elected its first King in 2011 in Mark Nicholls.

The day starts with the Parade which is led by the Queen/King and their attendants in a chauffeur-driven car. Following them are usually the Harrogate sea cadet band from the  Sea Cadet Corps (United Kingdom) and many colourful and elaborate floats that reflect each year's chosen theme, members of local sports clubs and organisations, local businesses, bands, majorettes and the Mayor/Mayoress of Harrogate. Children are also invited to join the parade in fancy dress. The parade snakes through the streets of Bilton which are lined with supporters. There is always a prize for the best float.
 2013    Lily Robins
 2012	Ella Hyde		2012    Lily Robins
 2011	Mark Nicholls	        2011	Jasmine Tyler
 2009	Lauren Woodhall	        2010	Joseph Atkinson
 2008	Alice McAvoy	        2007	Amy Frost
 2006	Amber Hardcastle	2005	Katie Small
 2004	Charlotte Oxley	        2003	Elizabeth Cooper
 2002	Katie Newton	        2001	Natalie Fulcher
 2000	Tiffany Purchase	1999	Sarah McGrail
 1998	Sarah Simpson	        1997	Rachel Simpson
 1996	Sarah Morrell	        1995	Julia Bullock
 1994	Anna Littlefair	        1993	Clair Jennings
 1992	Kay Rushworth	        1991	Rachel Charlton
 1990	Lynne Niddrie	        1989	Suzanne Smyth
 1988	Samantha Thornell	1987	Fiona Thompson
 1986	Wendy Leach	        1985	Sarah Foy
 1984	Michelle McKenzie	1983	Michelle Johnstone
 1982	Suzanne Johnstone	1981	Nicola Spruce
 1980	Eunice Thompson	        1979	Maria Willmore
 1978	Yvonne Ayres	        1977	Julie Tennyson

Once the parade has finished the day continues with the fancy dress competition which is judged by the Mayor/Mayoress in the main arena.

The arena then hosts an afternoon of entertainment which in the past has included stunt riders, bird of prey displays, bands, dance troops and aerial displays.

Around the arena and in the adjoining fields are many other attractions such as donkey rides, exotic animal displays, many stalls and games, the Army, magicians, food stalls and fairground rides.

Bilton Gala is one of the premier community events in Harrogate and the surrounding area.

The Gala is organised each year by a group of local volunteers.

2014
Bilton Gala is one of the premier community events in Harrogate and the surrounding area, it provides first class professional entertainment and a host of stands and attractions to suit all tastes. The event continues to grow and become ever more popular providing an affordable day out for the whole family at only £1.50 per adult and 50p for under 16's. The 2014 event will take place on Monday 5 May.

The Gala seeks to provide entertainment to suit all tastes and next year will be no exception.

References
Harrogate Advertiser: 2008 Bilton Gala will be 'best ever'
Knaresborough Post: Bilton Gala praying for sun!
Bilton Gala
Nidderdale Post: Bilton Gala granted Charity Fund Status

External links
Bilton Gala
Bilton Community Fund

Events in Harrogate
Recurring events established in 1977


Early music of Britain and Ireland, from the earliest recorded times until the beginnings of the Baroque in the 17th century, was a diverse and rich culture, including sacred and secular music and ranging from the popular to the elite. Each of the major nations of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales retained unique forms of music and of instrumentation, but British music was highly influenced by continental developments, while British composers made an important contribution to many of the major movements in early music in Europe, including the polyphony of the Ars Nova and laid some of the foundations of later national and international classical music. Musicians from the British Isles also developed some distinctive forms of music, including Celtic chant, the Contenance Angloise, the rota, polyphonic votive antiphons, and the carol in the medieval era and English madrigals, lute ayres, and masques in the Renaissance era, which would lead to the development of English language opera at the height of the Baroque in the 18th century.

Medieval music to 1450

Surviving sources indicate that there was a rich and varied musical soundscape in medieval Britain. Historians usually distinguish between ecclesiastical music, designed for use in church, or in religious ceremonies, and secular music for use from royal and baronial courts, celebrations of some religious events, to public and private entertainments of the people. Our understanding of this music is limited by a lack of written sources for much of what was an oral culture.

Church music

In the early Middle Ages, ecclesiastical music was dominated by monophonic plainchant. The separate development of British Christianity from the direct influence of Rome until the 8th century, with its flourishing monastic culture, led to the development of a distinct form of liturgical Celtic chant. Although no notations of this music survive, later sources suggest distinctive melodic patterns. This was superseded, as elsewhere in Europe, from the 11th century by Gregorian chant. The version of this chant linked to the liturgy as used in the Diocese of Salisbury, the Sarum Use, first recorded from the 13th century, became dominant in England. This Sarum Chant became the model for English composers until it was supplanted at the Reformation in the mid-16th century, influencing settings for masses, hymns and Magnificats. Scottish music was highly influenced by continental developments, with figures like thirteenth-century musical theorist Simon Tailler who studied in Paris, before returning to Scotland where he introduced several reforms of church music. Scottish collections of music like the thirteenth-century 'Wolfenbüttel 677', which is associated with St Andrews, contain mostly French compositions, but with some distinctive local styles. The first notations of Welsh music that survive are from the 14th century, including matins, lauds and vespers for St David's Day.

Ars nova

In the 14th century, the English Franciscan friar Simon Tunsted, usually credited with the authorship of Quatuor Principalia Musicae: a treatise on musical composition, is believed to have been one of the theorists who influenced the 'ars nova', a movement which developed in France and then Italy, replacing the restrictive styles of Gregorian plainchant with complex polyphony. The tradition was well established in England by the 15th century and was widely used in religious, and what became, purely educational establishments, including Eton College, and the colleges that became the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The motet 'Sub Arturo plebs' attributed to Johannes Alanus and dated to the mid or late 14th century, includes a list of Latinised names of musicians from the English court that shows the flourishing of court music, the importance of royal patronage in this era and the growing influence of the ars nova. Included in the list is J. de Alto Bosco, who has been identified with the composer and theorist John Hanboys, author of Summa super musicam continuam et discretam, a work that discusses the origins of musical notation and mensuration from the 13th century and proposed several new methods for recording music.

Contenance Angloise

From the mid-15th century we begin to have relatively large numbers of works that have survived from English composers in documents such as the early 15th century Old Hall Manuscript. Probably the first, and one of the best represented is Leonel Power (c. 1380–1445), who was probably the choir master of Christ Church, Canterbury and enjoyed noble patronage from Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence and John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford (1389–1435). John Dunstaple (or Dunstable) was the most celebrated composer of the 'Contenance Angloise' (English manner), a distinctive style of polyphony that used full, rich harmonies based on the third and sixth, which was highly influential in the fashionable Burgundian court of Philip the Good. Nearly all his manuscript music in England was lost during the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536-1540), but some of his works have been reconstructed from copies found in continental Europe, particularly in Italy. The existence of these copies is testament to his widespread fame within Europe. He may have been the first composer to provide liturgical music with an instrumental accompaniment. Royal interest in music is suggested by the works attributed to Roy Henry in the Old Hall Manuscript, suspected to be Henry IV or Henry V. This tradition was continued by figures such as Walter Frye (c. 1420–1475), whose masses were recorded and highly influential in France and the Netherlands. Similarly, John Hothby (c. 1410–1487), an English Carmelite friar, who travelled widely and, although leaving little composed music, wrote several theoretical treatises, including La Calliopea legale, and is credited with introducing innovations to the medieval pitch system. The Scottish king James I was in captivity in England from 1406 to 1423, where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer and may have been responsible for taking English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release.

Secular music

Ireland, Scotland, and Wales shared a tradition of bards, who acted as musicians, but also as poets, story tellers, historians, genealogists, and lawyers, relying on an oral tradition that stretched back generations. Often accompanying themselves on the harp, they can also be seen in records of the Scottish courts throughout the medieval period. We also know from the work of Gerald of Wales that at least from the 12th century, group singing was a major part of the social life of ordinary people in Wales. From the 11th century particularly important in English secular music were minstrels, sometimes attached to a wealthy household, noble, or royal court, but probably more often moving from place to place and occasion to occasion in pursuit of payment. Many appear to have composed their own works, and can be seen as the first secular composers, and some crossed international boundaries, transferring songs and styles of music. Because literacy, and musical notation in particular, were preserves of the clergy in this period the survival of secular music is much more limited than for church music. Nevertheless, some were noted, occasionally by clergymen who had an interest in secular music. England in particular produced three distinctive secular musical forms in this period: the rota, the polyphonic votive antiphon, and the carol.

Rotas

A rota is a form of round, known to have been used from the 13th century in England. The earliest surviving piece of composed music in the British Isles, and perhaps the oldest recorded folk song in Europe, is a rota: a setting of 'Sumer Is Icumen In' ('Summer is a-coming in') from the mid-13th century, possibly written by W. de Wycombe, precentor of the priory of Leominster in Herefordshire, and set for six parts. Although few are recorded, the use of rotas seems to have been widespread in England and it has been suggested that the English talent for polyphony may have its origins in this form of music.

Votive Antiphons

Polyphonic votive antiphons emerged in England in the 14th century as a setting of a text honouring the Virgin Mary, but separate from the mass and office, often after compline. Towards the end of the 15th century they began to be written by English composers as expanded settings for as many as nine parts with increasing complexity and vocal range. The largest collection of such antiphons is in the late 15th century Eton choirbook.

Carols

Carols developed in the 14th century as simple songs with a verse and refrain structure. Carols were usually connected with a religious festival, particularly Christmas. They were derived from a form of circle dance accompanied by singers, which was popular from the mid-12th century. From the 14th century they were used as processional songs, particularly at Advent, Easter, and Christmas, and to accompany religious mystery plays. Because the tradition of carols continued into the modern era, we know more of their structure and variety than most other secular forms of medieval music.

Renaissance c. 1450–c. 1660

The impact of Renaissance humanism on music can be seen in England the late 15th century under Edward IV (r. 1461–1483) and Henry VII (r. 1485–1509). Although the influence of English music on the continent declined from the mid-15th century as the Burgundian School became the dominant force in the West, English music continued to flourish with the first composers being awarded doctorates at Oxford and Cambridge, including Thomas Santriste, who was provost of King's College, Cambridge, and Henry Abyngdon, who was Master of Music at Worcester Cathedral and from 1465–83 Master of the King's Music. Edward IV chartered and patronised the first guild of musicians in London in 1472, a pattern copied in other major towns cities as musicians formed guilds or waites, creating local monopolies with greater organisation, but arguably ending the role of the itinerant minstrel. There were increasing numbers of foreign musicians, particularly those from France and the Netherlands, at the court, becoming a majority of those known to have been employed by the death of Henry VII. His mother, Lady Margaret Beaufort, was the major sponsor of music during his reign, commissioning several settings for new liturgical feasts and ordinary of the mass. The result was a very elaborate style which balanced the many parts of the setting and prefigured Renaissance developments elsewhere. Similar developments can be seen in Scotland. In the late 15th century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands before returning home, including John Broune, Thomas Inglis and John Fety, the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh, introducing the new five-fingered organ playing technique. In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle, with a new and enlarged choir, it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music. Burgundian and English influences came north with Henry VII's daughter Margaret Tudor, who married James IV in 1503. In Wales, as elsewhere, the local nobility were increasingly Anglicised and the bardic tradition started to decline, resulting in the first Eisteddfods being held from 1527, in an attempt to preserve the tradition. In this period it seems that most Welsh composers tended to cross the border and seek employment in the English royal and noble households, including John Lloyd (c. 1475–1523) who was employed in the household of the Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham and became a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal from 1509 and Robert Jones (fl.c.1520–35) who also became a gentleman of the Chapel Royal.

Henry VIII and James V

Henry VIII and James V were both enthusiastic patrons of music. Henry (1491–1547) played various instruments, of which he had a large collection, including, at his death, seventy eight recorders. He is sometimes credited with compositions, including the part-song 'Pastime with Good Company'. In the early part of his reign and his marriage to Catherine of Aragon secular court music focused around an emphasis on courtly love, probably acquired from the Burgundian court, result in compositions like William Cornysh's (1465–1515) 'Yow and I and Amyas'. Among the most eminent musicians of Henry VIII's reign was John Taverner (1490–1545), organist of the College founded at Oxford by Thomas Wolsey from 1526–1530. His principal works include masses, magnificats and motets, of which the most famous is 'Dum Transisset Sabbatum'. Thomas Tallis (c. 1505–85) took polyphonic composition to new heights with works like his 'Spem in alium', a motet for forty independent voices. In Scotland James V (1512–42) had a similar interest in music. A talented lute player he introduced French chansons and consorts of viols to his court and was patron to composers such as David Peebles (c. 1510–1579?).

Reformation

The Reformation naturally had a profound impact on the religious music of Britain. The loss of many abbeys, collegiate churches and religious orders intensified a process by which humanism had made careers writing church music decline in importance compared with employment in the royal and noble households. Many composers also responded to the liturgical changes brought about by the Reformation. From the 1540s during the Reformation in England sacred music was being set to English language texts along with Latin. The legacy of Tallis includes the harmonised versions of the plainsong responses of the English church service that are still in use by the Church of England. The Lutheranism that influenced the early Scottish Reformation attempted to accommodate Catholic musical traditions into worship, drawing on Latin hymns and vernacular songs. The most important product of this tradition in Scotland was The Gude and Godlie Ballatis, which were spiritual satires on popular ballads composed by the brothers James, John and Robert Wedderburn. Never adopted by the kirk, they nevertheless remained popular and were reprinted from the 1540s to the 1620s. Later the Calvinism that came to dominate the Scottish Reformation was much more hostile to Catholic musical tradition and popular music, placing an emphasis on what was biblical, which meant the Psalms. The Scottish psalter of 1564 was commissioned by the Assembly of the Church. It drew on the work of French musician Clément Marot, Calvin's contributions to the Strasbourg psalter of 1539 and English writers, particularly the 1561 edition of the psalter produced by William Whittingham for the English congregation in Geneva. The intention was to produce individual tunes for each psalm, but of 150 psalms, 105 had proper tunes and in the seventeenth century, common tunes, which could be used for psalms with the same metre, became more common. The need for simplicity for whole congregations that would now all sing these psalms, unlike the trained choirs who had sung the many parts of polyphonic hymns, necessitated simplicity and most church compositions were confined to homophonic settings. There is some evidence that polyphony survived and it was incorporated into editions of the psalter from 1625, but usually with the congregation singing the melody and trained singers the contra-tenor, treble and bass parts.

Music publication

During this period, music printing (technically more complex than the printing of written text) was adopted from continental practice. Around 1520 John Rastell initiated the single-impression method for printing music, in which the staff lines, words, and notes were all part of a single piece of type, making it much easier to produce, although not necessarily clearer. Elizabeth I granted the monopoly of music publishing to Tallis and his pupil William Byrd which ensured that their works were widely distributed and have survived in various editions, but arguably limited the potential for music publishing in Britain.

Mary, Queen of Scots and Elizabeth I

James V's daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, also played the lute, virginals and (unlike her father) was a fine singer. She was brought up in the French court and brought many influences from there when she returned to rule Scotland from 1561, employing lutenists and viol players in her household. Mary's position as a Catholic gave a new lease of life to the choir of the Scottish Chapel Royal in her reign, but the destruction of Scottish church organs meant that instrumentation to accompany the mass had to employ bands of musicians with trumpets, drums, fifes, bagpipes and tabors. In England her cousin Elizabeth I was also trained in music. She played the lute, virginals, sang, danced, and even claimed to have composed dance music. She was major patron for English musicians composers (particularly in the Chapel Royal) while in her royal household she employed numerous foreign musicians in her consorts of viols, flutes, recorders, and sackbuts and shawms. Byrd emerged as the leading composer of the Elizabethan court, writing sacred and secular polyphony, viol, keyboard and consort music, reflecting the growth in the range of instruments and forms of music available in Tudor and Stuart Britain. The outstanding Scottish composer of the era was Robert Carver (c.1485–c.1570) whose works included the nineteen-part motet 'O Bone Jesu'.

English Madrigal School

The English Madrigal School was the brief but intense flowering of the musical madrigal in England, mostly from 1588 to 1627. Based on the Italian musical form and patronised by Elizabeth I after the highly popular Musica transalpina by Nicholas Yonge in 1588. English madrigals were a cappella, predominantly light in style, and generally began as either copies or direct translations of Italian models, mostly set for three to six verses. The most influential composers of madrigals in England whose work has survived were Thomas Morley, Thomas Weelkes and John Wilbye. One of the more notable compilations of English madrigals was The Triumphs of Oriana, a collection of madrigals compiled by Thomas Morley and devoted to Elizabeth I. Madrigals continued to be composed in England through the 1620s, but stopped in the early 1630s as they began to seem obsolete as new forms of music began to emerge from the continent.

Lute ayres

Also emerging from the Elizabethan court were ayres, solo songs, occasionally with more (usually three) parts, accompanied on a lute. Their popularity began with the publication of John Dowland's (1563–1626) First Booke of Songs or Ayres (1597). Dowland had travelled extensively in Europe and probably based his ayres on the Italian monody and French air de cour. His most famous ayres include "Come again", "Flow, my tears", "I saw my Lady weepe" and "In darkness let me dwell". The genre was further developed by Thomas Campion (1567–1620), whose Books of Airs (1601) (co-written with Philip Rosseter) containing over one hundred lute songs and which was reprinted four times in the 1610s. Although this printing boom died out in the 1620s ayres continued to be written and performed and were often incorporated into court masques.

Consort music

Consorts of instruments developed in the Tudor period in England as either 'whole' consorts, that is, all instruments of the same family (for example, a set of viols played together) and a 'mixed' or 'broken' consort, consisting of instruments from various families (for example viols and lute). Major forms of music composed for consorts included: fantasias, In Nomines, variations, dances, and fantasia-suites. Many of the major composers of the 16th and 17th centuries produced work for consorts, including William Byrd, Giovanni Coperario, Orlando Gibbons, John Jenkins and Henry Purcell.

Masques

Campion was also a composer of court masques, an elaborate performance involving music and dancing, singing and acting, within a complex stage design, in which the architectural framing and costumes might be designed by a renowned architect, such as Inigo Jones, to present a deferential allegory flattering to a noble or royal patron. These developed out of the medieval tradition of guising in the early Tudor period and became increasingly complex under Elizabeth I, James VI and I and Charles I. Professional actors and musicians were hired for the speaking and singing parts. Shakespeare included masque like sections in many of his plays and Ben Jonson is known to have written them. Often, the masquers who did not speak or sing were courtiers: James I's Queen Consort, Anne of Denmark, frequently danced with her ladies in masques between 1603 and 1611, and Charles I performed in the masques at his court. The masque largely ended with the closure of the theatres and the exile of the court under the Commonwealth.

Music in the theatre

Performances of Elizabethan and Jacobean plays frequently included the use of music, with performances on organs, lutes, viols and pipes for up to an hour before the actual performance, and texts indicates that they were used during the plays. Plays, perhaps particularly the heavier histories and tragedies, were frequently broken up with a short musical play, perhaps derived from the Italian intermezzo, with music, jokes and dancing, known as a 'jigg' and from which the jig dance derives its name. After the closure of the London theatres in 1642 these tendencies developed into sung plays that are recognisable as English Opera's, the first usually being thought of as William Davenant's (1606–68) The Siege of Rhodes (1656), originally given in a private performance. The development of native English opera had to wait for the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the patronage of Charles II.

James VI and I and Charles I 1567–1642

James VI, king of Scotland from 1567, was a major patron of the arts in general. He made statutory provision to reform and promote the teaching of music. He rebuilt the Chapel Royal at Stirling in 1594 and the choir was used for state occasions like the baptism of his son Henry. He followed the tradition of employing lutenists for his private entertainment, as did other members of his family. When he went south to take the throne of England in 1603 as James I, he removed one of the major sources of patronage in Scotland. The Scottish Chapel Royal was now used only for occasional state visits, beginning to fall into disrepair, and from now on the court in Westminster would be the only major source of royal musical patronage. When Charles I returned in 1633 to be crowned he brought many musicians from the English Chapel Royal for the service. Both James and his son Charles I, king from 1625, continued the Elizabethan patronage of church music, where the focus remained on settings of Anglican services and anthems, employing the long lived Bryd and then following in his footsteps composers such as Orlando Gibbons (1583–1625) and Thomas Tomkins (1572–1656). The emphasis on the liturgical content of services under Charles I, associated with Archbishop William Laud, meant a need for fuller musical accompaniment. In 1626 the musical establishment of the royal household was sufficient to necessitate the creation of a new office of 'Master of the King's Music' and probably the most important composer of the reign was William Lawes (1602–45), who produced fantasia suites, consort music for harp, viols and organ and music for individual instruments, including lutes. This establishment was disrupted by the outbreak of civil war in England in 1642, but a smaller musical establishment was kept at the King's alternative capital at Oxford for the duration of the conflict.

Civil War and Commonwealth 1642–60

The period between the ascendancy of Parliament in London in 1642, to the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, radically changed the pattern of British music. The loss of the court removed the major source of patronage, the theatres were closed in London in 1642 and certain forms of music, particularly those associated with traditional events or the liturgical calendar (like morris dancing and carols), and certain forms of church music, including collegiate choirs and organs, were discouraged or abolished where parliament was able to enforce its authority. There was, however, no Puritan ban on secular music and Cromwell had the organ from Magdalen College, Oxford set up at Hampton Court Palace and employed an organist and other musicians. Musical entertainment was provided at official receptions, and at the wedding of Cromwell's daughter. Since the opportunities for large scale composition and public performance were limited, music under the Protectorate became a largely private matter and flourished in domestic settings, particularly in the larger private houses. The consort of viols enjoyed a resurgence in popularity and leading composers of new pieces were John Jenkins and Matthew Locke. Christopher Simpson's work, The Division Violist, first published in 1659, was for many years the leading manual on playing the viol and on the art of extemporising "divisions to a ground", in Britain and continental Europe and is still used as a reference by early music revivalists.

See also
Classical music of the United Kingdom
Chronological list of Scottish classical composers
Music of the United Kingdom
Early music
Mary Remnant

Notes

Early music
British music history
History of the British Isles


Jean de Fontaney (1643–1710) was a French Jesuit who led a mission to China in 1687.

Jean de Fontaney had been a teacher of mathematics and astronomy at the College Louis le Grand. He was asked by king Louis XIV to set up a mission to China, following a request by Ferdinand Verbiest, in order to spread French and Catholic influence at the Chinese court with the pretext of transmitting scientific knowledge. Jean de Fontaney assembled a group of five other Jesuits to accompany him, all highly skilled in sciences, namely Joachim Bouvet, Jean-François Gerbillon, Louis-Daniel Lecomte, Guy Tachard, and Claude de Visdelou.

Guy Tachard remained in Siam where he was to have a major role, while Jean de Fontaney led the four remaining Fathers to China, where they arrived in February 1688. Upon their arrival in Beijing they were received by the Kangxi Emperor who was favorably impressed by them and retained Jean-François Gerbillion and Joachim Bouvet at the court.

Jean de Fontaney returned to Europe in 1702, where he became Rector of the Collège Royal Henry-Le-Grand in La Flèche until his death there in 1710.

See also
 Jesuit China missions

Notes

References
David E. Mungello Curious land: Jesuit accommodation and the origins of Sinology, University of Hawaii Press, 1989, ,

17th-century French Jesuits
1643 births
1710 deaths
18th-century French Jesuits
French Roman Catholic missionaries
Jesuit missionaries in China
French expatriates in China


Hamida Banu Shova (born 2 February 1954) is the founder and chairperson of Queens University, Bangladesh. She established this university in 1996.

Career
Shova is a former Jatiya Sangsad member. She served as female MP for constituency (Nilphamari-1) from 2001 to 2006 under the banner of the Awami League. She is nominated Assistant Secretaries of Sub-Committee of Bangladesh Awami League.

References

1954 births
Living people
Bangladeshi businesspeople
Awami League politicians
Women members of the Jatiya Sangsad
8th Jatiya Sangsad members
21st-century Bangladeshi women politicians


The Canton of Monthureux-sur-Saône is a former French administrative and electoral grouping of communes in the Vosges département of eastern France and in the region of Lorraine. It was disbanded following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015. It consisted of 11 communes, which joined the canton of Darney in 2015. It had 2,447 inhabitants (2012).

One of 13 cantons in the Arrondissement of Épinal, the Canton of Monthureux-sur-Saône had its administrative centre at Monthureux-sur-Saône.

Composition
The Canton of Monthureux-sur-Saône comprised the following 11 communes:

Ameuvelle
Bleurville
Claudon
Fignévelle
Gignéville
Godoncourt
Martinvelle
Monthureux-sur-Saône
Nonville
Regnévelle
Viviers-le-Gras

References

Monthureux-sur-Saone
2015 disestablishments in France
States and territories disestablished in 2015


Rod Laver won in the final of the Australian Indoor Tennis Championships singles event 3–6, 7–5, 6–3, 3–6, 6–4 against John Newcombe. Ken Rosewall won the play-off match for third place against Phil Dent in three sets, 4–6, 6–3, 6–0.

Draw

Section 1

Section 2

References

External links
 1973 Australian Indoor Championships draw

Singles


AS Adema 149–0 SO l'Emyrne was an association football match played on 31 October 2002 between two teams in Toamasina, Madagascar.  It holds the world record for the highest scoreline in any association football match, recognised by The Guinness Book of Records.  SO l'Emyrne (SOE) intentionally lost the game against their arch-rivals AS Adema in a pre-planned protest over refereeing decisions that had gone against them during a previous four-team playoff tournament. By some considerable margin, the match surpassed the previous-highest scoreline when Arbroath beat Bon Accord 36–0 in the Scottish Cup in 1885.

Overview
The match was part of a four-team round-robin play-off to determine the national championship. The league crown went to Adema after SOE, who were defending champions, was held to a 2–2 draw by DSA Antananarivo in their penultimate match, during which the referee awarded a late and disputed penalty to Antananarivo, resulting in a draw.

That draw meant that SOE was knocked out of the title race. With the championship already decided, SOE decided to protest; according to some sources, there was an argument between the SOE coach and the referee himself. SOE deliberately scored 149 own goals, with reports showing that after each kick-off, the ball was kicked into their own goal with the opposition players looking bemused. Spectators descended on the ticket booths to demand a refund.

Following the match, the Malagasy Football Federation (FMF) suspended SOE coach Ratsimandresy Ratsarazaka for three years and four of the team's players, SOE captain Manitranirina Andrianiaina, goalkeeper Dominique Rakotonandrasana, Mamisoa Razafindrakoto (who was the captain of the Madagascar national football team) and Nicolas Rakotoarimanana, were suspended until the end of the season and banned from visiting stadiums in the same period. All other players from both teams received a warning and a threat of more serious action should they commit further offenses. All of SOE's results accumulated during the 2002 season were forfeited by the FMF and the club eventually dissolved four years later.

The referee was not punished, as the situation was deemed to be out of his control, while Madagascar's sports ministry proceeded to dissolve the FMF, which was later reconstituted.

See also
Barbados 4–2 Grenada, where a Barbadian defender deliberately scored an own goal so his team could win by two goals in extra time according to an unconventional golden goal rule
Thailand 3–2 Indonesia, where an Indonesian defender deliberately scored an own goal to avoid his team facing hosts Vietnam in the semi-finals of the 1998 AFF Championship

References

External links

Association football controversies
Record association football wins
Football in Madagascar
2002 in Malagasy sport
2002 in African football
October 2002 sports events in Africa
2002 protests
Protests in Africa
Controversies in Africa
Highest-scoring association football matches


Bombus auricomus is a species of bumblebee known by the common name black and gold bumblebee. It is native to eastern North America, including Ontario in Canada and much of the eastern United States, as far west as the Great Plains.

This species creates above-ground nests in grassland and other open habitat types. It feeds at many types of plants, including thistles, prairie clovers, delphiniums, teasels, echinacea, bergamot, penstemons, clovers, and vetches.

This is a fairly large bumblebee; workers and males are about 1.7 to 2.0 cm long, while queens can be up to 2.5 cm in length.

This bee was previously thought to be conspecific with the Nevada bumblebee (B. nevadensis), but the two are now considered separate species.

References

Bumblebees
Insects described in 1903
Hymenoptera of North America


Bombus confusus is a species of bumblebee found in Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, and Switzerland.

Appearance
The functional morphology of Bombus confusus has been investigated (as well as others), and found that the males have enlarged eyes and a frontal zone with enlarged facets. This can be associated with improved spatial resolution and contrast sensitivity, all of which connect to the mating of the males.

Reproduction
Visual search for females was thought to be the only observed pre-mating behavior in Bombus confusus. Studies confirm that alongside visual search, labial gland secretion is also used to attract females.

References

Bumblebees
Insects described in 1859
Hymenoptera of Europe


Marilyn Wright may refer to:

Marilyn Wright, who, with her husband Ralph Wright, operates the Rock N Roll McDonald's in Chicago
Marilyn Wright, co-founder of British retailer Kiddicare