The Australian frontier wars were the violent conflicts between Indigenous Australians (including both Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) and  primarily British settlers during the colonial period of Australia. The first conflict took place several months after the landing of the First Fleet in January 1788, and the last frontier conflicts occurred in the early 20th century following the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901, with some occurring as late as 1934. An estimated minimum of 100,000 Indigenous Australians and 2,000-2,500 settlers died in the conflicts. Conflicts occurred in a number of locations across Australia.

Background and population

In 1770 an expedition from Great Britain under the command of then-Lieutenant James Cook made the first voyage by the British along the Australian east coast. On 29 April, Cook and a small landing party fired on a group of the local Dharawal nation who had sought to prevent them from landing at the foot of their camp at Botany Bay, described by Cook as "a small village". Two Dharawal men made threatening gestures and threw a stone at Cook's party. Cook then ordered "a musket to be fired with small-shot" and the elder of the two was hit in a leg. This caused the two Dharawal men to run to their huts and seize their spears and shields. Subsequently, a single spear was thrown toward the British party, which "happily hurt nobody". This then caused Cook to order "the third musket with small-shots" to be fired, "upon which one of them threw another lance and both immediately ran away". Cook did not make further contact with people of the Dharawal nation.

In his voyage up the east coast of Australia, Cook claimed to have observed no signs of agriculture or other development by its inhabitants. Some historians have argued that under prevailing European law such land was deemed terra nullius or land belonging to nobody or land "empty of inhabitants" (as defined by Emerich de Vattel), though this doctrine was overturned by the High Court of Australia decision in Mabo v Queensland (No 2). Cook wrote that he formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula.

The British Government decided to establish a prison colony in Australia in 1786. The law system practiced by Indigenous Australians was not necessarily understood or recognised in any official respect by settlers (language barriers made communication extremely difficult), and the English-speaking colony abided by its own legal doctrine. The colony's Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip, was instructed to "live in amity and kindness" with Indigenous Australians and sought to avoid conflict.

The British colonisation of Australia commenced with the First Fleet in mid-January 1788 in the south-east in what is now the federal state of New South Wales. This process then continued into Tasmania and Victoria from 1803 onward. Since then the population density of non-Indigenous people has remained highest in this region of the Australian continent. However, conflict with Aboriginal people was never as intense and bloody in the south-eastern colonies as in Queensland and the continent's northeast. More settlers, as well as Indigenous Australians, were killed on the Queensland frontier than in any other Australian colony. The reason is simple, and is reflected in all evidence and sources dealing with this subject: there were more Aboriginal people in Queensland. The territory of Queensland was the single most populated section of pre-contact Indigenous Australia, reflected not only in all pre-contact population estimates but also in the mapping of pre-contact Australia (see Horton's Map of Aboriginal Australia).

The Indigenous population distribution illustrated below is based on two independent sources, firstly on two population estimates made by anthropologists and a social historian in 1930 and in 1988, and secondly on the basis of the distribution of known tribal land.

All evidence suggests that the territory of Queensland had a pre-contact Indigenous population density more than double that of New South Wales, at least six times that of Victoria, and at least twenty times that of Tasmania. Equally, there are signs that the population density of Indigenous Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the Gulf of Carpentaria and westward including certain sections of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.

Impact of disease
The effects of disease, loss of hunting grounds and starvation of the Aboriginal population were significant. There are indications that smallpox epidemics may have impacted heavily on some Aboriginal communities, with depopulation in large sections of what is now Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland up to 50% or more, even before the move inland from Sydney of squatters and their livestock. Other diseases hitherto unknown in the Indigenous populationsuch as the common cold, flu, measles, venereal diseases and tuberculosisalso had an impact, significantly reducing their numbers and tribal cohesion, and so limiting their ability to adapt to or resist invasion and dispossession.

Traditional Aboriginal warfare

According to the historian John Connor, traditional Aboriginal warfare should be examined on its own terms and not by definitions of war derived from other societies. Aboriginal people did not have distinct ideas of war and peace, and traditional warfare was common, taking place between groups on an ongoing basis, with great rivalries being maintained over extended periods of time. The aims and methods of traditional Aboriginal warfare arose from their small autonomous social groupings. The fighting of a war to conquer enemy territory was not only beyond the resources of any of these Aboriginal groupings, it was contrary to a culture that was based on spiritual connections to a specific territory. Consequently, conquering another group's territory may have been seen to be of little benefit. Ultimately, traditional Aboriginal warfare was aimed at continually asserting the superiority of one's own group over its neighbours, rather than conquering, destroying or displacing neighbouring groups. As the explorer :Edward John Eyre observed in 1845, whilst Aboriginal culture was "so varied in detail", it was "similar in general outline and character", and Connor observes that there were sufficient similarities in weapons and warfare of these groups to allow generalisations about traditional Aboriginal warfare to be made.

In 1840, the American-Canadian ethnologist :Horatio Hale identified four types of Australian Aboriginal traditional warfare; formal battles, ritual trials, raids for women, and revenge attacks. Formal battles involved fighting between two groups of warriors, which ended after a few warriors had been killed or wounded, due to the need to ensure the ongoing survival of the groups. Such battles were usually fought to settle grievances between groups, and could take some time to prepare. Ritual trials involved the application of customary law to one or more members of a group who had committed a crime such as murder or assault. Weapons were used to inflict injury, and the criminal was expected to stand their ground and accept the punishment. Some Aboriginal men had effective property rights over women and raids for women were essentially about transferring property from one group to another to ensure the survival of a group through women's food-gathering and childbearing roles. The final type of Aboriginal traditional warfare described by Hale was the revenge attack, undertaken by one group against another to punish the group for the actions of one of its members, such as a murder. In some cases these involved sneaking into the opposition camp at night and silently killing one or more members of the group.

Connor describes traditional Aboriginal warfare as both limited and universal. It was limited in terms of:

the number of members of each group, which restricted the number of warriors in any given engagement;
the fact that their non-hierarchical social order militated against one leader combining many groups into a single force; and
duration, due to social groups needing to regularly hunt and forage for food.

Traditional Aboriginal warfare was also universal, as the entire community participated in warfare, boys learnt to fight by playing with toy melee and missile weapons, and every initiated male became a warrior. Women were sometimes participants in warfare as warriors and as encouragers on the sidelines of formal battles, but more often as victims.

While the selection and design of weapons varied from group to group, Aboriginal warriors used a combination of melee and missile weapons in traditional warfare. Spears, clubs and shields were commonly used in hand-to-hand fighting, with different types of shields favoured during exchanges of missiles and in close combat, and spears (often used in conjunction with spear throwers), boomerangs and stones used as missile weapons.

Available weapons had a significant influence over the tactics used during traditional Aboriginal warfare. The limitations of spears and clubs meant that surprise was paramount during raids for women and revenge attacks, and encouraged ambushing and night attacks. These tactics were offset by counter-measures such as regularly changing campsites, being prepared to extinguish camp-fires at short notice, and posting parties of warriors to cover the escape of raiders.

General history

First occupation
Initial peaceful relations between Indigenous Australians and Europeans began to be strained several months after the First Fleet established Sydney on 26 January 1788. The local Indigenous people became suspicious when the British began to clear land and catch fish, and in May 1788 five convicts were killed and an Indigenous man was wounded. The British grew increasingly concerned when groups of up to three hundred Indigenous people were sighted at the outskirts of the colony in June. Despite this, Phillip attempted to avoid conflict, and forbade reprisals after being speared in 1790. He did, however, authorise two punitive expeditions in December 1790 after his huntsman was killed by an Indigenous warrior named Pemulwuy, but neither was successful.

Coastal and inland expansion
During the 1790s and early 19th century the British occupied areas along the Australian coastline. These settlements initially occupied small amounts of land, and there was little conflict between the colonisers and Indigenous peoples. Fighting broke out when the settlements expanded, however, disrupting traditional Indigenous food-gathering activities, and subsequently followed the pattern of European invasion in Australia for the next 150 years. Whilst the reactions of the Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden invasion by the British were varied, they became hostile when their presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of their lands. European diseases decimated Indigenous populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation. By and large neither the Europeans nor the Indigenous peoples approached the conflict in an organized sense, with the conflict more one between groups of colonizers and individual Indigenous groups rather than systematic warfare, even if at times it did involve British soldiers and later formed mounted police units. Not all Indigenous Australians resisted European encroachment on their lands either, whilst many also served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes. Colonizers in turn often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres.
European activities provoking significant conflict included pastoral squatting and gold rushes.

Unequal weaponry

Opinions differ on whether to depict the conflict as one-sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Indigenous Australians or not. Although tens of thousands more Indigenous Australians died than Europeans, some cases of mass killing were not massacres but quasi-military defeats, and the higher death toll was also caused by the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by Europeans. Indigenous tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices—utilizing spears, clubs and other simple weapons. Unlike the cases with the American Indian Wars and New Zealand Wars, in the main, the indigenous peoples failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans, and although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread. In reality, the Indigenous peoples were never a serious military threat, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them. On occasions large groups attacked Europeans in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aboriginal residents would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears whilst settlers reloaded. Usually, however, such open warfare proved more costly for the Indigenous Australians than the Europeans.

Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms, but the advantages this afforded have often been overstated. Prior to the 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot weapons with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, whilst suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have given the Aboriginal residents some advantages, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. However, by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Indigenous Australians, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Strategies employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive Aboriginal people off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.

Dispersed frontiers

Fighting between Indigenous Australians and European settlers was localized, as Indigenous groups did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. Conflict emerged as a series of violent engagements, and massacres across the continent. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralization".

The Caledon Bay crisis of 1932–34 saw one of the last incidents of violent interaction on the "frontier" of indigenous and non-indigenous Australia, which began when the spearing of Japanese poachers who had been molesting Yolngu women was followed by the killing of a policeman. As the crisis unfolded, national opinion swung behind the Aboriginal people involved, and the first appeal on behalf of an Indigenous Australian, Dhakiyarr Wirrpanda, was launched to the High Court of Australia in Tuckiar v The King. Following the crisis, the anthropologist Donald Thomson was dispatched by the government to live among the Yolngu. Elsewhere around this time, activists like Sir Douglas Nicholls were commencing their campaigns for Aboriginal rights within the established Australian political system and the age of frontier conflict closed.

Frequent friendly relations

Frontier encounters in Australia were not universally negative. Positive accounts of Aboriginal customs and encounters are also recorded in the journals of early European explorers, who often relied on Aboriginal guides and assistance: Charles Sturt employed Aboriginal envoys to explore the Murray-Darling; the lone survivor of the Burke and Wills expedition was nursed by local Aboriginal residents, and the famous Aboriginal explorer Jackey Jackey loyally accompanied his ill-fated friend Edmund Kennedy to Cape York. Respectful studies were conducted by such as Walter Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen in their renowned anthropological study The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899); and by Donald Thomson of Arnhem Land (c.1935–1943). In inland Australia, the skills of Aboriginal stockmen became highly regarded.

New South Wales

Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars

The first frontier war began in 1795 when encroaching British settlers established farms along the Hawkesbury River west of Sydney. Some of these settlements were established by soldiers as a means of providing security to the region. Local Darug people raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched a detachment of the 46th Regiment of Foot in 1816. This detachment patrolled the Hawkesbury Valley and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in an ambush on their campsite. Indigenous Australians led by Pemulwuy also conducted raids around Parramatta during the period between 1795 and 1802. These attacks led Governor Philip Gidley King to issue an order in 1801 which authorised settlers to shoot Indigenous Australians on sight in Parramatta, Georges River and Prospect areas.

Bathurst War

Conflict began again when the British expanded into inland New South Wales. Settlers who crossed the Blue Mountains were harassed by Wiradjuri warriors, who killed or wounded stock-keepers and stock and were subjected to retaliatory killings. In response, Governor Brisbane proclaimed martial law on 14 August 1824 to end "the Slaughter of Black Women and Children, and unoffending White Men". It remained in force until 11 December 1824, when it was proclaimed that "the judicious and humane Measures pursued by the Magistrates assembled at Bathurst have restored Tranquillity without Bloodshed". There is a display of the weaponry and history of this conflict at the National Museum of Australia. This includes a commendation by Governor Brisbane of the deployment of the troops under Major Morisset:
I felt it necessary to augment the Detachment at Bathurst to 75 men who were divided into various small parties, each headed by a Magistrate who proceeded in different directions in towards the interior of the Country ... This system of keeping these unfortunate People in a constant state of alarm soon brought them to a sense of their Duty, and ... Saturday their great and most warlike Chieftain has been with me to receive his pardon and that He, with most of His Tribe, attended the annual conference held here on the 28th Novr....

Brisbane also established the New South Wales Mounted Police, who began as mounted infantry from the third Regiment, and were first deployed against bushrangers around Bathurst in 1825. Later they were deployed to the upper Hunter Region in 1826 after fighting broke out there between Wonnarua and Kamilaroi people and settlers.

Wars on the plains

From the 1830s settlers spread rapidly through inland eastern Australia, leading to widespread conflict. War took place across the Liverpool Plains, with 16 British and up to 500 Indigenous Australians being killed between 1832 and 1838. The violence in this region included several massacres of Indigenous people, including the Waterloo Creek massacre and Myall Creek massacres in 1838, and did not end until 1843. Further violence took place in the New England region during the early 1840s.

Tasmania

The British established a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803. Relations with the local Indigenous people were generally peaceful until the mid-1820s when pastoral expansion caused conflict over land. This led to sustained frontier warfare (the "Black War"), and in some districts farmers were forced to fortify their houses. Over 50 British were killed between 1828 and 1830 in what was the "most successful Aboriginal resistance in Australia's history".

In 1830 Lieutenant-Governor Arthur attempted to end the "Black War" through a massive offensive. In an operation which became known as the "Black Line" ten percent of the colony's male civilian population were mobilised and marched across the settled districts in company with police and soldiers in an attempt to clear Indigenous Australians from the area. While few Indigenous people were captured, the operation discouraged the Indigenous raiding parties, and they gradually agreed to leave their land for a reservation which had been established at Flinders Island.

Western Australia

The first British settlement in Western Australia was established by a detachment of soldiers at Albany in 1826. Relations between the garrison and the local Minang people were generally good. Open conflict between people of the Noongar nation and European settlers broke out in Western Australia in the 1830s as the Swan River Colony expanded from Perth. The Pinjarra massacre, the best known single event, occurred on 28 October 1833 when a party of British colonisers led by Governor Stirling attacked an Indigenous campsite on the banks of the Murray River.

The Noongar nation, forced from traditional hunting grounds and denied access to sacred sites, turned to stealing settlers' crops and killing livestock to survive. In 1831 a Noongar person was murdered for taking potatoes; this resulted in Yagan killing a servant of the household, as was the response permitted under Noongar law. In 1832 Yagan and two others were arrested and sentenced to death, but settler Robert Menli Lyon argued that Yagan was defending his land from invasion and therefore should be treated as a prisoner of war. The argument was successful and the three men were exiled to Carnac Island under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers. The group later escaped from the island.

Fighting continued into the 1840s along the Avon River near York.

In the Busselton region, relations between white settlers and the Wardandi people were strained to the point of violence, resulting in several Aboriginal deaths. In June 1841, George Layman was speared to death by Wardandi Elder Gaywal. According to one source, Layman had got involved in an argument between Gaywal and another Wardandi person over their allocation of damper, and had pulled Gaywal's beard, which was considered a grave insult. According to another source, Layman had hired two of Gaywal's wives to work on his farm and would not let them go back to their husbands. A manhunt for Layman's killer went on for several weeks, involving much bloodshed as Captain John Molloy, the Bussell brothers, and troops murdered unknown numbers of Aboriginal residents in what has become known as the Wonnerup massacre. The posse eventually murdered Gaywal and abducted his three sons, two of whom were imprisoned on Rottnest Island.

The discovery of gold near Coolgardie in 1892 brought thousands of prospectors onto Wangkathaa land, causing sporadic fighting.

Continued European settlement and expansion in Western Australia led to further frontier conflict, Bunuba warriors also attacked European settlements during the 1890s until Bunuba leader Jandamarra was killed in 1897. Sporadic conflict continued in northern Western Australia until the 1920s, with a Royal Commission held in 1926 finding that at least eleven Indigenous Australians had been murdered in the Forrest River massacre by a police expedition in retaliation for the death of a European.

South Australia

South Australia was settled in 1836 with no convicts and a unique plan for settlers to purchase land in advance of their arrival, which was intended to ensure a balance of landowners and farm workers in the colony. The Colonial Office was very conscious of the recent history of the earlier occupations in the eastern states, where there was a significant conflict with the Aboriginal population. On the initial Proclamation Day in 1836 Governor Hindmarsh, made a brief statement that explicitly stated how the native population should be treated. He said in part:

Governor Gawler declared in 1840 that Aboriginal people "have exercised distinct, defined, and absolute right or proprietary and hereditary possession ... from time immemorial". The Governor ordered land to be set aside for the Aboriginal population, but there was bitter opposition from settlers who insisted on a right to choose the best land. Eventually, the land was available to Aboriginal people only if it promoted their "Christianisation" and they became farmers.

The designation of the Aboriginal population as British citizens gave them rights and responsibilities of which they had no knowledge and ignored existing Aboriginal customary law. However, Aboriginal people could not testify in court, since, not being Christians, they could not swear an oath on a bible. There was also great difficulty in translation. The intentions of those establishing and leading the new colony soon came into conflict with the fears of Aboriginal people and the new settlers. "In South Australia, as across Australia's other colonies, the failure to adequately deal with Aboriginal rights to land was fundamental to the violence that followed."

Soon after the colony was established, large numbers of sheep and cattle were brought overland from the eastern colonies. There were many instances of conflict between Aboriginal people and the drovers, with the former desiring the protection of the Country and the latter quick to shoot to protect themselves and their flocks. One expedition leader (Buchanan) recorded at least six conflicts and the deaths of eight Aboriginal people.

In 1840 the ship Maria was wrecked at Cape Jaffa, on the southeast coast. A search party found that all 26 survivors of the wreck had been massacred. The Governor summoned the Executive Council under martial law and a police party was sent to the district to deliver summary justice against the local Indigenous people. The police party apprehended a number of Aboriginal people; two men were implicated, tried by a tribunal from members of the expedition, found guilty, and hanged. There was a vigorous debate in the colony between those approving the immediate punishment for the massacre and those condemning this form of justice outside the normal law.

The town of Port Lincoln, which was readily accessible by sea from Adelaide, became an early new settlement. A small number of shepherds began to steal land that was home to a large Aboriginal population. Deaths on both sides occurred and settlers demanded better protection. Police and soldiers were sent to the Eyre Peninsula but were often ineffective due to the size of the area and the number of isolated settlements. By the mid-1840s, after conflicts sometimes involving large numbers of Aboriginal people, the greater lethality of the white people's weapons had an effect. Several alleged leaders of attacks by Aboriginal people were tried and executed in Adelaide.

The experience of the Port Lincoln settlement on the Eyre Peninsula was repeated in the South East of the state and in the north as settlers encroached on the Aboriginal population. The government attempted to apply the sentiments of the state's proclamation, but the contradictions between these sentiments and the dispossession that the settlement involved made conflict inevitable.

Victoria
Fighting also took place in early pre-separation Victoria after it was settled in 1834.

In 1833–34, the battle for rights to a beached whale between whalers and people of the Gunditjmara nation resulted in the Convincing Ground massacre near Portland, Victoria.

The 1836 Mount Cottrell massacre was a reprisal for the killing of a prominent Van Diemen's Land squatter Charles Franks who squatted on land west of the Melbourne's fledgling settlement.

A clash at Benalla in 1838 known as the Battle of Broken River of which at least seven white settlers were killed, marked the beginning of the frontier conflict in the colony which lasted for fifteen years.

In 1839 the reprisal raid against Aboriginal resistance in central Victoria resulted in the Campaspe Plains massacre.

The Indigenous groups in Victoria concentrated on economic warfare, killing tens of thousands of sheep. Large numbers of British settlers arrived in Victoria during the 1840s and rapidly outnumbered the Indigenous population.

From 1840, the Eumerella Wars took place in southwest Victoria, and many years of violence occurred during the Warrigal Creek and Gippsland massacres.

In 1842, white settlers from the Port Fairy area wrote a letter to the Charles Latrobe requesting the government improve security from "outrages committed by natives" and listing many incidents of conflict and economic warfare. An excerpt of the letter printed on 10 June:

In the late 1840s, frontier conflict continued in the Wimmera.

Queensland

The frontier wars were particularly bloody and bitter in Queensland, owing to its comparatively large Indigenous population. This point is emphasised in a 2011 study by Ørsted-Jensen, which by use of two different sources calculated that colonial Queensland must have accounted for upwards of one-third and close to forty percent of the Indigenous population of the pre-contact Australian continent.

Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of Indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony. In 2009 professor Raymond Evans calculated the Indigenous fatalities caused by the Queensland Native Police Force alone as no less than 24,000. In July 2014, Evans, in cooperation with the Danish historian Robert Ørsted-Jensen, presented the first-ever attempt to use statistical modeling and a database covering no less than 644 collisions gathered from primary sources, and ended up with total fatalities suffered during Queensland's frontier wars being no less than 66,680—with Aboriginal fatalities alone comprising no less than 65,180—whereas the hitherto commonly accepted minimum overall continental deaths had previously been 20,000. The 66,680 covers Native Police and settler-inflicted fatalities on Aboriginal people, but also a calculated estimate for Aboriginal inflicted casualties on whites settlers and their associates. The continental death toll of Europeans and associates has previously been roughly estimated as between 2,000 and 2,500, yet there is now evidence that Queensland alone accounted for an estimated 1,500 of these fatal frontier casualties.

The European settlement of what is now Queensland commenced as the Moreton Bay penal settlement from September 1824. It was initially located at Redcliffe but moved south to Brisbane River a year later. Free settlement began in 1838, with settlement rapidly expanding in a great rush to take up the surrounding land in the Darling Downs, Logan and Brisbane Valley and South Burnett onwards from 1840, in many cases leading to widespread fighting and heavy loss of life. The conflict later spread north to the Wide Bay and Burnett River and Hervey Bay region, and at one stage the settlement of Maryborough was virtually under siege. Both sides committed atrocities, with settlers poisoning a large number of Indigenous people, for example at Kilcoy on the South Burnett in 1842 and on Whiteside near Brisbane in 1847, and Indigenous warriors killing 19 settlers during the Cullin-La-Ringo massacre on 17 October 1861. At the Battle of One Tree Hill in September 1843, Multuggerah and his group of warriors ambushed one group of settlers, routing them and subsequently others in the skirmishes which followed, starting in retaliation for the Kilcoy poisoning.

Queensland's Native Police Force was formed by the Government of New South Wales in 1848, under the well-connected Commandant Frederick Walker.

Major massacres

The largest reasonably well-documented massacres in southeast Queensland were the Kilcoy and Whiteside poisonings, each of which was said to have taken up to 70 Aboriginal lives by use of a gift of flour laced with strychnine. Central Queensland was particularly hard hit during the 1860s and 1870s, several contemporary writers mention the Skull Hole, Bladensburg, or Mistake Creek massacre on Bladensburg Station near Winton, which in 1901 was said to have taken up to 200 Aboriginal lives.

In 1869 the Port Denison Times reported that "Not long ago 120 aboriginals disappeared on two occasions forever from the native records". Frontier violence peaked on the northern mining frontier during the 1870s, most notably in Cook district and on the Palmer and Hodgkinson River goldfields, with heavy loss of Aboriginal lives and several well-known massacres. Battle Camp and Cape Bedford belong among the best-known massacres of Aboriginal people in the Cook district, but they were certainly not the only ones. The Cape Bedford massacre on 20 February 1879 alone was reported to have taken as many as 28 lives, this was retaliation for the injuring (but not killing) of two white "cedar-getters" from Cooktown. In January 1879 Carl Feilberg, the editor of the short-lived Brisbane Daily News (later editor-in-chief of the Brisbane Courier), conveyed a report from a "gentleman, on whose words reliance can be placed" that he had after just "one of these raids ... counted as many as seventy-five natives dead or dying upon the ground".

Raids conducted by the Kalkadoon held settlers out of Western Queensland for ten years until September 1884 when they attacked a force of settlers and native police at Battle Mountain near modern Cloncurry. The subsequent battle of Battle Mountain ended in disaster for the Kalkadoon, who suffered heavy losses. Fighting continued in North Queensland, however, with Indigenous raiders attacking sheep and cattle while native police mounted punitive expeditions. Two reports from 1884 and 1889 written by one of the prime combatants of the Kalkadoons, Sub-inspector of Native Police (later Queensland Police Commissioner) Frederic Charles Urquhart described how he and his detachment pursued and killed up to 150 Aboriginal people in just three or four so-called "dispersals" (he provided numbers up to about 80 of these killings, the rest was just described without estimating the actual toll).

The conflict in Queensland was the bloodiest in the history of colonial Australia. Some studies give evidence of some 1,500 whites and associates (meaning Aboriginal servants, as well as Chinese, Melanesian, and other non-Europeans) killed on the Queensland frontier during the 19th century, while others suggest that upwards of 65,000 Aboriginal people were killed, with sections of Central and North Queensland witnessing particularly heavy fighting. 65,000 is, of course, an estimate, and notably much higher than the more commonly-held belief of a national minimum of 20,000 colonial Aboriginal casualties.

Some sources have characterized these events as genocide.

Northern Territory
The British made three early attempts to establish military outposts in northern Australia. The initial settlement at Fort Dundas on Melville Island was established in 1824 but was abandoned in 1829 due to attacks from the local Tiwi people. Some fighting also took place near Fort Wellington on the Cobourg Peninsula between its establishment in 1827 and abandonment in 1829. The third British settlement, Fort Victoria, was also established on the Cobourg Peninsula in 1838 but was abandoned in 1849.

The final battles took place in the Northern Territory. A permanent settlement was established at modern-day Darwin in 1869 and attempts by pastoralists to occupy Indigenous land led to conflict. This fighting continued into the 20th century, and was driven by reprisals against European deaths and the pastoralists' desire to secure the land they had stolen from Indigenous people. At least 31 Indigenous men were killed by police in the Coniston massacre in 1928 and further reprisal expeditions were conducted in 1932 and 1933.

Historiography

Armed resistance to British invasion was generally given little attention by historians until the 1970s, and was not regarded as a "war". In 1968 anthropologist W. E. H. Stanner wrote that historians' failure to include Indigenous Australians in histories of Australia or acknowledge the Frontier Wars constituted a "great Australian silence". Works which discussed the conflicts began to appear during the 1970s and 1980s, and the first history of the Australian frontier told from an Indigenous perspective, Henry Reynolds' The Other Side of the Frontier, was published in 1982.

Between 2000 and 2002 Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in the magazine Quadrant and the book The Fabrication of Aboriginal History. These works argued that there had not been prolonged frontier warfare in Australia, and that historians had in some instances fabricated evidence of fighting. Windschuttle's claims led to the so-called "history wars" in which historians debated the extent of the conflict between Indigenous Australians and European settlers.

The frontier wars are not commemorated at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The Memorial argues that the Australian frontier fighting is outside its charter as it did not involve Australian military forces. This position is supported by the Returned and Services League of Australia but is opposed by many historians, including Geoffrey Blainey, Gordon Briscoe, John Coates, John Connor, Ken Inglis, Michael McKernan and Peter Stanley. These historians argue that the fighting should be commemorated at the Memorial as it involved large numbers of Indigenous Australians and paramilitary Australian units. In September 2022, after the premiere of the SBS documentary series The Australian Wars, the War Memorial's outgoing chair, former government minister Brendan Nelson announced the Memorial's governing council would work towards a "much broader, a much deeper depiction and presentation of the violence committed against Indigenous people, initially by British, then by pastoralists, then by police, and then by Aboriginal militia". In response to the announcement, filmmaker Rachel Perkins said, "In the making of our series, we worked closely with the War Memorial ... [but] I never saw this coming. I thought, 'Maybe in a generation'... but not right now ... It is a watershed moment in Australian history. It can't be underestimated, the change that this heralds."

See also

 List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
 List of conflicts in Australia
 Musquito a warrior of the Gai-Mariagal nation
 Tarenorerer, also known as Walyer, Waloa or Walloa was a rebel leader of the Indigenous Australians in Tasmania
 Tunnerminnerwait was an Australian Aboriginal resistance fighter and from the Parperloihener nation in Tasmania
 Windradyne warrior and resistance leader of the Wiradjuri nation
 Arauco War and Conquest of the Desert, comparable events in Chile and Argentina
 Historical Records of Australia
 The Great Trek, Xhosa Wars, and Anglo-Zulu war; comparable events in South Africa
 Russian conquest of the Caucasus; comparable events in Russia

Footnotes

Citations

References

  (Estimates of 19th century Aboriginal Frontier death toll, see "Part One, Massacres" chapter 1, The Country Has Another Past: Queensland and the History Wars by Raymond Evans).

  (abstract)

Further reading

External links

 Telling the Stories of Queensland - Frontier Wars, State Library of Queensland Vimeo
 History and Fiction: Mapping Frontier Violence in Colonial Queensland Writing, State Library of Queensland blog
 Stories from the Archive: Queensland Frontier Wars, Queensland State Archives

Genocides in Oceania-Pacific
History of Australia (1788–1850)
History of Australia (1851–1900)
History of Australia (1901–1945)
18th-century conflicts
19th-century conflicts
20th-century conflicts
Violence against Indigenous Australians
Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Oceania
Proxy wars


Sujina (; ) is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 16,543 (2017), predominantly Uzbeks (Barlas)

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Hoërskool Dinamika is a public Afrikaans and English parallel-medium, co-educational high school situated in a suburb of Brackenhurst in the city of Alberton in the Gauteng province of South Africa.  Hoërskool Dinamika maintains a high standard in leadership, culture and sport.

Music Festival

Hoërskool Dinamika held an annual music festival, where some of the biggest bands and well-known artists from South Africa performed.  The annual music festival—better known as the "TusseniPale Musiekfees" ("Between the posts - Music festival") - was started by Sandra Pretorius,(Stemmet, now living in Canberra, Australia) a former teacher of the school. It was first held in 2005, where The Finkelstiens, Shine4, Melkertkommissie and ddisselblom were among the top performers.

Gerhard Steyn also featured in the first annual music festival and was one of the first acts of a group called Vonk. He did not get as much attention as most of the other bands as he was still new to the industry.

Namies Online
Hoërskool Dinamika has its own social network, created by Ruan van Heerden in early 2009 and hosted freely on the Ning platform. The social network has a small following of which most is old alumni and a few freshmen pupils. The network is open for all alumni to join and was originally intended for the sharing of information in the Afrikaans language.

The network shut down on Friday August 20, 2010 due to Ning closing all free accounts. Since then, several students and alumni requested for it to be reinstated. The Namies Online network restarted on its own .net server on 19 September 2011, choosing to use Elgg software - an open source solution.

Notable alumni
 André Pretorius

External links
 Official Hoërskool Dinamika website
 Official Hoërskool Dinamika Social Network

Afrikaans-language schools
Christian schools in South Africa
Schools in Gauteng
Alberton, Gauteng
Educational institutions established in 1993
1993 establishments in South Africa


Moghiyon () is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 19,553 (2015). It consists of 12 villages, including Puli Girdob (the seat), Ghezani Bolo and Ghezani-Poyon.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Kosatarosh is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 18,986 (2015). It consists of 11 villages, including Novichomoq (the seat), Kosatarosh, Bedak, Jomchashma, Filmandar, Ganji Nihon, Chorbogh and Jilav.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Loiq Sherali (, formerly: Kolkhozchiyon) is a jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 18,765 (2015). It consists of 7 villages, including Gusar (the seat), Navobod and Zavron.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Rudaki (; /) is a jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in the Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 15,039 (2015). It consists of 13 villages, including Kuloli (the seat), Artuch and Yakkakhona.

The village, once a part of Persia, is the birthplace of the poet Rudaki.

Notes

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Chinor is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 6,879 (2015). It consists of 5 villages, including Nuriston (the seat), Chinor and Sharshara.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Claytonia umbellata is a species of wildflower in the purslane family known by the common name Great Basin springbeauty. It is native to the Great Basin of the United States, where it grows mainly in subalpine coniferous forests, often on north-facing exposed slopes in the talus. It is a perennial herb growing from a tuberous root up to 5 centimeters wide and a thin taproot. Most of the stem develops underground, as do the petioles of the most basal leaves. Above the ground appear a few oval-shaped fleshy red to green leaves and an inflorescence of up to 12 flowers. Each flower has five magenta to deeply pink-tinted white petals.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
Photo gallery
Flora North America

Plants described in 1871
umbellata
Flora of the Great Basin
Flora without expected TNC conservation status


Finnish Islamic Party (, ) is an Islamist association in Finland that unsuccessfully aimed for the status of a registered political party. It was founded in September 2007 by Abdullah Tammi. Its founders are Finnish converts to Islam.

References

External links

Islamic organisations based in Finland
Civic and political organisations of Finland
Islamic political parties
Islamism in Europe
Political parties established in 2007
Political organisations based in Finland
Non-registered political parties in Finland
2007 establishments in Finland
Multiculturalism in Europe


Shing is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 10,873 (2015). It consists of 16 villages, including Shing (the seat), Gizhdarva, Vagashton and Zamchorroha.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Khalifa Hassan is a jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 14,728 (2015). It consists of 7 villages, including Zebon.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Yori (; ) is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is part of the city of Panjakent in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 19,045 (2015). It consists of 11 villages, including Yori (the seat), Dashtiqozy, Kishtudak and Veshist.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Darren Stride (born 28 September 1975) is an English former professional association football footballer.

Playing as a central defender or in other utility roles including centre forward, Stride captained the Burton Albion side for 12 years.

Stride has recently completed his coaching qualifications and is looking to move into management.

Career
Stride had been part of the first team since progressing from the Burton youth team, and had subsequently become the club's record holder for most appearances. He had also played in every single position during his time at the club, including as an emergency goalkeeper.

Stride was released at the end of the 2009–10 after 17 years with the club. He subsequently joined Alfreton Town on a one-year deal in August 2010. Stride captained Alfreton on his debut, a 1–0 win against Hinckley United. Stride and Alfreton Town went on to win the Conference North however he was released at the end of the season, after which he signed for Chasetown.

Stride made 23 appearances for Chasetown, scoring one goal, before leaving the club in 2012.

Honours
with Burton Albion
Northern Premier League: 2002
Conference National: 2009

with Alfreton Town
Conference North: 2011

References

External links

 Squad Member Profile - Darren Stride at BurtonAlbionFC.co.uk

1975 births
Living people
Footballers from Burton upon Trent
English men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Burton Albion F.C. players
Alfreton Town F.C. players
Chasetown F.C. players
National League (English football) players
English Football League players
Northern Premier League players
Southern Football League players


Line 14 of the Shanghai Metro is an east-west metro line opened on 30 December 2021. The line, consisting of 31 stations, starts from Fengbang town in Jiading District, and terminate in Jinqiao town in Pudong New Area via , , , and . Its total length is , and passengers are able to transfer to 13 existing and planned metro lines. Due to Line 14 cutting across some of the densest areas of Shanghai and being a relief line for line 2, high ridership is expected for the line. As such the line uses high capacity 8 car A size trains similar to lines 1 and 2. The line uses an automatic train control system jointly developed by Thales and Shanghai Electric. Line 14 is fully driverless. The line is colored olive on system maps.

History
Environmental evaluations began on January 2, 2014. On November 29, 2014, construction began on a section in Pudong New Area.

The line was originally scheduled to open in 2020, but its opening was delayed to 30 December 2021. Longju Road station has not been opened yet, due to problems with land acquisition process.

Stations

Service routes
{|border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;" class="mw-collapsible"
! colspan="11" style="text-align: center" bgcolor=# |
|-
| colspan="11" style="text-align: left" |
 M - Mainline:  ↔
 P - Partial mainline: Zhenxin Xincun ↔
|-bgcolor=#
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" rowspan="1" |
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |
|-bgcolor=#
! rowspan="1" |  ||
!
!
! colspan="2" |
!
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|0.0
|0.0
|0
|rowspan="6"|Jiading
|rowspan="23"| 30 Dec 2021
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.61
|1.61
|2
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.65
|3.26
|4
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|Jiayi Road
|
|
|1.55
|4.81
|7
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|Dingbian Road
|
|
|1.41
|6.22
|9
|-
|align="center"|● ||align="center"|●
|Zhenxin Xincun
|
|
|1.24
|7.46
|11
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.00
|8.46
|13
|rowspan="6"|Putuo
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.31
|9.77
|15
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.92
|10.69
|17
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.90
|11.59
|20
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.10
|12.69
|22
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.05
|13.74
|24
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.97
|14.71
|26
|rowspan="2"|Jing'an
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.03
|15.74
|28
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|3.07
|18.81
|32
|rowspan="3"|Huangpu
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.71
|19.52
|34
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.74
|20.26
|36
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.60
|21.86
|39
|rowspan="14"|Pudong
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.01
|22.87
|41
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|0.74
|23.61
|43
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.05
|24.66
|45
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.06
|25.72
|47
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.23
|26.95
|49
|- bgcolor="lightgrey"
|align="center"|｜  || align="center"| ｜
|
|
|
|1.02
|27.97
|
| Later opening due to land acquisition process
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|2.05
|30.02
|53
|rowspan="7"| 30 Dec 2021
|-
|align="center"|●||align="center"|●
|
|
|
|1.16
|31.18
|56
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.86
|33.04
|58
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|0.88
|33.92
|60
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.49
|35.41
|63
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.28
|36.69
|65
|-
|align="center"|● ||
|
|
|
|1.49
|38.18
|67
|- style = "background:#; height: 2pt"
| colspan = "11" |
|-
| colspan = "11" |
|- style = "background: #; height: 2pt;"
| colspan = "11" |
|}

Important stations

Future expansion
Longju Road station will maybe open in 2040.

Headways

Technology

Rolling Stock

References

2021 establishments in China
Railway lines opened in 2021
Shanghai Metro lines


Dehmoy is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is located in Jabbor Rasulov District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 14,802 (2015).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


MSC Beatrice is one of the largest container ships in the world. She has a maximum capacity of 13,798 twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU), or 10,500 TEU (14 t each) and is  long. Because of her size the deckhouse was moved forward. This solution increases container capacity as well as improves torsional strength

She is the second of eight  vessels ordered from Samsung Heavy Industries, with another four class vessels ordered from Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering (DSME), a company spun-off from Daewoo in 2000.

Despite her larger claimed capacity, MSC Beatrice is neither the longest container ship in the world, nor does it have the largest tonnage. With a length of nearly , the   is the longest container ship in the world, but Maersk, her Danish owners, using a different basis of calculating capacity, initially only claimed a , but now list a container carrying capacity of 18,000 TEU. Maersk Mc-Kinney Møller is the first of a class of 20 identical Triple E vessels.

References

Container ships
Ships built by Samsung Heavy Industries
2009 ships


Gulkhona () is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is located in Jabbor Rasulov District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 24,077 (2015). It consists of 11 villages, including Gulkhona (the seat) and Lolazor (formerly: Kayragach).

Name
Gulkhona in Persian means place of flowers. Gol means flower, Khana/Khona means place/house.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


The Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen (LOB) Corpus is a one-million-word collection of British English texts which was compiled in the 1970s in collaboration between the University of Lancaster, the University of Oslo, and the Norwegian Computing Centre for the Humanities, Bergen, to provide a British counterpart to the Brown Corpus compiled by Henry Kučera and W. Nelson Francis for American English in the 1960s.

Its composition was designed to match the original Brown corpus in terms of its size and genres as closely as possible using documents published in the UK in 1961 by British authors. Both corpora consist of 500 samples each comprising about 2000 words in the following genres:

The corpus has been also tagged, i.e. part-of-speech categories have been assigned to every word.

References

External links

 LOB Corpus Manual
 LOB Corpus from the Oxford Text Archive

1970s establishments in the United Kingdom
1970s establishments in Norway
1970s works
Lancaster University
University of Oslo
English corpora
Linguistic research
Applied linguistics
Corpora


Porkkalam () is a 2010 Indian Tamil-language action film Directed, Saroj Kumar. Starring Kishore of Polladhavan and Vennila Kabadi Kuzhu fame, Tinnu Anand, who starred in Mani Ratnam's Nayakan and Bombay, comedy actor Sathyan and Smitha, a newcomer from Karnataka, in lead roles and seven artists as Villains, the film has musical score by Rohit Kulkarni. The film was released on 14 January 2010.

Cast
 Kishore as Karnan
 Tinnu Anand as Bhismaki
 Sathyan as Sathya
 Smitha as Sneha
 Lal as Aslam Bhai
 Sampath Raj as Dhronam Raju
 Biju Menon as Inspector Rangasamy
 Santhana Bharathi
 Ponvannan as Pasupathy
 Rajesh as Karnan's Father
 Atheesh as Obulage
 Srinivasan
 Joe Anthony
 Santhoshi as Karnan's mother

Production
The first schedule was shot in late 2008 in various places in Tamil Nadu including Dhanushkodi, Madurai, Tenkasi, Thiruchendur, Karaikudi and Rameswaram. Following this, the film's second schedule was shot from 13 October 2008 to 26 November 2008 in the parts of Chennai and Puducherry and in the Ramoji Film City, in Hyderabad, while in January 2009, the third and last schedule was shot in several places in Thailand. The film was also heavily publicized through the internet prior through release, on social networking sites.

Release

Reception
The film opened in a few centres across Chennai, Tamil Nadu to an average opening. The film which grossed Rs. 5,70,286 in the opening weekend in Chennai and became a failure at the box-office. Baradwaj Rangan of The Hindu wrote,"In Porkalam, the first-time director Bandi Saroj Kumar (who’s barely in his mid-twenties, I hear) takes the visual-narrative to a wholly different level, in the sense that this is a film that might actually have worked without dialogue."

Soundtrack

Film score and the soundtrack are composed by Rohit Kulkarni, despite early indications that Yuvan Shankar Raja would compose the music. The songs were released straight to the shelves, with the album containing several debutant singers.

References

External links

2010 films
2010s Tamil-language films
2010 directorial debut films


Count Pavel Ivanovich Medem (; 9 January 1800, in Mitava, Courland Governorate – 10 January 1854, in Courland) was a Russian diplomat and privy councillor.

Medem held the post of Counsellor of the Embassy in Paris before becoming charge d'affaires in London from 1834 to 1835, envoy in Stuttgart and Darmstadt from 1840 to 1841, and envoy to Austria from 1848 to 1850.

References

1800 births
1854 deaths
People from Jelgava
People from Courland Governorate
Baltic-German people
Baltic German nobility
Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to France
Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to Austria
Ambassadors of the Russian Empire to the United Kingdom
19th-century people from the Russian Empire
Privy Councillor (Russian Empire)


Somoniyon (; , formerly: Uzbekqishloq (; )) is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is located in Jabbor Rasulov District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 12,577.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Swindon Viewpoint was a local community cable TV channel based in, and serving Swindon. It has been through several incarnations, including its early experimental phase, its main phase in the 1970s and 1980s, its 1990s phase where it operated under the title Swindon's Local Channel, and its current online phase.

History
Swindon Viewpoint began broadcasting on 11 September 1973 as an experiment in community cable television, or public-access television. It was initially by Richard Dunn, who later went on to become head of Thames Television. The experiment started with EMI finance on the Radio Rentals cable radio and television relay network. Local people could train in television programme making by using television production equipment. Many of its programmes were 'one-off' documentaries that interested the volunteers involved or programmes of more general public interest. The studios were in the basement of Radio Rentals' premises in Swindon's Victoria Road.

The experimental phase ended in 1976 when EMI decided to pull out of funding the service, although it was considered popular and appeared to be flourishing. The main reason seems to have been that the government would not allow advertising or sponsorship. After much local protest, Swindon Viewpoint was sold to the public of Swindon for £1 and an elected board of directors set up to oversee it. Viewpoint thus became the first television service that was publicly owned and managed. Programming continued for the rest of the decade with a staff of around six to train the public to make programmes, and was funded by a mix of sponsorship and a Ladbrokes operated lottery scheme, a forerunner of the National Lottery. Viewpoint's central programming strand was a magazine-based programme called Seen in Swindon.

When the lottery scheme ended in 1980, funding dried up and Viewpoint went into partnership with Media Arts, the public media centre in Swindon, placing its TV production equipment there, though this partnership recognised and maintained the independence of Viewpoint. With no staff the operation was now entirely volunteer based, but nevertheless operated through the 1980s. Its main programme strand was called Access Swindon. In the early 1990s Media Arts was restructured by the council and funding for Viewpoint was withdrawn. With no access to production resources the board of directors resolved to suspend programming operations but maintain its structure and registration as a company, pending a more favourable climate. Broadcasting stopped temporarily at the end of April 1980 but continued intermittently with programmes made by volunteers over the next decade.

The station now operates as an online community TV station at its website where has a selection from its archive of programmes, as well as current material, available for online streaming.

Legacy

The station has been seen as unique in a number of ways; it was Britain's first and longest running public-access television service, and was also notable for being owned by the public in its early years.

References

Further reading

External links
Swindon Viewpoint

Community television channels in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Wiltshire
Television channels and stations established in 1973
1973 establishments in England
Defunct television channels in the United Kingdom
Television channels and stations disestablished in 1980
1980 disestablishments in England


Hoki Sport Klub Csíkszereda () is a professional ice hockey club based in Miercurea Ciuc, Romania.  They play in the country's top-level championship, the Romanian Hockey League, and also participate in the international competition Erste Liga, which features teams from Hungary, Romania and Austria. SC is one of the most successful teams in the domestic championship with 15 titles, including six in a row between 2007 and 2012.

History
Situated in the Ciuc Basin, one of the coldest regions in the country, it offers an ideal background for wintersports. Skating on meadows flooded by a watercourse began in the 1870s, and the first skating association, the Csíkszeredai Korcsolyázó Egylet was founded in 1881.

The birth of the ice hockey team is dated to 1929, when some young man saw a film about ice hockey match and became encouraged to form their own club. Upon hearing the creation of the new team, Bucharest-based Tenis Club Român invited Csíkszereda to a friendly match, that was won by the hosts to 4–0. On 24–25 January 1931 Tenis Club were called for a rematch, where they first clinched another 4–0 victory, however, on the following day the game ended 1–1, with Jenő Császár scoring the first ever goal of Csíkszereda. This goal was also the first in the history of Romanian ice hockey that was photographed.

The team entered the Romanian championship in 1933, but due to the lack of financial and infrastructural background they could not compete with Bucharest clubs. In addition, from the mid-1930s more and more talented players left the club to join league the rivals HC Brâila and Telefon Club, which later became the national champion.

After the Second Vienna Award in 1940, the city was reassigned to Hungary, and the team entered the Hungarian league. The skate rink of Csíkszereda was modernized and it hosted the national championship in 1943–44. Following the World War II the Second Vienna Award was cancelled and the area fell under Romanian administration again.

The club's first success came in 1949, when they obtained the Romanian Hockey League title, which was followed by another 4 titles until 1963. In January 1971 the newly built ice hall was handed over. The club suffered a set-back in the coming decades and it could not win another league title until 1997. In 1999 the ice hall took the name of club legend and founder of the hockey team, Lajos Vákár. Since the second part of the 2000s Csíkszereda proved to be untouchable in the domestic championship and they are also one of the dominant teams of the MOL Liga.

Achievements
Romanian Hockey League:
Winners (17): 1949, 1952, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2018, 2022
Romanian Cup:
Winners (15) :1950, 1952, 1995, 2002, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2022
Panonian League:
Winners (1) : 2004
Erste Liga:
Winners (4) : 2011, 2020, 2021, 2022

Notes

References
 Kész, Lóránd (2009), A csíkszeredai jégkorong türténete.

External links
 Official Website

Ice hockey teams in Romania
Ice hockey teams in Hungary
Panonian League teams
Erste Liga (ice hockey) teams
Ice hockey clubs established in 1929
Sport in Miercurea Ciuc
1929 establishments in Romania


Hayoti Nav (, formerly: Yangihayot) is a village and jamoat in western Tajikistan. It is located in Jabbor Rasulov District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 14,037 (2015).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Cleome platycarpa is a species of flowering plant in the cleome family known by the common names golden bee plant and golden spiderflower. It is native to the western United States from northeastern California to Idaho, including the Modoc Plateau, where it grows on clay and volcanic soils in the sagebrush. It is an annual herb branching at the base into several erect stems up to about  tall. The stems are green tinted with purple, coated densely in glandular hairs, and lined with many leaves. Each leaf is divided into three small leaflets. The top of each stem is occupied by a raceme of many flowers. Each flower has generally four yellow sepals and four yellow petals around a center of many yellow stamens. The fruit is a flat, hairy capsule up to 2.5 centimeters long which hangs on the long, remaining flower receptacle. Found between 800–1200m.

Some Plateau Indian tribes used an infusion of golden spiderflower to treat children's colds, and rubbed on a mash to treat fevers.

The species is similar to Cleome lutea, but differs in the leaves and capsule shape.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
Oregon State University Photo Profile
Photo gallery

platycarpa


Elżbieta Dmoch (born September 29, 1951) is a Polish singer and flautist, former member of the popular band 2 Plus 1.

Career
Dmoch started to attend singing lessons in her earliest years. She went to a musical school, where she learned to play flute and piano.

At the end of the 1960s, she became a member of Warszawskie Kuranty, a band founded by Janusz Kruk. In January 1971, Janusz and Elżbieta formed a new group, 2 Plus 1, which went on to enjoy a mainstream popularity in Poland in the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s. In 1974, at the Sopot Festival, Dmoch won a trophy for the "most attractive singer". She received the same title two years later at the Opole Festival. In 1979, Polish Council of State awarded her with the Cross of Merit.

Dmoch composed the song "Naga plaża" for the 2 Plus 1 album Video, released in 1985.

Private life
Dmoch was in a relationship with the 2 Plus 1 co-founder Janusz Kruk for almost twenty years. They married in February 1973 and divorced in the late 1980s, after Janusz had left her for another woman. His death in 1992 deeply affected Elżbieta, who subsequently retired from any artistic and public activity, with the exception of a brief 2 Plus 1 reunion in the late 1990s. Her very last public performance took place in Łomża, Poland in 2002. She currently lives a secluded lifestyle in Warsaw, though she attended two secret fan gatherings in 2008 and 2013.

References

1951 births
English-language singers from Poland
Folk flautists
Living people
Polish women singers
Polish folk singers
Polish pop singers


Kurush (, formerly: Kurkat) is a jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is identified with the ancient town Cyropolis that was founded by the Persian king Cyrus the Great. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 30,469 (2019).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Sarband (Russian and Tajik: Сарбанд, formerly: Kushtegirmon) is a jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 8,502 (2015).

Notes

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Istiqlol (, formerly: Oqteppa) is a village and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 18,015 (2015).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Taghoyak ( ) is a village and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 16,224 (2015).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Khurramzamin (, formerly Farmonkurgon) is a village and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 6,246.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Article 27 of the Panamanian constitution declares that the prison system of Panama is based on the principles of security, rehabilitation, and the protection of society. Provisions have been made to establish training programs designed to teach skills and trades that will afford prisoners the opportunity of reentering society as useful citizens after they complete their sentence. The same article also prohibits physical, mental, and moral abuse of prisoners. Juvenile offenders who are sentenced by a court are cared for in a special system that provides protection and education and attempts to rehabilitate them before they came of age. Women are also segregated in the penal system.

The Department of Corrections was established in 1940 to administer the country's penal system for the Ministry of Government and Justice. Operation of the prisons had previously been a direct function of the National Police. The intention of the government officials who established the Department of Corrections was to end the inherent abuses in the system, but the new department was never properly staffed, and police had to be used as jailers. The situation continued into the mid-1980s; because of understaffing in the Department of Corrections, most jails were staffed by members of the Defense Forces, and the prison system was still considered an entity of the FDP. Other abuses apparently also continued. Major complaints expressed about the penal system concerned overcrowding, poor sanitation facilities, and lack of adequate medical attention.

The Isla de Coiba has been the site of the Coiba Penal Colony, Panama's harshest prison, since 1919. Although most of its prisoners are sentenced by courts to specified terms, sometimes persons are sent to Coiba while awaiting the results of pretrial investigation or prior to sentencing, a potential violation of judicial regulations. Prisoners are housed in a main camp and in several small camps scattered about the island, but there is no indication that pretrial detainees are segregated from prisoners serving sentences. In the main camp, there are some facilities for rehabilitation training and a small school; however, many of the inmates have little or no access to those facilities because they live some distance from the main camp. Work is required of all prisoners, including those awaiting trial or awaiting sentencing. Labor is unremunerated for the majority of prisoners, most of whom are engaged in farming and animal husbandry in areas cleared of jungle growth. Some mechanics and other skilled craftsmen receive small wages for their labor.

Another major prison, the Model Jail (Cárcel Modelo) in Panama City, was built in 1920; over the years, however, it acquired a sinister reputation. Its biggest problem, one not unique to the Model Jail or to Panama, was overcrowding. Cells intended to house three inmates were frequently found to have as many as fifteen; this severe overcrowding may have accounted for the large number of pretrial detainees that were sent to Coiba. First offenders confined to the Model Jail were not always segregated from hardened criminals, a pattern that prevailed throughout most of the prison system. Prisoners awaiting trial were often confined for extended periods before their cases appeared on a court docket, and there were complaints that rights to habeas corpus had been violated by holding some offenders incommunicado.

There is a jail in each provincial capital. Similar complaints of overcrowding and human rights abuses have been reported from the outlying provinces.

In contrast to the conditions under which male prisoners serve sentences and await trial, women receive much better care. The Women's Rehabilitation Center (Centro Femenino de Rehabilitación) in Panama City has received praise. The center is under the supervision of the Department of Corrections, but is operated by nuns who have established a reputation for discipline tempered by humaneness and decency. Few complaints are reported from prisoners at the women's center. When first arrested, however, women are sometimes held overnight or for several nights at the Model Jail where, even though segregated, they experience conditions that differ little from those described for men.

References

Penal system in Panama


Tursun Uljaboev (; , formerly Nov) is a jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Spitamen District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 16,874 (2015). It consists of 4 villages, including Andarsoy.

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Main, Meri Patni Aur Woh (English: Me, My Wife and Him) is a 2005 Indian romantic comedy film, directed by Chandan Arora, starring Rajpal Yadav, Rituparna Sengupta and Kay Kay Menon as the leading actors. The film was released on 7 October 2005. The story was loosely based on the 1989 Malayalam movie Vadakkunokkiyantram. Singer Mohit Chauhan used his song Guncha Koi from his album 'Sapney' in this movie.

Plot
The movie is about a qualified but short, middle-aged man named Mithilesh (Rajpal Yadav) and his insecurities about his height & personality, when he marries Veena (Rituparna Sengupta). He had never imagined such a pretty and well grounded woman would marry a commoner. As his married life progresses with his devoted wife, his insecurities continue to grow. He becomes jealous of his friend Saleem, (Varun Badola), Veena's childhood friend Akash, (Kay Kay Menon) and others who he claims are infatuated. Slowly, he suspects a change in Veena's behavior and starts believing she wants a divorce. Being a loving husband he confesses his fear to Veena. But the hidden truth, disclosed at the very end, ultimately brings the couple closer.

Cast
Rajpal Yadav as Mithilesh 'Chhotey Babu' Shukla
Rituparna Sengupta as Veena M. Shukla (née Tiwari)
Vinod Nagpal as Advocate Kishorilal Mishra
Varun Badola as Saleem
Kay Kay Menon as Akash
Naseeruddin Shah as The Narrator
Abdul Basir as Abdul Basir
Anil Rastogi

Soundtrack

Critical reception
The film garnered mostly positive reviews from both critics and audiences with people praising the non-clichéd plot, subtle cinematography and Rajpal's realistic portrayal of an insecure, self-conscious man.

Footnotes

References

External links

2005 films
2000s Hindi-language films
2005 romantic comedy films
Indian romantic comedy films
UTV Motion Pictures films
Films shot in Lucknow
Hindi-language romantic comedy films


Jomi () is a village and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Zafarobod District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 7,264 (2020).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Ravshan  (Tajik: Равшан) is a jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Zafarobod District in Sughd Region. The jamoat has a total population of 16,363 (2015).

Notes

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Sughdiyon (, formerly Pakhtakoron, and Homid Aliyev) is a town and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Zafarobod District in Sughd Region. The jamoat includes the town Homid Aliev and the village Chashmasor. It has a total population of 11,500 (2020).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


Dungarvan was a constituency represented in the Irish House of Commons until 1800.

History
In the Patriot Parliament of 1689 summoned by James II, Dungarvan was represented with two members.

Members of Parliament, 1610–1801
1560 Henry Stafford (or Gifford) and John Challoner
1613–1615 Peter Rowe and Thomas Fitz-Harrys
1634–1635 Sir Peter Smithe of Ballynatray and John Hore
1639–1649 Sir Richard Osborne, 2nd Baronet and John Hore
1661–1665 John Fitzgerald of Dromana and Sir Allen Broderick

1689–1801

Notes

References

Bibliography

Constituencies of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801)
Dungarvan
Historic constituencies in County Waterford
1610 establishments in Ireland
1800 disestablishments in Ireland
Constituencies established in 1610
Constituencies disestablished in 1800


Mehnatobod () is a town and jamoat in north-western Tajikistan. It is located in Zafarobod District in Sughd Region. The town has a total population of 12,400 (2020).

References

Populated places in Sughd Region
Jamoats of Tajikistan


The Smith Point Bridge is a steel bascule drawbridge in Shirley, New York that connects Long Island to Fire Island. Located on the south shore of central Suffolk County, the bridge carries William Floyd Parkway (Suffolk CR 46) across The Narrows between Bellport Bay (an arm of the Great South Bay) and Moriches Bay. It connects Long Island with Smith Point County Park and the Otis Pike Fire Island High Dune Wilderness, both are a part of the Fire Island National Seashore.

History

The bridge derives its name from Smith Point which is a peninsula on the Long Island mainland sticking into Bellport Bay which in turn was named for William "Tangier" Smith who in the 17th century owned 50 miles of ocean front property in the Manor St. George.

In 1916, Fredrick J. Quimby paid for construction of the first Tangier Bridge at Smith Point.  It was a wooden footbridge with an engine driven drawbridge.  It replaced boat access to Tangier Manor and Quimby's oceanfront development, intended to be a resort town to compete with Atlantic City.  Early in 1917, 200 feet in the center of the bridge, including the bascule draw and all its machinery, was destroyed by an ice jam. Subsequent winter storms continued to ravage the remains of the bridge.  The few subsequent wooden bridges built to varying degrees of stability over the years were all destroyed by winter ice floes.

In 1926, caravans of camels and horses passed over the bridge for the filming of The Son of the Sheik starring Rudolf Valentino and Vilma Banky.

The last wooden footbridge washed away in 1927, and no new bridges were constructed for another 32 years.

In summer 1955, the Shirley-Mastic Chamber of Commerce broke ground and invited 12,000 people to initiate the building of the new Smith Point Bridge to Fire Island. The bridge opened on July 4, 1959. The bridge that spans one-quarter mile represented the first step by Suffolk County to preserve 810 miles of shore frontage for public purposes. The bridge project was the development of Smith Point County Park, with a beach frontage of 6,000 feet along the eastern side of Fire Island Barrier Island on Atlantic Ocean.   The park includes bathing and camping facilities. The entire structure was built on concrete piles, with a reinforced concrete roadway laid on a steel beam superstructure.

Structural Specifications
Type of bridge: - Steel-deck bascule bridge (drawbridge)
Construction started: July 16, 1955
Opened to traffic: - July 4, 1959
Length of bascule draw span: -
Total length of bridge: -
Width of bridge: -
Number of traffic lanes: - 2 lanes
Width of roadway: -
Clearance at center above mean high water: -
Cost of original structure (including approaches): - $2,500,000

Replacement
The Suffolk County Legislature approved $73 million in funding for a new bridge on Tuesday, June 11, 2019.  The new bridge is expected to have a 75- to 100-year life span.  The bridge will not be a drawbridge, but will be built with a  vertical clearance above the high water mark. The bridge will also have wider shoulders and sidewalks to better accommodate pedestrian traffic.  Construction is scheduled to begin in 2021, and should take two years to complete.  The federal government is funding 80 percent of the project's cost, with the county share, 20 percent, a release said.

See also
Outer Barrier Islands
Great South Bay
Great South Bay Bridge
Patchogue Bay
Fire Island Wilderness
Fire Island Inlet Bridge
Moriches Bay

References

External links
Smith Point Bridge @ LIShore.org
Smith Point Bridge @ NYCROADS.com
Smith Point Bridge (South Shore Estuary Reserve Council)

Bridges on Long Island
Brookhaven, New York
Road bridges in New York (state)
Steel bridges in the United States
Bascule bridges in New York (state)
Bridges in Suffolk County, New York


Fracture blisters occur on skin overlying a fractured bone, and fractures complicated by the development of overlying blisters remain a clinical dilemma in orthopedics.

Fracture blisters are tense vesicles or bullae that arise on markedly swollen skin directly overlying a fracture. Fracture blisters pop up in trauma patients, but are relatively rare and only occur in 2.9% of patients with a fracture requiring hospitalization. A fracture blister typically occurs near fractures where the skin has little subcutaneous tissue between it and bone. These include elbows, knees, ankles, and wrists. They tend to complicate fracture management because they interfere with splinting, casting, and incision planning for open reduction procedures. They can appear anytime within the first 6-8 hours following an injury, and most appear within the first 24-48 hours.

At the location of the fracture, there is an increase in compartment pressure that is found around the area in limbs where blisters do not form and a fasciotomy is not performed, versus in those where the blisters are found. It is presumed that the formation of the blisters relieves some of the myofascial pressure..  It can be noted  that there is a decreased number of tight junctions and activation of the paracellular pathway in the blistered skin, allowing for fluid passage into the blister.

These blisters are thought to be caused by  shearing forces applied at the time of injury. When the bones are broken and deform from their normal shape, the attached skin is then strained to a predictable degree which can be calculated using a formula that takes into account the angle of deformation and the start and end lengths of the area of skin being measured.  The shearing and subsequent strain is a result of the difference in elasticity between the dermis and epidermis. There are two types, clear fluid and hemorrhagic, and the difference is found in the level of the shear. Clear fluid blisters separate layers within the epidermis, and hemorrhagic blisters separate at the dermal-epidermal junction. It was found that a strain of 152% generated enough force to shear the skin layers and cause the formation of a hemorrhagic blister. Hemorrhagic blisters are more serious as they represent a complete stripping of epidermal cells. Clinically, the type of blister determines the healing time; clear blisters take about 12 days and hemorrhagic blisters heal in about 16 days.

Risk factors that predispose a patient to formation of a blister include but are not limited to: anatomical sites with thin and tightly adhered overlying skin, peripheral vascular disease, collagen vascular disease, hypertension, smoking, alcoholism, diabetes mellitus, lymphatic obstruction, high energy injuries, and grade I and II open tibia fractures.

Repair of the fracture prior to the formation of a blister is most ideal option. However, if that cannot be done, decision to pop the blisters in order to treat the fracture or wait for them to heal first usually hinges on the preferences of the orthopaedic surgeon as there is a lack of data on what treatment is ideal. Waiting delays care an average of 7 days, and longer for tibial plateau and calcaneal fractures. Operating immediately anecdotally increases wound infection rates.

Additional images

References

Skin conditions resulting from physical factors


Robert Tiviaev (, born 22 June 1961) is an Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Kadima, Hatnuah and the Zionist Union in two spells between 2009 and 2019.

Biography
Tiviaev was born in Derbent, Dagestan, in the Soviet Union (today in Russia), and is of Mountain Jewish origin. He served in the Soviet Army as an officer in the liaison corps, reaching the rank of captain. He immigrated to Israel in 1994 and settled in Ofakim. He became a member of the city council, and held the portfolio responsible for immigrant absorption. In addition, he chairs the Tehiya fund, which helps bring immigrants from the former Soviet Union.

A former member of Yisrael Beiteinu, prior to the 2009 elections he won twentieth place on the Kadima list, and entered the Knesset as the party won 28 seats.  In 2012 he left to join the new Hatnuah party, and was placed fourteenth on its list for the 2013 elections. He lost his seat when the party won only six seats. Hatnuah contested the 2015 Knesset elections on a joint list with the Labor Party under the name Zionist Union, with Tiviaev placed 28th on its list. Although the alliance won only 24 seats, Tiviaev entered the Knesset on 31 July 2018 as a replacement for Isaac Herzog. He lost his seat in the April 2019 elections.

Tiviaev is married with two children. He holds a master's degree in electrical engineering and works for the Israel Electric Corporation.

References

External links

1961 births
People from Derbent
Living people
Israeli Jews
Israeli people of Mountain Jewish descent
Israeli people of Russian-Jewish descent
Russian Jews
Soviet Jews
Members of the 18th Knesset (2009–2013)
Members of the 20th Knesset (2015–2019)
Kadima politicians
Hatnua politicians
Zionist Union politicians
People from Ofakim


Chernomorets Arena () is a planned future modern sports venue in Burgas, Bulgaria. The stadium will be built in the place of the old Chernomorets Stadium and will have an exact capacity of 30,000 spectators and a possible expansion to 55,000. It is scheduled to be opened in 2017 and it will be the new home ground of the local PFC Chernomorets Burgas. The construction will start in 2013, because of the global financial crisis, and will cost 500 million euros, making it one of the most expensive stadiums in Europe. The stadium will be part of a modern complex with a mall, underground parking area, indoor sports hall with a capacity of 3,500 spectators, three business towers and a five-star luxury hotel. The whole complex will cost 1 billion euros, according by the owner of Chernomorets and Petrol Holding AD Mitko Sabev.

The venue will be able to host matches of European football tournaments such as the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League, due to the lack of licensed stadiums in most parts of Eastern Bulgaria.
The stadium can also support a possible bid as a venue for the UEFA Euro 2020, which Bulgaria and Romania are planning to host.
As of July 2009, the construction of the complex is currently on hold, due to the global financial crisis, and according to the former managing director of the football club, Fredi Bobic, the project's main realization will start no sooner than 2011.

References

External links
 More information about the stadium

Proposed stadiums
Football venues in Bulgaria
Sports venues in Burgas


The law of Panama is based on civil law with influences from Spanish legal tradition and Roman laws. For the first several years of its existence Panamanian law depended upon the legal code inherited from Colombia. The first Panamanian codes, promulgated in 1917, were patterned upon those of Colombia and other Latin American states that had earlier broken away from the Spanish Empire. Therefore, Panama's legal heritage incorporated elements from Spain and its colonies.

Several features of Anglo-American law have also been accepted in Panama. Habeas corpus, a feature of Anglo-American legal procedure that is not found in many Latin American codes, has been constitutionally guaranteed in Panama. Judicial precedent, another Anglo-American practice, has also made some headway. Judges and magistrates usually have had little leeway in matters of procedure, delays, and degrees of guilt.

The Public Ministry
The Public Ministry provided for in the Constitution has defended the interest of the state, fostered the enforcement and execution of laws, judicial decisions, and administrative orders, supervised the official conduct and the performance of duty of public officials, prosecuted offenses of constitutional or legal provisions, and served as legal adviser to administrative officials. The functions of the Public Ministry are fulfilled by the attorney general of the republic, the solicitor general, the district attorneys, and the municipal attorneys.

There are two alternates for each official of the ministry; all are appointive positions. The attorney general, the solicitor general, and their alternates are executive appointees; district attorneys and municipal attorneys are appointed by their immediate superiors in the judicial system. They in turn appoint subordinate personnel in their own offices.

Specific articles
In addition to the stipulations of "free, prompt, and uninterrupted" administration of justice and the establishment of the Public Ministry, the Constitution has several other statements about the application of laws, the treatment of citizens under the law, and the handling of prisoners. Article 21 guarantees freedom from arbitrary arrest, and Article 22 provides for habeas corpus. Article 29 prohibits the death penalty.

Article 42 provides that "In criminal matters, a law favorable to the accused always has priority and retroactivity, even though the judgement may have become final." Article 163 gives the president power to grant pardons for political offenses, to reduce sentences, and to grant parole. Article 187 states that a person convicted of an offense against public order may not hold any judicial office in the future. Article 197 establishes trial by jury.

Rights and duties of citizens
Under a section of the Constitution headed "Individual and Social Rights and Duties," private citizens are assured that they can be prosecuted by government authorities only for violations of the Constitution or the law. The procedure for arrests is also described, stating that arrests may result from response to complaints made to the police or from direct action on the part of police or DENI agents at the scene of the crime or disturbance.

The validity of citizen's arrest is recognized: "An offender surprised flagrante delicto may be apprehended by any person and must be delivered immediately to the authorities." No person may be held for more than twenty-four hours by the police without being brought before competent authority or being charged with an offense. The Constitution forbids arrest or detention for violation of purely civil obligations or for debts.

During the course of an investigation, the accused and all witnesses are questioned, the latter under oath. The Constitution guarantees that no accused person may be forced to incriminate himself or herself, and the authorities are forbidden to force testimony from any close relative, whether related by blood or marriage, that is, "within the fourth degree of consanguinity or the second degree of affinity."

Investigators may enter a person's home only with consent or a written order (search warrant) from a competent authority or to assist victims of crime or natural disaster. In general, all testimony must be presented in written form and be signed by investigators, accused, and witnesses. If a case warrants prosecution, it is referred to the appropriate court. Although bail is permissible in some cases, it is a privilege subject to many restrictions and may be denied at the request of the prosecutor if a judge concurs.

Alleged violations
Considerable evidence emerged that many constitutional provisions were not realized in the daily lives of Panamanian citizens as of the late 1980s. The most striking example involved the case of Dr. Hugo Spadafora, a former senior government official, who had criticized the role of the Defense Forces in politics and the alleged role of Noriega in drug trafficking. Spadafora's headless body was found in Costa Rica near the border of Panama in September 1985 after reports that he had been taken into custody by members of the Defense Forces. There also were allegations that Dr. Mauro Zúñiga, head of an opposition group called the National Civilian Coordinating Committee (Coordinador Civilista Nacional—COCINA), was abducted and beaten.

Although the Constitution provides for habeas corpus and for the prompt and uninterrupted administration of justice, several incidents suggested that these principles were sometimes violated. Note that various articles of the Constitution guaranteeing basic rights were suspended during the temporary state of emergency declared in 1987.
Moreover, the Panamanian government responded with excessive brutality to popular marches and demonstrations in Panama in mid-1987. According to a December 1987 United States Senate staff report on Panama, over 1,500 persons were arrested between June and September 1987. Credible evidence suggests that many of them were subjected to cruel and inhuman treatment while in jail.

See also
 Abortion in Panama
 Constitution of Panama
 Intellectual property law in Panama
 Law enforcement in Panama
 Penal system of Panama

References

External links
Guide to Law Online: Panama - Library of Congress
Panama Legal

Law in Central America


The High School I.E.S. Mariano Quintanilla, Segovia is a state High School in Segovia, Spain, Europe. The building was the Provincial Institute of Segovia, one of the oldest in the country, which is today the IES Andrés Laguna. After the inauguration of the new building in 1963, this was the women's section until 1969 when it was established as a new independent center.

The main building is one of the best examples of Modernist architecture in Spain, regarded as Bien de Interés Cultural (Piece of cultural interest). Its architects were Joaquín Odriozola and Antonio Bermejo.

Notable alumni

 Marqués de Lozoya, historian, art critic and writer.
 Mariano Quintanilla
 María Zambrano, philosopher

Notable Teachers
 Epifanio Ralero, Latinist
 Salvador Velayos, physicist.
 Salvador Calderón, naturalist.
 Rafael Breñosa, geologist.
 Norberto Cuesta Dutari, mathemátician.
 Carlos Sahagún Beltrán, poet.
 Antonio Machado, poet.

Language exchanges
The I.E.S. Mariano Quintanilla has been doing international scholar exchanges since the early 1990s. For example, a school with which they frequently hold exchanges is Marysville High School (Ohio), in Marysville, Ohio. There have also been several exchanges with foreign French-speaking schools, such as in Tours, (France).

Websites

 Mariano Quintanilla

Secondary schools in Spain