This article covers the Economic history of Europe from about 1000 AD to the present.  For the context, see History of Europe.

Middle Ages

Agriculture

Early in the first millennium, improvements in technique and technology began to emerge. Monasteries spread throughout Europe and became important centers for the collection of knowledge related to agriculture and forestry. The manorial system, which existed under different names throughout Europe and Asia, allowed large landowners significant control over both their land and its laborers, in the form of peasants or serfs. There were exchanges with distant regions mediated through the Arab world. Arabs introduced summer irrigation to Europe. Population continued to increase along with land use.

By 900 AD in Europe, developments in iron smelting allowed for increased production, leading to developments in the production of farm tools such as ploughs, hand tools and horse shoes. The plough was significantly improved, developing into the mouldboard plough, capable of turning over the heavy, wet soils of northern Europe. This led to the clearing of forests in that area and a significant increase in agricultural production, which in turn led to an increase in population. Farmers in Europe moved from a two field crop rotation to a three field crop rotation in which one field of three was left fallow every year. This resulted in increased productivity and nutrition, as the change in rotations led to different crops being planted, including legumes, such as peas, lentils and beans. Inventions such as improved horse harnesses and the whippletree also changed methods of cultivation.

Watermills were initially developed by the Romans, but were improved throughout the Middle Ages, along with windmills, and were provided the power needed to grind grains into flour, cut wood and process flax and wool, and irrigate fields.

Field crops included wheat, rye, barley and oats; they were used for bread and animal fodder. Peas, beans, and vetches became common from the 13th century onward as food and as a fodder crop for animals; they also had nitrogen-fixation fertilizing properties. Crop yields peaked in the 13th century, and stayed more or less steady until the 18th century. Although the limitations of medieval farming were once thought to have provided a ceiling for the population growth in the Middle Ages, recent studies have shown that the technology of medieval agriculture was always sufficient for the needs of the people under normal circumstances, and that it was only during exceptionally harsh times, such as the terrible weather of 1315–17, that the needs of the population could not be met.

Famines and plagues
There were episodes of famines, and also of deadly epidemics. Soil exhaustion, overpopulation, wars, diseases and climate change caused hundreds of famines in medieval Europe.   Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. Famines such as  Great Famine of 1315–1317 slowly weakened the populace.  Few people died of starvation because the weakest had already succumbed to a routine disease they otherwise would have survived.  A plague like the Black Death killed its victims in one locality in a matter of days or even hours, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports:
The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended.  Traditional bonds of kinship, village and even religion were broken and the horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men that we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor.

Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings: the Jacquerie, the Peasants' Revolt. These events have been called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages.

Technology
A major technological advance came in long-distance navigation, from the 8th century to the 12th century.  Viking raids and the Crusader invasions of the Middle East led to the diffusion of and refinement of technology instrumental to overseas travel.  People made improvements in ships, particularly the longship.  The astrolabe, for navigation, greatly aided long-distance travel over the seas.  The improvements in travel in turn increased trade and the diffusion of consumer items.

Crafts and urban growth
From the 11th century to the 13th century, farmers and small-scale producers of crafts increasingly met in towns to trade their goods.  They met in either seasonal trade fairs or they traded in an ongoing basis.  Craft associations called guilds fostered the development of skills and the local growth of trade in particular goods.  Over the course of the centuries of this period towns grew in size and number, first in a core in England, Flanders, France, Germany and northern Italy.

Spinning, weaving, sewing and cutting were considered women's work until the mid-12th century when men began taking over some positions with more sophisticated industrial structures and technologies. In the large cities of Northern France, centers of medieval textile production, the shift to male dominated production started even earlier, in the 11th century, when the vertical loom was replaced by the horizontal treadle loom. Especially the guilds of furriers, tailors, dyers and tapestry makers were dominated by men. Some women did participate in guilds, but it was rare. Most commercial roles were occupied by men, while women were preferred for positions within households. When women were accepted for guild membership it was usually as a second-rank member (similar to young boys or disabled men).

The economic system of this era was merchant capitalism.  The core of this system was in merchant houses, backed by financiers acting as intermediaries between simple commodity producers.  This system continued until it was supplanted by industrial capitalism in the 18th century.

Economic activity over a broad geographic range began to intensify in both northern and southern Europe in the 13th century.

Trade flourished in Italy (albeit not united, but rather ruled by different princes in different city-states), particularly by the 13th century.  Leading the trade in Mediterranean Europe were traders from the port cities of Genoa and Venice.  The wealth generated in Italy fueled the Italian Renaissance.

Hanseatic League
In cities linked to the North Sea and the Baltic Sea a trade monopoly developed in the Hanseatic League.  This facilitated the growth of trade among cities in close proximity to these two seas.
Long-distance trade in the Baltic intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the Hanseatic League, under the leadership of Lübeck.

The League was a business alliance of trading cities and their guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe and flourished from the 1200 to 1500, and continued with lesser importance after that.   The chief cities were Cologne  on the Rhine River, Hamburg and Bremen on the North Sea, and Lübeck on the Baltic.

The Hanseatic cities each had its own legal system and a degree of political autonomy.
The Hanseatic League was an alliance of North German and Baltic cities during the Middle Ages. The Hanseatic League was founded for the purpose of joining forces for promoting mercantile interests, defensive strength and political influence.  By the 14th century, the Hanseatic League held a near-monopoly on trade in the Baltic, especially with Novgorod and Scandinavia.

France
The collapse of the Roman Empire unlinked the French economy from Europe.  Town life and trade declined and society became based on the self-sufficient manor.  Some international trade existed for luxury goods such as silk, papyrus, and silver; it was handled by foreign merchants such as the Radanites.

Agricultural output began to increase in the Carolingian age as a result of the arrival of new crops, improvements in agricultural production, and good weather conditions. However, this did not lead to the revival of urban life; in fact, urban activity further declined in the Carolingian era as a result of civil war, Arab raids, and Viking invasions. (See also Pirenne thesis). The High Middle Ages saw a continuation of the agricultural boom of the Carolingian age. In addition, urban life grew during this period; Paris expanded dramatically.

The 13 decades from 1335 to 1450 spawned a series of economic catastrophes, with bad harvests, famines, plagues and wars that overwhelmed four generations of Frenchmen.  The population had expanded, making the food supply more precarious.  The Black Death of 1347 was echoed by several smaller plagues at 15 year intervals.  The French and English armies during the Hundred Years War marched back and forth across the land; they did not massacre civilians, but they drained the food supply, disrupted agriculture and trade, and left disease and famine in their wake.  Royal authority weakened, as local nobles became strongmen fighting their neighbors for control of the local region.  France's population plunged from 17 million, down to 12 million in 130 years. Finally, starting in the 1450s, a long cycle of recuperation began.

Early modern Europe: 1500–1800

The age of exploration, seen from the European point of view, introduced major economic changes. The Columbian exchange resulted in Europe adopting new crops, as well as shaking up traditional cultural ideas and practices. The commercial revolution continued, with Europeans developing mercantilism and European imports of luxury goods (notably spices and fine cloth) from eastern and southern Asia switching from crossing Islamic territory in the present-day Middle East to passing the Cape of Good Hope. Spain proved adept at plundering the gold and silver of the Americas, but incompetent at converting its new wealth into a vibrant domestic economy, and declined as an economic power. From the 1600s, the centres of commerce and manufactures shifted definitively from the Mediterranean to the centres of shipping and colonisation on the western Atlantic coastal fringe: economic activity went into a relative decline in 17th century Italy and Turkey - but to the advantage of Portugal, Spain, France, the Dutch Republic and England/Britain. In eastern Europe, Russia suppressed the Tatar slave-trade, expanded commerce in luxury furs from Siberia and rivalled the Scandinavian and German states in the Baltic. Colonial goods like sugar and tobacco from the Americas came to play a role in the European economy. Meanwhile, changes in financial practice (especially in the Netherlands and in England), the second agricultural revolution in Britain and technological innovations in France, Prussia and England not only promoted economic changes and expansion in themselves, but also fostered the beginnings of the industrial revolution.

France

Before 1800, France was the most populated country in Europe, with a population of 17 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million in 1789. The 17th and 18th centuries saw a steady increase in urban populations, although France remained a profoundly rural country, with less than 10% of the population located in urban areas.  Paris was the largest city in Europe, in 1754, with 650,000 people by the end of the 18th century.

Agricultural production of a variety of food items expanded: olive oil, wine, cider, woad (a source of blue dye), and saffron.  After 1500, New World crops appeared such as beans, corn (maize), squash, tomatoes, potatoes, and bell peppers.  Production techniques remained attached to medieval traditions and produced low yields. With the rapidly expanding population, additional land suitable for farming became scarce. The situation worsened with repeated disastrous harvests in the 1550s.

The introduction of the high-temperature forge in northeast France led to mineral mining, although France had to import copper, bronze, tin, and lead.  Mines and glasswork benefited greatly from royal tax exemptions for a period of about twenty years.  Silk production (introduced in Tours in 1470 and in Lyon in 1536) enabled the French to join a thriving market, but French products remained of lesser quality than Italian silks.  Wool production was widespread, as was the production of linen and of hemp (both major export products).

Lyon served as the center of France's banking and international trade markets.  Market fairs occurred four times a year and facilitated the export of French goods (such as fabrics), and the import of Italian, German, Dutch, English goods. It also allowed the importation of exotic goods such as silks, alum, glass, wools, spices, dyes.  Lyon also contained houses of most of Europe's banking families, including the Fuggers and the Medici.  Regional markets and trade routes linked Lyon, Paris and Rouen to the rest of the country.  Under King Francis I (reigned 1515–1547) and King Henry II (reigned 1547–1559), the relationships between French imports and exports to England and to Spain were in France's favor. Trade was roughly balanced with the Netherlands, but France continually ran a large trade deficit with Italy due to the latter's silks and exotic goods.  In subsequent decades, English, Dutch and Flemish maritime activity would create competition with French trade, which would eventually displace the major markets to the northwest, leading to the decline of Lyon.

By the middle of the 16th century, France's demographic growth, its increased demand for consumer goods, and its rapid influx of gold and silver from Africa and the Americas led to inflation (grain became five times as expensive from 1520 to 1600), and wage stagnation.  Although many land-owning peasants and enterprising merchants had been able to grow rich during the boom, the standard of living fell greatly for rural peasants, who were forced to deal with bad harvests at the same time.  This led to reduced purchasing power and a decline in manufacturing.  The monetary crisis led France to abandon (in 1577) the livre as its money of account, in favor of the écu in circulation, and banning most foreign currencies.

Meanwhile, France's military ventures in Italy and disastrous civil wars demanded huge sums of cash, which were raised with through the taille and other taxes. The taille, which was levied mainly on the peasantry, increased from 2.5 million livres in 1515 to 6 million after 1551, and by 1589 the taille had reached a record 21 million livres. Financial crises hit the royal household repeatedly, and so in 1523, Francis I established a government bond system in Paris, the "rentes sur l'Hôtel de Ville".

Great Britain

Mercantilism and empire
The basis of the British Empire was founded in the age of mercantilism, an economic theory that stressed maximizing the trade inside the empire, and trying to weaken rival empires. The modern or "second" British Empire was based upon the English Empire which first took shape in the early 18th century, with the English settlement of the Thirteen Colonies which in 1776 became the United States, as well as Canada's Maritime provinces, and the control of sugar plantation islands of the Caribbean, notably Trinidad and Tobago, the Bahamas, the Leeward Islands, Barbados, Jamaica and Bermuda. These islands, where slavery became the basis of the economy, comprised Britain's most lucrative colonies in terms of profits flowing to the absentee owners (who lived in Britain). The American colonies also utilized slave labour in the farming of tobacco, indigo and rice in the south. Britain's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonization. Victory over the French during the Seven Years' War gave Britain control over what is now most of Canada.

Mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies.   Mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other empires. The government protected its merchants—and kept others out—by trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling—which became a favorite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish or Dutch.  The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold and silver would pour into London. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy, which not only protected the British colonies but threatened the colonies of the other empires, and sometimes seized them. Thus the British Navy captured New Amsterdam (New York) in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country.

Industrial Revolution: 1750s–1840s
The Industrial Revolution brought factories to Europe, especially England and Scotland, 1750s to 1830s.  France and the U.S. experienced its industrial revolution in the early 19th century; Germany in the 19th century; and to Russia in the early-mid 20th century.

In Britain, the Industrial Revolution was a period of economic transformation from the  1750s to the 1830s, characterized by the growth of a new system comprising factories, railroads, coal mining and business enterprises using new technologies that it sponsored.  The new system operated first on textiles, then spread to other sectors and by the mid 19th century totally transformed the British economy and society, setting up sustained growth; it spread to parts of America and Europe and modernized the world economy.  Although localized to certain parts of Britain (the London area was not included), its impact was felt worldwide on migration and trade, society and politics, on cities and countryside, and affected the remotest areas.  The growth rate in the British GDP was 1.5% per year (1770–1815), doubling to 3.0% (1815–1831).

Success in building larger, more efficient steam engines after 1790 meant that the cost of energy fell steadily.  Entrepreneurs found uses for stationary engines in turning the machines in a factory or the pumps at a mine, while mobile engines were put into locomotives and ships (where they turned paddles or, later, propellers). The use of water power was growing too, so that in 1830 steam mills and water mills were about equal (at 165,000 horsepower each); by 1879 Britain obtained 2.1 million  horsepower from steam engines, and 230,000 from water.

During the early industrial revolution and the transition from an agricultural economy to an industrial one, major conflicts arose between agricultural landholders and capitalists. Landholders did not benefit as much as industrialists from educating their workers (and thus increasing the human capital of their region). Educated agricultural workers were not significantly more productive than uneducated ones, and moreover, "educated workers have more incentives to migrate to urban, industrial areas than their less educated counterparts." For that reason, less industrialized regions where large land owners held more political power than industrialists, tended to have less educated workers than industrialized ones. The unequal distribution of land therefore has a negative correlation with the development of human capital.

Belgium

No one expected that Belgium-seemingly a "sluggish" and "culturally dormant" bastion of traditionalism-would leap– to the forefront of the industrial revolution on the Continent.  Nevertheless, Belgium was the second country, after Britain, in which the industrial revolution took place and it set the pace for all of continental Europe, while leaving the Netherlands behind.

Industrialization took place in Wallonia (French-speaking southern Belgium), starting in the middle of the 1820s, and especially after 1830. The availability of cheap coal was a main factor that attracted entrepreneurs. Numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. The leader was a transplanted Englishman John Cockerill. His factories  integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.  By 1830, when iron became important the Belgium coal industry had long been established, and used steam-engines for pumping. Coal was sold to local mills and railways as well as to France and Prussia.  The textile industry, based on cotton and flax, employed about half of the industrial workforce for much of the industrial period. Ghent was the premier industrial city in Belgium until the 1880s, when the center of growth moved to Liège, with its steel industry.

Cheap and readily available coal attracted firms producing metals and glass, both of which required considerable amounts of coal, and so regions around coal fields became highly industrialised. The Sillon industriel (Industrial Valley), and in particular the Pays Noir around Charleroi, were the center of the steel industry until the 1940s.

Railways

The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives soon reached speeds of 50 miles per hour. While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.

Iron and steel
Throughout the Middle Ages iron was smelted using charcoal, however in the eighteenth century, new methods of iron production were discovered; the resulting iron was of higher quality than ever before. These advances, such as the process developed by Henry Cort in the 1780s, greatly encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.

Iron was so durable that it became the preferred metal for tools and equipment until displaced by steel after 1860.  Britain had iron ores but lacked a process to produce iron in quantity until in 1760 John Smeaton invented a blast furnace that could smelt iron both quickly and cheaply.  His invention used an air-blast produced by a fan run by a waterwheel. In 1783, Henry Cort introduced the puddling, or reverberatory furnace, in which the final product was a pasty solid instead of a liquid. It was rolled into balls, squeezed and rolled to eliminate the impurities, or slag.  The result was malleable iron in large quantities.  The greatest of the early ironmasters, John Wilkinson (1728–1808) invented new machinery to process the iron. In 1779, the first cast-iron bridge was constructed across the Severn; in 1790 the first iron ship was launched. By 1830, Britain was producing 700,000 tons of iron a year; the amount quadrupled a quarter-century later, with centers in Scotland, South Wales, and Staffordshire. Railway builders were the chief customer. In 1847–48 they bought 3 million tons for rolling stock, bridge building, and station building for 2000 new miles, plus the demands of the 3000 previously built miles of railway.

Germany between the wars
After the war, Germany was supposed to pay all of the war reparations according to the Treaty of Versailles. The policy angered the Germans and caused deep resentment, especially of the sort that the Nazis capitalized upon.  However the sums actually paid were not large, and were financed by loans from New York in the Dawes Plan. Payments ended in 1931, but in the 1950s West Germany did pay all the reparations.  There was an overwhelming inflation in 1923 caused by the government's pumping out paper money. The reconstruction period was based on private investment and demand. When the stock market crashed in 1929, the investors who had been financing Germany pulled out, crippling its economy as unemployment soared to 25%.

World War II

The home front covers the activities of the civilians in a nation at war. World War II was a total war that was ultimately decided in the factories and workplaces of the  Allies of World War II, which had a much better performance than the Axis powers. Indeed, Germany and Japan depended as much or more on plunder of conquered territories than they did on their own production. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and had a major impact on the outcome of the war. Governments became involved with new issues such as rationing, manpower allocation, home defense, evacuation in the face of air raids, and response to occupation by an enemy power. The morale and psychology of the people responded to leadership and propaganda. Typically women were mobilized to an unprecedented degree. The success in mobilizing economic output was a major factor in supporting combat operations. All of the powers involved had learned from their experiences on the Home front during World War I and tried to use its lessons and avoid its possible sources of error. The home front engaged in several activities to help the British army and navy, including taking down metal fences and gates to replace them with stone or wood. The metal was then melted down, and used for battle ships or planes.

The major powers devoted 50–61 percent of their total GDP to munitions production. The Allies produced about three times as much in munitions as the Axis powers.

Source: Goldsmith data in Harrison (1988) p. 172

Source: Jerome B Cohen, Japan's Economy in War and Reconstruction (1949) p. 354

Post–World War II

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program or ERP) was a system of American economic aid to Western Europe 1948–51. It played a major role in the economic recovery, modernization, and unification of Europe. In three years the ERP gave away $12.4 billion (about 5% of the 1948 American GDP of $270 billion) for modernizing the economic and financial systems and rebuilding the industrial and human capital of war-torn Europe, including Britain, Germany, France, Italy and smaller nations.  It required each government to set up a national economic plan, and for the countries to cooperate in terms of financial and trade flows. The money was not a loan and there was no repayment. Washington spent such vast sums because it was believed to be cheaper than the rearmament that isolationism or rollback would entail. In the long run, the logic went, a prosperous Europe would be more peaceful, and would make its main trading partner, the US, more prosperous. Stalin refused to allow any of his satellites to participate, the plan became exclusive to western Europe. However, the US extended a similar financial aid program to Japan at the same time.

Historians reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs, chiefly from the United States.  Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, " History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state:
It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix.

Historians also emphasize its political impact. The powerful combination of ERP and NATO (1949) gave Europe the assurance of America's commitment to the security and prosperity of Western Europe, and helped the recipients avoid the pessimism and despair that characterized the aftermath of World War I. The Marshall Plan thus created in Europe an unstoppable "revolution of rising expectations," the striking phrase coined in 1950 by Harlan Cleveland, an economist and senior ERP official.

European Coal and Steel Community

Six European nations, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands took a step toward economic integration with the formation of a common market of coal and steel. They formed the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951.   The idea was to stream-line coal and steel production.  A side-benefit would be economic interdependence.  Thereby, there would be less risk of Economic warfare or even a shooting war between the member nations.

Industrial decline
The decades from the 1960s saw an economic decline in the output of the more developed nations of Europe, particularly in France and the UK.  These nations' positions in output of refined raw materials, e.g. steel, and in finished goods fell in contrast to Asian countries.
Several Asian nations made use of comparative advantage and specialized in producing certain goods, utilizing comparably cheaper labor forces.  First this occurred in Japan and the four "Asian Tigers" (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore); by the latter half of the 1980s the shift of industrial production began occurring in the newly industrializing countries.
First, the shift occurred in cheaper, lower technology products, such as textiles.  Then, this shift occurred in higher-technology goods, such "durables" as refrigerators or automobiles.  The shift of international industrial production out of Europe is a key outcome of globalization.

The Euro

Introduction of the Euro

The Euro became the official currency of certain European Union members on January 1, 2001. The currency was signed into effect in 1992 in the Treaty of Maastricht. The initial idea behind the Euro was that it eliminates exchange rates between European nations and makes currency fluctuation risks minimal.

Countries involved

The nations involved in the initial treaty were Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain. These nations agreed in principle to the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 1999 and installed the Euro as its currency on January 1, 2001. More European countries agreed to join the union in the following years; Slovenia (2007), Cyprus and Malta (2008), and Slovakia (2009), followed by the Baltic countries (Estonia 2011, Latvia 2014, Lithuania 2015) . Countries are only allowed to begin utilizing the Euro when they have met certain requirements set about by the EMU. The criteria includes "a low and stable inflation, exchange rate stability and sound public finances." The reason for such criteria is because the best way to achieve a successful economy is by ensuring price stability.

See also

 Economic history of Africa
 Economic history of Britain
 Economic history of France
 Economic history of Germany
 Economic history of Greece and the Greek world
 Economic history of Italy
 Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)
 Economic history of Portugal
 Economic history of Russia
 Economic history of Scotland
 Economic history of Spain
 Economic history of Sweden
 Economic history of Venice
 Economic history of the world
 Economic history of World War I
 Economy of Europe
 History of economic thought
 Price revolution
 Social history

References

Further reading
 Birnie, Arthur. An economic history of Europe, 1760-1939 (1939) online
 Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. The Fontana Economic history of Europe (10 vol 1973–80) title list
 Clough, Shepard Bancroft and  Charles Woolsey Cole. Economic History of Europe (1952) 920 pp  online edition
  Heaton, Herbert. Economic History Of Europe (1948) online
 Jones, E. L. The European Miracle: Environments, economies and geopolitics in the history of Europe and Asia (2nd edition; 1987).  excerpt and text search
  Kellenbenz, Hermann, and Gerhard Benecke. The Rise of the European Economy: An Economic History of Continental Europe from the Fifteenth to the Eighteenth Century (1976) online
 Persson, Karl Gunnar. An Economic History of Europe: Knowledge, Institutions and Growth, 600 to the Present (2010)   excerpt and text search

Since 1750
 Aldcroft, Derek H. The European Economy: 1914–2000 328 pp. (2001)  online edition
 Ashton, T. S.  The Industrial Revolution, 1760–1830 (1948) online edition
  Eichengreen, Barry J. The European Economy since 1945: Coordinated Capitalism and Beyond (2008)
 Farnie, Douglas Antony, and David J. Jeremy. The Fibre That Changed the World: The Cotton Industry in International Perspective, 1600–1990s (2004)
 Landes, David S. The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present 1969 online at ACLS e-books
 Landes, David S. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor (1998)
 Mathias, Peter, and M. M. Postan, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of Europe from the Decline of the Roman Empire, Vol. 7, Pt. 1: The Industrial Economies: Capital, Labour and Enterprise, Britain, France, Germany and Scandinavia, (1978)
 Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780–1870 (2nd ed. 1979), 552 pp
 Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914 (1977)
  Mokyr, Joel. The lever of riches: technological creativity and economic progress (Oxford University Press, 1990) online edition
 Rider, Christine, ed. Encyclopedia of the Age of the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1920 2 vol (2007)
 Rosenberg, Nathan, and L. E. Birdzell. How the West Grew Rich: The Economic Transformation of the Industrial World 1986 online edition
 Snooks, Graeme Donald, ed.  Was the Industrial Revolution Necessary? 1994. online edition
 Stearns, Peter N. The Industrial Revolution in World History (1998)
 Thorp, William Long. Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China (1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790–1925
 Woytinsky, W.S. World Population and Production: Trends and Outlook (1953). 1268 pp. tables, maps, analysis covering most industrial powers, 1800–1950
 Woytinsky, W.S. World commerce and governments;: Trends and outlook (1955), 907 pp

National studies

 Ashworth, William. An economic history of England 1870–1939 (Routledge, 2013)
 Cameron, Rondo.  France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War (1961), awide-ranging economic and business history
 Caron, François. An economic history of modern France (2nd ed.  Routledge, 2014)
 Clapham, John. A concise economic history of Britain. (1949), Abridged version of three volume history
  Deane, P. and Cole, W. A. British Economic Growth, 1688–1959: Trends and Structure, (2nd ed 1967)
 Gregory, Paul R. Before Command: An Economic History of Russia from Emancipation to the First Five-Year Plan (Princeton University Press, 2014)
 Lynch, Frances. France and the International Economy: from Vichy to the Treaty of Rome (Routledge, 2006)
 Mantoux, Paul. The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century: An Outline of the Beginnings of the Modern Factory System in England (1928, 1961) online edition
 Mathias, Peter. The first industrial nation: The economic history of Britain 1700–1914 (Routledge, 2013)
 Price, Roger. An economic history of modern France, 1730–1914 (Macmillan, 1981)
 Stolper, Gustav, Karl Häuser, and Knut Borchardt. The German economy, 1870 to the present (1967)
 Toniolo, Gianni. An Economic History of Liberal Italy, 1850–1918 (1990)
 Toniolo, Gianni, ed. The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy since Unification (Oxford University Press, 2013) 785 pp. online review
 Usher, Abbott Payson. An Introduction to the Industrial History of England (1920) 529 pages  online edition
 Zamagni, Vera. The Economic History of Italy, 1860–1990 (1993) 413 pp. .

Middle Ages
 Hodgett, Gerald A. A social and economic history of medieval Europe (Routledge, 2013)
 Pirenne, Henri. Economic and social history of medieval Europe (1936) online
 Postan, Michael. Mediaeval Trade and Finance (2002).
  Pounds, N.J.G. An economic history of medieval Europe (1974) online
 Pounds, Norman John Greville. An historical geography of Europe: 450 B.C.–A.D. 1330 (1973) online edition
 Thompson, James Westfall. Economic and social history of Europe in the later Middle Ages (1300–1530) (1931) online

Primary sources
 Cave, Roy C. and Herbert H. Coulson, eds.  a Source Book for Medieval Economic History (1965) online
 Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History, Volume 1: The Process of Industrialization 1750–1870  (1968)
 Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History Volume 2 Industrial Power and National Rivalry 1870–1914  (1972)
 Pollard, Sidney and Colin Holmes, eds. Documents of European Economic History Volume 3 The End of the Old Europe 1914–1939 (1973)

External links
 EHE – An Economic History of Europe, webpage linking to resources for economic historians of Europe. Contains links to major databases, technology descriptions, examples of use of data, a forum for economic historians.

History


The spin stiffness or spin rigidity or helicity modulus or the "superfluid density" (for bosons the superfluid density is proportional to the spin stiffness) is a constant which represents the change in the ground state energy of a spin system as a result of introducing a slow in plane twist of the spins. The importance of this constant is in its use as an indicator of quantum phase transitions—specifically in models with metal-insulator transitions such as Mott insulators. It is also related to other topological invariants such as the Berry phase and Chern numbers as in the Quantum Hall effect.

Mathematically
Mathematically it can be defined by the following equation:

where  is the ground state energy,  is the twisting angle, and N is the number of lattice sites.

Spin stiffness of the Heisenberg model

Start off with the simple Heisenberg spin Hamiltonian:

Now we introduce a rotation in the system at site i by an angle θi around the z-axis:

Plugging these back into the Heisenberg Hamiltonian:

now let θij = θi - θj and expand around θij = 0 via a MacLaurin expansion only keeping terms up to second order in θij

where the first term is independent of θ and the second term is a perturbation for small θ.

 is the z-component of the spin current operator
  is the "spin kinetic energy"

Consider now the case of identical twists, θx only that exist along nearest neighbor bonds along the x-axis.
Then since the spin stiffness is related to the difference in the ground state energy by

then for small θx and with the help of second order perturbation theory we get:

See also
 Spin wave

References

Quantum mechanics
Magnetism
Statistical mechanics


Eve was an illustrated magazine for women published in London. It is not to be confused with Eve: The Lady's Pictorial, a 1920s magazine later merged with   The Gentlewoman and ultimately retitled Britannia and Eve.

Eve was launched by BBC Worldwide, the commercial arm of the BBC, in 2000. It was created under a working title Project Urma, the first edition was dated September 2000 and was sold on newsstands from early August 2000.

As with much BBC activity at the time, the magazine attracted criticism from those who believed that the broadcaster was over-reaching by using its licence-fee funded programming to promote commercial activities, harming other businesses.

Although the magazine was a circulation success, a 2005 restructuring of the BBC led to the decision to sell the title as it didn't directly support a programme. Haymarket Media Group purchased Eve with the intention of building a women's magazine business around the publication.

Haymarket's stewardship of Eve was not a success, and circulation started to decline. In April 2008, there was an overhaul which saw a new masthead and a revamped format, but the global financial crisis of 2007–08 and the advertising downturn which followed made the title too unprofitable for Haymarket, and in September 2008 the company announced its closure.

References

2000 establishments in the United Kingdom
2008 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Defunct women's magazines published in the United Kingdom
Magazines established in 2000
Magazines disestablished in 2008
Magazines published in London
Monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom


The third series of The Green Green Grass originally aired between 2 November 2007 and 21 December 2007, beginning with the episode "But is it Art?". A Christmas special aired on 30 December 2007.

Outline
The series continued to feature the seven main characters that appeared in series one. These were:

Lisa Diveney's character, Beth, who was Tyler's girlfriend, was regular throughout the series before leaving the series after the special. Ray (Nigel Harrison) was also a regular throughout the series. Llewellyn (Alan David) only made one appearance in the series, and subsequently appeared in the following Christmas Special.

Episodes

Note

No episode was aired on 16 November 2007 because of BBC One's coverage of Children In Need. Episode 3 was moved back a week because of this.

Production
The series was produced by Shazam Production, a company that produces comedies by John Sullivan. The series was filmed at Teddington Studios, with a live audience. All episodes in the first series were directed by Dewi Humphreys. This particular series was written by Jim Sullivan, John Sullivan, Keith Lindsay and David Cantor.

Reception

Viewers
The series began airing on Friday evenings, at 8:30pm. The series continued to be hit with viewers, with the first episode, "But is it Art?" gaining 5.34 million viewers, which was in the top thirty highest ratings for the week ending 4 November 2007. Ratings then fell for the next two episodes before rising for the fifth, then dropping again for the next episode, rising again for the sixth and ending on a series low. The ratings were high enough for a last series of nine episodes, which was commissioned and aired.

Critics
The series, as a spin-off of the nation's favourite sitcom, was always going to have a difficult start. The series continued to receive negative reviews from critics and some fans of Only Fools and Horses as well, but a few positive reviews began to emerge. The series achieved having the first episode to gain a six million plus viewing figure since the first series.

References
Specific

General
The Green Green Grass at BBC Comedy
The Green Green Grass - official website
The Green Green Grass at British TV Comedy
British Sitcom Guide for The Green Green Grass
The Green Green Grass at Only Fools and Horses website

2007 British television seasons
The Green Green Grass


Walter Franklyn Matthews (21 March 1900 – 16 September 1986) was a Progressive Conservative party member of the House of Commons of Canada. Born in Reston, Manitoba, he was a merchant by career.

He was first elected at the Nanaimo riding in the 1958 general election, after an unsuccessful attempt there in the 1957 election. He served one term, the 24th Canadian Parliament, before the riding was renamed Nanaimo—Cowichan—The Islands. Matthews was defeated in the 1962 election by Colin Cameron and again in 1963 and 1965 Canadian federal election.

References

External links

1900 births
1986 deaths
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs


Helen Margaret Hodgson, née Applin (born 19 August 1961) is a former Western Australian state politician of the Australian Democrats party. Born in Bristol, England, she migrated to Australia in 1963. She was a lecturer in taxation at Curtin University in Perth before being elected in 1996 to the Western Australian Legislative Council, representing North Metropolitan Region from 1997 until 2001 when she was defeated and retired from politics, returning to teaching.

References

1961 births
Living people
Australian Democrats politicians
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
21st-century Australian politicians
Women members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
21st-century Australian women politicians


The fourth and final series of The Green Green Grass  originally aired between 8 January 2009 and 5 March 2009, beginning with the episode "The Path of True Love".

Outline
The series continued to feature the seven main characters that appeared in series one.

Samantha Sutherland's character, Sara, who was Tyler's girlfriend, was a regular throughout the series before as was Llewellyn (Alan David) and Ray (Nigel Harrison).

Episodes

Production
The series was produced by Shazam Production, a company that produces comedies by John Sullivan. The series was filmed at Teddington Studios, with a live audience. All episodes in the first series were directed by Dewi Humphreys. This particular series was written by Jim Sullivan, John Sullivan, Keith Lindsay, David Cantor, Robert Evans, Gary Lawson and John Phelps.

Reception

Viewers
The series began airing on Thursday evenings, at 20:30. The series slumped slightly with viewers, with the first episode, "The Path of True Love" gaining 4.07 million viewers, which was not in the top thirty highest ratings. Ratings then fell for the next two episodes before rising for the fourth episode then dropping again for the next two episodes and then rising again for the last two episodes of the series.

Critics
The series continued receive negative reviews from critics and some fans of Only Fools and Horses as well but a few positive reviews beginning to make their way to the surface. The series did not manage to reach the five million mark but did manage to beat fellow comedies, Not Going Out and The Old Guys.

References

External links
The Green Green Grass Official website
The Green Green Grass BBC Comedy
The Green Green Grass British TV Comedy
The Green Green Grass British Sitcom Guide
The Green Green Grass Only Fools and Horses

2009 British television seasons
The Green Green Grass


Colin Cameron may refer to:

Colin Cameron (Canadian politician) (1896–1968), Canadian Member of Parliament
Colin Cameron (footballer) (born 1972), Scottish football player
Colin Cameron (Malawian politician), Member of the Legislative Council and minister in Malawi
Colin Stewart Cameron, politician and lawyer in Ontario, Canada
A. Colin Cameron (born 1956), Australian econometrician


Suki is a Gogodala-Suki language spoken by about 3500 people several miles inland along the Fly River in southwestern Papua New Guinea.

Overview
Suki is primarily spoken in six villages of the Western Province: Gwaku (), Iwewi, Ewe, Gwibaku (), Duru (), and Isala.

Suki is genetically related to the three other languages of the Gogodala–Suki stock, Gogodala, Ali, and Walua, but is considered a family-level isolate within this group.

As with many Papuan languages, there are very few published materials on Suki. The literacy rate in Suki is 5-15%, English is the language of instruction in schools and Hiri Motu is also spoken.

Alternate names
Suki is also known as Wiram and was earlier known as Nausaku, after one of the villages where Suki was spoken. The village no longer exists, but was located near present-day Isala.

Phonology
The phonology of Suki is relatively simple. It has a five-vowel system, much like many of the non-Austronesian languages of Papua New Guinea. The consonant system is also fairly simple, containing 13 phonemes. The tables below list the phonemes and their allophones; allophones are given in parentheses.

Consonants

Vowels

Orthography
Suki is written using the Latin script without diacritics. It follows English conventions of capitalizing proper names and the first words of sentences. Punctuation is mostly as in English, though question marks and exclamation points are not used. The following letters are used to write Suki: a b d e g i k m n o p r s t u w y z. The letters w and y are used both as consonants and vowels.

Morphology
Suki is an agglutinating language primarily via suffixing, though a small number of prefixes have been attested. Both nouns and verbs can take a large number of suffixes. The verbal structure is as follows, where items in parentheses are optional: verb root + (causative suffix) + (person-object suffix) + (transitive suffix) + tense suffix + person-number suffix. The person suffixes are as follows:

Pronouns
The pronoun system of Suki is somewhat unusual in the world, though quite typical for a language of New Guinea, in that the pronouns for 2nd singular and 1st plural are homophonous. Just like the nouns, the pronouns can also take most case affixes.

Numerals
There are four numerals native to Suki, though only two morphemes to express these and perhaps only one of them is original to the language. Voorhoeve states that Suki seems to have borrowed menes (two) from the neighboring Zimakani people. Numerals can also take a limited number of case affixes.

In writing, numerals one through four are spelled out, while numerals above four are written with Arabic numerals.

Syntax
Suki is a subject–object–verb (SOV) language.

References

Bibliography
Capell, A. A Survey of New Guinea Languages. Sydney: Sydney University Press, 1969, SBN 424054205
Capell, Arthur. A Linguistic Survey of the South-Western Pacific. South Pacific Commission.  Technical Paper No. 136. Nouméa: South Pacific Commission, 1962.
McElhanon, K.A., and C.L. Voorhoeve, eds. The Trans–New Guinea Phylum: Explorations in Deep-Level Genetic Relationships. Vol. B #16. Sydney: The Australian National University, 1970.
Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". in Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide, Jack Golson, eds.. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. . OCLC 67292782
The New Testament in Suki / Godte Gi Amkari Titrum Ine. Port Moresby: The Bible Society of Papua New Guinea 1981,
Voorhoeve, C.L., “Some Notes on the Suki-Gogodala Subgroup of the Central and South New Guinea Phylum.” in Wurm, S.A., and D.C. Laycock, eds. Pacific Linguistic Studies in Honour of Arthur Capell. Vol. Series C #13: The Australian National University, 1970,
Wurm, S.A., ed. New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study. Vol. 1. Canberra: Australian National University, 1977,

External links
Ethnologue map of Suki speaking area
Information on Papuan Languages

Languages of Papua New Guinea
Gogodala–Suki languages


John Sanderson (born c. 1919) was a footballer who played at inside-right for Port Vale around World War II.

Career
Sanderson joined Port Vale from Newcastle United in June 1938. He made his debut in the 1938–39 season, and played the first two matches of the cancelled 1939–40 season, before war broke out. He returned to The Old Recreation Ground in March 1945, but failed to gain a regular spot and was given a free transfer in May 1946.

Career statistics
Source:

References

1910s births
Year of death missing
English men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
Newcastle United F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
English Football League players
Place of birth missing


Norman John Patrick Kelly (born 6 January 1959) is a former Australian politician. Born in Darlinghurst, New South Wales, he was a photographer before entering politics. In 1982, he moved to Western Australia. In 1996, he was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Council for East Metropolitan region as a member of the Australian Democrats; his term began in 1997. Whilst in Parliament, Kelly was a supporter of voluntary euthanasia. He was defeated in 2001. After leaving politics, Kelly completed a BA degree in politics and sociology with Curtin University in 2003, a BSocSc degree with First Class Honours with Curtin University in 2004, and a PhD with Australian National University in 2009.

References

1959 births
Living people
Australian Democrats politicians
Members of the Western Australian Legislative Council
21st-century Australian politicians


State Route 168 (SR 168) is part of Maine's system of numbered state highways.  It runs  from an intersection with SR 6 in the town of Lee to U.S. Route 2 in Winn. It is known as Winn Road for its entire length.

Major junctions

References

External links

Floodgap Roadgap's RoadsAroundME: Maine State Route 168

168
Transportation in Penobscot County, Maine


The Integrated Sensor is Structure (ISIS) was a program managed by the United States Air Force (USAF) Research Laboratory to research the feasibility of using an unmanned airship as a high-altitude aerial reconnaissance and surveillance platform. It is sometimes called Integrated Sensor is the Structure, as a fundamental innovation was the use of the airship structure as the sensing component of a state-of-the-art radar system.

In 2006, contracts were awarded to Raytheon for development of a large-area, light, Active electronically scanned array antenna which could be bonded to the structure of a blimp, Northrop Grumman for antenna development, and Lockheed Martin for development of the airship. As proposed, the -long surveillance airship could be launched from the US and stationed for up to 10 years at an altitude of , observing the movement of vehicles, aircraft, and people below. At that altitude, the airship would be beyond the range of most surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. The airship would be filled with helium and powered, at least in part, by solar-powered hydrogen fuel cells.

On March 12, 2009, the USAF announced that it had budgeted $400 million for work on ISIS . In April 2009, DARPA awarded a $399.9 million contract to Lockheed Martin as the systems integrator and Raytheon as the radar developer for phase three of the project: the construction of a one-third scale model, which would remain in the air for up to a year. The ultimate goal was to provide radar capable of delivering persistent, wide-area surveillance tracking and engagement of air targets within a 600-kilometer area and ground targets within a  area, according to DARPA. The model blimp was to have radar coverage of about 7,176 square yards (6,000 square meters) and be tested at an altitude of  above the ground. The contract initially awarded $100 million to the two companies, with the rest to follow in phases, with a completion date of March 2013.

As of 2012, the development of the airframe had been delayed to focus on "radar risk reduction". The United States Department of Defense ended the program in 2015. $471 million had been spent from 2007 through 2012.

See also
 Buoyancy compensator (aviation)
 High-altitude platform station
 TCOM Blue Devil

References

External links

Hydrogen technologies
DARPA projects


"Just Friends" is a popular song that has become a jazz standard.   The song was written in 1931 by John Klenner with lyrics by Sam M. Lewis.  Although introduced by Red McKenzie and His Orchestra in October 1931, it first became a hit when singer Russ Columbo performed it with Leonard Joy’s Orchestra in 1932.  It charted again the same year in a version by Ben Selvin and His Orchestra and has been recorded often since.

Other recordings
 Red McKenzie – 1931
 Tommy Bond - 1933 in Mush and Milk
 Charlie Parker – 1949
 Sarah Vaughan – 1949
 Chet Baker – 1955
 Frank Sinatra - No One Cares (1959) arranged by Gordon Jenkins.
 Cecil Taylor with John Coltrane – Coltrane Time (1959)
 Lee Konitz with Bill Evans – Live at the Half Note (1959/1994)
 Grant Green - First Session (1960-1961)
 Sonny Rollins with Coleman Hawkins – Sonny Meets Hawk! (1963)
 Tony Bennett with Stan Getz and Herbie Hancock – Jazz (1964)
 Pat Martino – El Hombre (1967)
 Earl Hines – Fatha Plays Classics (1977)
 Joe Pass – I Remember Charlie Parker (1979)
 Dizzy Gillespie with Oscar Peterson, Freddie Hubbard, and Clark Terry – The Trumpet Summit Meets the Oscar Peterson Big 4 (1980)
 Sun Ra & His Arkestra - Just Friends (Saturn XI, 1983)
 Stan Getz with Chet Baker – Line for Lyons (1983)
 Guitarist Larry Coryell – Toku Do (1988)
 Joe Williams – In Good Company (1989)
 Jack Sheldon - Jack Sheldon Sings (1993)
 Sarah Vowell, Spencer Fox, Craig T. Nelson, Holly Hunter]] and Chet Baker - (2006) The Incredibles
 Emmet Cohen and Patrick Bartley - (2021)

See also
List of 1930s jazz standards

References

"Just Friends" at jazzstandards.com

External links
Just Friends - detailed harmonic analysis of John Klenner's jazz classic

1931 songs
1930s jazz standards
Songs with lyrics by Sam M. Lewis
Songs written by John Klenner


The Roger Williams was a streamlined, six car, lightweight, DMU passenger train, built by the Budd Company in 1956 for the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The train was based on Budd's successful RDC DMU cars. The end two cars were equipped with streamlined locomotive style cabs and noses, resembling those on the Fairbanks-Morse P-12-42 Diesel locomotives. The four intermediate cars lacked operating controls and cabs.

For operation into Grand Central Terminal, the cars were each equipped with third-rail shoes, and small traction motors, allowing them to operate into the terminal under electric power, with their engines shut down.

After a short period of time in high-speed service, the train was split up, and the cars were used in service with the New Haven's other RDCs. They worked for the New Haven, Penn Central, and Amtrak, until the last cars were retired in the 1980s. In the 1970s, Amtrak used several ex-Roger Williams cars on the New Haven–Boston Bay State.

The two end cars, and one intermediate car, were preserved in operating condition, by a private owner, at the Hobo Railroad in Lincoln, New Hampshire. They were moved west on August 17, 2023, to be forwarded to their new home at the  Berkshire Scenic Railroad.

See also
Baldwin RP-210, a lightweight train locomotive built for the New Haven's Dan'l Webster train.
Fairbanks-Morse P-12-42, a lightweight train locomotive built for the New Haven's John Quincy Adams train.
EMD LWT12, a lightweight train locomotive built for GM's Aerotrain, and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad's Talgo Jet Rocket train.

References

Passenger trains of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
North American streamliner trains
Budd multiple units
Diesel multiple units of the United States
Named passenger trains of the United States
Railway services introduced in 1956


The Mindanao or Southern Philippine languages are an obsolete proposal for a subgroup of the Austronesian languages comprising the Danao languages, the Manobo languages and Subanon, all of which are spoken in Mindanao, Philippines.

Blust (1991) includes the three groups as separate branches in a larger Greater Central Philippine subgroup (together with the Central Philippine, Southern Mindoro, Palawan and
Gorontalo–Mongondow branches), and there is no evidence that they are more closely related to each other than to the other branches of the Greater Central Philippine subgroup.

References

Greater Central Philippine languages
Mindanao


McDougall Falls is a waterfall on the Murtle River in Wells Gray Provincial Park, east-central British Columbia, Canada.

McDougall Falls is located  downstream from the Diamond Lagoon of Murtle Lake. It is  high. A hiking trail follows the south shore of the Murtle River from the lagoon. This trail is only accessible by canoeing across Murtle Lake.

The waterfall was discovered by  Joseph Hunter, a surveyor working for the future Canadian Pacific Railway, on May 27, 1874. Hunter did not name the falls, but he did name the Murtle River and Murtle Lake for his birthplace in Scotland, Milton of Murtle, near Aberdeen. McDougall Falls and McDougall Lake, north of here, were named for Pete McDougal who homesteaded in the Clearwater River Valley from 1913 to 1936. The different spelling of these names has evolved over the years.

References

Waterfalls of British Columbia
Wells Gray-Clearwater
Kamloops Division Yale Land District


"Seminole Wind" is a song written and recorded by American country music artist John Anderson.  It was released in August 1992 as the fourth single and title track from the album of the same name.  It peaked at number 2 on the United States Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, and reached number-one on the Canadian RPM Country Tracks chart. Before its release as a single, it was included on the B-side of the album's second single release, "Straight Tequila Night."

"Seminole Wind" was covered by Donna the Buffalo in 1998, as well as well-known folk artist James Taylor on his 2008 album Covers. It was covered by Luke Combs on the 2022 John Anderson tribute album Something Borrowed, Something New.

Critical reception
Deborah Evans Price of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, calling it a "vividly imagistic song". She went on to say that it "conveys feelings of urgency and great loss without being self-righteous or preachy."

Content
The song has naturalist overtones, lamenting the destruction of the environment by humans for economic gain. This is illustrated in the first verse, Anderson sings:

"Ever since the days of old,
Men would search for wealth untold.
They'd dig for silver and for gold,
And leave the empty holes."

The second verse discusses the draining of the Florida Everglades due to flooding, and Seminole war chief Osceola, who led the Seminole who lived there during the Second Seminole War.

The song begins with a slow piano and fiddle solo, before leading into an up-tempo country rock beat of approximately 126 beats per minute. It is in E Dorian with a main chord pattern of Em-G-D-A. During the song's instrumental outro that follows the repeat of the chorus a second time, the song goes back to  slow fiddle and piano chords about halfway through.

Music video
The music video features views of Indian lands, people, and traditions. It was directed by Jim Shea. It features a large group of Seminole Indian tribes performing with Anderson beside a campfire. Anderson is also seen riding an airboat through the swamp in some scenes. Anderson had to get permission from the tribes' masters before they and their land could be filmed. It was featured in the show CMT's 100 Greatest Videos in 2004 and 2008. It was filmed in the Florida Everglades.

Chart positions
"Seminole Wind" debuted at number 71 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of August 15, 1992.

Year-end charts

References

1992 singles
John Anderson (musician) songs
James Taylor songs
Songs written by John Anderson (musician)
Song recordings produced by James Stroud
BNA Records singles
1992 songs
Environmental songs
Everglades in fiction
Songs about Florida
Songs about Miami


Patrick Donoghue was an English footballer who played for Celtic, Millwall Athletic, and Port Vale.

Career
Donoghue played for Celtic and Millwall Athletic, before joining Port Vale in August 1922. After three Second Division matches he lost his place in the first team and was released from The Old Recreation Ground at the end of the 1922–23.

Career statistics
Source:

References

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
English men's footballers
Men's association football wingers
Celtic F.C. players
Millwall F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Scottish Football League players
English Football League players
Place of birth missing


The harpsichord was largely obsolete, and seldom played, during a period lasting from the late 18th century to the early 20th. The instrument was successfully revived during the 20th century, first in an ahistorical form strongly influenced by the piano, then with historically more faithful instruments. The revival was the joint work of performers, builders, and composers who wrote new harpsichord pieces. However the harpsichord never completely disappeared from the public eye as it was used through the mid-19th century for basso continuo because despite its low volume, it had considerable power to "cut through" the orchestra. The earliest revival efforts began in the mid-19th century due to its increasingly infrequent usage and there was concern that the instrument could become a forgotten relic of the past.

Instruments

In the earlier stages, 20th-century harpsichords were heavily influenced by the technology of the modern piano, and usually included metal framing (which was entirely absent in historical instruments). It was felt that such construction would increase the stability of tuning. Since heavy framing tends to stifle harpsichord sound, instruments were bolstered by other means, notably the addition of a 16' stop (an additional set of strings that played an octave below normal pitch); such stops were somewhat unusual in the historical period but became widespread in the first half of the 20th century. An example was the harpsichord produced by Pleyel et Cie at the request of Landowska.

Starting in the mid-20th century, instruments were introduced whose construction followed historical principles, with thinner cases, historical dispositions (arrangements of choirs of strings) and no metal framing. Among the leaders of this shift were Frank Hubbard, William Dowd, and Martin Skowroneck. With time, such instruments came to dominate the scene, and the older heavy-frame instruments are almost never manufactured today. They retain historical value, however, since they were the instruments that early to mid-20th-century composers had in mind when they wrote their works.

The transition of harpsichord building toward historicist principles is covered in detail by Hubbard (1965), Zuckermann (1969), and Kottick (2003), cited below.

Performers

Among the performers who propelled the revival of the harpsichord have been the following (listed by date of birth):

Alfred James Hipkins (1826–1903)
Arnold Dolmetsch (1858–1940)
Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1948)
Wanda Landowska (1879–1959)
Eta Harich-Schneider (1894–1986)
Rudolph Dolmetsch (1902–1942)
Yella Pessl (1907–1991)
Frank Pelleg (1910–1968)
Nancy Salas (1910–1990)
Ralph Kirkpatrick (1911–1984)
Isolde Ahlgrimm (1914–1995)
George Malcolm (1917–1997)
Thurston Dart (1921–1971)
Fernando Valenti (1926–1990)
Zuzana Růžičková (1927–2017)
Gustav Leonhardt (1928–2012)
Igor Kipnis (1930–2002)
János Sebestyén (1931–2012)
Martin Galling (b. 1935)
Anthony Newman (b. 1941)
Bĺandine Verlet (1942-2018)
Bob van Asperen (b. 1947)
Davitt Moroney (b. 1950)
Scott Ross (1951–1989)
Jens Johansson (b. 1963)

Landowska and also Elisabeth Chojnacka (1939–2017) achieved particular reputations for the performance of new music for the harpsichord.

Music written for the contemporary harpsichord

Classical music

In the 20th century, classical composers returned to the harpsichord as they sought out variation in the sounds available to them. Under the influence of Arnold Dolmetsch, the harpsichordists Violet Gordon-Woodhouse (1872–1951) and in France, Wanda Landowska (1879–1959), were at the forefront of the instrument's renaissance.

Harpsichord concertos were written by Francis Poulenc (the Concert champêtre, 1927–28), Manuel de Falla, Walter Leigh, Bertold Hummel, Henryk Mikołaj Górecki, Michael Nyman, Philip Glass and Viktor Kalabis. Bohuslav Martinů wrote both a concerto and a sonata for the instrument, and Elliott Carter's Double Concerto is scored for harpsichord, piano and two chamber orchestras. The Swiss composer Frank Martin also wrote a harpsichord concerto for chamber ensemble (1951), and the instrument featured in one of his most famous works, Petite symphonie concertante (1946).

György Ligeti wrote a small number of solo works for the instrument (including Continuum), and Henri Dutilleux's Les Citations (1991) is scored for harpsichord, oboe, double bass and percussions. Elliott Carter's Sonata for Flute, Oboe, Cello and Harpsichord (1952) and his Double Concerto For Piano, Harpsichord, and Two Chamber Orchestras (1961) explore the timbre possibilities of the modern harpsichord.

Iannis Xenakis is also one of the composers who have written for harpsichord, with works like A l'lle de Gorée for amplified harpsichord and chamber orchestra, Komboï and Oophaa for harpsichord (again amplified) and percussion, and the two solo works Khoai and Naama.

Josef Tal wrote Concerto for harpsichord & electronic music (1964), Three Compositions for recorder & harpsichord (1966) and Chamber Music (1982) for s-recorder, marimba & harpsichord. Both Dmitri Shostakovich (Hamlet, 1964) and Alfred Schnittke (Symphony No.8, 1994) wrote works that use the harpsichord as part of the orchestral texture. John Cage and Lejaren Hiller wrote HPSCHD (1969) for 1–7 harpsichords and 1–51 computer-generated tapes. John Zorn has also used harpsichord in works like Rituals (1998), Contes de Fées (1999), and La Machine de l'Etre (2000).

In the Preface to his piano collection Mikrokosmos, Béla Bartók suggests some ten pieces as being suitable for the harpsichord.

American composer Vincent Persichetti composed a number of sonatas for the harpsichord.

Benjamin Britten included harpsichord parts in his opera A Midsummer Night's Dream and his cantata Phaedra.

Harpsichordist Hendrik Bouman has composed pieces in the 17th- and 18th-century style, including works for solo harpsichord, harpsichord concerti, and other works that call for harpsichord continuo. Other contemporary composers writing new harpsichord music in period styles include Grant Colburn, and Fernando De Luca. Notable performers include Oscar Milani and Mario Raskin.

Works for harpsichord in the 21st century include Northern Irish composer Alan Mills's Two Cubist Inventions (2000 / 2013), Slovak composer Peter Machajdík's "Déjà vu" for harpsichord and strings, and French composer Karol Beffa's Suite (2008), Sarabande et Doubles (2015) and Destroy (2007) for harpsichord and string quartet. Ukrainian-American composer Leonid Hrabovsky wrote 12 Two-Part Inventions (2016). Asian American composer Asako Hirabayashi writes music for harpsichord, violin, and fortepiano that combine modern and classical melodies. Her CD, "The Harpsichord in the New Millennium," captures her aesthetic of combining traditional forms and genres with new timbres. Hirabayashi was awarded the 2018 Gold Medal Award from Global Music Awards 2018. Belarusian-American composer Nina Siniakova wrote "Gelidi riflessi" ("Frozen Reflections", 2018), a cycle for violin and harpsichord in three movements, inspired by black-and-white photographs of Venice in Winter.{

Folk music
Seán Ó Riada used the harpsichord both for the soundtracks of film music, and for interpretations of the Irish harper Turlough O'Carolan during Riada's work with the band Ceoltóirí Chualann (later to become The Chieftains). Riada used harpsichord for the latter with the justification that the harpsichord best replicated the sound of the metal strings of the early Irish harp.

Popular music
The revival of the harpsichord spilled over into popular music. Its first appearance in jazz music happened around 1940, when pianist Johnny Guarnieri was asked to play a harpsichord in Artie Shaw's quintet "Gramercy Five". The band recorded eight albums between 1940 and 1945, which were reissued in 1990 (The Complete Gramercy Sessions).

In the 1960s and 1970s, the harpsichord was used by groups including The Beatles, The Beach Boys, The Rolling Stones, The Doors, The Jimi Hendrix Experience, The Kinks, The Monkees, The Partridge Family, The Mamas & the Papas, and Simon & Garfunkel. A great number of other artists since then have used harpsichord in their work such as Björk, Joanna Newsom, Jacco Gardner, Jerry Lee Lewis, Elton John, Vampire Weekend, and Jens Johansson from Stratovarius.

On the 1977 album Rumours, Mick Fleetwood played an electric harpsichord on the song Gold Dust Woman.

The harpsichord also appeared in film and on television.  For example, it appeared on the television show The Addams Family, played by Lurch. It appeared in the 1960s Miss Marple films featuring Margaret Rutherford and the cult shows The Prisoner and Danger Man.

The 2015 musical Hamilton prominently features a harpsichord in the song "You'll Be Back".

Soundtracks for the 2017 games Hollow Knight and Pyre both use the harpsichord.Boys for Pele, the third album of American singer-songwriter Tori Amos, is notable for featuring the harpsichord as the main instrument on several songs, including the lead single "Caught a Lite Sneeze."

See also
 Contemporary music

Notes

References
Hubbard, Frank (1965), Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making, Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press.
Kottick, Edward (2003) A history of the harpsichord.  Bloomington:  Indiana University Press. The final chapters offer extensive coverage of the modern period of harpsichord construction, including the shift from piano-influenced to historically-influenced building.
Zuckermann, Wolfgang (1969) The modern harpsichord.  New York: October House. A substantial survey of harpsichord building around the world in the late 1960s, covering the period of struggle between piano-influenced and historically-influenced builders.
 Campbell Zuelicke, Kristina, The Impermanence of Obsolescence: Performance Practice Challenges in Works Written for Revival Harpsichord'', doctoral diss. in Musical Arts, Victoria University of Wellington, 2017

Musicology
20th-century classical music

Modernism (music)
Keyboard instruments


Carlo Vigarani ( – 17 February 1713) was an Italian scenic designer who worked as  ("royal engineer") and then  ("intendant to the King's pleasures") at the court of the French king Louis XIV until 1690. He was born in Reggio di Lombardia and went to Paris with his father  in 1659. He is best known for his design with his father and his brother Lodovico of the Salle des Machines at the Tuileries Palace in Paris. He returned to Paris in 1662, became a French citizen in 1673, and probably died in Paris.

References

Bibliography
 Baricchi, Walter, editor; La Gorce, Jérôme de, editor (2009). Gaspare & Carlo Vigarani: Dalla corte degli Este a quella di Luigi XIV, papers from a 2005 symposium held in Reggio Emilia, Modena, Sassuolo, and Versailles, in Italian, French, or English. Milan: Silvana Editoriale. .
 La Gorce, Jérôme de (2005). Carlo Vigarani, intendant des plaisirs de Louis XIV. Paris: Perrin. .
 Sheren, Paul; La Gorce, Jérôme de (2001). "Vigarani, Carlo" in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie. London: Macmillan.  (hardcover).  (eBook).
 Tollini, Frederick Paul (2003). Scene Design at the Court of Louis XIV: The Work of the Vigarani Family and Jean Berain. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press. .

1637 births
1713 deaths
Italian scenic designers
Italian emigrants to France
Artists from Modena
French scenic designers


The Thumer Netz was a narrow gauge railway network in the area around Thum in Saxony, Germany that operated from 1886 until 1975. It had a  gauge. Total length was about .

This network had three segments that connected three standard gauge stations: In Wilischthal and Schönfeld-Wiesa were connections to the Annaberg-Buchholz-Flöha railway, and in Meinersdorf was a connection to the Chemnitz–Adorf railway. The three segments had their hub in Thum. This set of railroads brought much-needed connectivity and transport capacity to the small towns and villages of the central Ore Mountains, which had formed a viable industry in the 19th century due to abundance of water power, wood, ore and other natural resources as well as cheap labour.

A landmark was the  long and  tall Greifenbach viaduct between Ehrenfriedersdorf and Geyer.

History

Wilischthal-Thum
This was the first segment to be finished for the Thumer Netz. Construction started in September 1885, and operations started on December 15, 1886. Length of this segment was . The track started at the Wilischthal station in Zschopau on the Annaberg-Buchholz–Flöha railway, located in the Zschopau valley, and wound its way along the Wilisch river through Wilischau, Grießbach, Venusberg and Herold into Thum.

This segment operated until 1972. The tracks between the paper mill in Wilischthal and Thum were slowly demolished in the following years. The short remaining section operated until 1992 as an industrial siding, connecting the paper mill with the regular gauge tracks in Zschopau. This short section of tracks still exists today, but is in unusable condition.

Schönfeld-Wiesa-Thum
This segment was opened in 1888 and featured the Greifenbachtal bridge, at the time one of the largest narrow gauge bridges in Germany. The initial segment started in Schönfeld-Wiesa and ran via Tannenberg to Geyer, parallel to the roadway between the towns. In Geyer the tracks made a wide 180 degree turn through the middle of town to arrive at the station in Geyer. In 1906 the track was extended to Ehrenfriedersdorf and Thum, which obsoleted the short connection between Herold and Ehrenfriedersdorf on the Wilischthal-Thum segment. In Thum, a new station was built to connect the new railway to the already existing segment.

Passenger service operated until 1968. Sections were dismantled over the following years. After 1972, only the short distance from Schönfeld-Wiesa to the paper mill was still being used as an industrial siding. In 1985, this short section was upgraded to regular gauge tracks.

Thum-Meinersdorf
This segment of the Thumer Netz was finished in 1911 and connected the existing two segments with the Chemnitz–Adorf railway. Starting from Thum, the track went uphill via the neighboring Jahnsbach into Hormersdorf and from there downhill again via Auerbach and Gornsdorf into the Meinersdorf station. Total track length was 12.5 km (approx. 8 miles). By the early 1970s the tracks were in relative disrepair and had many slow zones. Last passenger operation was in 1974 and the track was dismantled in 1976, which marked the end of the Thumer Netz.

Rolling stock

Locomotives
When the first narrow gauge locomotives were delivered to the Royal Saxon State Railways by the Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, there was no official type system yet. The letter K (for German klein - small) was appended to existing types to indicate them as narrow gauge locomotives.

The first segment between Wilischthal and Thum was opened in 1886 with three Saxon I K, serial 25, 26 and 27. Some more locomotives of this type were used between Schonfeld-Wiesa and Geyer, but due to the lack of power they were soon replaced by the Saxon III K. This type had sufficient power for the windy and step tracks, but because of their complicated design, starting in 1892 they were replaced by the Saxon IV K, which went on to become the most numerous narrow gauge locomotive in Germany.

After reinforcement of the track bed and bridges, in 1925 the first superheated locomotives of type Saxon VI K were tested, by 1928 as many as 13 of this type operated on the Thumer Netz. In the summer of 1933 the first Einheitsdampflokomotive of the DRG Class 99.73–76 showed up around Thum.

After World War II, starting in 1953 the network was equipped with the Neubaulokomotive of the DR Class 99.77-79. This type ran on the Thumer Netz until it was shut down.

Railroad cars
When the first segment was opened, only relatively short 4-wheel boxcars and passenger cars were used. In 1892 the first passenger cars with bogies were employed, which replaced the 4-wheel cars over the following years. For freight cars this transition did not happen until the early 20th century, when  freight cars with bogies for wood and gravel were put into service. The first transporter wagons started service around 1912, and by 1945 completely replaced any of the narrow gauge freight cars.

Greifenbachtal bridge

The Greifenbachtal bridge was a large train bridge on the Schönfeld-Wiesa - Thum segment of the Thumer Netz. It was one of the largest narrow gauge train bridges in Germany and crossed the Greifenbach valley approximately  north east of Geyer.

The  bridge was manufactured by Kelle & Hildebrandt in Dresden. Construction took place from 1904 until 1905 at a cost of 130,109 German gold marks. It featured a  blast fence, therefore the view from the bridge was rather limited. The bridge was a landmark of the Thumer Netz. After the Schönfeld-Wiesa-Thum railroad was closed on August 15, 1967, the bridge was not used for 10 years, until it was torn down in October 1977. The bridge was cut and pulled down via bulldozer, and cut into smaller pieces on the ground.

See also
 Narrow gauge railways in Saxony
 Royal Saxon State Railways

References

Further reading

External links
 Streckenbegehungen stillgelegter Schmalspurbahnen (in German)
 Eisenbahnen in Sachsen (in German)

Railway lines in Saxony
Transport in Saxony
750 mm gauge railways in Germany
Transport in the Ore Mountains


Meadow Falls is one of seven waterfalls on the Murtle River west of Murtle Lake in Wells Gray Provincial Park, east-central British Columbia, Canada. Meadow Falls is  high.

The waterfall was discovered by Joseph Hunter, a surveyor working for the future Canadian Pacific Railway, on May 26, 1874. Hunter did not name the falls, but he did name the Murtle River and Murtle Lake for his birthplace in Scotland, Milton of Murtle, near Aberdeen. The Meadow Falls name refers to nearby marshes along the otherwise slow-moving Murtle River, a section known as The Stillwater.

Visitors to Meadow Falls are rare because there is no road or trail access and the nearby marshes make cross-country travel difficult. The nearest trail ends at Horseshoe Falls,  downstream. During the 1950s and 1960s, hunting parties led by guide Thorbjorn "Ted" Helset used the Stillwater Trail which reached the Murtle River  above Meadow Falls, but that trail is now overgrown and impassable.

References

Waterfalls of British Columbia
Wells Gray-Clearwater
Kamloops Division Yale Land District


William Alexander McLennan (10 April 1903 – 28 December 1980) was a Progressive Conservative party member of the House of Commons of Canada. Born in Paisley, Ontario, he was a lumber merchant by career.

He was first elected at the New Westminster riding in the 1958 general election. He served one term, the 24th Canadian Parliament, until his defeat at New Westminster in the 1962 federal election. He was defeated again on another attempt in the 1963 election.

References

External links

1903 births
1980 deaths
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from British Columbia
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada MPs
People from Bruce County


Paul Frederick Foster (March 25, 1889 – January 30, 1972) was a highly decorated officer in the United States Navy with the rank of vice admiral. A graduate of the Naval Academy at Annapolis, he distinguished himself during the Battle of Veracruz in April 1914 and received Medal of Honor, the United States of America's highest and most-prestigious personal military decoration.

During World War I, Foster commanded submarine L-2 and is credited with the sinking of German  in July 1918, for which he received Navy Distinguished Service Medal. He remained in the Navy following the war and received Navy Cross for valor during the explosion of turret gun of light cruiser Trenton in October 1924. Foster resigned from active duty in 1929, but was recalled to active service during World War II, serving as Assistant Inspector General of the Navy until 1946.

Foster then served as General Manager for International Activities, Atomic Energy Commission until February 1959, when he was appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower as a Permanent U.S. Representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna, Austria.

Early career

Paul F. Foster was born on March 25, 1889, in Wichita, Kansas, the son of Congregational minister Festus Foster and Lillian C. Howe. Due to his father's work with the Congregationalists, he spent his childhood successively in Kansas, Utah, Oklahoma, and Idaho. Foster graduated from the high school and entered the University of Idaho in Moscow, Idaho, where he spent one year before received an appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, by Senator Fred Dubois of Idaho in summer 1907.

While at the Academy, Foster was active as Business Manager of the Lucky Bag, a Naval Academy yearbook dedicated to the graduating classes and reached the rank of cadet-commander. While in this rank he served as commander of Midshipmen Battalion.

Among his classmates were several future distinguished flag officers including four-star admirals Oscar C. Badger, John W. Reeves Jr.; vice admirals Bernhard H. Bieri, Calvin H. Cobb, Morton Deyo, Robert M. Griffin, Edward Hanson, Howard F. Kingman, Frank J. Lowry, Oliver M. Read; rear admirals Daniel J. Callaghan, Theodore E. Chandler, Robert H. English, George M. Lowry, and Harry L. Merring.

He graduated as Passed Midshipman with Bachelor of Science degree in June 1911 and was attached to the armored cruiser Washington, operating in the Caribbean. Foster served aboard Washington until December that year, when he was transferred to the newly commissioned battleship Utah under Captain William S. Benson. He took part in the patrol cruises with the Atlantic Fleet and was commissioned Ensign on July 10, 1911.

In early 1914 during the Mexican Revolution, the United States decided to intervene in the fighting. While en route to Mexico on April 16, Utah was ordered to intercept the German-flagged steamer , which was carrying arms to the Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta. Ypirangas arrival in Veracruz prompted the United States to occupy the city and Foster at the head of his company led his sailors ashore during the fighting April 21–22, 1914. For distinguished conduct in battle, he was decorated with the Medal of Honor, the United States' highest and most-prestigious decoration.

World War I

Following his return to the United States in November 1914, Foster was ordered to the Naval Submarine Base New London, Connecticut, for submarine instruction. He completed the instruction in early 1915 and was attached to the submarine G-4, the experimental vessel of Italian design under command of Lieutenant Ernest D. McWhorter. Foster served as his executive officer and participated in maneuvers with the submarine flotilla off Newport, Rhode Island, and was promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on March 7, 1915.

Foster relieved McWhorter as commanding officer of the submarine in February 1916 and led her during the maneuvers with Atlantic Fleet off Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard. He also transported Elmer A. Sperry to try out his gyroscopic ship stabilizer, but when the United States entered the War in April 1917, Foster travelled to Washington, D.C., where he approached his former commanding officer from Utah, now Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral William S. Benson, and requested to be assigned to the war zone in Europe. But Benson declined to interfere in personnel matters and turned down Foster's request.

He subsequently return to command of the submarine G-4 and conducted further experiments with professors from Cornell University. During his return from one experiment, Foster landed his submarine so skillfully, that he impressed Captain Thomas C. Hart, chief of staff to the commander, Submarine Force, Atlantic Fleet and he requested Foster to be assigned to his command.

Foster transferred to his flagship, submarine tender Bushnell and was promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant on July 1, 1917. He served first as ship's navigator under Commander Wilhelm L. Friedell and took part in the transports of submarines to Azores in early autumn 1917. Foster was later appointed an aide to Captain Hart and participated in the patrols in Atlantic, before he was appointed commanding officer of submarine L-2 in March 1918.

He took part in patrols to Bishop Rock Lighthouse off the England coast and Bantry Bay, Ireland and later received orders for patrol to Bay of Biscay, north of Bordeaux. During the patrol in mid-July 1918, Foster's submarine had one of his engines damaged and was ordered back to submarine base at Bantry Bay. On her return, Foster's crew spotted German  near Fastnet Rock, the U.S. submarine L-2 observed what Foster first took to be a buoy on the horizon. Moving closer, he found that it was actually a German submarine, only later to be identified as UB-65. It was listing heavily on the water's surface, seemingly disabled. Forster guided his sub around it, hoping to line up a torpedo shot. But before he could do so, the crippled vessel was torn apart by a huge explosion. UB-65 rose up on its bows and sank. There were no survivors and no bodies were ever recovered.

Foster was subsequently decorated with the Navy Distinguished Service Medal for his part in the sinking of enemy submarine. It was one of the three enemy submarines officially listed as sunk by the U.S. Navy. He was also promoted to the temporary rank of lieutenant commander on July 1, 1918.

Interwar period

Following the Armistice, Foster was transferred to the staff of Commander, Division 2, Submarine Force, Atlantic Fleet and served under Harold M. Bemis until late 1920, when he joined protected cruiser San Francisco under Captain Henry E. Lackey. He participated in the patrols in west Atlantic and the Caribbean and was transferred to the Navy Recruiting Bureau in New York City in July 1921.

In April 1924, Foster was ordered to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for duty in connection with fitting out of light cruiser Trenton and upon her commissioning, he was appointed ship's Engineer officer under Captain Edward C. Kalbfus. Foster took part in the shakedown cruise to the Mediterranean Sea and Port Said, Egypt; Aden, Arabia; and Bushehr, Persia, where took on board the remains of Vice Consul Robert Imbrie, who was assassinated.

By the end of October 1924, Trenton was conducting gunnery drills off the Virginia Capes near Norfolk, but powder bags in her forward turret exploded, killing or injuring every member of the gun crew. Noting the difficulties of rescuing the men in the turret through the access door, or of extinguishing the fire from the forecastle, and with total disregard for his own safety, Foster entered the turret from the upper handling rooms, took the fire hose which was passed to him from without and extinguished the fire in the turret and in the clothing of the members of the crew. For this act of valor, he was decorated with the Navy Cross.

The Trenton was repaired shortly thereafter and returned to patrols along the East Coast of the United States. She was later attached to the Scouting Fleet off Guantánamo Bay, Cuba and took part in gunnery exercises off the Panama Canal Zone. Foster was detached in July 1927 and ordered back to New York City, where he was attached to the headquarters of Third Naval District under Rear admiral Charles P. Plunkett.

At the beginning of Great Depression, Foster resigned from active duty at his own request in March 1929 and was active in various civilian organizations, some directly involved with U.S. Military functions. In 1941, Foster surveyed resources of the Galapagos Islands for the Pacific Development Company. He remained a member of the United States Naval Reserve and received Naval Reserve Medal for 10 years of service with the reserves.

World War II

Following the Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States entry into World War II, Foster was recalled to active duty with the rank of commander in the Naval Reserve and was tasked directly by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to conduct special naval inspections. One of his first mission was to conduct investigation in the Panama Canal Zone following the series of complaints from the Army's Lieutenant General Daniel Van Voorhis, commander of Caribbean Defense Command on Army-Navy cooperation.

Foster arrived to Balboa and after few weeks, he concluded that Rear Admiral Frank H. Sadler, commandant of the Fifteenth Naval District, was the main reason of the lack of effective cooperation with the Army. Foster recommended Sadler to be relieved of command and be succeeded some able and younger officer, who would improve the relations with the Army.

Upon his return stateside, Foster is promoted to captain and was assigned to the Logistics Plans Division of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. He was later transferred to the recently created Office of General Inspector of the Navy under Admiral Charles P. Snyder. He is later promoted to rear admiral and appointed assistant naval inspector general in August 1943.

Foster then conducted inspections and investigation on Naval Districts, Sea Frontiers, Naval Air Training Commands, and shore-based activities in the United States as well in Pacific or Atlantic areas until September 1945 and received Legion of Merit and Navy Commendation Medal for his service during the War. He was transferred to the inactive list of the Navy in October 1946 and was advanced to the rank of vice admiral on the retired list for having been specially commended in combat.

Postwar career

Following his second retirement from the Navy, Foster assumed job as vice president, Mandel Brothers, Inc., a department store company in Chicago, Illinois, and served in this capacity until late 1950. He then worked for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in Washington, D.C., until June 1954, when was appointed special assistant to general manager for international activities, Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which was established to foster and control the peacetime development of atomic science and technology.

Foster is promoted to acting general manager of the commission in July 1957 and held that assignment until June of the following year. He then resumed his job as special assistant to general manager and remained in that capacity until February 1959. For his service with the Atomic Energy Commission, he was decorated with the AEC Distinguished Service Award.

One month later, Foster is appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to the capacity of Permanent U.S. Representative to the International Atomic Energy Agency with headquarters in Vienna, Austria. While in this capacity he participated in Fourth General Conference in Vienna, Austria, in the early 1960s and had the opportunity to meet Pope John XXIII.

Retirement

Foster retired in April 1961 and settled in Virginia Beach, Virginia, where he died at his home on January 30, 1972, aged 82. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia, and his wife, Isabelle De La Vicendiere Lowe (1892–1981) is buried beside him. They had together one son, Paul. The Spruance-class destroyer  was named in his honor in 1976.

Decorations

Here is the ribbon bar of Vice Admiral Paul F. Foster:

Medal of Honor citation
Rank and organization: Ensign Organization: U.S. Navy Born: Wichita, Kans. Entered service at: Kansas  Place/Date: Vera Cruz, Mexico, 21 and 22 April 1914 Date of issue: 12/04/1915

Citation:

For distinguished conduct in battle, engagements of Vera Cruz, 21 and 22 April 1914. In both days' fighting at the head of his company, Ens. Foster was eminent and conspicuous in his conduct, leading his men with skill and courage.

See also

 List of Medal of Honor recipients (Veracruz)
 List of United States Naval Academy alumni (Medal of Honor)

References

External links

1889 births
1972 deaths
Military personnel from Wichita, Kansas
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States submarine commanders
United States Navy vice admirals
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Battle of Veracruz (1914) recipients of the Medal of Honor
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery


Kevin O'Morrison (May 25, 1916 – December 11, 2016) was an American playwright and actor. He played the lead actor in the TV series Charlie Wild, Private Detective (1950–51) for the first seven episodes. The series began on CBS Television, and then moved to ABC, and finally DuMont.

He started his career working as a stage, radio, television, and film actor in the 1940s. He began writing plays in the 1960s, including A Party For Lovers and The Long War. In 1993, O'Morrison played Cliff Reed in Sleepless in Seattle, starring Tom Hanks and Meg Ryan.

O'Morrison died on December 11, 2016, in Lynnwood, Washington, at the age of 100. He was survived by his wife, Linda.

References

External links

1916 births
2016 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American centenarians
American male film actors
American male stage actors
Male actors from St. Louis
Men centenarians
Writers from Missouri


This is a list of tallest buildings in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.

Tallest buildings
This list ranks Cincinnati skyscrapers and high-rises that stand at least  tall, based on standard height measurement. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. The "Year" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.

Tallest under construction
As of October 2023, there are no buildings under construction in Cincinnati that are planned to rise at least  tall.

Tallest approved or proposed
These buildings have either been approved, awaiting construction, or proposed to rise at least  tall.

Timeline of tallest buildings

This lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in Cincinnati.

References
Tallest skyscrapers in Cincinnati, Ohio-Emporis.com

Cincinnati
Tallest in Cincinnati

Buildings