Aurora, also known as Sleeping Beauty or Briar Rose, is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Productions' 16th animated feature film Sleeping Beauty (1959). Originally voiced by singer Mary Costa, Aurora is the only child of King Stefan and Queen Leah. An evil fairy named Maleficent seeks revenge for not being invited to Aurora's christening and curses the newborn princess, foretelling that she will prick her finger on a spinning wheel's spindle and die before sunset on her sixteenth birthday. Merryweather, one of the three good fairies, weakened the curse so Aurora would only sleep. Determined to prevent this, three good fairies raise Aurora as a peasant in order to protect her, patiently awaiting her sixteenth birthday — the day the spell can only be broken by a kiss from her true love, Prince Phillip.

Aurora is based on the princess in Charles Perrault's fairy tale "Sleeping Beauty", as well as the heroine who appears in the Brothers Grimm's retelling of the story, "Little Briar Rose". For several years, Walt Disney had struggled to find a suitable actress to voice the princess and nearly abandoned the film entirely until Costa was discovered by composer Walter Schumann. However, Costa's southern accent nearly cost her the role until she proved that she could sustain a British accent for the duration of the film. In order to accommodate the film's unprecedentedly detailed backgrounds, Aurora's refined design demanded more effort than had ever been spent on an animated character before, with the animators drawing inspiration from Art Nouveau. Animated by Marc Davis, Aurora's slender physique was inspired by actress Audrey Hepburn. With only 18 lines of dialogue and equally few minutes of screen time, the character speaks less than any speaking main character in a feature-length Disney animated film.

When Sleeping Beauty was first released in 1959, the film was both a critical and commercial failure, discouraging the studio from adapting fairy tales into animated films for three decades. Aurora herself received negative reviews from both film and feminist critics for her passivity and similarities to Snow White, and would remain Disney's last princess until The Little Mermaid's Ariel debuted 30 years later in 1989. However, Costa's vocal performance was praised, which inspired her to pursue a full-time career as an opera singer to great success. Chronologically, Aurora is the third Disney Princess. Actress Elle Fanning portrayed a live-action version of Aurora in the film Maleficent (2014), a retelling of the 1959 animated film Sleeping Beauty from the perspective of the title character. Fanning returned to portray Aurora in Maleficent: Mistress of Evil (2019), which is set five years later.

The Sleeping Beauty Castle is an attraction at Disneyland. Le Château de la Belle au Bois Dormant (French for "The Castle of the Beauty in the Sleeping Forest", but known more roughly in English as "Sleeping Beauty Castle") was built at Disneyland Paris. The castle was replaced by the Castle of Magical Dreams in Hong Kong Disneyland. Castle of Magical Dreams pays tribute to Aurora and the other Disney Princesses. Along with Cinderella Castle, the Castle is a main symbol of The Walt Disney Company.

Development

Conception and writing
Filmmaker Walt Disney had long been struggling to adapt the fairy tale "Sleeping Beauty" into a full-length animated film for several years, intending to base the project on both Charles Perrault and the Brothers Grimm's versions of the story. Disney was considering abandoning work on the film altogether until singer Mary Costa was discovered, the casting of whom as the film's heroine finally allowed the project to graduate from development to production. At the time Aurora was conceived, there had only been two prior Disney princesses: Snow White and Cinderella, the heroines of Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and Cinderella (1950), respectively. Disney wanted his third princess to be as different from Snow White as possible, but several strong similarities remain between the two characters and their respective stories. Gary Susman of Moviefone observed that both films feature "an evil witch jealous of a young and beautiful princess, the princess hiding out in a woodland cottage with a group of comic-relief caretakers ... and the witch putting the princess into a deathlike sleep, from which only true love's kiss can awaken her."

In the original fairy tale, the princess actually sleeps for 100 years before she is finally awakened by the prince's kiss; this detail was adjusted for the film in favor of having Prince Phillip introduced earlier, and thus Aurora is awakened much sooner. In the Grimm version, the princess is destined to prick her finger at the age of 15, while Disney decided to age the character by one year. Aurora's names are borrowed from both Tchaikovsky's ballet and the Grimm fairy tale. While Tchaikovsky referred to his princess as "Aurora", the Brothers Grimm had named her "Little Briar Rose"; this ultimately inspired Disney to use both names in the film, the latter of which serves as the character's alias while she is hiding from Maleficent. Aurora was the last princess in whose conception Walt Disney himself was directly involved prior to his death.

Voice
Aurora is voiced by American singer Mary Costa, who was 22 years old when she was cast as the character in 1952. Costa had grown up a fan of Disney films, the first of which she saw was Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. As a child, Costa adored the film so much that she would imitate Snow White by parading around her house wearing a bath towel as a makeshift cape. Costa described herself garnering the role of Aurora as simply "being in the right place at the right time." The filmmakers had long struggled to cast Aurora, having been searching for the right voice for the character for three years. Disney himself had been considering to shelving the project unless a suitable voice actress was found, insisting that the same performer provide both the character's speaking and singing voices. Costa was attending a dinner party for the entertainment industry, to which she had been invited by a friend who was hoping to introduce her to some influential people, where she performed the popular standard "When I Fall in Love". The performance was heard by film composer Walter Schumann who, impressed by her vocals, approached Costa about possibly voicing Aurora and inviting her to audition the following morning. Despite doubting that she would be cast, Costa agreed to audition mostly because she wanted to meet Walt Disney. Upon arriving at the studio the next day, composer George Bruns welcomed Costa by asking her to perform a bird call, which she did successfully. However, being from Knoxville, Tennessee, Costa's strong southern accent nearly prevented her from being cast until she proved that she could sustain a fake British accent for the entire film. The filmmakers likened the situation to English actress Vivien Leigh successfully feigning a southern accent for her role as Scarlet O'Hara in the film Gone With the Wind (1939). Within hours of her audition, Walt Disney himself contacted Costa via telephone to offer her the job, which she immediately accepted. Aurora became Costa's first major film role.

Costa communicated with Walt Disney at least twice a week for nine months, but almost exclusively via telephone because the producer feared that her personality or physical appearance would influence his vision of Aurora if they were to meet in person too soon. They first met when Costa was recording "Once Upon a Dream", Walt's favorite song in the film. When Costa asked Walt why he decided to cast her as Aurora out of all the actresses who auditioned, the producer explained that it was because her singing voice sounded "like an extension of speech." Walt advised Costa to "paint with [her] voice", as well as refuse to let anyone demonstrate her lines for her. Walt also instructed Costa to avoid catching a cold, eat a warm meal two hours prior to her recording sessions, exercise her vocal cords, and get nine hours of sleep every night. Walt and Costa developed a special father-daughter relationship. Aurora's supervising animator Marc Davis would often observe and sketch Costa while she worked in order to incorporate her mannerisms into the character. Costa worked closely with actresses Verna Felton, Barbara Jo Allen and Barbara Luddy, the voices of Flora, Fauna and Merryweather, respectively, with whom she became good friends, while declaring the utmost respect for actress Eleanor Audley, voice of Maleficent. She also recorded with actor Bill Shirley, voice of Prince Phillip, admitting to having had a crush on him. Costa cites the scene in which Aurora and Phillip meet as her favorite. Schumann, the composer responsible for discovering Costa, eventually departed the project due to creative differences with Disney, and ultimately died before the film was completed.

Costa's singing voice is a combination of classical and pop singing. Aurora's songs were recorded within the first year of production. Costa would practice her songs live with the orchestra before recording them. After working on the film for three years, Costa finally finished recording in 1955, long before the film was completed; it would take the animators another several years to complete the footage to accompany Costa's vocals and dialogue. Costa would often return to the studio to re-record lines as the story changed and evolved, which she described as a "painstaking" process. However, with only 18 spoken lines, Aurora speaks less than any other main character in a full-length Disney animated feature – aside from Dumbo, who is completely silent – and has absolutely no dialogue once she is awakened from her deep sleep. Ultimately, Costa's performance in Sleeping Beauty – and Walt Disney himself – inspired her to pursue a full-time career as a professional opera singer, advising her "Mary, just remember the three Ds... Dedication, Determination, and Discipline, and you'll achieve your Dreams!". Costa's salary was $250 per week.

Personality and design
Aurora's blurb on the Disney Princess website once cited the character as "gentle and loving". Walt Disney introduced Aurora to Costa as "a very layered character", describing her as "different. She's calm, yet she's playful. She has a sense of humor, and she has an imagination." Despite popular opinion that Aurora is a very passive character, Costa believes that the princess is actually "very strong", citing her urge to defy her guardians as an example of her strength, while referring to the character as "a beautiful personification of femininity." Raised exclusively by three women in a very sheltered environment, Aurora had never been exposed to a man prior to meeting Phillip. Costa believes that, because of this, Aurora is "innately romantic" as opposed to simply lonely, explaining, there "was a certain part of her that maybe she didn't realize that was just so romantic and maybe expecting something that she didn't even know what", and credits the fact that she was raised by three older women as opposed to her parents with making her "a little bit older, and yet, she ... had this young outreaching spirit." A very loving character, Aurora enjoyed her lonely life as much as she did because she had never experienced anything else. Additionally, the character's close companionship with woodland creatures is used to demonstrate that she is a loving individual.

Walt Disney challenged his animators to make the film's characters appear "as real as possible". Animator Marc Davis was the supervising animator for Aurora, responsible for animating the character's most important scenes who also animated the film's antagonist Maleficent. By the time he started working on Sleeping Beauty, Davis' prior work experience had already established him as "one of Walt Disney’s go-to animators for pretty girls," having previously animated Snow White and Cinderella, as well as Alice from Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Tinker Bell from Peter Pan (1953). Although heroines are among the most difficult characters to animate, Davis' knowledge of the human body and anatomy "brought these iconic female characters to life and made them believable", according to The Walt Disney Family Museum. While other Sleeping Beauty animators struggled to adapt to artistic director Eyvind Earle's unprecedented preference for detailed backgrounds, Davis himself rather embraced this new style. Collaborating with character designer Tom Oreb on Aurora, Davis "crafted a leading lady of elegance", while Oreb drew vertical lines into the pleats of Briar Rose's skirt and incorporated two-dimensional swirls into her hair. With a dignified, angular shape that complemented Earle’s vertical and horizontal backgrounds, the princess was "more refined" than preceding Disney heroines, and thus required much more attention to detail than any animated character before her. Quality control animator Iwao Takamoto described working on Aurora as "a laborious job ... because the drawings were so refined", and ultimately limited in-betweeners such as himself to completing only seven drawings per day. With an artistry "characterized by a sense of style", Davis incorporated Art Nouveau and Art Deco into Aurora's long, golden curls. The character also has blue eyes. Notably, Davis animated Aurora throughout the entire film as opposed to eventually being replaced by another animator which, according to Costa, would have altered the appearance of the character for the worse. Aurora's refined features complement those of her nemesis Maleficent, who is similarly as refined and "alluring" but in a more "manipulative manner." Both characters were animated by Davis.

Walt Disney strongly encouraged Costa to work closely with Davis while he animated Aurora so that she could learn as much as possible about her character and familiarize herself with "all aspects of her." Drawing Aurora to resemble her voice actress, Davis incorporated Costa's habit of gesturing with her hands while speaking and singing into the character's design, and defended the singer's performance when it was incorrectly referred to a voice-over by a fan, explaining that Costa's voice was "the ocean of sound upon which we animated." Davis and Costa eventually became close friends. Actress and dancer Helene Stanley served as the live-action model for Aurora, providing visual reference for the animators. The performer was recruited due to the high degree of realism required to animate Aurora. Stanley's costume was designed by costume designer Alice Estes at the behest of Davis, then a student of the animator at Chouinard Art Institute. To complement the "tapestry pattern" of the film's backgrounds, Estes agreed to design the dress to "move like [the tapestry] was animated." Estes and Davis eventually got married. Meanwhile, British actress Audrey Hepburn served as Oreb's inspiration for Aurora's body type, from whom they borrowed the princess' "elegant, slender features". The studio disagreed about whether Aurora's gown should be pink or blue, a conflict that was written into the film in the form of an argument between Flora and Merryweather. Aurora has a total of only 18 minutes of screen time.

International versions
When Sleeping Beauty was released in 1959, a dubbing process was started which, in the space of one year, brought the movie to number 10 dubbings by 1960. Along the years, Disney's expanded its market to new countries, having the movie dubbed into a constantly growing number of dubbings, as well as a starting massive re-dubbing process which regarded many of the oldest dubbings. To this date, only five of the 10 dubbings initially released are still in use and were never redubbed. To this date, the animated movie numbers a total of 34 dubbings currently in use in as many languages, and 9 more versions which were later substituted by newer dubbings.

Originally, in the Danish and the first Latin American Spanish dubbings, Aurora's speaking voices, Ellen Winther and Estrellita Díaz respectively, were meant to sing the princess' songs as well. But while Winther was replaced by Inge Stauss because the Danish directors thought that her voice didn't suit Aurora's singing well enough, Díaz didn't get to sing because she died short after having recorded her spoken lines, without having recorded the songs.

Characterization and themes
Aurora is a member of a trifecta known as the "Golden Era" of Disney heroines. Alongside her two predecessors Snow White and Cinderella, Aurora is one of the three original Disney princesses. Kit Steinkellner of HelloGiggles wrote that Aurora continued the "trend of passive heroines who wait around for magic to change their lives," a recurring theme shared by Disney princesses who were introduced both during and prior to the 1950s. Sonia Saraiya of Nerve dubbed Aurora "the apex" of "women who made no choices for themselves". Writing for MTV, Lauren Vino felt that the character "followed the basic princess tenants [sic] of loving animals and sleeping in makeup", while About.com's David Nusair wrote that Aurora followed the "pattern of kind yet helpless princesses", similar to Snow White and Cinderella. Mary Grace Garis of Bustle observed that the original trio "seeks out marriage as both their endgame and salvation", elaborating, "It's literally their own means of escape, and their only final objective." However, Aurora's dreams and fantasies are different in the sense that they are drawn from loneliness and isolation; the character essentially longs "for human connections beyond her three fairy surrogate mothers." The Walt Disney Family Museum volunteer Lucas O. Seastrom agreed that Aurora is more "self-confident" and "more of repose than the usual naïveté of Disney heroines." Observing that Aurora's actions are influenced by the decisions and opinions of those around her, while most of the film's action involves Prince Phillip, Steinkellner joked that the character is so passive that she remains asleep during the film's climax. Dubbing her "a girl of reaction," nerdology.org's Lisa Kaye Cunningham felt that Aurora's "little screen time makes her difficult to classify as a feminist, but her single active decision shows great promise in the evolution of feminist Disney princesses," despite the fact that her agency is constantly undermined by other characters. Cunningham concluded, "By making one active decision to try and follow her dreams, this princess made a big step forward as a stronger feminist than Snow White, though Aurora remains bogged down with passive reactivity." Author Melissa G. Wilson observed in her book Mashups for Teens: From Sleeping Beauty to Beyonce that Aurora's reaction upon learning that she is a princess differs from what one would expect from a young woman.

By default, Aurora is usually considered to be the film's main character. Leigh Butler of Tor.com argues that the role of "protagonist" rightfully belongs to the three good fairies because they "make all the critical decisions in the film, the ones which drive the action", while Aurora acts as little more than a pawn. Butler expounded that Aurora "never grows as a character during the course of the film; she has no agency at all, in fact. She doesn’t act; she is acted upon. So she is definitely not the hero of the story." Helping Writers Become Authors' K. M. Weiland agreed, writing, "Sleeping Beauty has no arc. Prince Phillip has no arc. And, even more importantly, neither of them are present from start to finish in the story. Without the fairies to hold this thing together, the plot would have lacked any kind of impetus or cohesion." Upon initial viewing of Sleeping Beauty, a writer for Anibundel originally dismissed Aurora as "the ultimate Disney princess in the most negative and passive sense of the stereotype ... playing no part whatsoever in her own outcome." However, in retrospect, the author's opinion eventually evolved upon subsequent viewings: "Although Aurora has little to do with her own conclusion, it’s not a mark of her being a non-person. Instead it reflects how sometimes bad things just happen which we have no control over, a difficult but important lesson." Anibundel does agree that although Aurora is Sleeping Beautys title character, she can hardly be considered the film's protagonist, believing instead that the film actually lacks one completely. Meanwhile, the author dubbed Aurora the film's most sympathetic character because she has "thoughts, feelings, aspirations, and emotions," elaborating, "While most characters ... are overly focused on the plot and reacting to events, Briar Rose is unaware of the other events so we get to see a more authentic everyday side of her." In his book Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment, author Douglas Brode wrote that the fairies' raising of Aurora mirrors "precisely that sort of women's commune numerous feminists experimented with throughout the seventies."

Writing for Durham College's The Water Buffalo, Michelle Munro observed that the first five Disney Princesses share physical and personality traits, namely their white skin, naivety, kindness and compassion, "showing viewers what Disney believed a princess should look and act like" at that time. Munro concluded that Aurora specifically can appear both spoiled and childish in demeanor at times. Bailey Cavender of The Silver Petticoat Review believes that the character's appearance and style is reminiscent of the Gibson Girl, a popular character created and designed by graphic artist Charles Dana Gibson, who embodied the idea that "physical beauty was a measure of fitness, character, and Americanness". According to Cavender, Aurora's beauty was considered to be "ideal" for women at the time her film was released, embodying the "classic standards of beauty." In his book Debating Disney: Pedagogical Perspectives on Commercial Cinema, Douglas Brode agreed that Aurora is "a model of modern (1950s) female glamour", comparing her long blonde hair to that of actress Brigitte Bardot while likening her gown to the work of fashion designer Christian Dior. According to The Dissolve's Noel Murray, Aurora's story is a metaphor about a "young woman being cautioned to avoid penetration." Similarly, Carrie R. Wheadon, writing for Common Sense Media, interpreted Aurora's arousal by a handsome prince as being symbolic of a young woman's "transition to adulthood and sexual awakening." According to Multiculturalism and the Mouse: Race and Sex in Disney Entertainment author Douglas Brode, Aurora is "torn between childlike loyalties and adult instincts", while The Disney Middle Ages: A Fairy-Tale and Fantasy Past author Tison Pugh believes that Aurora's first encounter with Prince Phillip "tips her from fantasy into reality, from childhood into womanhood."

Appearances

Film and television
Aurora debuted in Sleeping Beauty (1959) as the only daughter of King Stefan and Queen Leah. Angered at not receiving an invitation to her christening, an evil fairy, Maleficent, curses Aurora to prick her finger on a spinning wheel's spindle and die before sunset on her 16th birthday. Fortunately, one of the three good fairies, Merryweather, alters the curse so Aurora will prick her finger, but instead of dying, she'll only sleep until she is awakened by a kiss from her true love. Merryweather and the two other fairies, Flora and Fauna, take extra precautions by raising the princess in a secluded cottage under the alias Briar Rose to protect her from Maleficent until her sixteenth birthday arrives. Years later, a 16-year-old Aurora meets a handsome man in the forest. Unaware that he is actually a prince named Phillip, to whom she has been betrothed since infancy, the two fall in love and agree to meet again. However, the fairies finally reveal Aurora's true identity to her and thus forbid her from seeing him because they plan on returning the heartbroken princess to her parents. While alone at the castle, Aurora is lured by Maleficent to prick her finger on a spinning wheel's spindle, and Maleficent reveals the sleeping Aurora to the fairies. They then place Aurora on a bed in the highest tower to sleep peacefully and put the entire kingdom to sleep until the spell is broken. Meanwhile, Maleficent has captured Phillip, whom the fairies release upon realizing that he is in fact the same man Aurora met in the forest earlier that day. Along with everyone else in the kingdom, Aurora is successfully awakened by Phillip's kiss, and is finally reunited with her parents.

In Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams (2007), Aurora, voiced by actress Erin Torpey, stars in the segment "Keys to the Kingdom", in which her parents leave her responsible for running the kingdom in their two-day absence with assistance of their majordomo, Lord Duke. Declining assistance from the fairies, they give her her own wand instead should she need help. At first reluctant to use it because she is determined to accomplish everything on her own, Aurora eventually succumbs when her duties prove overwhelming. However, her inexperience with magic leads to several consequences, which forces Lord Duke into warning Stefan, Leah, King Hubert, and Prince Phillip, who were all coming back from a royal conference, about the giant chickens, green pigs, and cows. She is then forced to solve without magic before the others came in the throne room. She hosts a banquet for her parents, King Hubert, Prince Phillip, Lord Duke, Flora, Fauna, and Merryweather.

In Maleficent (2014), a live-action re-imagining of the animated film, the Sleeping Beauty story is retold from the villain's perspective. Here, Aurora is portrayed by Elle Fanning, while Janet McTeer portrays a narrator who turns out to be Aurora as an elderly woman. As an infant, the princess is cursed by Maleficent...in order to avenge a years-old betrayal by King Stefan, Aurora's father. Three quarrelsome pixies are charged with raising the princess, but their glaring ineptitude threatens to kill Aurora long before her 16th birthday. Maleficent's pity for the princess overcomes her rage toward Stefan; along with her minion Diaval, the dark fairy herself brings up Aurora...albeit covertly. When the young princess ultimately encounters Maleficent for the first time, the dark fairy is touched by Aurora's affectionate nature; the girl, who has never known her biological parents, regards Maleficent as her fairy godmother. When the dark fairy's curse is at last fulfilled, despite her efforts to renounce it, Maleficent herself (rather than Phillip) breaks the spell with a remorseful kiss on Aurora's brow. Aurora then saves Maleficent from her royal father, by returning the dark fairy's wings to her. The princess is subsequently crowned queen of both her own human kingdom and the fairy kingdom known as the Moors.

Fanning reprises the role in the sequel, Maleficent: Mistress of Evil (2019). Five years have passed since Aurora became Queen of the Moors. One day Phillip finally asks for her hand in marriage, which she gladly accepts. Despite Maleficent initially not accepting Phillip's blessing, she agrees to go have dinner at the castle in Ulsted, Phillip's kingdom, to meet Aurora's future in-laws. Maleficent is then wrongfully blamed for cursing Phillip's father, King John, and Aurora refuses to go back home with her. Eventually, Aurora begins to miss her godmother as well as her life in the Moors. She soon discovers that it was Phillip's mother, Queen Ingrith, who cursed the king and that a trap is being set to kill the creatures of the Moors. Aurora and Phillip help Maleficent stop the war against Queen Ingrith, and they are finally married.

An alternate version of Aurora appears as a recurring character in the fantasy television series Once Upon a Time, portrayed by actress Sarah Bolger. Aurora made a guest appearance in a Sofia the First episode, Holiday in Enchancia called on by the mystical amulet of Avalor to assist young Princess Sofia in finding her missing stepfather, King Roland II. She assured Sofia that she could rely on her animal friends' to help just as she had long ago.

Aurora, alongside other Disney Princesses, appeared in the film Ralph Breaks the Internet, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo.

Miscellaneous

Aurora appears as a non-player character in the Kingdom Hearts video game series, depicted as one of the seven Princesses of Heart. In the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep (2010), the character goes through the same events as the original film. Aurora appears in Kinect Disneyland Adventures (2011), asking players to collect items various items, including songs performed by birds.

Performers dressed as Aurora make "fairly regular" appearances throughout several popular locations at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, specifically Walt Disney World's Epcot France Pavilion, Cinderella's Royal Table, Disney Dreams Come True Parade, and Princess Fairytale Hall in the Magic Kingdom, Fantasyland's Princess Meet 'n' Greet at Disneyland California, Fantasyland's Princess Pavilion and Auberge de Cendrillon at Disneyland Paris, Fantasyland and World Bazaar at Tokyo Disneyland, and the Wishing Well at Hong Kong Disneyland.

Aurora appears as a playable character in the video game Disney Magic Kingdoms.

Books

Mistress of All Evil: A Tale of the Dark Fairy

Aurora appears in the fourth book of Serena Valentino's Villains series.  In the book she has been cursed by Maleficent to remain in slumber and is trapped in the realm of mirrors with the Odd Sisters, who constantly torment her during the course of the book.  It is revealed during the course of the novel that Aurora is actually the daughter of Maleficent, who was created by the Odd Sisters from the remaining best parts of Maleficent.  However rather than a feeling of love for her, Maleficent only feels a powerful urge to protect her from developing powers, which will manifest on her sixteenth birthday similar to Maleficent, hence the Sleeping Curse.  After Maleficent dies, Circe is able to bind Aurora's powers and wake her from her slumber.

Once Upon A Dream: A Twisted Tale

In the second book of A Twisted Tale, written by Liz Braswell, the question is asked What if the Sleeping Beauty never woke up? Aurora is trapped in a dream world of Maleficent's design, and when Phillip tries to awaken her with a kiss, he becomes trapped in the dream world as well.  Aurora eventually becomes a warrior in her own right and rises up against Maleficent to break herself out of the Dream World.

Trademark
The Walt Disney Company currently has a trademark with the US Patent and Trademark Office, filed March 13, 2007, for the name "Princess Aurora" that covers production and distribution of motion picture films; production of television programs; production of sound and video recordings. This has caused some controversy because "Princess Aurora" is the name of the lead character in The Sleeping Beauty ballet, from where Disney acquired the name and some of the music for its animated film, and which is performed live on stage and sometimes television and often sold later as a recorded performance on video. The trademark was granted on January 17, 2012.

Reception and legacy
Initial critical response towards Aurora was generally unfavorable, with film critics complaining about Aurora's passivity and overall similarity to Snow White. During the 1950s, Disney received "harsh criticism" for depicting both Cinderella and Aurora as "naïve and malleable" characters, and failing to acknowledge the ways in which women's roles in society had evolved since Snow White's debut in 1937. Critics agree that Aurora represents "the classic damsel in distress" by being depicted as a beautiful young woman who is rescued by a stranger. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times felt that the character was too similar to Snow White, writing, "The princess looks so much like Snow White they could be a couple of Miss Rheingolds separated by three or four years." Time Out dismissed Aurora as a "delicate" and "vapid" character. Bustle's Mary Grace Garis wrote that the character "suffers from having very little definable personality and ... serious Damsel-in-Distress syndrome". Sonia Saraiya of Jezebel echoed this sentiment, criticizing Aurora for lacking "interesting qualities"; Saraiya also ranked Aurora Disney's least feminist princess. Similarly, Bustle also ranked Aurora the least feminist Disney Princess, with author Chelsea Mize expounding, "Aurora literally sleeps for like three quarters of the movie ... Aurora just straight-up has no agency, and really isn't doing much in the way of feminine progress." Dismissing the character as "barely more than a cipher", Leigh Butler of Tor.com panned Aurora as "a Barbie doll knockoff who does nothing the whole film but sing wistfully about Finding Her Man, before becoming the ultimate passive Damsel in Distress". However, Butler went on to defend the character somewhat, writing, "Aurora’s cipher-ness in Sleeping Beauty would be infuriating if she were the only female character in it, but the presence of the Fairies and Maleficent allow her to be what she is without it being a subconscious statement on what all women are." Similarly, Refinery29 ranked Aurora the fourth most feminist Disney Princess because "Her aunts have essentially raised her in a place where women run the game."

Aurora was Disney's last princess created before Walt Disney's death in 1966. When Sleeping Beauty was first released in 1959, the film performed poorly at the box office while failing to impress critics. In response, the studio decided to avoid adapting fairy tales into feature-length animated films for several years; Aurora would remain Disney's last princess until The Little Mermaid's Ariel debuted in 1989, 30 years later. Mic's Melissa Hugel believes that the negative reception instigated by Aurora's passive role as a woman in Sleeping Beauty also contributed to this hiatus, earning the character a reputation as one of Disney's worst princesses. Meanwhile, David Nusair of About.com attributes the film's failure with "the familiarity of its storyline, as the film boasts many of the elements contained within both of its predecessors – including the revelation that Princess Aurora can only be awakened from her deep slumber by a kiss from her one true love" similar to Snow White. Hollywood.com ranked Sleeping Beauty Disney's worst princess film because its main character remains asleep for the majority of it. At one point, the name "Aurora" became a popular baby name, with parents often naming their daughters after the character. Still, "Aurora has become an oft-forgotten princess" who is not as prominently featured in Disney merchandise and her popularity pales in comparison to that of Cinderella, Ariel, and Snow White. While creating the Disney Princess franchise, Disney Consumer Products decided that Aurora should be marketed wearing the pink version of her dress in order to further distinguish her from Cinderella, who also wears blue. BuzzFeed readers voted Aurora their sixth favorite Disney Princess, who garnered 7% of the 9,554 votes. Time reported that Aurora was the seventh best-selling Disney Princess on eBay in 2014, having sold $215,856 in merchandise that year. However, Seventeen argues that  Aurora is one of Disney's most famous princess[es]".

Media publications often tend to place Aurora towards the end of their Disney Princess rankings. Seventeen ranked Aurora last on their "Definitive Ranking Of Disney Princesses" list. Similarly, BuzzFeed also ranked Aurora last. Moviepilot placed Aurora last on the website's "All of the Disney Princess Ranked from Worst to Best" ranking, with author Kristin Lai dismissing the character as "a snooze." Meanwhile, MTV ranked Aurora 12th on the website's "Ultimate Ranking Of The Best Disney Princesses Of All Time". Similarly, E! also ranked Aurora 12th, with author John Boone elaborating, "She's not a bad princess, per se. She might actually be the prettiest of all the princesses ... But she's asleep half the movie! Pretty...but so, so boring." Zimbio ranked Aurora the second worst Disney Princess, while BuzzFeed ranked the character one of Disney's least intelligent princesses, with author Leonora Epstein dismissing Aurora as the "equivalent to the child who puts his finger in a socket when expressly told not to." However, the character has garnered recognition for her beauty and fashion, with Stylist extolling Aurora's "blowout" as "the ultimate hairstyle when it comes to being a princess" while ranking it among Disney's "Best beauty looks", and Bustle dubbing her "the hottest Disney Princess". Entertainment Weekly ranked Aurora's hair the second best of all the Disney Princesses, with author Annie Barrett describing it as "aspirational". Oh My Disney ranked the pink and blue versions of Aurora's dress 15th and 16th on their countdown of every Disney Princess outfit, voicing their preference for the character in blue. Marie Claire ranked Aurora's outfits among "The 20 Greatest Movie Dresses of All Time", writing, "Of all the Disney princesses, Sleeping Beauty's Aurora had a fashionable edge" potentially worthy of being imitated by singers Katy Perry and Nicki Minaj. Aurora was ranked first on Moviepilot's "Which Outfit is Fairest of Them All? 13 Disney Divas Ranked" list. Author Mikayla Sloan enthused that "The lines of Aurora's dress are flawless and her shoulders are set off beautifully" while "Her hair is effortlessly wavy and her accessories accentuate her features perfectly." According to Bustle, the character is the third most stylish Disney Princess, while E! believes that Aurora owns the sixth greatest Disney Princess wardrobe, voicing their preference for the character in pink. BuzzFeed ranked Aurora's ballgown 11th on their "Definitive Ranking Of 72 Disney Princess Outfits". According to Seventeen, the character underwent the fifth greatest Disney Princess makeover. On Cosmopolitan's list of "the 14 Hottest Disney Princesses", Aurora was ranked 12th, with author Frank Kobola dismissing the character as "a snoozefest" and comparing her to "that girl in college who was always taking naps".

Costa has garnered widespread acclaim for her performance as Aurora. BuzzFeed ranked Aurora ninth on the website's ranking of Disney Princess singing voices, with author Kelcie Willis awarding it "Extra props for bringing operatic vocals to Disney." Variety complimented Costa's "rich and expressive" performance, praising the singer for providing Aurora with both "substance and strength". John Clark of SFGate credited Costa's vocals with "manag[ing] to make an enchanting impression in just a few onscreen minutes without being pushy or saccharine." Meanwhile, Artistdirect's Rick Florino wrote that the singer "brought a pure and honest vibrancy to the film." Additionally, Sleeping Beauty served as Costa's first singing job, prior to which she had had little professional singing experience. The role has since had a profound impact on Costa's career, allowing her to successfully transition from animated to operatic roles. Costa credits Walt Disney and Sleeping Beauty with instilling a work ethic in her, which she maintained throughout her entire career. Costa has achieved great success as an opera singer; The New York Times hailed her as "one of the most beautiful women to grace the operatic stage", while Paul MacInnes of The Guardian referred to her as "One of America's finest sopranos". First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy personally requested that Costa perform at the memorial service of her late husband, United States President John F. Kennedy. Despite her success elsewhere, Costa continues to hold voicing Aurora in high regard as her greatest accomplishment because the role "keeps [her] close to young people." Costa was officially recognized as a Disney Legend in 1999, and continues to make promotional appearances for Disney. In 1997, Costa hosted a theatrical screening of Sleeping Beauty in her hometown of Knoxville, Tennessee to commemorate the film's home video release. In 1989, Costa sued Disney for royalties owed since the film's 1986 home video release, claiming that her contract with the studio prevented them from producing "phonograph recordings or transcriptions for sale to the public" without her permission, although Disney claimed that the video tapes are simply versions of the film. The case was settled out-of-court in favor of Costa for an undisclosed sum, provided she relinquish all future rights. Costa continued responding to all fan letters for nearly 60 years after the film's original release, until she found that she had become too elderly to continue responding at the age of 86 in 2016; she continues to meet fans and sign autographs at conventions. In 2020, following her 90th birthday, Costa then asked people to stop sending her any fan-mail in general, but once again thanked them for their continued love and support over the years.

Elle Fanning's performances as Aurora in Maleficent and Maleficent: Mistress of Evil were generally well-received. J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters said Fanning was an "inspired choice" for the character. Her acting was also praised by Michael Philips of the Chicago Tribune. Sheri Linden of The Hollywood Reporter said that Fanning brought a "diamond-in-the-rough aspect to Aurora’s loveliness", and added that "she’s no conventional Disney Princess but a child of nature with a strong sense of justice and an innate toughness." Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun-Times praised Fanning's performance in the sequel for having, "quite a bit of spunk and fight in her." Empire's Helen O'Hara was pleased that in Mistress of Evil, "Fanning manages to occasionally find something useful for Aurora to do: no mean feat in a character essentially designed to be a simpering blank." Rosie Knight of IGN found Fanning's portrayal in the second movie to be "charming as ever". Fanning's performance in the first film earned her a nomination for Best Performance by a Younger Actor at the 41st Saturn Awards as well as nominations for the "Choice Movie Actress: Action" at the 2014 Teen Choice Awards and "Favorite Movie Actress" at the 2015 Kids' Choice Awards.

See also

References

External links
 Aurora at Disney.com

Disney Princess characters
Film characters introduced in 1959
Animated characters introduced in 1959
Sleeping Beauty (1959 film) characters
Fictional French people
Characters created by Walt Disney


was a Japanese samurai artist from the Matsumae clan. His first success was a group of 12 portraits called the Ishu Retsuzo. The portraits were of 12 Ainu chiefs from the northern area of Ezo, now Hokkaido.

Biography
Kakizaki Hakyō was born in Matsumae Castle in 1764, the fifth son of the Matsumae Domain  daimyō . The following year he was adopted as successor by karō (chief retainer or house elder) . At a young age he travelled to Edo, where he studied under  and Sō Shiseki, learning the style of the Nanpin school. In the aftermath of the Menashi–Kunashir rebellion, he painted the , portraits of twelve Ainu chiefs who had sided with the Matsumae Domain; this series was presented to Emperor Kōkaku. In 1791 he journeyed to Kyōto, where he studied under Maruyama Ōkyo. His style was influenced by his exchanges with the painters and literati of the Maruyama-Shijō school and he became friends with , , and in particular , with whom he hosted a moon-viewing party for , attended also by . From 1807, when the Matsumae clan were transferred to the , based around Yanagawa in Mutsu Province, Kakizaki Hakyō as karō worked for their reinstatement. In 1826, after falling ill in Edo, he died in his home town of Matsumae.

See also

 List of Cultural Properties of Japan - paintings (Hokkaidō)
 Ainu genre painting

References

Matsumae clan
1764 births
1826 deaths


Twice in a Blue Moon is the third studio album by Dutch trance artist Ferry Corsten, released on 1 November 2008 at his second edition of the "Full on Ferry" gig. 3 November 2008 was the official release date to purchase the album outside the "Full on Ferry" gig. The first single released from the album was "Brain Box" in 2007, before Twice in a Blue Moon was even announced.

The album is inspired by many goings on in Corsten's life, including the birth of his daughter, Gabriella. The album got its title from a television program about roses Corsten was watching, which featured a rose called 'Twice in a Blue Moon', with Corsten knowing that "once in a blue moon" is a saying about something that only seldom happens. He also stated that he felt the title was fitting because of the birth of his new daughter, and also having his wife's love. The love of these two people was considered so special by Corsten that 'Twice in a Blue Moon' was considered an appropriate title.

The album has gone through various changes, including tracks such as "Made of Love", which originally never featured vocals. Corsten decided to add vocals after playing the track live a few times as Corsten does to test some new songs.

Twice in a Blue Moon represents a new step in Corsten's sound and a new style transition from his previous album L.E.F.. The latter was more of a protest against trance music due to its predictability, thus resulting in a more electronic-sounding and electro-styled album. Regarding the album cover of Twice in a Blue Moon, Corsten's trademark 'F' logo (with the 'F' standing for his first name Ferry) was used to make the album stand out and fit the style of the music featured on the album. This also makes it easily recognizable to fans, old and new.

Track listing

Releases

Single releases and remixes/re-edits

Work during the Twice in a Blue Moon period

 Corsten did the "Full on Ferry" gig on 1 November 2008.
 Corsten remixed the track "Human" by The Killers.
 On Wednesday 29 October 2008 Corsten presented a one-hour "Twice in a Blue Moon Special" on his weekly radio show Corsten's Countdown.

Charts

See also
 Ferry Corsten discography

References

External links

 Official album site
 Twice in a Blue Moon at Discogs

2008 albums
Ferry Corsten albums


Garisan is a mountain in Gangwon-do, South Korea. It sits on the boundary between the city of Chuncheon and the county of Hongcheon. Garisan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of Gangwon Province, South Korea
Chuncheon
Hongcheon County
Mountains of South Korea
One-thousanders of South Korea


During the American Civil War, sexual behavior, gender roles, and attitudes were affected by the conflict, especially by the absence of menfolk at home and the emergence of new roles for women such as nursing. The advent of photography and easier media distribution, for example, allowed for greater access to sexual material for the common soldier.

Nursing

Union
During the Civil War (1861–65), the United States Sanitary Commission, a federal civilian agency, handled most of the medical and nursing care of the Union armies, together with necessary acquisition and transportation of medical supplies. Dorothea Dix, serving as the commission's Superintendent, was able to convince the medical corps of the value of women working in  350 Commission or Army  hospitals. North and South, over 20,000 women volunteered to work in hospitals, usually in nursing care. They assisted surgeons during procedures, gave medicines, supervised the feedings and cleaned the bedding and clothes. They gave good cheer, wrote letters the men dictated, and comforted the dying. A representative nurse was Helen L. Gilson (1835–1868) of Chelsea, Massachusetts, who served in Sanitary Commission. She supervised supplies, dressed wounds, and cooked special foods for patients on a limited diet. She worked in hospitals after the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, Gettysburg. She was a successful administrator, especially at the hospital for black soldiers at City Point, Virginia. The middle-class women North and South who volunteered provided vitally needed nursing services and were rewarded with a sense of patriotism and civic duty in addition to opportunity to demonstrate their skills and gain new ones, while receiving wages and sharing the hardships of the men.

Mary Livermore, Mary Ann Bickerdyke, and Annie Wittenmeyer played leadership roles. After the war some nurses wrote memoirs of their experiences; examples include Dix, Livermore, Sarah Palmer Young, and Sarah Emma Edmonds. Clara Barton (1821–1912) gained fame for her nursing work during the American Civil War. She was an energetic organizer who established the American Red Cross, which was primarily a disaster relief agency but which also supported nursing programs.

Confederate nurses
Several thousand women were just as active in nursing in the Confederacy, but were less well organized and faced severe shortages of supplies and a much weaker system of 150 hospitals. Nursing and vital support services were provided not only by matrons and nurses, but also by local volunteers, slaves, free blacks, and prisoners of war.

Homefront

Union
While men were fighting, many Northern wives needed to learn how to farm and do other manual labor. Besides having to tend to the home and children while the men were away at war, women also contributed supplies. Quilts and blankets were often given to soldiers. Some had encouraging messages sewn on them.  They also sent  shirts, sheets, pillows, pillowcases, coats, vests, trousers, towels, handkerchiefs, socks, bandages, canned fruits, dried fruits, butter, cheese, wine, eggs, pickles, books, and magazines.

Confederacy
At the start of the war, Southern women zealously supported the men going off to war. They saw the men as protectors and invested heavily in the romantic idea of men fighting to defend the honor of their country, family, and way of life. Mothers and wives were able to keep in contact with their loved ones who had chosen to enlist by writing them letters. African American women, on the other hand, had experienced the breakup of families for generations and were once again dealing with this issue at the outbreak of war.

By summer 1861, the Union naval blockade virtually shut down the export of cotton and the import of manufactured goods. Food that formerly came overland was cut off.

Women had charge of making do. They cut back on purchases, brought out old spinning wheels and enlarged their gardens with peas and peanuts to provide clothing and food. They used ersatz substitutes when possible, but there was no real coffee and it was hard to develop a taste for the okra or chicory substitutes used. The households were severely hurt by inflation in the cost of everyday items and the shortages of food, fodder for the animals, and medical supplies for the wounded. The Georgia legislature imposed cotton quotas, making it a crime to grow an excess. But food shortages only worsened, especially in the towns.

The overall decline in food supplies, made worse by the collapsing transportation system, led to serious shortages and high prices in urban areas. When bacon reached a dollar a pound in 1863, the poor women of Richmond, Atlanta and many other cities began to riot; they broke into shops and warehouses to seize food. The women expressed their anger at ineffective state relief efforts, speculators, merchants and planters. As wives and widows of soldiers they were hurt by the inadequate welfare system.

Upper-class plantation mistresses often had to manage the estates which the younger men had left behind. Overseers of the slaves were exempt from the draft, and usually remained on the plantations.  Historian Jonathan Wiener studied the census data on plantations in black-belt counties, 1850–70, and found that the War did not drastically alter the responsibilities and roles of women. The age of the groom increased as younger women married older planters, and birth rates dropped sharply during 1863-68 during Reconstruction. However, plantation mistresses were not more likely to operate plantations than in earlier years, nor was there a lost generation of women without men.

Female soldiers

The number of female soldiers in the war is estimated at between 400 and 750, although an accurate count is impossible because the women had to disguise themselves as men. A Union officer was once quoted regarding how a Union sergeant was "in violation of all military law" by giving birth to child, and this was not the only case where the true sex of a soldier was discovered due to childbirth. A captured Confederate officer whose true sex was previously unknown by the guards gave birth in a Union prison camp.

The Civil War was generally a time of challenges to traditional gender norms, as women mobilized themselves to participate in the war effort and left the home in droves to serve as charity workers, nurses, clerks, farm laborers, and political activists. Across the Confederacy, upper-class women assembled all-female home guard militias, drilling firearms usage and training to protect their plantations, properties, and neighborhoods from Union invasion. Military training became mandatory at some private girls' academies. One female militia in LaGrange, Georgia—a uniquely militarily vulnerable city, poised halfway between the industrial powerhouse of Atlanta and the original Confederate capital at Montgomery, Alabama—engaged in diplomatic negotiations with the invading Union army in April 1865, using the threat of violence to obtain a promise that their city would not be ransacked. As concerted a challenge to gender norms as these all-female militias would seem to pose, however, the participants were careful to otherwise keep well within gender norms, and to avoid the impression of usurping male protective roles.

The most dramatic and extreme challenge to gender roles, then, came with those women who participated in the Civil War as fully enlisted combatants. Though not particularly well known today, it is estimated that there are over 1000 women who enlisted in both the Union and Confederate armies under assumed male identities. The female soldiers were not operating within a vacuum, responding blindly to the stimulus of war. Unlike the members of the all-female militias, the female enlisted soldiers were drawn disproportionately from working- and lower-middle-class backgrounds—and therefore represented a radically different cultural milieu. Mid-nineteenth-century working-class culture, for example, was generally familiar—if not comfortable—with female cross-dressing, with the phenomenon being prominently featured in popular theatrical and literary pieces with mass audiences.

Women had different motivations for joining the army, just as did their male counterparts. A common reason was to escape pre-arranged marriages. Sarah Edmonds, for example, left her home in maritime Canada and fled to the United States to avoid marriage—but took the ultimate protective step of dressing as a man and enlisting in the Union Army to avoid detection. Loreta Janeta Velazquez, on the other hand, was driven to enlist by more personal motivations; inspired by the example of Joan of Arc and other historical women warriors, she was idealistic about feminine potential on the battlefield, insisting that, "when women have rushed to the battlefield, they have invariably distinguished themselves." Sarah Rosetta Wakeman had been living as a man long before the outbreak of the war, hoping to find better-paying work on the riverboats of New York rather than as a female domestic servant. She was, therefore, compelled to enlist by an economic imperative; the prospect of steady pay as an enlisted soldier in the Union Army appeared to be preferable to the instability of day labor. Whatever the original motivations of the individual female soldiers, however, they ultimately took part in the war on similar terms as their male brothers-in-arms.

The existence of illicit female soldiers was an open secret in both the wartime Union and Confederacy, with stories commonly shared in both soldiers' letters and newspaper articles. Awareness trickled out into the general public—and civilians were fascinated by these women warriors. This curiosity is reflected in the literature of the period. Wartime romance novels idealised these women as heroines sacrificing themselves for love of country and menfolk, while Frank Moore's popular 1866 history Women and the Civil War: Their Heroism and Their Sacrifice prominently featured an entire chapter on the female soldiers of the war. Although it establishes the fact that women warriors were objects of curiosity for the American public, Moore significantly softened and romanticised their experiences in order to make them more palatable to a general audience. For instance, Moore refers to one particular female soldier as an "American Joan of Arc", attempting to frame her wartime exploits within a recognisable paradigm of holy war and divine inspiration.

Regardless of generally warm popular opinion, however, female soldiers actually faced significant suspicion and opposition from within the armies themselves. Female soldiers were generally successful at physically disguising themselves; their shorter height, higher voices, and lack of facial hair escaped comment in an army heavily dominated by adolescent boys, while their own feminine shapes could be obscured through breast-binding. Recruits deemed to be of ambiguous gender, for example, were often subjected to improvised tests to check their gendered responses. One such test was to toss a soldier an apple; if he held out his shirttails to catch the apple as if in an apron, he would be deemed to be a woman, and would be subject to further investigation. Female soldiers who were most successful at blending into military life were those who had been presenting as male even before they had enlisted: Sarah Wakeman, for example, had been living as a man and working on canal boats in New York prior to joining the Union army, while Jennie Hodgers had likewise assumed a masculine identity long before the outbreak of the war.

Women who passed the scrutiny of their fellow soldiers, however, were nonetheless expected to perform to the same standard—and so female soldiers largely blended in with their male fellows-in-arms, performing the same duties with fairly minimal risk of exposure. Those who were caught typically were exposed while wounded and receiving medical care in battlefront hospitals. Others, however, escaped detection for the entire war, and returned home to resume their normal lives and feminine gender expression—with a few notable exceptions. Female veteran Sarah Edmonds, the runaway Canadian bride, lived under the masculine identity of Franklin Thompson for the rest of her life, and even was granted a pension for her service by Congress in 1886, while Jennie Hodgers continued living as Albert Cashier before being discovered and forced back into feminine dress after having been institutionalized for dementia in 1913. The participation of so many women in the Civil War, however, was an uncomfortable subject for the US Army for many decades; the fact of female service was officially denied by the army until well in the twentieth century.

Rape
Some soldiers engaged in acts of rape. The Confederate records were destroyed, but a perusal of only five percent of Federal records reveal that over thirty court martial trials were held due to instances of rape; death by hanging or firing squad being the usual punishment if convicted. Sometimes, offering money for sex to a white woman of good standing was considered almost tantamount to rape; in the case of an Illinois private at Camp Dennison, for example, the perpetrator spent a month at the guardhouse for offering a mother a dollar and her daughter three dollars for sex. Federal troops who committed rape while invading the Southern states mostly took advantage of black rather than white women, and black soldiers were usually punished more severely for the crime than their white counterparts. Even so, the fear of rape was omnipresent among white Southern women facing the prospect of invasion without male protection; although specific numbers of victims are difficult to trace, the threat of sexual violence committed by Union soldiers lingered in Southern cultural memory long after the war ended.

On 24 April 1863, Union President Abraham Lincoln signed the Lieber Code, which amongst other things contained one of the first explicit prohibitions on rape. Paragraphs 44 and 47 of the Lieber Code contained provisions prohibiting several crimes including "(...) all rape (...) by an American soldier in a hostile country against its inhabitants (...) under the penalty of death, or such other severe punishment as may seem adequate for the gravity of the offense." Thus, the only enforcement mechanisms were the military commanders themselves, having the right to execute the soldiers immediately.

Homosexuality
The term "homosexuality" was not coined until thirty years after the war ended. However, no army soldiers were disciplined for such activity, although three pairs of Union Navy sailors were punished, all in 1865.

There was only one case of male prostitution reported during the war. The Richmond Dispatch reported on May 13, 1862, that since the moving of the Confederacy's capital to Richmond that "loose males of the most abandoned character from other parts of the Confederacy" had moved to Richmond and "prostitutes of both sexes" openly displayed themselves in carriages and on sidewalks.

Scholars have tried to ascertain if certain Civil War figures were homosexual. The most notable of these was Confederate major general Patrick Cleburne, although it is still disputed.

In camp
At camp, "barracks favorites" were available. These were inexpensive novels of a sexual nature. Photographs of nudity were available as well, and were purchased by both enlisted men and officers. These twelve by fifteen inch pictures cost $1.20 for a dozen, or ten cents for a single picture. These were usually pictures of nude women doing innocent things; nude women that were engaging in actual sexual activity were usually not white, but either black or Native American. With the soldiers being far away from their wives and sweethearts, it is speculated these were used for masturbation, and not just for entertainment. Only three of the novels are still known to exist; they are located at the Kinsey Institute of Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana.

However, this is not to say females were not available for sex. Prostitutes were among the camp followers following behind marching troops. Popular legend has it that they were so common around the Army of the Potomac when Union general Joseph Hooker was in command that the term "hooker" was coined to describe them; however, the term had been in use since 1845. The number of prostitutes around Hooker's division only "cemented" the term.

This led to many cases of venereal disease. Among white Union soldiers there was a total of 73,382 syphilis cases and 109,397 gonorrhea cases. The total rate of venereal disease among the white Union troops was 82 cases per 1,000 men, where before and after the war the rate was 87 of 1,000. Union black troops, however, had rates of 34 per 1,000 for syphilis and 44 per 1,000 for gonorrhea. Cases were most prominent around larger cities like Nashville, Tennessee; New Orleans; Richmond, Virginia; and Washington, D.C. Numbers for Confederates are unknown, but are assumed to be less, due to Confederate soldiers being less likely to be in cities.

Prostitution

Prostitution experienced its largest growth during 1861–1865. Some historians have speculated that this growth can be attributed to a depression, and the need for women to support themselves and their families while their husbands were away at war. Other historians considered the growth of prostitution to be related to the women wanting to spread venereal disease to the opposing troops. The term "public women" was coined for the women that became prostitutes. There was moral outrage at this rising employment, and law officials classified the people they arrested as such. The word "hooker" predates the Civil War, but became popularized due to Union General Joseph Hooker's reputation of consorting with prostitutes. After the outbreak of war, the number of brothels skyrocketed. In 1864, there were 450 brothels in Washington, and over 75 brothels in nearby Alexandria, Virginia. A newspaper estimated there were 5,000 public women in the District and another 2,500 in Alexandria and Georgetown, bringing the total to 7,500 by the war's third year. However, it was the towns located just outside the camps where prostitution was most prominent. These small towns were overrun by the sex trade when army troops set up nearby camps. One soldier wrote home to his wife, "It is said that one house in every ten is a bawdy houseit is a perfect Sodom."

The most notorious area for prostitution was in Tennessee. Before the outbreak of the war, Nashville recorded 207 prostitutes; however, in 1863 reports claimed to have at least 1,500 prostitutes. The area where these prostitutes could be found was known as Smokey Row. In an infamous campaign to rid the city of the "public women", Lt. Col. George Spalding loaded the women on to the steamboat Idahoe. The women were sent to Louisville, where they were not allowed off the ship and sent further along to Cincinnati. Many of the women became sick due to lack of food and were forced to turn around and return to Nashville. Once they arrived back in Nashville, Lt. Col. Spalding created a system of registration similar to European ones. He inadvertently created the first legal system of prostitution.
This is the set of regulations he set up:
 That a license be issued to each prostitute, a record of which was to be kept at this office, together with the number and street of her residence.
 That one skillful surgeon be appointed as a board of examination whose duty it was to be to examine personally, every week, each licensed prostitute, giving certificate soundness to those who were healthy and ordering into hospital those who were in the slightest degree diseased.
 That a building suitable for a hospital for the invalids was to be taken for that purpose, and that a weekly tax of fifty cents was to be levied on each prostitute for the purpose of defraying the expense of said hospital.
 That all public women found plying their vocation without a license and certificate were to be at once arrested and incarcerated in the workhouse for a period of not less than thirty days.

Prostitution experienced a large growth and spread across the North and South, and was one of the few industries to cross enemy lines throughout the duration of the war.

Legacy

After the war, many Southern men felt their manhood diminished in a manner some historians dubbed a "crisis of gender"; a crisis exacerbated after Confederate president Jefferson Davis was apprehended by Union soldiers wearing his wife's shawl for warmth. The false rumor quickly spread in the North that Davis was caught during his escape while dressed as a woman. Period drawings depicting Davis in full women's dress (bonnet included) were used to ridicule the Confederacy's former president.

Women in the US were able to engage in the different societal spheres following the civil war. Typically, when women are allowed to stay post-civil war in positions that they gained in the social and political spheres, there is less chance of civil war recurring, whereas in the economic sphere, if women keep those positions, then there is a higher chance of civil war recurring.

One thing that came from the spread of pornography during the war was the rise of anti-pornography forces; in particular, the Comstock laws.

See also
 American Civil War spies
 Gender history
 History of women in the United States
 Medicine in the American Civil War
 Women in the American Revolution

Notes

Further reading

 Anderson, J. L. "The Vacant Chair on the Farm: Soldier Husbands, Farm Wives, and the Iowa Home Front, 1861–1865," Annals of Iowa (2007) 66: 241–265
 Attie, Jeanie. Patriotic Toil: Northern Women and the American Civil War (Cornell UP, 1998), 294pp
 Brown, Alexis Girardin. "The Women Left Behind: Transformation of the Southern Belle, 1840–1880" (2000) Historian 62#4 pp 759–778.
 Campbell, D'Ann, and Richard Jensen. "Gendering Two Wars" in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. War Comes Again: The Civil War and World War II: Comparative Vistas (Oxford UP, 1995), pp 101–124.
 Cashin, Joan E. "Torn Bonnets and Stolen Silks: Fashion, Gender, Race, and Danger in the Wartime South." Civil War History 61#4 (2015): 338–361. online

 Clinton, Catherine, and Silber, Nina, eds. Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War (1992)
 Clinton, Catherine, and Silber, Nina, eds. Battle Scars: Gender and Sexuality in the American Civil War (2006).

 Fahs, Alice. "The Feminized Civil War: Gender, Northern Popular Literature, and the Memory of the War, 1861–1900." Journal of American History 85.4 (1999): 1461–1494. Online
 Faust, Drew Gilpin. "‘Trying to Do a Man's Business’: Slavery, Violence and Gender in the American Civil War." Gender & History 4.2 (1992): 197–214.
 Giesberg, Judith. Army at Home: Women and the Civil War on the Northern Home Front (2009) excerpt and text search
 Giesberg, Judith, and Randall M. Miller, eds. Women and the American Civil War: North-South Counterpoints (2018)

 Harper, Judith E. Women during the Civil War: An Encyclopedia. (2004). 472 pp.
 Massey, Mary. Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War (1966), excellent overview North and South; reissued as Women in the Civil War (1994)

 Lowry, Thomas P. Sexual Misbehavior in the Civil War: A Compendium (Xlibris Corporation, 2006).
 Nelson, Michael C. "Writing during wartime: gender and literacy in the American Civil War." Journal of American Studies 31.1 (1997): 43–68.
 Silber, Nina. Daughters of the Union: Northern Women Fight the Civil War. (Harvard UP, 2005). 332 pp.
 Silvey, Anita. I'll pass for your comrade (2008), women soldiers online free to borrow
 Stokes, Karen. South Carolina Civilians in Sherman's Path: Stories of Courage Amid Civil War Destruction (The History Press, 2012).
 Telford, Jennifer Casavant, and Thomas Lawrence Long. "Gendered spaces, gendered pages: Union women in Civil War nurse narratives." Medical humanities 38.2 (2012): 97–105.
 Whites, LeeAnn, and Alecia P. Long, eds. Occupied women: gender, military occupation, and the American civil war (LSU Press, 2009).
 Whites, LeeAnn. Civil War as a Crisis in Gender: Augusta, Georgia, 1860-1890 (U of Georgia Press, 2000).
 Wiley, Bell Irwin Confederate Women (1975) online free to borrow
 Young, Elizabeth. "A Wound of One's Own: Louisa May Alcott's Civil War Fiction" American Quarterly 48#3  (1996), pp. 439–474 Online
 Young, Elizabeth. Disarming the Nation: women's writing and the American Civil War (U of Chicago Press, 1999).

Historiography
 "Bonnet Brigades at Fifty: Reflections on Mary Elizabeth Massey and Gender in Civil War History," Civil War History (2015) 61#4 pp 400–444.
 Cashin, Joan E. "American Women and the American Civil War" Journal of Military History (2017) 81#1 pp 199–204.
 McDevitt, Theresa. Women and the American Civil War: an annotated bibliography (Praeger, 2003).

External links
 Southern women in Civil War, free books to borrow or download
 Unions women in Civil War, free books to borrow or download

Social history of the American Civil War
History of human sexuality
Sexuality in the United States
Gender in the United States
Gender history


John C. Champion (October 13, 1923 in Denver, Colorado, United States – October 10, 1994 in Tarzana, California, US) was an American producer and screenwriter.

Biography
John C. Champion's first films were two Westerns that he produced and co-wrote with Blake Edwards. Panhandle (1948) and Stampede (1949) were both directed by Lesley Selander for Allied Artists. He later worked again with Selander as producer and screenwriter on another western, Shotgun, and the Korean War film Dragonfly Squadron.  Champion produced and co-wrote with Arthur Hailey the aviation film Zero Hour! that was remade as the comedy Airplane!.

In 1959 Champion produced the Western TV series Laramie and wrote several episodes in the series that ran until 1963.  He wrote the original serious one hour pilot of McHale's Navy called Seven Against the Sea. In 1965 he formed a company with Audie Murphy, M.C.R. Productions to produce Westerns in Spain, but only one, The Texican was made.

He moved to England in 1967 where he wrote and produced low budget war films for Mirisch Films GB such as Attack on the Iron Coast, The Last Escape, and Submarine X-1. Like Dragonfly Squadron, the low-budget films made by Oakmont Productions featured large amounts of stock footage and were made with American leads and directors.

Champion wrote one novel The Hawks of Noon (1965).  In 1969 Rod Taylor announced that he would star in a film of the book and have a multi-picture deal with Champion, but no films were made.

Champion's final film was Mustang Country in 1976 with Joel McCrea that Champion directed, produced and wrote.

Notes

External links

1923 births
1994 deaths
American film producers
20th-century American novelists
American male screenwriters
American male novelists
American male television writers
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American screenwriters


Ada Elizabeth Levett (1881–1932), known professionally as A. E. Levett, was an Oxford-educated native of Bodiam, Sussex, who became a pioneering woman economic historian specialising in medieval feudalism. Levett was Vice Principal of St Hilda's College, Oxford, and later took up an appointment to a history chair at Westfield College at the University of London.

Biography
Levett was born into an old Sussex family in Bodiam, near the border between Kent and Sussex, where her family had lived since medieval times.  The once-powerful Anglo-Norman family, one of the county's oldest, had held manors and lands across Sussex. The study of medieval feudalism was probably in Levett's genes.

Levett's father was a simple yeoman farmer as well as an outdoor enthusiast. Academic pursuits were not encouraged in the household, especially for women. Nevertheless, both Elizabeth and her younger sister Mary Jane Levett (known professionally as M. J. Levett) became noted scholars.

Elizabeth Levett graduated from Oxford, then became Tutor in Modern History, writer, lecturer and Vice Principal at St Hilda's College, Oxford, where her scrupulous research and lean writing style made her stand out, even among her women contemporaries at Oxford, who often chose the route of close archival study to set themselves apart from male contemporaries. These women were redefining the role of women at the University: women had been forbidden to be faculty members or examine for the university, nor were they allowed to take the M.A. diploma (they were permitted to take a B.A.). Oxford published women's examination results in a separate class-list up until 1952.

But some Oxford dons welcomed the new influence. Professor Ernest Barker, for instance, taught both Elizabeth Levett and her gifted contemporary Maude Clarke before departing Oxford to become principal of King's College, London.

In her speciality of medieval economic history, Levett made use of archives in monasteries and local archives. Her style was known for its rigorous scholarship with attention to the minutest detail. In the Ewart lecture of 1916, Levett argued for "a stricter method, more rigidly exact in its collection of evidence." Her method, evident in her deeply researched works, was typical of her Oxford contemporaries, Levett noted. No detail should be left out, she said, "not even a mouse-trap, nor even, what is less, a peg for a harp."

Her most noted works are Studies in Manorial History and English Manorial History in the Fourteenth Century, but she published scores of academic articles and monographs on medieval history—from the obscure details of feudalism to more sensational topics like the Black Death.

A student of the legal and social historian Sir Paul Vinogradoff at Oxford, Elizabeth Levett took up the methods of careful scrutiny of archival sources, and added an economic historian's insights. Her study on the Black Death was groundbreaking at the time, and her work on the manorial courts of St Albans was seminal in the field. (She died before publication of the St. Albans work.) Speaking of her former professor Vinogradoff, Levett said "he taught me to unify my varied interests... into the great framework of Economics and Jurisprudence, and to bring it to bear on practical social history."

This growing wellspring of women historians was especially evident in the Victoria History of the Counties of England, where much of the text was written by female medievalists like Levett, poring over contemporaneous medieval records of peasantry at the time. It was an approach that Levett herself advocated and embraced, and historians saw its impact on her own work.

In writing about the property rights of peasant women during medieval times, for instance, Levett described the sale of land completed while a distraught wife sobbed in court—described in the Latin of medieval records as lacrimentem in pleno halimoto. The transfer was later voided by the court after the husband's death because of the wife's protests, but it was accepted by the court at the time. By focusing on such particular incidents in the old records, Levett limned the societal rights (or lack of them) of medieval women, who were seen as subordinate tenants.

In addition to her carefully footnoted academic pieces, Levett delivered lectures and wrote articles on prostitution, on university women and religion, and on women in the postwar world. As her reputation grew, and strictures on women in academia loosened, Levett found that she was in great demand as a lecturer and writer. The award of a history chair at Westfield College crowned her career as one of a small number of emerging British women historians.

Elizabeth Levett died in 1932 at the age of 51 at the height of her professional career.

Levett's younger sister F. M. Jane Levett, early professor of logic at Glasgow University, also went on to an illustrious career. She is best known for her translation (as M.J. Levett) of Plato's Theaetetus. Jane Levett died at her cottage near Tenterden, Kent, not far from her Bodiam birthplace, in 1974.

Works
 Europe Since Napoleon, London: Blackie, 1914. With introductory note by Richard Lodge.
 (with Adolphus Ballard) The Black Death, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916. Oxford studies in social and legal history, vol. 5. With a chapter contributed by Reginald Vivian Lennard.
 The Black Death on the estates of the see of Winchester. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916. Oxford studies in social and legal history, vol. 23. With a chapter contributed by Adolphus Ballard.
 'The Courts and Court Rolls of St. Albans Abbey', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 1924.
 English Economic History, London: E. Benn, 1929. Benn's sixpenny library, no. 48.
 The Consumer in History, London: E. Benn Limited, 1929. Self and society, no. 21.
 Studies in Manorial History, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938

References

External links

 Studies in Manorial History, Ada Elizabeth Levett, edited by H. M. Cam, M. Coate, L. S. Sutherland, socserv.mcmaster.ca

1881 births
1932 deaths
A.E.
Fellows of the Royal Historical Society
First women admitted to degrees at Oxford
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
People from Bodiam
British medievalists
Academics of the University of London
Fellows of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Economic historians
20th-century British historians
20th-century English women writers
20th-century English writers
British women historians


HATU (Hexafluorophosphate Azabenzotriazole Tetramethyl Uronium) is a reagent used in peptide coupling chemistry to generate an active ester from a carboxylic acid. HATU is used along with Hünig's base (N,N-diisopropylethylamine, DIPEA), or triethylamine to form amide bonds. Typically DMF is used as solvent, although other polar aprotic solvents can also be used.

History
HATU was first reported by Louis A. Carpino in 1993 as an efficient means of preparing active esters derived from 1-hydroxy-7-azabenzotriazole (HOAt). HATU can exist as either the uronium salt (O-form) or the less reactive iminium salt (N-form). HATU was initially reported as the O-form using the original preparation reported by Carpino; however, X-ray crystallographic and NMR studies revealed the true structure of HATU to be the less reactive guanidinium isomer. It is, however, possible to obtain the uronium isomer by preparing HATU using KOAt in place of HOAt and working up the reaction mixture quickly to prevent isomerisation.

Reactions
HATU is commonly encountered in amine acylation reactions (i.e., amide formation). Such reactions are typically performed in two distinct reaction steps: (1) reaction of a carboxylic acid with HATU to form the OAt-active ester; then (2) addition of the nucleophile (amine) to the active ester solution to afford the acylated product.

The reaction mechanism of carboxylic acid activation by HATU and subsequent N-acylation is summarised in the figure below. The mechanism is shown using the more commonly encountered and commercially available iminium isomer; a similar mechanism, however, is likely to apply to the uronium form. In the first step, the carboxylate anion (formed by deprotonation by an organic base [not shown]) attacks HATU to form the unstable O-acyl(tetramethyl)isouronium salt. The OAt anion rapidly attacks the isouronium salt, affording the OAt-active ester and liberating a stoichiometric quantity of tetramethylurea. Addition of a nucleophile, such as an amine, to the OAt-active ester results in acylation.

The high coupling efficiencies and fast reaction rates associated with HATU coupling are thought to arise from a neighbouring group effect brought about by the pyridine nitrogen atom, which stabilises the incoming amine through a hydrogen-bonded 7-membered cyclic transition state.

Because of the extraordinary coupling efficiency of HATU, it has often been used for intramolecular amidation (coupling of a carboxylic acid and an amine of the same molecule). For example, the formation of cyclo-tetrapeptides through the head-to-tail reaction of linear tetrapeptides assisted by HATU has been reported. However, HATU should be used in caution for some cases of SPPS as "amino acid building
block may be consumed rapidly through lactamization before it is coupled onto the peptide chain".

References

Peptide coupling reagents
Hexafluorophosphates
Triazolopyridines


Josh Keller (born February 16, 1975, in Laguna Niguel, California) is a retired American soccer midfielder who spent four seasons in Major League Soccer.

Keller attended UCLA, playing on the men's soccer team from 1994 to 1997.  In 1997, he was captain of the team when it won the NCAA Men's Soccer Championship.  He graduated cum laude with a bachelor's degree in psychology and business.  In March 1998, the Tampa Bay Mutiny selected Keller in the first round (seventh overall) in the 1998 MLS College Draft.  He played nine games for the Mutiny in 1998 before being traded to the Chicago Fire on June 29, 1998, in exchange for Jorge Salcedo.  He played six games for the Fire that season.   He also went on loan with the Charleston Battery of the USL A-League for four games.  On March 17, 1999, the Fire traded Keller back to the Mutiny.  When the Mutiny folded in 2001, the Dallas Burn selected Keller in the first round of the 2002 MLS Dispersal Draft.  He elected to retire from professional soccer and joined Morgan Stanley, a financial services company.  He later moved to Booz Allen Hamilton, a consulting firm.  In  January 2005, Keller moved to Proactive Sports Management where he is currently the Director of Marketing.

References

1975 births
Living people
American men's soccer players
Charleston Battery players
Tampa Bay Mutiny players
Chicago Fire FC players
UCLA Bruins men's soccer players
Major League Soccer players
MLS Pro-40 players
A-League (1995–2004) players
Tampa Bay Mutiny draft picks
People from Laguna Niguel, California
Soccer players from Orange County, California
Men's association football midfielders


Indian History Congress is the largest professional and academic body of Indian historians with over 35,000 members. It was established in 1935. The name of any new applicant for membership needs to be proposed and seconded by existing Ordinary or Life Members.

History
The lead to establish an all-India national congress of historians was taken by Poona historians during the period of British colonial rule. The first session took place in Bharat Itihas Sanshodhak Mandal, Poona, in 1935. Historians such as Datto Vaman Potdar, Surendra Nath Sen (who later became the first director of National Archives of India), and Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan attended the first session.

Historians Mohammad Habib and Susobhan Sarkar and later Nurul Hasan, Ram Sharan Sharma, Radha Krishna Chaudhary, Satish Chandra, Bipan Chandra, Romila Thapar, Irfan Habib, Athar Ali, Barun De, Iqtidar Alam Khan, B. N. Mukherjee, K. N. Panikkar, Brajadulal Chattopadhayay, Dwijendra Narayan Jha, Sumit Sarkar, Sabyasachi Bhattacharya and Pritam Saini  have had a long association with the Indian History Congress.

Awards
H.K. Barpujari Award

1985: Sumit Sarkar
1987: M. Athar Ali
1989: R.S. Sharma
1991: S. Settar
1993: No Award
2017: Sabyasachi Bhattacharya

Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade Award (for lifelong service and contribution to Indian history)

2002: R.S. Sharma

References

External links

Historiography of India
1935 establishments in India
Organizations established in 1935
Professional associations based in India
History organisations based in India


Norske Gaardnavne (English: Norwegian Farm Names) is a 19-volume set of books based on a manuscript prepared from 1897 to 1924 by Oluf Rygh, a noted professor of archaeology, philology, and history at the University of Oslo. The book contains a standardized notation, information on pronunciation, historical forms, and the etymology for recorded gaardnavne (oeconyms, or farm, estate, and manor names) in Norway. It was developed by detailed compilation of the various written and oral records of land ownership. It is the standard that establishes place names in Norway. Documenting over 45,000 farm names and related information in 1886, it became the inspiration for similar studies in Sweden and Denmark.

Work of the commission
The Norwegian Stortinget, in an act of 6 June 1863, commissioned a general revision of public register that defines Norwegian public and private lands to allow consistent land ownership records and to update the basis for taxation in Norway (a cadastre). The work was intended to correct inconsistencies and errors in place names. In 1878 the professors Sophus Bugge and Oluf Rygh, and the dean Johan Fritzner were named as members of a commission to revise the names of recorded property.

Several issues complicated this effort:
Although various land records existed (e.g., Aslak Bolts jordebok from  1433,  Gautes jordebok from 1491, and Olav Engelbrektssons jordebok from 1533), there was no comprehensive record.
Place names evolved as the language of record shifted from Old Norwegian to Danish, which became the standard written language of Norway between the 16th and the 19th centuries.
No officially sanctioned standard of spoken Norwegian existed, and most Norwegians spoke their own dialect, resulting in significant variations in usage.

Sources for place names
Because spoken names evolve, the most useful etymological sources for place names are typically the oldest written sources. Hence the commission reviewed a number of older sources including old land records and the various letters and documents that comprise the Diplomatarium Norvegicum.  However, many of the place names predate written records by over 1,000 years, complicating the process. Further, for large parts of the country there were no formal land records until the official record of 1723.

One of the commission's main techniques for establishing names was through recording the oral pronunciation. To accomplish this, the commission studied pronunciations used among common people in everyday conversations. Differences were observed regionally as well as between urban and remote areas. However they found consistent relationships between the current verbal forms and the original names as found in both the current parish records and the older records.

Analysis of farm names
Etymological analysis identified the grammatical form of names, including gender, number, grammatical case, and definite or indefinite article. Where records of earlier names exist, the phonetic changes through time are analyzed. The analysis identified derivations from a variety of sources, including:
 Names derived from the physical features of the area: hills, slopes, passes, peninsula points, islands, waterfalls, lakes, surfaces, etc.
 Names derived from the use of the land: ports, roads, etc.
 Name derived from the characteristic ground cover: trees, shrubs, and plants
 Name related to animals and wildlife
 Name related to how the farm use including buildings on the farm and other human works
 Name derived from older words for home or cultivated land
 Name derived from the use of the farm or the farm history
 Name associated with folk religion: pagan religious sites and practices
 Comparison name, for example. with a piece of clothing, etc., or with body parts, animals, or tools
 Name derived from rivers and river features
 Name that contains the name or nickname of an owner
 Complimentary and derogatory names

Publication
After the initial manuscript was completed in 1892, the material was submitted to the National Archival Services of Norway. Interest in the work was so great that in 1896 the parliament appropriated funding to publish it. In 1897, the first volume in the series Norske Gaardnavne went to press.

Norske Gaardnavne was released in multiple volumes, with one or more volumes for each county and a separate volume with the preface and introduction, so people could buy individual volumes for areas in which they were interested. When Oluf Rygh died, the introductory volume and the first two county volumes had been published (for Smaalenenes, now Østfold, and Akershus). Volumes 3 and 4 were essentially finished. The manuscript for subsequent volumes were edited by Albert Kjær (volumes 4 [Part 2], 6, 7, 9, 12, and 19), Hjalmar Falk (volume 5), Amund B. Larsen (volume 8), Magnus Olsen (volumes 10 and 11), and Karl Ditlev Rygh (volumes 13, 14, 15, 16, and 17). In 1924 Just Knud Qvigstad and Magnus Olsen released an eighteenth, county-specific volume covering Finnmark.

Multiple editions of the work have subsequently been printed. With the support of the Arts Council Norway and nine counties, Norske Gaardnavne has been converted to an online digital database, which is available to the public for research.

List of volumes in Norske Gaardnavne

References and notes

Agriculture in Norway
Norwegian books


The Black Family are a Celtic music ensemble, composed of Mary and Frances Black and their siblings, Shay, Michael, and Martin. The family has been called "one of the most important musical clans in Ireland".

History
The five were born into a musical family; their father, who hailed from Rathlin Island, was a fiddle player, and their mother was a music hall singer. The siblings perform together as a quintet in Dublin from the 1970s to the present day, and in 1977, Mary continued to play solo and with the groups General Humbert and De Dannan. Both Mary and Frances went on to become highly successful solo artists. The five siblings recorded a self-titled album, released in 1986. In 1989, they recorded again, with Mary producing the album for her four siblings. They reunited in 2004 for a third album, which also features their mother, Patty, singing on one tune. They continue to reunite for occasional live performances.

Shay and Michael moved to California in the early 1990s and continue to have successful musical careers performing as The Black Brothers. The brothers released What a Time in 1995. Michael released his first solo and self-titled CD, Michael Black, produced by John Doyle, in 2006. Michael and Shay Black continue to tour as a band, The Black Brothers, throughout the United States and Canada. Martin lives in Dublin, and although family commitments have reduced his music commitment, he still plays small gigs in Dublin.

Dynasty
Mary's son Danny O'Reilly is the lead singer of The Coronas and her daughter Róisín O is a singer-songwriter, while Frances' daughter Aoife Scott was a finalist in the Liet International song contest for minority languages in 2011, and her son Eoghan Scott is also a solo artist and producer.

Discography
The Black Family (Dara Records, 1986)
Time for Touching Home (Dara, 1989)
What a Time (Dara, 1995)
Our Time Together (Dara, 2004)

See also
The Coronas - the band led by Danny O'Reilly, the son of Mary Black

References

External links
The Black Brothers web site

Celtic music groups
Family musical groups
Musical groups from Dublin (city)
Musical groups established in 1965
1965 establishments in Ireland