Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical potential. It is possible to diffuse "uphill" from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, as in spinodal decomposition. Diffusion is a stochastic process due to the inherent randomness of the diffusing entity and can be used to model many real-life stochastic scenarios. Therefore, diffusion and the corresponding mathematical models are used in several fields beyond physics, such as statistics, probability theory, information theory, neural networks, finance, and marketing.

The concept of diffusion is widely used in many fields, including physics (particle diffusion), chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, statistics, data science, and finance (diffusion of people, ideas, data and price values). The central idea of diffusion, however, is common to all of these: a substance or collection undergoing diffusion spreads out from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that substance or collection.

A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity; for example, concentration, pressure, or temperature with the change in another variable, usually distance. A change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration gradient, a change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient, and a change in temperature over a distance is called a temperature gradient.

The word diffusion derives from the Latin word, diffundere, which means "to spread out".

A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on particle random walk, and results in mixing or mass transport without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk flow, is the characteristic of advection. The term convection is used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena.

If a diffusion process can be described by Fick's laws, it is called a normal diffusion (or Fickian diffusion); Otherwise, it is called an anomalous diffusion (or non-Fickian diffusion).

When talking about the extent of diffusion, two length scales are used in two different scenarios:

 Brownian motion of an impulsive point source (for example, one single spray of perfume)—the square root of the mean squared displacement from this point. In Fickian diffusion, this is , where  is the dimension of this Brownian motion;
 Constant concentration source in one dimension—the diffusion length. In Fickian diffusion, this is .

Diffusion vs. bulk flow
"Bulk flow" is the movement/flow of an entire body due to a pressure gradient (for example, water coming out of a tap). "Diffusion" is the gradual movement/dispersion of concentration within a body, due to a concentration gradient, with no net movement of matter. An example of a process where both bulk motion and diffusion occur is human breathing.

First, there is a "bulk flow" process. The lungs are located in the thoracic cavity, which expands as the first step in external respiration. This expansion leads to an increase in volume of the alveoli in the lungs, which causes a decrease in pressure in the alveoli. This creates a pressure gradient between the air outside the body at relatively high pressure and the alveoli at relatively low pressure. The air moves down the pressure gradient through the airways of the lungs and into the alveoli until the pressure of the air and that in the alveoli are equal, that is, the movement of air by bulk flow stops once there is no longer a pressure gradient.

Second, there is a "diffusion" process. The air arriving in the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the "stale" air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases. This creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli, as fresh air has a very low concentration of carbon dioxide compared to the blood in the body.

Third, there is another "bulk flow" process. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body. As the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a pressure gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow down the pressure gradient.

Diffusion in the context of different disciplines

There are two ways to introduce the notion of diffusion: either a phenomenological approach starting with Fick's laws of diffusion and their mathematical consequences, or a physical and atomistic one, by considering the random walk of the diffusing particles.

In the phenomenological approach, diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration without bulk motion. According to Fick's laws, the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. Sometime later, various generalizations of Fick's laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics.

From the atomistic point of view, diffusion is considered as a result of the random walk of the diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion, the moving molecules in a gas, liquid, or solid are self-propelled by kinetic energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown, who found that minute particle suspended in a liquid medium and just large enough to be visible under an optical microscope exhibit a rapid and continually irregular motion of particles known as Brownian movement. The theory of the Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein.
The concept of diffusion is typically applied to any subject matter involving random walks in ensembles of individuals.

In chemistry and materials science, diffusion refers to the movement of fluid molecules in porous solids. Molecular diffusion occurs when the collision with another molecule is more likely than the collision with the pore walls. Under such conditions, the diffusivity is similar to that in a non-confined space and is proportional to the mean free path. Knudsen diffusion occurs when the pore diameter is comparable to or smaller than the mean free path of the molecule diffusing through the pore. Under this condition, the collision with the pore walls becomes gradually more likely and the diffusivity is lower. Finally there is configurational diffusion, which happens if the molecules have comparable size to that of the pore. Under this condition, the diffusivity is much lower compared to molecular diffusion and small differences in the kinetic diameter of the molecule cause large differences in diffusivity.

Biologists often use the terms "net movement"  or "net diffusion" to describe the movement of ions or molecules by diffusion. For example, oxygen can diffuse through cell membranes so long as there is a higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell. However, because the movement of molecules is random, occasionally oxygen molecules move out of the cell (against the concentration gradient). Because there are more oxygen molecules outside the cell, the probability that oxygen molecules will enter the cell is higher than the probability that oxygen molecules will leave the cell. Therefore, the "net" movement of oxygen molecules (the difference between the number of molecules either entering or leaving the cell) is into the cell. In other words, there is a net movement of oxygen molecules down the concentration gradient.

History of diffusion in physics
In the scope of time, diffusion in solids was used long before the theory of diffusion was created. For example, Pliny the Elder had previously described the cementation process, which produces steel from the element iron (Fe) through carbon diffusion. Another example is well known for many centuries, the diffusion of colors of stained glass or earthenware and Chinese ceramics.

In modern science, the first systematic experimental study of diffusion was performed by Thomas Graham. He studied diffusion in gases, and the main phenomenon was described by him in 1831–1833:

"...gases of different nature, when brought into contact, do not arrange themselves according to their density, the heaviest undermost, and the lighter uppermost, but they spontaneously diffuse, mutually and equally, through each other, and so remain in the intimate state of mixture for any length of time."

The measurements of Graham contributed to James Clerk Maxwell deriving, in 1867, the coefficient of diffusion for CO2 in the air. The error rate is less than 5%.

In 1855, Adolf Fick, the 26-year-old anatomy demonstrator from Zürich, proposed his law of diffusion. He used Graham's research, stating his goal as "the development of a fundamental law, for the operation of diffusion in a single element of space". He asserted a deep analogy between diffusion and conduction of heat or electricity, creating a formalism similar to Fourier's law for heat conduction (1822) and Ohm's law for electric current (1827).

Robert Boyle demonstrated diffusion in solids in the 17th century by penetration of zinc into a copper coin. Nevertheless, diffusion in solids was not systematically studied until the second part of the 19th century. William Chandler Roberts-Austen, the well-known British metallurgist and former assistant of Thomas Graham studied systematically solid state diffusion on the example of gold in lead in 1896. :
"... My long connection with Graham's researches made it almost a duty to attempt to extend his work on liquid diffusion to metals."

In 1858, Rudolf Clausius introduced the concept of the mean free path. In the same year, James Clerk Maxwell developed the first atomistic theory of transport processes in gases. The modern atomistic theory of diffusion and Brownian motion was developed by Albert Einstein, Marian Smoluchowski and Jean-Baptiste Perrin. Ludwig Boltzmann, in the development of the atomistic backgrounds of the macroscopic transport processes, introduced the Boltzmann equation, which has served mathematics and physics with a source of transport process ideas and concerns for more than 140 years.

In 1920–1921, George de Hevesy measured self-diffusion using radioisotopes. He studied self-diffusion of radioactive isotopes of lead in the liquid and solid lead.

Yakov Frenkel (sometimes, Jakov/Jacob Frenkel) proposed, and elaborated in 1926, the idea of diffusion in crystals through local defects (vacancies and interstitial atoms). He concluded, the diffusion process in condensed matter is an ensemble of elementary jumps and quasichemical interactions of particles and defects. He introduced several mechanisms of diffusion and found rate constants from experimental data.

Sometime later, Carl Wagner and Walter H. Schottky developed Frenkel's ideas about mechanisms of diffusion further. Presently, it is universally recognized that atomic defects are necessary to mediate diffusion in crystals.

Henry Eyring, with co-authors, applied his theory of absolute reaction rates to Frenkel's quasichemical model of diffusion. The analogy between reaction kinetics and diffusion leads to various nonlinear versions of Fick's law.

Basic models of diffusion

Diffusion flux
Each model of diffusion expresses the diffusion flux with the use of concentrations, densities and their derivatives. Flux is a vector  representing the quantity and direction of transfer. Given a small area  with normal , the transfer of a physical quantity  through the area  per time  is

where  is the inner product and  is the little-o notation. If we use the notation of vector area  then

The dimension of the diffusion flux is [flux] = [quantity]/([time]·[area]). The diffusing physical quantity  may be the number of particles, mass, energy, electric charge, or any other scalar extensive quantity. For its density, , the diffusion equation has the form

where  is intensity of any local source of this quantity (for example, the rate of a chemical reaction).
For the diffusion equation, the no-flux boundary conditions can be formulated as  on the boundary, where  is the normal to the boundary at point .

Fick's law and equations

Fick's first law: the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative of the concentration gradient:

The corresponding diffusion equation (Fick's second law) is

where  is the Laplace operator,

Onsager's equations for multicomponent diffusion and thermodiffusion
Fick's law describes diffusion of an admixture in a medium. The concentration of this admixture should be small and the gradient of this concentration should be also small. The driving force of diffusion in Fick's law is the antigradient of concentration, .

In 1931, Lars Onsager included the multicomponent transport processes in the general context of linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics. For
multi-component transport,

where  is the flux of the ith physical quantity (component) and  is the jth thermodynamic force.

The thermodynamic forces for the transport processes were introduced by Onsager as the space gradients of the derivatives of the entropy density  (he used the term "force" in quotation marks or "driving force"):

where  are the "thermodynamic coordinates".
For the heat and mass transfer one can take  (the density of internal energy) and  is the concentration of the th component. The corresponding driving forces are the space vectors
  because
where T is the absolute temperature and  is the chemical potential of the th component. It should be stressed that the separate diffusion equations describe the mixing or mass transport without bulk motion. Therefore, the terms with variation of the total pressure are neglected. It is possible for diffusion of small admixtures and for small gradients.

For the linear Onsager equations, we must take the thermodynamic forces in the linear approximation near equilibrium:

where the derivatives of  are calculated at equilibrium .
The matrix of the kinetic coefficients  should be symmetric (Onsager reciprocal relations) and positive definite (for the entropy growth).

The transport equations are

Here, all the indexes  are related to the internal energy (0) and various components. The expression in the square brackets is the matrix  of the diffusion (i,k > 0), thermodiffusion (i > 0, k = 0 or k > 0, i = 0) and thermal conductivity () coefficients.

Under isothermal conditions T = constant. The relevant thermodynamic potential is the free energy (or the free entropy). The thermodynamic driving forces for the isothermal diffusion are antigradients of chemical potentials, , and the matrix of diffusion coefficients is

(i,k > 0).

There is intrinsic arbitrariness in the definition of the thermodynamic forces and kinetic coefficients because they are not measurable separately and only their combinations  can be measured. For example, in the original work of Onsager the thermodynamic forces include additional multiplier T, whereas in the Course of Theoretical Physics this multiplier is omitted but the sign of the thermodynamic forces is opposite. All these changes are supplemented by the corresponding changes in the coefficients and do not affect the measurable quantities.

Nondiagonal diffusion must be nonlinear
The formalism of linear irreversible thermodynamics (Onsager) generates the systems of linear diffusion equations in the form

If the matrix of diffusion coefficients is diagonal, then this system of equations is just a collection of decoupled Fick's equations for various components. Assume that diffusion is non-diagonal, for example, , and consider the state with . At this state, . If  at some points, then  becomes negative at these points in a short time. Therefore, linear non-diagonal diffusion does not preserve positivity of concentrations. Non-diagonal equations of multicomponent diffusion must be non-linear.

Einstein's mobility and Teorell formula
The Einstein relation (kinetic theory) connects the diffusion coefficient and the mobility (the ratio of the particle's terminal drift velocity to an applied force). For charged particles:

where D is the diffusion constant, μ is the "mobility", kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature, and q is the elementary charge, that is, the charge of one electron.

Below, to combine in the same formula the chemical potential μ and the mobility, we use for mobility the notation .

The mobility-based approach was further applied by T. Teorell. In 1935, he studied the diffusion of ions through a membrane. He formulated the essence of his approach in the formula:
the flux is equal to mobility × concentration × force per gram-ion.
This is the so-called Teorell formula. The term "gram-ion" ("gram-particle")  is used for a quantity of a substance that contains the Avogadro number of ions (particles). The common modern term is mole.

The force under isothermal conditions consists of two parts:
 Diffusion force caused by concentration gradient: .
 Electrostatic force caused by electric potential gradient: .
Here R is the gas constant, T is the absolute temperature, n is the concentration, the equilibrium concentration is marked by a superscript "eq", q is the charge and φ is the electric potential.

The simple but crucial difference between the Teorell formula and the Onsager laws is the concentration factor in the Teorell expression for the flux. In the Einstein–Teorell approach, if for the finite force the concentration tends to zero then the flux also tends to zero, whereas the Onsager equations violate this simple and physically obvious rule.

The general formulation of the Teorell formula for non-perfect systems under isothermal conditions is

where μ is the chemical potential, μ0 is the standard value of the chemical potential.
The expression  is the so-called activity. It measures the "effective concentration" of a species in a non-ideal mixture. In this notation, the Teorell formula for the flux has a very simple form

The standard derivation of the activity includes a normalization factor and for small concentrations , where  is the standard concentration. Therefore, this formula for the flux describes the flux of the normalized dimensionless quantity :

Fluctuation-dissipation theorem
Fluctuation-dissipation theorem based on the Langevin equation is developed to extend the Einstein model to the ballistic time scale. According to Langevin, the equation is based on Newton's second law of motion as

where
 x is the position.
 μ is the mobility of the particle in the fluid or gas, which can be calculated using the Einstein relation (kinetic theory).
 m is the mass of the particle.
 F is the random force applied to the particle.
 t is time.

Solving this equation, one obtained the time-dependent diffusion constant in the long-time limit and when the particle is significantly denser than the surrounding fluid,

where
 kB is the Boltzmann constant;
 T is the absolute temperature.
 μ is the mobility of the particle in the fluid or gas, which can be calculated using the Einstein relation (kinetic theory).
 m is the mass of the particle.
 t is time.

Teorell formula for multicomponent diffusion
The Teorell formula with combination of Onsager's definition of the diffusion force gives

where  is the mobility of the ith component,  is its activity,  is the matrix of the coefficients,  is the thermodynamic diffusion force, . For the isothermal perfect systems, . Therefore, the Einstein–Teorell approach gives the following multicomponent generalization of the Fick's law for multicomponent diffusion:

where  is the matrix of coefficients. The Chapman–Enskog formulas for diffusion in gases include exactly the same terms. Earlier, such terms were introduced in the Maxwell–Stefan diffusion equation.

Jumps on the surface and in solids

Diffusion of reagents on the surface of a catalyst may play an important role in heterogeneous catalysis. The model of diffusion in the ideal monolayer is based on the jumps of the reagents on the nearest free places. This model was used for CO on Pt oxidation under low gas pressure.

The system includes several reagents  on the surface. Their surface concentrations are  The surface is a lattice of the adsorption places. Each
reagent molecule fills a place on the surface. Some of the places are free. The concentration of the free places is . The sum of all  (including free places) is constant, the density of adsorption places b.

The jump model gives for the diffusion flux of  (i = 1, ..., n):

The corresponding diffusion equation is:

Due to the conservation law,  and we
have the system of m diffusion equations. For one component we get Fick's law and linear equations because . For two and more components the equations are nonlinear.

If all particles can exchange their positions with their closest neighbours then a simple generalization gives

where  is a symmetric matrix of coefficients that characterize the intensities of jumps. The free places (vacancies) should be considered as special "particles" with concentration .

Various versions of these jump models are also suitable for simple diffusion mechanisms in solids.

Diffusion in porous media
For diffusion in porous media the basic equations are (if Φ is constant):

where D is the diffusion coefficient, Φ is porosity, n is the concentration, m > 0 (usually m > 1, the case m = 1 corresponds to Fick's law).

Care must be taken to properly account for the porosity (Φ) of the porous medium in both the flux terms and the accumulation terms. For example, as the porosity goes to zero, the molar flux in the porous medium goes to zero for a given concentration gradient. Upon applying the divergence of the flux, the porosity terms cancel out and the second equation above is formed.

For diffusion of gases in porous media this equation is the formalization of Darcy's law: the volumetric flux of a gas in the porous media is

where k is the permeability of the medium, μ is the viscosity and p is the pressure.

The advective molar flux is given as

J = nq

and for  Darcy's law gives the equation of diffusion in porous media with m = γ + 1.

In porous media, the average linear velocity (ν), is related to the volumetric flux as:

Combining the advective molar flux with the diffusive flux gives the advection dispersion equation

For underground water infiltration, the Boussinesq approximation gives the same equation with m = 2.

For plasma with the high level of radiation, the Zeldovich–Raizer equation gives m > 4 for the heat transfer.

Diffusion in physics

Diffusion coefficient in kinetic theory of gases

The diffusion coefficient  is the coefficient in the Fick's first law , where J is the diffusion flux (amount of substance) per unit area per unit time, n (for ideal mixtures) is the concentration, x is the position [length].

Consider two gases with molecules of the same diameter d and mass m (self-diffusion). In this case, the elementary mean free path theory of diffusion gives for the diffusion coefficient

where kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, P is the pressure,  is the mean free path, and vT is the mean thermal speed:

We can see that the diffusion coefficient in the mean free path approximation grows with T as T3/2 and decreases with P as 1/P. If we use for P the ideal gas law P = RnT with the total concentration n, then we can see that for given concentration n the diffusion coefficient grows with T as T1/2 and for given temperature it decreases with the total concentration as 1/n.

For two different gases, A and B, with molecular masses mA, mB and molecular diameters dA, dB, the mean free path estimate of the diffusion coefficient of A in B and B in A is:

The theory of diffusion in gases based on Boltzmann's equation
In Boltzmann's kinetics of the mixture of gases, each gas has its own distribution function, , where t is the time moment, x is position and c is velocity of molecule of the ith component of the mixture. Each component has its mean velocity . If the velocities  do not coincide then there exists diffusion.

In the Chapman–Enskog approximation, all the distribution functions are expressed through the densities of the conserved quantities:
 individual concentrations of particles,  (particles per volume),
 density of momentum  (mi is the ith particle mass),
 density of kinetic energy
The kinetic temperature T and pressure P are defined in 3D space as

where  is the total density.

For two gases, the difference between velocities,  is given by the expression:

where  is the force applied to the molecules of the ith component and  is the thermodiffusion ratio.

The coefficient D12 is positive. This is the diffusion coefficient. Four terms in the formula for C1−C2 describe four main effects in the diffusion of gases:
  describes the flux of the first component from the areas with the high ratio n1/n to the areas with lower values of this ratio (and, analogously the flux of the second component from high n2/n to low n2/n because n2/n = 1 – n1/n);
  describes the flux of the heavier molecules to the areas with higher pressure and the lighter molecules to the areas with lower pressure, this is barodiffusion;
  describes diffusion caused by the difference of the forces applied to molecules of different types. For example, in the Earth's gravitational field, the heavier molecules should go down, or in electric field the charged molecules should move, until this effect is not equilibrated by the sum of other terms. This effect should not be confused with barodiffusion caused by the pressure gradient.
  describes thermodiffusion, the diffusion flux caused by the temperature gradient.

All these effects are called diffusion because they describe the differences between velocities of different components in the mixture. Therefore, these effects cannot be described as a bulk transport and differ from advection or convection.

In the first approximation,
  for rigid spheres;
  for repulsing force
The number  is defined by quadratures (formulas (3.7), (3.9), Ch. 10 of the classical Chapman and Cowling book)

We can see that the dependence on T for the rigid spheres is the same as for the simple mean free path theory but for the power repulsion laws the exponent is different. Dependence on a total concentration n for a given temperature has always the same character, 1/n.

In applications to gas dynamics, the diffusion flux and the bulk flow should be joined in one system of transport equations. The bulk flow describes the mass transfer. Its velocity V is the mass average velocity. It is defined through the momentum density and the mass concentrations:

where  is the mass concentration of the ith species,  is the mass density.

By definition, the diffusion velocity of the ith component is , .
The mass transfer of the ith component is described by the continuity equation

where  is the net mass production rate in chemical reactions, .

In these equations, the term  describes advection of the ith component and the term  represents diffusion of this component.

In 1948, Wendell H. Furry proposed to use the form of the diffusion rates found in kinetic theory as a framework for the new phenomenological approach to diffusion in gases. This approach was developed further by F.A. Williams and S.H. Lam. For the diffusion velocities in multicomponent gases (N components) they used

Here,  is the diffusion coefficient matrix,  is the thermal diffusion coefficient,  is the body force per unit mass acting on the ith species,  is the partial pressure fraction of the ith species (and  is the partial pressure),  is the mass fraction of the ith species, and

Diffusion of electrons in solids

When the density of electrons in solids is not in equilibrium, diffusion of electrons occurs. For example, when a bias is applied to two ends of a chunk of semiconductor, or a light shines on one end (see right figure), electrons diffuse from high density regions (center) to low density regions (two ends), forming a gradient of electron density. This process generates current, referred to as diffusion current.

Diffusion current can also be described by Fick's first law

where J is the diffusion current density (amount of substance) per unit area per unit time, n (for ideal mixtures) is the electron density, x is the position [length].

Diffusion in geophysics
Analytical and numerical models that solve the diffusion equation for different initial and boundary conditions have been popular for studying a wide variety of changes to the Earth's surface. Diffusion has been used extensively in erosion studies of hillslope retreat, bluff erosion, fault scarp degradation, wave-cut terrace/shoreline retreat, alluvial channel incision, coastal shelf retreat, and delta progradation. Although the Earth's surface is not literally diffusing in many of these cases, the process of diffusion effectively mimics the holistic changes that occur over decades to millennia. Diffusion models may also be used to solve inverse boundary value problems in which some information about the depositional environment is known from paleoenvironmental reconstruction and the diffusion equation is used to figure out the sediment influx and time series of landform changes.

Dialysis

Dialysis works on the principles of the diffusion of solutes and ultrafiltration of fluid across a semi-permeable membrane. Diffusion is a property of substances in water; substances in water tend to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Blood flows by one side of a semi-permeable membrane, and a dialysate, or special dialysis fluid, flows by the opposite side. A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material that contains holes of various sizes, or pores. Smaller solutes and fluid pass through the membrane, but the membrane blocks the passage of larger substances (for example, red blood cells and large proteins). This replicates the filtering process that takes place in the kidneys when the blood enters the kidneys and the larger substances are separated from the smaller ones in the glomerulus.

Random walk (random motion)
 One common misconception is that individual atoms, ions or molecules move randomly, which they do not. In the animation on the right, the ion in the left panel appears to have "random" motion in the absence of other ions. As the right panel shows, however, this motion is not random but is the result of "collisions" with other ions. As such, the movement of a single atom, ion, or molecule within a mixture just appears random when viewed in isolation. The movement of a substance within a mixture by "random walk" is governed by the kinetic energy within the system that can be affected by changes in concentration, pressure or temperature. (This is a classical description. At smaller scales, quantum effects will be non-negligible, in general. Thus, the study of the movement of a single atom becomes more subtle since particles at such small scales are described by probability amplitudes rather than deterministic measures of position and velocity.)

Separation of diffusion from convection in gases
While Brownian motion of multi-molecular mesoscopic particles (like pollen grains studied by Brown) is observable under an optical microscope, molecular diffusion can only be probed in carefully controlled experimental conditions. Since Graham experiments, it is well known that avoiding of convection is necessary and this may be a non-trivial task.

Under normal conditions, molecular diffusion dominates only at lengths in the nanometre-to-millimetre range. On larger length scales, transport in liquids and gases is normally due to another transport phenomenon, convection. To separate diffusion in these cases, special efforts are needed.

In contrast, heat conduction through solid media is an everyday occurrence (for example, a metal spoon partly immersed in a hot liquid). This explains why the diffusion of heat was explained mathematically before the diffusion of mass.

Other types of diffusion
 Anisotropic diffusion, also known as the Perona–Malik equation, enhances high gradients
 Atomic diffusion, in solids
 Bohm diffusion, spread of plasma across magnetic fields
 Eddy diffusion, in coarse-grained description of turbulent flow
 Effusion of a gas through small holes
 Electronic diffusion, resulting in an electric current called the diffusion current
 Facilitated diffusion, present in some organisms
 Gaseous diffusion, used for isotope separation
 Heat equation, diffusion of thermal energy
 Itō diffusion, mathematisation of Brownian motion, continuous stochastic process.
 Knudsen diffusion of gas in long pores with frequent wall collisions
 Lévy flight
 Molecular diffusion, diffusion of molecules from more dense to less dense areas
 Momentum diffusion ex. the diffusion of the hydrodynamic velocity field
 Photon diffusion
 Plasma diffusion
 Random walk, model for diffusion
 Reverse diffusion, against the concentration gradient, in phase separation
 Rotational diffusion, random reorientation of molecules
 Surface diffusion, diffusion of adparticles on a surface
 Taxis is an animal's directional movement activity in response to a stimulus
 Kinesis is an animal's non-directional movement activity in response to a stimulus
 Trans-cultural diffusion, diffusion of cultural traits across geographical area
 Turbulent diffusion, transport of mass, heat, or momentum within a turbulent fluid

See also

References

Articles containing video clips
Broad-concept articles


The 1939–40 Serie C was the fifth edition of Serie C, the third highest league in the Italian football league system.

Legend

Girone A

Girone B

Girone C

Girone D

Girone E

Girone F

Girone G

Girone H

Final rounds

Girone A

Girone B

Serie C seasons
3
Italy


Who Cares? is a ballet choreographed by George Balanchine to songs by George Gershwin that were orchestrated by Hershy Kay. The ballet is split in two parts, the first danced by an ensemble, and the second focuses on four principal dancers. Who Cares? premiered on February 5, 1970, at the New York State Theater, danced by the New York City Ballet.

Choreography
On Who Cares?, original cast member Karin von Aroldingen described, "You think it's so unlike Balanchine, it's so jazzy. One would think he'd just make a jazz ballet out of it, like everyone else, a dance like Broadway, but he put it on pointe – it's sort of like a tap dance on pointe."

The ballet features seventeen songs by Gershwin. The first eight songs are danced by fifteen women and five men. Dance critic Zoe Anderson wrote that this half of the ballet is "staged as a suite of classical dances... with some hoofer steps and showgirl poses." The second half of the ballet focuses on three women and a man. Anderson commented that "the mood turns late-night and more romantic" Each of the dancers has their own solos, and the man dances duets with all three women. This is followed by a quartet, before the full cast returns for the finale.

Music and original cast

The rest of the corps de ballet consist of Rosemary Dunleavy, Suzanne Erlon, Elise Flagg, Gloriann Hicks, Deborah Kooligh, Leslie Peck, Christine Redpath, Polly Shelton, Marilee Stiles and Virginia Stuart.

Production
In his book Balanchine's Complete Stories of the Great Ballets, Balanchine wrote that he became familiar with Gershwin's works  while he was still living in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. He believed he would not have done musical comedy works in his early choreographic career if it had not been for Gershwin's works. Balanchine and Gershwin worked together on the 1938 film The Goldwyn Follies. While working on the film, Gershwin gave Balanchine a book of his songs arranged in the way he performed them in concerts. During the production of the film, Gershwin died from a brain tumor at age thirty-eight.

Balanchine wrote that he conceived the ballet while playing the songs on the Gershwin songbook, "and thought to myself, Beautiful, I'll make a pas de deux. Then I played another, it was just as beautiful and I thought, A variation! And then another and another and there was no end to how beautiful they are." The title of the ballet came from the eponymous song also used in the ballet, that was written for the musical Of Thee I Sing.

The first section Balanchine choreographed was the titular pas de deux originated by Karin von Aroldingen and Jacques d'Amboise. It was the first role Balanchine made for von Aroldingen. Patricia McBride recalled that Balanchine choreographed both her solo and duet quickly. For the "Fascinatin' Rhythm" solo, she said Balanchine, who was 65, demonstrated all the steps, and danced it better than she could. She rehearsed the solo with a tape recorder many times so she could dance it without counting and "really have fun with it."

Hershy Kay was commissioned to orchestrate the score. The lyrics, all by Ira Gershwin, are not included in the ballet. However, when the ballet premiered, Kay only completed the first song "Strike Up the Band" and the last song "I Got Rhythm", as he was also working on a musical. Therefore, most songs were played on a piano at the premiere, with the exception of "Clap Yo' Hands", using 1926 recording of Gershwin playing the song. The orchestration is complete by May 1970, few months after the ballet's premiere. However, the Gershwin recording of "Clap Yo' Hands" was still used. "Clap Yo' Hands" was removed from the ballet in 1976, but was added back in 2010.

The original costume and lighting were designed by Karinska and Ronald Bates respectively. In November 1970, a New York skyline backdrop designed by Jo Mielziner is added to the ballet. The costumes had since been redesigned several times.

Performances
Who Cares? premiered on February 5, 1970, at the New York State Theater. Since the orchestration of the score was incomplete, Gordon Boelzner played the songs on the piano. Before the premiere, Balanchine was presented the Handel Medallion, New York City's highest cultural award, by mayor John Lindsay.

Other ballet companies that had perform Who Cares? include English National Ballet, Zürich Ballet, San Francisco Ballet, Pacific Northwest Ballet, Atlanta Ballet, Charlotte Ballet (formerly North Carolina Dance Theatre), Sarasota Ballet, Los Angeles Ballet, Cincinnati Ballet, Colorado Ballet and Ballet Chicago. It was also performed on Mikhail Baryshnikov's tour Baryshnikov & Friends. The School of American Ballet, the affiliated-school of the New York City Ballet, had include the ballet in its annual workshop performances.

In 2014, when original cast member Patricia McBride received the Kennedy Center Honor, excerpts of Who Cares? were included in the tribute to McBride. "Fascinatin' Rhythm" was danced by New York City Ballet principal dancer Tiler Peck, and "I Got Rhythm" was danced by four members of Charlotte Ballet, Peck, and other dancers who participated in other segments of the tribute.

Critical reception
Clive Barnes of the New York Times commented, "The ballet is not likely to be regarded as one of Balanchine's major works although it does, not unexpectedly, have some extraordinarily lovely passages in it."

Videography
In 1971, excerpts of Who Cares? was televised by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, featuring original cast members Karin von Aroldingen, Patricia McBride and Marnee Morris, as well as Jean-Pierre Bonnefoux.

Excerpts of Who Cares? had also been televised through PBS, including the 1983 Great Performances episode "A New York City Ballet Tribute to George Balanchine", the 1993 Live from Lincoln Center broadcast "The Balanchine Celebration", and the 2004 "Balanchine 100", also on Live from Lincoln Center.

In 1989, a concert performance of Who Cares? was also included in the PBS Dance in America program "Baryshnikov Dances Balanchine With American Ballet Theatre." However, it was danced by the tour Baryshnikov & Friends rather than the American Ballet Theatre. In this program, only half of the ballet is danced, and the corps de ballet is removed. The four lead dancers are Baryshnikov, Christine Dunham, Leslie Browne and Deirdre Carberry.

References

External links
Who Cares? on the New York City Ballet website
Who Cares? on the George Balanchine Trust website

1970 ballet premieres
Ballets by George Balanchine
Ballets to the music of George Gershwin
New York City Ballet repertory


Stanley is a 1999 award-winning stop motion animated short film written, directed and animated by Suzie Templeton. It was made at the Surrey Institute of Art & Design, University College, now the University for the Creative Arts in England.

Synopsis
While his frustrated wife wreaks violence and death in the kitchen, Stanley finds love in a giant cabbage he is growing in his back yard.

Awards
Best College Student Animation: 2000 Nashville Independent Film Festival, USA
Luna de Bronce: 2000 International Film Festival Cinema Jove, Spain
Grand Prize: 2000 Dervio International Cartoons and Comics Festival, Italy
Prizewinner - Student Film Showcase: 2000 Hamptons International Film Festival, USA
Best Student Animation: 2000 Fort Lauderdale International Film Festival, USA
Jury Prize: 2000 International Short Film Festival ‘Der Eisenstein’, Germany
Best Student Animation: 2000 FAN International Short Film and Animation Festival, UK
Best Animation: 2000 Interfilm Berlin Short Film Festival, Berlin, Germany
Doug Wandrei Award for Best Lighting Design, 2001 Ann Arbor Film Festival, USA
Golden Sun Award - Best of the Festival: 2001 California SUN International Animation Festival, USA
Best Animation: 2001 Bare Bones International Independent Film Festival, USA
Best Short Animation: 2002 Fantasy Film Festival, Malaga, Spain

External links
Stanley - official site

Suzie Templeton - official website

British animated short films
1999 films
Stop-motion animated short films
British silent short films
Silent films in color
1990s British films


The Franconian Rezat (, ) is a  river in southern Germany. It is the western, left source river of the Rednitz. It rises in the Franconian Heights near Oberdachstetten. It flows generally east through the towns Lehrberg, Ansbach, Windsbach and Spalt. Together with the Swabian Rezat (), it forms the Rednitz in Georgensgmünd.

See also
List of rivers of Bavaria

References

Rivers of Bavaria
Ansbach (district)
Roth (district)
Rivers of Germany


The Council of Osteopathic Student Government Presidents (COSGP) was established in 1972 as an official council of the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM) to serve as the official national representative voting voice of osteopathic medical students. There are currently 41 accredited colleges of osteopathic medicine that offer the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree, with 66 locations in 35 states nationwide. The council includes a student representatives from each of these schools. COSGP serves as a national voting body within AACOM and the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) and represents the collective voice of osteopathic medical students.

Purpose and goals

The main purposes of COSGP are to foster the exchange of ideas, information, and problem-solving for issues that affect individual colleges of osteopathic medicine, and to effectively communicate and represent the osteopathic medical student perspective to professional and educational organizations such as AACOM and AOA.

Further efforts of COSGP are focused on professional development and leadership, and to support the principles and pride of osteopathic medicine among osteopathic medical students and the public.

The COSGP is governed by an executive board, which is elected during the April Quarterly meeting and consists of six members elected by the General Council Members: Chair, First Vice Chair, Second Vice Chair, Secretary, Treasurer, and Parliamentarian.  In addition to the executive board, six Representative Officers are appointed: Legislative Affairs, Medical Education, Research, Programs, Communications, and Public Relations and Website.  Student Government Presidents of every osteopathic medical schools comprise the general council of the COSGP.

Activities
The COSGP Student Services Committee coordinates selection of the Student DO of the Year (SDOY) at each college of osteopathic medicine as well as a national winner.  The national SDOY winner receives a $1000 scholarship and recognition of the COSGP.  The winners of SDOY from each osteopathic medical school are announced in April and will be recognized at both the AACOM Annual Meeting, in April, and the AOA House of Delegates in July, respectively.

Another program, started in 2004, the Translating Osteopathic Understanding into Community Health (TOUCH) program encourages and recognizes Osteopathic medical students who participate in community service. All students who participate in at least 50 hours over the course of a school year receive an official TOUCH pin.

In addition, each year in conjunction with the AOA Convention, COSGP sponsors a Student Seminar.  Past seminar speakers include Senator Joe Heck, DO, from the Nevada State Senate, who spoke about "Leadership and Political Activity as a Physician," and Jay Kirkham, OMS II from AZCOM, and a former lobbyist on Capitol Hill, who spoke about the 2008 Presidential Election regarding each candidate's views on healthcare.

Finally, in memory of the passengers aboard Flight 5966, the COSGP encourages events to be held on all campuses and throughout communities in order to honor all those who exemplify compassion and humanism, and those who inspire others to do the same during the Day of Compassion in October annually.

In 2011, the Student Government Council passed a resolution through the AOA House of Delegates to increase awareness about depression amongst medical students, as their heavy workloads and high stress levels contribute to higher rates of depression than the general population. The resolution aims to help medical students connect with resources for preventing and treating depression. Also in 2011, the Student Government Council passed a resolution through the AOA House of Delegates to commit to establishing and supporting tobacco-free osteopathic medical college campuses.

See also
American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine

References

External links
 Official Site

Osteopathic medical associations in the United States
Student governments in the United States


Who Cares or Who Cares? may refer to:
 "Who Cares?" (George and Ira Gershwin song) (1931)
 "Who Cares?" (Gnarls Barkley song) (2006)
 "Who Cares" (Paul McCartney song) (2018)
 Who Cares? (ballet), a 1970 ballet by George Balanchine made to songs by George Gershwin
 Who Cares? (1919 film), a silent comedy film starring Constance Talmadge
 Who Cares (1925 film), a silent film starring Dorothy Devore
 Who Cares? (band), the ensemble responsible for performing 1985 charity single "Doctor in Distress"
 Who Cares? (album), a 2022 album by Rex Orange County
 WhoCares, a musical charity project by Ian Gillan, Tony Iommi & Friends
 Ian Gillan & Tony Iommi: WhoCares, an album by WhoCares
 Who Cares, the debut album of Australian rock band the Poor
 "Who Cares", a Don Gibson song (1959)
 "Who Cares?", a song by Huey Lewis and the News from the album, Huey Lewis and the News (1980)

See also
Who Cares a Lot?, an album by Faith No More
Who Cares a Lot?: The Greatest Videos, a video album by Faith No More


The 1994 PPG Indy Car World Series season was the 16th national championship season of American open wheel racing sanctioned by CART under the name "IndyCar". The season consisted of 16 races. Al Unser Jr. was the national champion, his second CART title, and the rookie of the year was Jacques Villeneuve. The 1994 Indianapolis 500 was sanctioned by USAC, but counted towards the CART points championship. Al Unser Jr. won the Indy 500 from the pole position, his second career victory in that event.

Marlboro Team Penske dominated the 1994 CART season, winning 12 of 16 events including the Indianapolis 500. The three-car team of Al Unser Jr. (8 wins), Emerson Fittipaldi (1 win), and Paul Tracy (3 wins) swept the top three spots in the final season points standings, and had five 1-2-3 finishes over the course of the season. The Penske Team also made headlines during the month of May, when they unveiled the new Ilmor Mercedes-Benz 500I engine. The secretly-built, 209 in3 (3.42 L) displacement purpose-built pushrod engine, which was capable of nearly  was constructed specifically for the Indy 500.

Overview
The season opener was won by Michael Andretti on his return to IndyCar racing after his unsuccessful season in Formula One.  The rest of the 1994 season was dominated by Team Penske's PC-23 chassis, which won 12 of the 16 races.  Penske driver Al Unser Jr. took the title.   The Rookie of the Year title was taken by young Canadian Jacques Villeneuve.  Veteran Mario Andretti retired at the end of the season.

Another major story started before the season. Indianapolis Motor Speedway President Tony George announced plans for the formation of what would become the Indy Racing League, with an intended focus on oval track racing and predominantly American drivers. This was nearly identical to NASCAR, which at the time had all American drivers and just two (of 31) races on road courses. The 1994 IndyCar season schedule featured six oval track races (37.5%) and eleven full-time drivers were from the United States (including Italian-born Mario Andretti and German-born Dominic Dobson). ABC Sports' Paul Page said during the broadcast of the race at Surfers Paradise that this announcement, "could drastically affect what we know as IndyCar racing in the future".

Teams and drivers
Newman/Haas' Nigel Mansell was expected to contend once again. He was viewed as the greatest racer in the world at the time, as his back-to-back championships in two such diverse major racing series (Formula One in 1992 and IndyCar in 1993) were unprecedented. This feat remains unmatched today. His teammate Mario Andretti announced before the season that it would be his last, though he would later attempt Le Mans a few times (speculation was that he wanted to win the race just to settle that he was in fact greater than 1967 winner A. J. Foyt, who have both been argued as the greatest ever). Newman-Haas would continue to be the leading Lola team, using the new T9400.

 Marlboro Team Penske expanded to a three-car operation with defending Indianapolis 500 winner Emerson Fittipaldi, rising star Paul Tracy, and 1990 IndyCar Champion and 1992 Indy 500 winner Al Unser Jr., defecting from Galles Racing after a disappointing 1993 campaign left him with just one win (Vancouver) and 7th in the standings. Penske changed to the new Ilmor engine in association with Mercedes-Benz rather than Chevrolet, who withdrew after 1993. Customer team Bettenhausen Motorsports with driver Stefan Johansson received the year-old PC-22 chassis as Penske began to utilise the new PC-23.

Rahal-Hogan Racing tackled a major project: the new Honda engine. Team leader Bobby Rahal and teammate Mike Groff would face a great challenge enduring the "growing pains" of the new engine. Fledgling Comptech Racing with rookie Parker Johnstone would be the only other entrant in 1994 to use the Honda engine, so Rahal and Groff would be providing the primary feedback.

Dick Simon Racing had a successful 1993 campaign with veteran Raul Boesel, who was 5th overall after a pole position at Milwaukee and 3 runner-up finishes. His new teammate would be Japanese Hiro Matsushita, replacing Scott Brayton who joined Team Menard. Simon would field a total af five cars for Indianapolis; Boesel, Matsushita, Tero Palmroth, Lyn St. James, and Hideshi Matsuda.

Galles Racing were presented with new challenges for 1994. Both of their name drivers Al Unser Jr. and Danny Sullivan departed (to Team Penske and NASCAR respectively), leaving owner Rick Galles with young Adrián Fernández. He proved his worth in Indy Lights by winning four races (in his one and only season), and looked to be Mexico's next big star (the first since Héctor Rebaque and Josele Garza). Fernandez would contest his first full season after five trial runs in 1993 (including 7th at Detroit). Team and driver would also use the brand new Reynard 94I; the company entering IndyCar racing as a first-time constructor.

Chip Ganassi Racing hired "prodigal son" Michael Andretti, who was ready to return to winning ways after the 1993 Formula One season left a bitter taste in his mouth. Ganassi would also use the Reynard chassis. Michael's teammate in 1993 was the great three-time World Champion Ayrton Senna; Senna's friend and countryman Maurício Gugelmin (another F1 veteran), in his first full season, would be Andretti's new teammate.

Indy Regency Racing hired Arie Luyendyk following his release from Ganassi Racing, thus ensuring that the 1990 Indianapolis 500 winner would not be on the sidelines. The team entered a second car at Laguna Seca for Indy Lights runner-up Franck Fréon of France.

The Forsythe/Green Racing team were new to IndyCar Racing. In 1993 they competed in CART's Formula Atlantic Championship with French-Canadian drivers Claude Bourbonnais and Jacques Villeneuve. Bourbonnais won seven times and was 2nd overall to fellow Canadian David Empringham by a mere four points, while Villeneuve won five times en route to 3rd in points (10 behind Empringham). The Green team preferred to take Villeneuve with them to IndyCar; perhaps because of his age (22 as opposed to 28) and/or because of his famous name.

The second four-time Indianapolis 500 champion Al Unser joined A. J. Foyt and Rick Mears (the other two four-time winners) in retirement after failing to qualify for the 78th running of the race. He later admitted that at this stage in his career that he was more interested in watching his son's career than focusing on his own racing.

Drivers and teams
The following teams and drivers competed in the 1994 Indy Car World Series season. All teams used Goodyear tires; Firestone would return one year later after a hiatus lasting for two decades.

Schedule

 Oval/Speedway
 Road/Street course
Indianapolis was USAC-sanctioned but counted towards the CART title.

Season Summary

Race Results

Race summaries

Race 1: Surfers Paradise
See 1994 Australian FAI Indycar Grand Prix

Race 2: Phoenix
This race was memorable for a scary incident at Lap 63. Hiro Matsushita, who had spent much time in the pits and was 18 laps down, and twice-lapped Teo Fabi touched in Turn 3 and hit the outside wall. Leader Paul Tracy, running just behind, was caught in the outer groove and was an innocent victim, piling into the two cars. Over ten seconds later, as the yellow flag came out and the field slowed down. Approaching the accident scene, Jacques Villeneuve moved into the upper lane to avoid a slowing Arie Luyendyk and Mario Andretti who were running side-by-side. This put the car into the marbles on the outside of the turn, leaving Villeneuve with no grip and heading straight for the crashed cars. With nowhere to go and no time to stop, Villeneuve T-boned Matsushita, thankfully just behind the cockpit area. This sent the front of Mastushita's car spinning to the bottom of the track, and throwing the engine and gearbox assembly into the side of Paul Tracy's car, partially striking his helmet. Dominic Dobson then collided with Villeneuve's car after the impact as it veered across the track towards the pit lane. No drivers sustained injuries, but Matsushita complained about a sore shoulder.

Another scary near-miss occurred during the final round of pitstops. Nigel Mansell, who had been fighting his way back through the field after stalling the car on his first pit stop, lit up his rear tires pulling away from his pit box, determined not to stall again. Unfortunately, the act of doing this caused him to pull out onto the warm-up apron too quickly on cold front tires, which gave little grip. Mansell understeered off the warm up apron, bouncing over the grass verge and back onto the track on the racing line, directly in the path of Buddy Lazier (mis-identified as Scott Goodyear on the ESPN broadcast). Lazier managed to slow just in time and avoided Mansell on the inside, waving his fist to make his displeasure known to the Englishman.

One other dangerous incident involved Mario and Michael Andretti. Late in the race, Mario suffered a mechanical failure on the backstretch and crashed into the outside wall, the car stopping at the apron at the bottom of the track. As the field came by, John Paul Jr. and Scott Goodyear slowed to avoid the accident just in front of Michael, creating a rapidly closing gap between the two cars. Michael, with nowhere to go, attempted to stop, but clipped John Paul Jr.'s right-rear tire. This broke off his left front wheel, which bounced over the nose cone into Scott Goodyear's car on Michael's right. The tire was then launched off of Goodyear's left-front wheel and into the air, sailing over the debris fence and landing in a spectator area. Amazingly, after two potentially fatal incidents, no serious injuries were reported. Emerson Fittipaldi scored the win ahead of Al Unser Jr. Third place Nigel Mansell was one lap down with Johansson and Vasser (both three laps back) completing the Top 5. Fittipaldi took the early championship lead with 37 PPG Cup points ahead of Johansson and Vasser with 22 each, Australia winner Andretti with 21, and Mansell at 19.

Race 3: Long Beach
Polesitter Paul Tracy was still looking for his first finish of the season. He scored his second pole of the year (and thus his second championship point) and planned to convert his speed into a victory. On Lap 21 while lapping Mike Groff, Tracy spun using too much rear brake, and ended Groff's day. Later on, Jacques Villeneuve passed Toronto's Scott Goodyear on the outside of Turn 1. ABC's Bobby Unser chuckled in disbelief as he commented, "That was an impossible pass!" Villeneuve later braked too late in Turn 7 (the end of the backstraight) and slammed the tire barrier. Three seconds later, he re-fired the car and continued on without significant damage. He would finish five laps down in 15th. Tracy would spin again in Turn 1, this time while passing Maurício Gugelmin. Gugelmin was more fortunate than Groff and continued without contact. Both Tracy and Fittipaldi would retire with separate transmission failures. Up front, Al Unser Jr. reclaimed his throne as the "King of the Beach" by winning his 5th Long Beach event by 39 seconds over Nigel Mansell and 46 seconds up on Robby Gordon. The Californian became the 10th different leader in IndyCar's Long Beach history, such was the domination of Unser Jr. and the Andrettis in the first decade of the race. Raul Boesel and Mario Andretti capped the Top 5, as the championship battle was on. Fittipaldi and Unser were tied at 37 points each (both with a win and a second place), Mansell in third at 35 points, Michael Andretti with 29 points, Stefan Johansson (finishing 10th after running out of fuel) at 25 points, and Mario in sixth at 24 points as the teams prepared for the month of May.

Race 4: 78th Indianapolis 500 mile race
See 1994 Indianapolis 500

Race 5: Milwaukee
Raul Boesel started from the pole for the second year in a row. The race was run without incidents, but the racing was close and exciting. Marlboro Team Penske dominated the race with Emerson Fittipaldi and Indy 500 champion Al Unser Jr. Amazingly, 25 of 26 starters finished the race (only Stefan Johansson did not finish due to engine failure, 29 laps down to the winner), giving the leaders major headaches concerning traffic. The race was called eight laps from the end (192 of 200 laps) due to ensuing rain, with Unser in front winning his third consecutive race. Fittipaldi was second and Paul Tracy, two laps back, completed a Penske 1-2-3 sweep. Michael Andretti and Nigel Mansell rounded out the top five. Unser's lead increased to 25 points over Fittipaldi, 30 over Andretti, 34 ahead of Mansell, and 41 up on Robby Gordon.

Race 6: Detroit
Al Unser Jr. looked to win four IndyCar races in a row coming to Detroit, a circuit at which he had never won. Unser himself was the most recent winner of four consecutive races, doing so in 1990 at Toronto, Michigan, Denver, and Vancouver. He also won the championship that year, and he was in prime position to win the title again. Nigel Mansell was on pole, and led the first lap. In Turn 3 Mike Groff slid off the course into the tyre barrier. He continued, but retired after seven laps, as did Raul Boesel due to engine failure. Late in Lap 2, Al Jr. took the lead from Mansell entering Turn 13. On Lap 21 Dominic Dobson spun in Turn 1, collecting Alessandro Zampedri who was directly behind him. Mario Andretti spun off at Turn 8 on Lap 47, and hit the tyres but was able to continue. Not so lucky was Adrian Fernandez, who brought out the yellow on Lap 50. Following the restart, Unser led teammate Paul Tracy while combating traffic. In Turn 8 Unser slowed sooner than Tracy expected (he likely couldn't see Jimmy Vasser immediately in front of Unser) and touched the championship leader's right rear tire, sending him into a tire barrier. Unser kept the car running after hitting the tires, but his chance of his fourth straight win was over. Soon after in Turn 3, Nigel Mansell spun off behind Emerson Fittipaldi, who like Unser was contemplating his moves in traffic. Tracy won the race, and said that he would immediately apologize to Unser as soon as he found him. Fittipaldi was second, with Gordon, Teo Fabi, and Michael Andretti coming across the line in the top five. Emmo knocked Little Al's point lead down to 13 points. Michael Andretti was 24 behind, Robby Gordon 31 back, and Nigel Mansell 37 down, as his hopes of title defense were looking slim.

Race 7: Portland
Al Unser Jr. took pole position again, seeking to recover the ground he lost to Emerson Fittipaldi two weeks before. An incredible 32 cars took the green flag, showing the strength of the sport at the time. Lap 11 saw a dynamic exit for Michael Andretti, who collided with Jimmy Vasser in an attempt to pass him in Turn 1. Both were done; disappointing for both because Michael was 3rd in points and Vasser tied for 6th with Paul Tracy. The race saw little in the way of carnage, but after many successful passes were made by various drivers in Turn 1, the Lap 11 crash was reenacted by Bryan Herta and Scott Goodyear, who tried to overtake and paid the price on Lap 58. The battle for the win was again between Penske's Unser and Fittipaldi. On the final pit stop exchange, Emerson exited the pitlane and beat Al Junior into Turn 1. But on the exit of the corner, Junior accelerated sooner, properly anticipating Emmo's moves, and grabbed the lead. Unser's win was the sixth in a row for "The Captain", with Fittipaldi in second, Tracy third (another 1-2-3 sweep), and for fourth Robby Gordon edged Nigel Mansell. Both drivers crossed the line simultaneously (to the one-thousandth of a second), but the position was awarded to Gordon. Jacques Villeneuve was 6th, one lap back, followed by Alessandro Zampedri. His 7th-place finish would be his career best in a CART-sanctioned race. Al Unser Jr.'s lead over Fittipaldi was now 105–86. Robby Gordon was third for Walker Racing with 64 points, while Michael and Mansell were 46 and 49 points behind. Paul Tracy's season was coming together, as he now had 50 championship points, but still a long way behind Unser.

Race 8: Cleveland
Al Unser Jr. claimed his third pole of the season. The first turn, which usually provides the most dramatic action at the Burke Lakefront Airport Circuit, saw Michael Andretti (who qualified a lowly 17th place) and Scott Goodyear spin. Bobby Rahal and the team had not yet eradicated the engine gremlins in the still-new Honda powerplant. Mario Andretti, whose final season started well, had more struggles with a failed suspension after 31 laps. Emerson Fittipaldi, in desperate need of points to kept up with Unser, retired with a small fire in the rear of his car. Michael Andretti's engine quit with just eight laps remaining, and Al Unser Jr. won his fifth race of the year; the seventh in a row for Penske. Runner-up Nigel Mansell had competed in the French Grand Prix for Williams during the off-weekend, with speculation that he may return to Formula One full-time for 1995. Tracy, Villeneuve, and Johansson completed the top five. Unser more than recovered what was lost at Detroit with a gruesome 41 point advantage over Fittipaldi, 55 over Mansell, 61 ahead of Gordon, and 63 points ahead of Tracy at the halfway point of the season.

This was Al Junior's 24th IndyCar win, and thus the 100th for the Unser family, adding to Al Senior's 39 wins, Uncle Bobby's 35, and 2 wins by Louis Unser (Al and Bobby's uncle). The Unsers are still the only family to win 100 or more IndyCar races combined, currently at 110.

Race 9: Toronto
Indy Lights champion Bryan Herta had a season-ending accident in qualifying. A. J. Foyt did not find a replacement driver for the race, but Eddie Cheever would race the #14 for the remainder of the season.

Robby Gordon won his first career pole ahead of Nigel Mansell. Emerson Fittipaldi and Michael Andretti would also be in the hunt, but championship leader Al Unser Jr.'s bid for three wins in a row ended on Lap 3 with a blown engine. While still in the lead, Robby suffered a burst left rear tyre in Turn One, handing the lead to Mansell on Lap 13. On Lap 26 Michael Andretti seized the moment and pounced on Nigel in Turn 8. Mansell immediately slowed, as his right rear was flat. He later parked the car with handling issues. On Lap 69 Adrian Fernandez tried an unsuccessful pass on the inside of Willy T. Ribbs, the two touching in Turn 3 and collecting Maurício Gugelmin who tried to sneak past on the outside. Mario Andretti easily passed by on the inside, where there was just enough room. Both Fittipaldi and Gordon (in third and fourth) had to stop because of their placements on the track in relation to the accident. Innocent bystander Mike Groff stalled the engine after having to stop. Michael Andretti took his record fourth Toronto win after problems with the air jack on the last pit stop. Bobby Rahal and Fittipaldi completed the podium, with Mario Andretti in fourth and home crowd favorite Paul Tracy one lap back in fifth. Fittipaldi whittled Unser's lead to 27, as the rest of the top six were as follows: Michael Andretti (-47 points), Robby Gordon (-52), Paul Tracy (-53), and Nigel Mansell (-55).

Race 10: Marlboro 500 at Michigan
Nigel Mansell set a new track record alongside Raul Boesel and Michael Andretti in a three-abreast start. At the start-finish line on Lap 24, third place runner Robby Gordon burst a right front tyre. Seemingly by instinct he gradually slowed the car under the yellow, never touching the wall, and was able to continue undamaged. Soon after polesitter Mansell suffered a stuck throttle, which he described to ESPN's Jon Beekhuis as, "the scariest moment I've had in my whole career."  On lap 65, Adrian Fernandez leapt from his racecar as methanol spilled during a routine pit stop. A moment later Michael Andretti jammed the brakes to avoid Paul Tracy and caught the wall, ruining the suspension. On Lap 78 rookie Jacques Villeneuve suddenly pushed up the banking into the wall in Turn 3, walking away unharmed.

The lead pack included the Penske cars of Unser and Fittipaldi, Raul Boesel, Scott Goodyear, and Robby Gordon, who recovered from his flat tire. Just short of halfway, Mario Andretti's engine failure made him the 11th retiree of the day. Inside of 70 laps remaining, Gordon's engine blew in the middle of Turns 3 and 4. He maintained control of the car for several seconds on the banking, but the new oil on the track took away his traction and sent him into a 270-degree spin entering the pitlane. He never completed the spin, and never touched a wall, but his race was over. On Lap 225, while leading, Raul Boesel's excellent chance to finally win his first IndyCar race ended when his Ford XB engine expired at 90% distance, handing the lead to Al Unser Jr. He hoped to be the first man to win the Indianapolis 500 and the Michigan 500 in the same year since Rick Mears in 1991, but six laps later he joined his teammates in the garage area causing the final caution flag of the race (his oil on the track), leaving just eight of the twenty-eight starters on track: Scott Goodyear, Arie Luyendyk (1 lap down), Dominic Dobson (2 laps back), Teo Fabi (4 laps), Mark Smith (-10 laps), Hiro Matsushita (-11 laps), Willy T. Ribbs (-13 laps), and Marco Greco, who finished 55 laps down in eleventh. Goodyear, the 1992 winner of the race, was the proverbial "tortoise" beating the quicker "hares" while giving the Lola chassis its only win in 1994. Al Unser Jr., despite his DNF, led with 132 points, 29 more than Emerson Fittipaldi at 103, Michael Andretti had 80 points, Gordon 75, Tracy 74, and Mansell 73.

Race 11: Mid-Ohio
Al Unser Jr. rebounded from the disappointment from Michigan by winning his fourth pole position of the season. Saturday was plagued by excessive rain, so times from the first session of qualifications held on Friday were used to determine the race lineup. Paul Tracy took the lead from second place in Turn 4, which was the first turn as the green flag was given as usual on the backstretch. Early on, Mike Groff and Michigan winner Scott Goodyear touched and spun into the Turn 2 gravel battling for the twelfth position. Great racing was prevalent throughout the field, much of which orbited around Michael Andretti and Robby Gordon, both known for aggressive driving styles. On Lap 44 Tracy made a "banzai" move to put Adrian Fernandez one lap down, because Unser was not far behind. The two got very close, possibly touching, but Tracy gained a time advantage over Unser thanks to his bravery. Later Teo Fabi spun off in Turn 2, causing a local yellow. Robby Gordon, right in front of Tracy, slowed and nearly spun to obey the flags. Tracy passed Gordon with his momentum in the corner and was assigned a stop-and-go penalty, as was Mario Andretti for likewise overtaking in the yellow zone. Unser took the win ahead of Tracy and Emerson Fittipaldi, who started and finished 1-2-3. Gordon and Andretti finished one lap behind the Penskes, with Adrian Fernandez getting his new best career finish of sixth. The Penske drivers were 1-2-3 in qualifying, the race, and the championship: Unser led Fittipaldi 153-117, Tracy moved up to third at 91 points, Andretti at 90, Gordon 87, Mansell 79, and rookie leader Jacques Villeneuve was seventh with 54 points.

Race 12: New Hampshire
Emerson Fittipaldi took his first pole in nearly a year. At the start, eighth place starter Adrian Fernandez spun across the track without contact. But in an effort to avoid him, Jacques Villeneuve and Arie Luyendyk crashed and were done for the day before taking the green flag, thus failing to start the race. Robby Gordon spun harmlessly. Luyendyk blamed the crash on the top qualifiers for bringing the field perhaps too slowly to the green flag. The resulting 25 car starting field was the smallest of the year, showing the strength of the sport at the time. A scary crash on Lap 13 involved Mike Groff and former Trans-Am champion Scott Sharp. Groff spun exiting Turn 2 and hit the outside wall; just behind him, Sharp spun to avoid him and was propelled by his kinetic energy onto Groff's nose. His car was launched into the air and flipped once and a half, leaving the Connecticut native hanging upside down in the car for approximately two minutes. The rookie was flipped carefully onto his wheels and walked away unharmed.

Fittipaldi led the first 46 laps until Paul Tracy took it from him on the outside in Turn 3. Tracy was looking for redemption; he was now leading the race he nearly won the year before when he lost a duel with Nigel Mansell in the waning laps. Emerson soon lost second to Raul Boesel, and third to Nigel Mansell, and pitted several laps early to correct quite evident handling woes. Point leader Al Unser Jr., who started tenth, was climbing through the field. He was in the Top 5 by Lap 50. At Lap 69 Unser was side by side with his teammate at the stripe, and at Lap 70 he passed Tracy, who then lost second to Mansell. Unser pitted at Lap 82, followed by Mario Andretti and Tracy. Mansell stayed out 4 laps longer before his first stop. Once the stops were completed, Unser led Tracy and Mansell through a large collection of lapped traffic. Mansell's bid to win died slowly after he and teammate Mario Andretti touched in Turn 1 on Lap 109. Andretti was a lap down, but the two already had some bad blood between them. Mario hit the wall, bringing out the final yellow flag, while Mansell soldiered on for nearly 20 more laps before getting fed up with the poor handling.

By this time, the Penske cars were alone in the lead lap. Emerson Fittipaldi pitted before the restart, knowing he likely couldn't reach the checkered flag without another stop but he could have a much shorter stop within the final laps. That was the exact scenario that played out, as Emerson gained a lead as great as 22 seconds (nearly a full lap) after teammates Unser and Tracy pitted at Lap 152. By Lap 195 Emerson's lead had gradually shrunk by several seconds as he finally came into the pits. He was in his pit box for only 5.9 seconds, but Unser led another Penske 1-2-3 sweep ahead of Tracy and Fittipaldi. All three cars were separated by approximately nine tenths of a second from each other at the chequers, thanks to heavy traffic. Raul Boesel and Michael Andretti were two laps back in fourth and fifth. Dominic Dobson surprisingly qualified and finished sixth (three laps down) for PacWest Racing, who had recently tested at Mid-Ohio with Danny Sullivan. The 1988 PPG Cup Champion was rumored to drive a third PacWest car at Vancouver. The Penske juggernaut continued to lead the championship, with Unser leading at 173 points, Fittipaldi 133 points, Tracy 107, Michael Andretti 100, Gordon 87, and Mansell 79.

Race 13: Vancouver
Robby Gordon was on pole for the second time in his career; his first pole coming in July at Toronto. After completing 8 laps, rookie Alessandro Zampedri retired in spectacular fashion with a fire in the rear of his car. He headed for the runoff area in the Turn 5 chicane, pointing behind him to get the attention of the course marshalls. Paul Tracy and Teo Fabi had a coming together while battling in the top five. Tracy made a clean pass in the Turn 3 hairpin, and Fabi tried to get it back in Turn 5. Tracy was committed to his line into the corner, and contact ensued. This happened immediately after 7th placed Al Unser Jr. made his first pit stop, and while only Gordon and Nigel Mansell stayed out, Unser restarted 3rd. Gordon's chance to win was soon greatly damaged when he missed Turn 10 and had to use the pitlane to rejoin the circuit. Because he clipped a wall in the incident, he suffered a puncture (just like in Toronto) and made an unscheduled green flag pit stop, dropping to 17th and handing the lead to Nigel Mansell. While Mansell established an 11-second lead, Michael Andretti passed Unser for 2nd place, recovering his position he lost in the early laps when he had a right rear puncture. Mansell and Michael pitted under yellow after Willy T. Ribbs spun and stopped precariously in Turn 8, and Unser took the lead.

A lap after the restart, Paul Tracy spun in front of Emerson Fittipaldi in Turn 3 immediately after taking 5th from him. On Lap 95, Tracy was "sandwiched" between the Andrettis; Mario was ahead, a lap down, and Michael was behind. Tracy slowed conservatively for the Turn 10 complex (the final set of corners) and was hit by Michael. Unser won by 2.2 seconds over Robby Gordon, Michael Andretti, Scott Goodyear, and Maurício Gugelmin. A battle for fourth went wrong for two former World Champions, as Nigel Mansell tagged Emerson Fittipaldi in the final corner trying to outbrake him. Emerson fell to ninth in the results; resulting in a 56-point lead for Unser, who only needed a fourth-place finish at Road America to win the championship. Even if Fittipaldi, the only man who could stop Unser, won all three remaining races, Unser only needed 12 more points. Unser's eighth win of the year clinched the Nations' Cup for the United States and put him at 193 points, compared to Fittipaldi's 137, Michael at 114, Tracy 107, Gordon 104, and Mansell 83.

Race 14: Road America
The front row was all Canadian: Paul Tracy and rookie Jacques Villeneuve, equaling his best career start at Phoenix. Tracy was a carlength ahead of the rookie at the start, but Villeneuve used the slipstream to attempt and failed outside pass into Turn 1. Tracy ran away as Al Unser Jr. was mindful of what he needed to do to win the championship, running third behind Paul and Jacques. Unser and Villeneuve swapped positions after the first round of pit stops when the latter could not find a gear when trying to launch from his pit stall. Within 20 (of 50) laps to go, Arie Luyendyk crashed in "The Kink", which is Turn 11, nearly collecting German Christian Danner driving for Project Indy. The former F3000 champion took to the grass on the outside of the turn at over 160 miles  per hour, nearly losing control, but showing nice car control and was not collected.

On the restart Tracy was caught up by Unser, who moved to the left to pass in the outside of Turn 1, and Vileneuve who chose the opposite side. Tracy moved to the right to outbrake Unser and keep the lead, touching with Villeneuve whom he wasn't anticipating. The order was now Villeneuve, Tracy, Unser, Emerson Fittipaldi, Teo Fabi, and Mario Andretti. Tracy soon began to slow, with an engine turning sour. Unser slowly gained on Villeneuve but didn't gain enough. Villeneuve became the fourth Canadian to win an IndyCar race; the first being his uncle Jacques nine years before in this race. Unser clinched the championship ahead of Fittipaldi, Fabi, and Adrian Fernandez. The championship battle was now for second; Fittipaldi was there with 151, ahead of Michael Andretti, who suffered two right rear punctures and a broken exhaust system in 45 laps after starting 20th, at 114, Tracy 109, and Gordon 104.

Race 15: Nazareth
The fewest entrants arrived at Nazareth: twenty nine; the fourth race of the season with this count (Milwaukee, Michigan, and New Hampshire). Emerson Fittipaldi won the pole alongside Paul Tracy. New champion Al Unser Jr. started 18th. Third place starter Nigel Mansell made an early unscheduled pit stop, ending any chance to win. By Lap 33 Unser moved up to third. Ten laps later the course was under yellow for a backstretch accident in which Eddie Cheever clipped hometown favorite Mario Andretti. His teammate Mansell retired with a loose racecar. On Lap 140 Jacques Villeneuve touched with Adrian Fernandez, who hit the outside wall (breaking off the right front), bounced off the inside wall, and struck the outside wall again before the car finally stopped. Fernandez walked away. Marlboro Team Penske defined domination as Paul Tracy, Al Unser Jr., and Emerson Fittipaldi finished four laps ahead of fourth place Raul Boesel, and Stefan Johansson another lap back in fifth. Unser and Fittipaldi had clinched first and second in the championship, so the battle for third was between Tracy at 130 and Andretti with 118. Jacques Villeneuve had already clinched the rookie award and appeared to be set for stardom.

Race 16: Laguna Seca
This race was the record 407th and final IndyCar race for the great Mario Andretti. He qualified twelfth, but for the pace laps was given honorary pole position. Former CART flagman Nick Fornoro came back to wave the green flag for Mario's last race.

Paul Tracy won back-to-back poles and showed the form he struggled to find in the early part of the year. He set a new track record of 1:10.058 seconds. Exiting Turn 2 (the hairpin) Al Unser Jr. touched wheels with Robby Gordon and slid off the course. Michael Andretti outbraked Arie Luyendyk for eighth in Turn 3, but spun the rear wheels and spun out. Champions collided as four seconds later he was struck by an unfortunate Bobby Rahal, ending the day for both, and assuring Paul Tracy of third in the standings. Turn 3 and "The Corkscrew" (the Turn 8 downhill chicane complex which literally screws into itself) were the preferred places to pass behind Tracy. Robby Gordon spun twice, giving up a likely points finish. On Lap 82 Mario's career ended a few laps too early as he slowed with engine failure and ended 19th. Tracy took maximum points (22) ahead of Raul Boesel, who finished second for the fifth time in his IndyCar career. Jacques Villeneuve, Emerson Fittipaldi, Teo Fabi, Arie Luyendyk, and Adrian Fernandez were also in the lead lap. The final points went to Nigel Mansell, Andrea Montermini, Dominic Dobson, Willy T. Ribbs, and Stefan Johansson; all one lap down.

This race was also the last for Nigel Mansell. After the season, he ran the final three races in Formula One that season for Williams as the only active World Champion, as Alain Prost retired after the 1993 season and Ayrton Senna was killed while leading at Imola in May. After having raced at Magny-Cours in June, Mansell spun off in Jerez, finished fourth in Suzuka, and after title contenders Michael Schumacher and Damon Hill collided, won the finale in Adelaide, Australia. In 1995 he defected to McLaren, soon leaving the team due to an uncompetitive car.

Also exiting the sport were the King Racing team owned by drag racing legend Kenny Bernstein. A year later he would also pull the plug on his NASCAR Winston Cup operation; both were due to lack of competitiveness.

Final driver standings

Nations' Cup

 Top result per race counts towards Nations' Cup.

Chassis Constructors' Cup

Engine Manufacturers' Cup

 * Indianapolis 500 only

References

See also
 1994 Indianapolis 500
 1994 Toyota Atlantic Championship season
 1994 Indy Lights season
 1994 Formula One season

Champ Car seasons
Indycar
Indycar
Indycar Season, 1994


Transylvania Twist is a 1989 comedy film that parodies horror films. Originally released by Concord Production Inc., this film is distributed on home video by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. In the film Angus Scrimm reprises his role of the "Tall Man" from the Phantasm films, as a parody. The humor of the film is most often said to be in the style of Airplane!, and Mel Brooks comedies. It occasionally breaks the fourth wall rule with characters looking at the camera, and one even saying "I'm in the wrong movie". The film's main theme has been released on a variety of albums, it and the entire soundtrack was released on CD and as a direct download in the year 2010, twenty-one years after the movies initial release.

It was directed by Jim Wynorski, who made over 150 films. In 2013 he said this film "comes closest to my personality and was the film I had the most fun making. It was the show I never wanted to end".

In the film, a female member of the Orlock family inherits her family's ancestral castle in Transylvania. A vampire cousin of the heiress is trying to use a stolen magical book to summon a monster to Earth. A vampire hunter of the Van Helsing family tries to cope with his new life as a vampire.

Plot summary
The film opens with two short sequences before the main story line begins, first a prologue, and then a mock television advertisement. In the prologue, a seemingly helpless young woman is pursued by Jason Voorhees, Leatherface, and Freddy Krueger; she is then chased into a cave and reappears a few seconds later with an item from each of the three. She then faces the camera and laughs (showing her fangs) and says, "Amateurs!" The advertisement sequence is for a "mortuary, crematory, cemetery" called "Death City" where a salesman tries selling viewers "new and used coffins", with the help of his assistant Lovely Rita.

Dexter Ward (Steve Altman) enters a 'Death City' location, and is greeted by two morticians, one of which is noted science fiction anthologist Forrest J. Ackerman in a cameo appearance, who is holding a copy of Famous Monsters of Filmland. Dexter is there for the funeral of his uncle, who is suffering from a 'medical condition' and not actually dead. After helping his uncle out of the coffin and back to a library, Dexter is then sent by his uncle Ephram (Jay Robinson) to find and bring back The Book of Ulthar, a book of great power capable of unleashing terrible evil in the wrong hands; librarian Ephram had mistakenly let someone check it out. Dexter's search leads him to aspiring singing star Marissa Orlock (Teri Copley), who is about to be informed of the death of her father Marinas (Howard Morris), and her inheritance of Castle Orlock in Transylvania. Dexter goes with her to the castle.

Victor Van Helsing (Ace Mask), a professional vampire hunter, accompanies Marissa and Dexter to the castle as the executor of her father's estate. Count Byron Orlock (Robert Vaughn), and his three adopted-daughters who are also vampires are already at the castle. One of them is named Patricia (Monique Gabrielle) the seemingly helpless girl in the prologue. When 'viewing the will' they find out that Marissa has been left the castle and the money, while Orlock was left luggage. As a toss-up gift, they are left to find the book somewhere within the castle. Orlock is determined to find the book so that he can create an age of evil; assisting him is the butler Stephan (Angus Scrimm).

The book is finally found by Dexter but Byron steals it from him and uses it to summon an enormous monster called The Evil One (which was originally seen in It Conquered the World), but Dexter and Marissa (who is possessed by her ancestor of the same name) stops him, while Dexter is freed and destroys the book. The possessed Marissa blasts Byron with a lightning bolt. As he burns to death, Byron declares that he'll be back in the sequel.

Marinas, who was suffering from a cataleptic seizure and was not dead, tells Marissa that she must stay in the castle to ensure that the monster never returns; Helsing, who is now a vampire, also stays. Dexter arranges for Marissa to make her latest music video in the castle, with the help of her vampire cousins and Helsing.

The film ends with the local villagers, who throughout the film have been trying to find the castle so they can destroy it, finally give up and go home.

Cast

Robert Vaughn . . . Lord Byron Orlock
Teri Copley . . . Marissa Orlock
Steve Altman . . . Dexter Ward
Ace Mask . . . Victor Von Helsing
Angus Scrimm . . . Stefen
Steve Franken . . . Hans Hoff
Vinette Cecelia . . . Laverne
Monique Gabrielle . . . Patty (Patricia)
Howard Morris . . . Marinas Orlock
Jay Robinson . . . Uncle Ephram
Lenny Juliano . . . Maxie Fields
Joe Lerer . . . Hans Downe
Clement von Franckenstein . . . Hans Hoff
R.J. Robertson . . . Hans Phull
 Arthur Roberts . . . Hans N. Fritz
Toni Naples . . . Maxine
Frazer Smith . . . Slick Lambert
Becky LeBeau . . . Rita
Stu Nahan . . . Sports Announcer
Jack Behr . . . Direttore
Kelli Maroney . . . Hannah
Michael Chieffo . . . Ed Norton Look-Alike
Jon Locke . . . Mr. Sweeney
Magda Harout . . . Peasant Woman
Deanna Lund . . . Insegnante
Brinke Stevens . . . Betty Lou
Harriet Harris . . . Granny
Michael Vlastas . . . James Vasvolakas
Art Hern . . . Willoughby
Dean Jones (as Dean C. Jones) . . . Pinhead
Boris Karloff. . . Himself (archive footage)

Inspirations, parodies, and puns
Mark Thomas McGee worked on an early draft of the script for about a week. He was fired at the request for Roger Corman who told Wynorski that he was difficult to work with.

Most of the film consists of silly moments of comedy and parody; e.g., when Pinhead steps out of an acupuncturist's office and says, "I don't care what anyone says — this hurts!" At one point, Dexter looks into a room and meets Boris Karloff (in a clip from the movie The Terror); in another, Dexter and Marissa step into a room that's apparently in 3-D, but because neither of them is wearing 3-D glasses, all they see is jumbled red and green.

Many of the films characters are parodies of other sources, including; Dexter Ward from The Case of Charles Dexter Ward, Byron Orlock from Targets, Van Helsing from Dracula, and the mock advertisement scene's Lovely Rita. Television shows are also referenced such as The Honeymooners, The Late Show, Meet the Press, The Twilight Zone, and Wheel of Fortune. The film also contains puns such as "Vampires of the Caribbean", "Elvis has left the body", and "Papa-Oom-Mow-Mow" being spoken as part of the spell to summon the Evil One as well as classic gags such as a Pie in the face for the Ayatollah, and Dexter finding a Skeleton in the closet.

Films being parodied are:
 Nightmare on Elm Street: the character Freddy Krueger with Swiss Army knife glove.
 Casablanca
 The Exorcist: at the séance scene, including the spewing of green liquid from the mouth.
 Friday the 13th films: the character Jason Voorhees.
 The Haunted Palace: the summoning of the 'Evil One' scenes.
 Hellraiser: the character Pinhead.
 Horror of Dracula: meeting the daughters, Van Helsing pointing out blood on a vampire's mouth, and Byron throwing back of female vampire from her intended victim.
 It Conquered the World: the 'Evil One' creature.
 Night of the Living Dead: the lines "Yeah, they're dead--they're all messed up".
 Phantasm: the 'Tall Man' character with Angus Scrimm parodying himself in the role.
 Taxi Driver: the lines "You talking to me, no one else here you must be talking to me".
 Texas Chainsaw Massacre films: character Leatherface.
 The Terror: footage of Boris Karloff.

The film title comes from a line in the 1962 song "Monster Mash".

Home media
The film was released on VHS on September 22, 1993 and on DVD on March 27, 2001.

Reception
The film received mixed reviews, from positive reviews such as "what might be the best of the late-80′s wave of Naked Gun inspired horror spoofs", to the more negative reviews that state "moronic comedy about vampires, teenage vampire hunters and half-naked babes". One of its most positive reviews comes from Variety stating that "mixed into the cosmic stew are many delightful reflexive bits", and that it "is an occasionally hilarious horror spoof notable for the range of its comical targets".
 2 and half stars out of 4 - TV Guide
 2 and a half stars out of 5 - Video Movie Guide 2002
 2 stars out of 4 - Creature Features: The Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Movie Guide
 2 out of 4 - Cinefantastique review by J. P. Harris
 1 and a half Bones out of 4 - VideoHound's Golden Movie Retriever
 1 and a half stars out of 5 - All Movie.com
 1 star out of 5 - AMC (TV channel)

Soundtrack
After the film's original release its theme was released as part of the album "Vampire Circus (The Essential Vampire Theme Collection)" by Silva Screen Records in 1993. On the 1997 album "Vampire Themes" by Cleopatra Records, the band 'Ex Voto' remixes and reinterprets the main theme. The entire soundtrack was then officially released on June 7, 2010, when it was paired with the soundtrack to Not of This Earth also composed by Chuck Cirino. It is currently sold in Compact Disk, and direct download formats from various music sites.

Transylvania Twist
 Amateurs
 Transylvania Twist Main Titles
 Just Give Me Action
 Come To Castle Orlock
 The Road To Hansberg/Van Helsing Before Dinner
 Think Of The Royalties
 Ancestors Of Orlock
 Marinas' Service
 Stefan's Favorite Musical Recording
 The Newlydead Game
 Seance For Lady Marissa
 Trick Or Treat/Swing And A Miss
 Marissa Points The Way/Dexter Finds The Book
 The Evil One Appears
 Destroy The Book
 Transylvania Twist End Titles

Not of This Earth
17. Not Of This Earth Main Title
18. I'm Coming Home/Dining Out
19. Miss Story's Bedroom/First Communication
20. Several Hundred Questions
21. Sleeze-O-Mania
22. Birthday Girl
23. A Pound And A Half of Flesh
24. Footchase
25. Finding Out
26. Stop Running, Nadine
27. Driving Mr. Johnson
28. Not Of This Earth End TitlesBonus Tracks
29. Transylvania Twist Suite
30. Chopping Mall Suite
31. Not Of This Earth End Titles (Alternate)
32. Death City

See also
 Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein
 Dracula: Dead and Loving It
 Scary Movie
 Young Frankenstein

References

External links

 Transylvania Twist production credits, New York Times

1989 films
1989 comedy films
1989 comedy horror films
1980s American films
1980s English-language films
1980s parody films
American comedy horror films
American vampire films
Films about books
Films about inheritances
Films about spirit possession
Films directed by Jim Wynorski
Films set in castles
Films set in Transylvania
Parodies of horror
Vampire comedy films
Works based on Nosferatu


{{New Testament manuscript infobox
| form   = Papyrus
| number = 𝔓23
| image  = Papyrus 23 James 1,15-18.jpg
| isize  =
| caption= James 1:15-18
| name   = P. Oxy. X 1229
| sign   =
| text   = James 1 †
| script = Greek
| date   = 3rd century
| found  = Egypt
| now at = University of Illinois
| cite   = B. P. Grenfell & A. S. Hunt, Oxyrynchus Papyri’' X, (London 1914), pp. 16-18
| size   = 12.1 x 11.2 cm
| type   = Alexandrian text-type
| cat    = I
| hand   =
| note   =
}}

Papyrus 23 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering), designated by 𝔓23, is an early copy of the New Testament in Greek. It is a papyrus manuscript of the Epistle of James, it contains only James 1:10-12,15-18. The manuscript paleographically has been assigned to the early 3rd century.

 Description

The Nomina sacra are written fully, abbreviations are used only at the end of lines. There has been noticed the occurrence of the ungrammatical αποσκιασματος found also in Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus in James 1:17.

The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type (or rather proto-Alexandrian). Aland placed it in Category I. This manuscript displays the greatest agreement with codices א A C, which represent the best text of the Catholic epistles, and then with Codex Vaticanus and Papyrus 74.

It is currently housed in the Spurlock Museum at the University of Illinois (G. P. 1229) in Urbana, Illinois.

 See also

 List of New Testament papyri

 References

 Further reading

 B. P. Grenfell & A. S. Hunt, Oxyrynchus Papyri X, (London 1914), pp. 16–18.
 R. H. Charles, Revelation of St. John'', ICC, vol. II (Edinbourgh, 1920), pp. 448–450.

External links

 𝔓23 (P.Oxy 1229) recto James 1:10-12
 𝔓23 (P.Oxy 1229) verso James 1:15-18
 P23 images at the Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts

New Testament papyri
3rd-century biblical manuscripts
Early Greek manuscripts of the New Testament
Epistle of James papyri