Cyanobionts are cyanobacteria that live in symbiosis with a wide range of organisms such as terrestrial or aquatic plants; as well as, algal and fungal species. They can reside within extracellular or intracellular structures of the host. In order for a cyanobacterium to successfully form a symbiotic relationship, it must be able to exchange signals with the host, overcome defense mounted by the host, be capable of hormogonia formation, chemotaxis, heterocyst formation, as well as possess adequate resilience to reside in host tissue which may present extreme conditions, such as low oxygen levels, and/or acidic mucilage. The most well-known plant-associated cyanobionts belong to the genus Nostoc. With the ability to differentiate into several cell types that have various functions, members of the genus Nostoc have the morphological plasticity, flexibility and adaptability to adjust to a wide range of environmental conditions, contributing to its high capacity to form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Several cyanobionts involved with fungi and marine organisms also belong to the genera Richelia, Calothrix, Synechocystis, Aphanocapsa and Anabaena, as well as the species Oscillatoria spongeliae. Although there are many documented symbioses between cyanobacteria and marine organisms, little is known about the nature of many of these symbioses. The possibility of discovering more novel symbiotic relationships is apparent from preliminary microscopic observations.

Currently, cyanobionts have been found to form symbiosis with various organisms in marine environments such as diatoms, dinoflagellates, sponges, protozoans, Ascidians, Acadians, and Echiuroid worms, many of which have significance in maintaining the biogeochemistry of both open ocean and coastal waters. Specifically, symbioses involving cyanobacteria are mostly mutualistic, in which the cyanobionts are responsible for nutrient provision to the host in exchange for attaining high structural-functional specialization. Most cyanobacteria-host symbioses are found in oligotrophic areas where limited nutrient availability may limit the ability of the hosts to acquire carbon (DOC), in the case of heterotrophs and nitrogen in the case of phytoplankton, although a few occur in nutrient-rich areas such as mudflats.

Role in symbiosis
Cyanobionts play a variety of roles in their symbiotic relationships with the host organism. They function primarily as nitrogen- and carbon-fixers. However, they can also be involved in metabolite exchange, as well as in provision of UV protection to their symbiotic partners, since some can produce nitrogen-containing compounds with sunscreen-like properties, such as scytonemin and amino acids similar to mycosporin.

By entering into a symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria, organisms that otherwise cannot inhabit low-nitrogen environments are provided with adequate levels of fixed nitrogen to carry out life functions. Providing nitrogen is a common role of cyanobionts in many symbiotic relationships, especially in those with photosynthetic hosts. Formation of an anaerobic envelope (heterocyst) to prevent nitrogenase from being irreversibly damaged in the presence of oxygen is an important strategy employed by nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria to carry out fixation of di-nitrogen in the air, via nitrogenase, into organic nitrogen that can be used by the host. To keep up with the large nitrogen demand of both the symbiotic partner and itself, cyanobionts fix nitrogen at a higher rate, as compared to their free-living counterparts, by increasing the frequency of heterocyst formation.

Cyanobacteria are also photosynthetically active and can therefore meet carbon requirements independently. In symbioses involving cyanobacteria, at least one of the partners must be photoautotrophic in order to generate sufficient amounts of carbon for the mutualistic system. This role is usually allocated to cyanobionts in symbiotic relationships with non-photosynthetic partners such as marine invertebrates.

Maintenance of successful symbioses
In order to maintain a successful symbiosis following host infection, cyanobacteria need to match their life cycles with those of their hosts’. In other words, cyanobacterial cell division must be done at a rate matching their host in order to divide at similar times. As free living organisms, cyanobacteria typically divide more frequently compared to eukaryotic cells, but as symbionts, cyanobionts slow down division times so they do not overwhelm their host. It is unknown how cyanobionts are able to adjust their growth rates, but it is not a result of nutrient limitation by the host. Instead, cyanobionts appear to limit their own nutrient uptake in order to delay cell division, while the excess nutrients are diverted to the host for uptake.

As the host continues to grow and reproduce, the cyanobiont will continue to infect and replicate in the new cells. This is known as vertical transmission, where new daughter cells of the host will be quickly infected by the cyanobionts in order to maintain their symbiotic relationship. This is most commonly seen when hosts reproduce asexually. In the water fern Azolla, cyanobacteria colonize the cavities within dorsal leaves. As new leaves form and begin to grow, the new leaf cavities that develop will quickly become colonized by new incoming cyanobacteria.

An alternative mode of transmission is known as horizontal transmission, where hosts acquire new cyanobacteria from the surrounding environment between each host generation. This mode of transmission is commonly seen when hosts reproduce sexually, as it tends to increase the genetic diversity of both host and cyanobiont. Hosts that use horizontal transmission in order to obtain cyanobacteria will typically acquire a large and diverse cyanobiont population. This may be used as a survival strategy in open oceans as indiscriminate uptake of cyanobacteria may guarantee capture of appropriate cyanobionts for each successive generation.

Genetic modifications within host
Following infection and establishment of an endosymbiotic relationship, the new cyanobionts will no longer be free living and autonomous, but rather begin to dedicate their physiological activities in tandem with their hosts'. Over time and evolution, the cyanobiont will begin to lose portions of their genome in a process known as genome erosion. As the relationship between the cyanobacteria and host evolves, the cyanobiont genome will develop signs of degradation, particularly in the form of  pseudogenes. A genome undergoing reduction will typically have a large proportion of pseudogenes and transposable elements dispersed throughout the genome. Furthermore, cyanobacteria involved in symbiosis will begin to accumulate these mutations in specific genes, particularly those involved in DNA repair, glycolysis, and nutrient uptake. These gene sets are critical for organisms that live independently, however as cyanobionts living in symbiosis with their hosts, there may not be any evolutionary need to continue maintaining the integrity of these genes. As the major function of a cyanobiont is to provide their host with fixed nitrogen, genes involved in nitrogen fixation or cell differentiation are observed to remain relatively untouched. This may suggest that cyanobacteria involved in symbiotic relationships can selectively stream line their genetic information in order to best perform their functions as cyanobiont-host relationships continue to evolve over time.

Examples of symbioses
Cyanobacteria have been documented to form symbioses with a large range of eukaryotes in both marine and terrestrial environments. Cyanobionts provide benefit through dissolved organic carbon (DOC) production or nitrogen fixation but vary in function depending on their host. Organisms that depend on cyanobacteria often live in nitrogen-limited, oligotrophic environments and can significantly alter marine composition leading to blooms.

Diatoms
Commonly found in oligotrophic environments, diatoms within the genera Hemiaulus and Rhizosolenia form symbiotic associations with filamentous cyanobacteria in the species Richelia intracellularis. As an endophyte in up to 12 species of Rhizosolenia, R. intracellularis provides fixed nitrogen to its host via the terminally-located heterocyst. Richella-Rhizosolenia symbioses have been found to be abundant within the nitrogen-limited waters of the Central-Pacific Gyre. Several field studies have linked the occurrence of phytoplankton blooms within the gyre to an increase in nitrogen fixation from Richella-Rhizosolenia symbiosis. A dominant organism in warm oligotrophic waters, five species within the genus Hemiaulus receive fixed nitrogen from R. intracellularis. Hemiaulus-Richella symbioses are up to 245 times more abundant than the former, with 80–100% of Hemilalus cells containing the cyanobiont. Nitrogen fixation in the Hemiaulus-Richella symbiosis is 21 to 45 times greater than in the Richella-Rhizosolenia symbiosis within the southwestern Atlantic and Central Pacific Gyre, respectively.

Other genera of diatoms can form symbioses with cyanobacteria; however, their relationships are less known. Spheroid cyanobacteria have been found within the diatom Rhopalodia gibba and have been found to possess genes for nitrogen fixation, but do not possess the proper pigments for photosynthesis.

Dinoflagellates

Heterotrophic dinoflagellates can form symbioses with cyanobacteria (phaeosomes), most often in tropical marine environments. The function of the cyanobiont depends on its host species. Abundant marine cyanobacteria in the genus Synechococcus form symbionts with dinoflagellates in the genera Ornithocercus, Histionesis and Citharistes, where it is hypothesized to benefit its host through the provision of fixed nitrogen in oligotrophic, subtropical waters. Increased instances of phaeosome symbiosis have been documented in a stratified, nitrogen-limited environment, and living within a host can provide an anaerobic environment for nitrogen fixation to occur. However, there is conflicting evidence of this. One study on phaeosomes in cells of Ornithocercus spp. has provided evidence that symbionts belonging to the genus Synechococcus, supply organic carbon rather than nitrogen, due to the absence of nitrogenase within these cyanobacteria.

Sponges
One hundred species within the classes Calcarea and Demospongiae form symbioses with cyanobacteria in the genera Aphanocapsa, Synechocystis, Oscillatoria and Phormidium. Cyanobacteria benefit their hosts through providing glycerol and organic phosphates through photosynthesis and supply up to half of their required energy and a majority of their carbon budget. Two groups of sponges with photosynthetic symbionts have been described; these are the "cyanosponges" and "phototrophs". Cyanosponges are mixotrophic and therefore obtain energy through heterotrophic feeding as well as photosynthesis. The latter group receives almost all of their energy requirements through photosynthesis, and therefore have a larger surface area in order increase exposure to sunlight. The most common cyanobionts found in sponges belong to the genus Synechococcus with the species Candidatus Synechococcus spongiarum inhabiting a majority of symbiotic sponges within the Caribbean. Another widely distributed species of cyanobacteria Oscillatoria spongeliae is found within the sponge Lamellodysidea herbacea, alongside ten other species. Oscillatoria  spongeliae benefits its host by providing carbon as well as a variety of chlorinated amino derivatives, depending on the host strain.

Lichens
Lichens are the result of a symbiosis between a mycobiont and an autotroph, usually green algae or cyanobacteria. About 8% of lichen species contain a cyanobiont, most commonly members of the genus Nostoc as well as the genera Calothrix, Scytonema and Fischerella. All cyanobionts inhabiting lichens contain heterocysts to fix nitrogen, which can be distributed throughout the host in specific regions (heteromerous) or randomly throughout the thallus (homoiomerous). Additionally, some lichen species are tripartite, containing both a cyanobacterial and green algal symbiont.

Bryophytes
Bryophytes are non-vascular plants encompassing mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, which most often form symbioses with members from the cyanobacterial genus Nostoc. Depending on the host, the cyanobiont can be inside (endophytic) or outside the host (epiphytic). In mosses, cyanobacteria are major nitrogen fixers and grow mostly epiphytically, aside from two species of Sphagnum which protect the cyanobiont from an acidic-bog environment. In terrestrial Arctic environments, cyanobionts are the primary supplier of nitrogen to the ecosystem whether free-living or epiphytic with mosses. Cyanobacterial associations with liverworts are rare, with only four of 340 genera of liverworts harbouring symbionts. Two of the genera, Marchantia and Porella, are epiphytic, while the genera Blasia and Cavicularia are endophytic. In hornworts however, endophytic cyanobionts have been described in more than triple the number of genera relative to liverworts. Bryophytes and their cyanobacterial symbionts possess different structures depending on the nature of the symbiosis. For instance, colonies of cyanobacterial symbionts in the liverwort Blasia spp. are present as auricles (small dots) between the inner and outer papillae near the ventral surface of the liverworts; whereas, cyanobionts in the hornworts Anthoceros and Phaeoceros are present within the thallus', in specialized slime cavities. However, cyanobacteria first must locate and physically interact with their host in order to form a symbiotic relationship. Members of the cyanobacterial genus Nostoc can become motile through the use of hormogonia, while the host plant excretes chemicals to guide the cyanobacteria via chemotaxis. For instance, liverworts in the genus Blasia can secrete HIF, a strong chemo-attractant for nitrogen-starved and symbiotic cyanobacteria. Cells of Nostoc punctiforme, which have been shown to possess genes encoding proteins that complement chemotaxis-related proteins within flowering plants belonging to the genus Gunnera.

Ascidians
Filamentous cyanobacteria within the genera Synechocystis and Prochloron has been found within the tunic cavity of didemnid sea squirts. The symbiosis is proposed to have originated through the intake of a combination of sand and cyanobacteria which eventually proliferated. The hosts benefit from receiving fixed carbon from the cyanobiont while the cyanobiont may benefit by protection from harsh environments.

Echiuroid worms
Little is known about the symbiotic relationship between echiuroid worms and cyanobacteria. Unspecified cyanobacteria have been found within the subepidermal connective tissue of the worms Ikedosoma gogoshimense and Bonellia fuliginosa.

Coral
Unicellular and symbiotic cyanobacteria were discovered in cells of coral belonging to the species Montastraea cavernosa from Caribbean Islands. These cyanobionts coexisted within the symbiotic dinoflagellates zooxanthellae within the corals, and produce the nitrogen-fixing enzyme nitrogenase. Details on the interaction of the symbionts with their hosts remains unknown.

References

Cyanobacteria
Symbiosis


The Lyman Reserve is a  nature reserve in Bourne, Plymouth and Wareham, Massachusetts and is managed by the Trustees of Reservations.  There are  of hiking trails, a beach and is in proximity to the Red Brook Reserve and Red Brook Wildlife Management Area.  The area was formerly as private fishing camp, which sits at the mouth of Red Brook at Buttermilk Bay.  It is home to one of the last remaining groups of sea-run brook trout ("salters") in the Eastern United States.

Red Brook was established as a preserve in 2001.

References

External links
 The Trustees of Reservations: Lyman Reserve
 Trail map

The Trustees of Reservations
Open space reserves of Massachusetts
Protected areas of Plymouth County, Massachusetts
2001 establishments in Massachusetts
Protected areas established in 2001


National City was a suburb of East St. Louis, Illinois. Incorporated in 1907, it was a company town for the St. Louis National Stockyards Company.  In 1996, the company, which owned all residential property in the town, evicted all of its residents.  The following year, because it had no residents, National City was dissolved by court order.  Its site was subsequently annexed by nearby Fairmont City, Illinois.

History

Background and context

Following the American Civil War, the American economy began to undergo a dramatic change as smaller markets and operations were being replaced by more centralized and efficient ones.  This was due in no small part to the advent of the railroads, which by this time crossed much of the country and connected previously isolated producers to one another in a more expedient fashion.  This transformation of the nation’s transportation network by railroads had a particularly strong impact on livestock-related industries.  It eliminated the need for long cattle drives   by connecting the producers of livestock (especially cattle) in the West with the major meat processing companies in the East.  It also enabled livestock markets to become transregional, with animals being shipped to large, centralized markets for sale, processing and distribution.  The result of this was that over time, smaller, localized markets became obsolete and a relatively small number of terminal livestock markets—markets built near important railroad centers—came to dominate the livestock and meatpacking industries.  St. Louis, Missouri was a natural choice as one of these locations.

Situated near the juncture of the Missouri River and Mississippi River, the city of St. Louis had long been an important transportation center.  Its access to these river systems coupled with its central location in the country had contributed to its becoming a major industrial center and railroad hub, with all the U.S.’s major rail lines converging in the city and from there running to all the different regions of the country.  As railroads became the primary means by which livestock and processed meat was shipped, St. Louis developed into a major livestock and meatpacking center.  This was also due to the fact that most of the U.S. population lived east of the Mississippi River prior to 1900, while most of the animals used to produce the meat it consumed were raised west of it, thus making St. Louis a logical place for the interchange between supply and demand in the meat market.  However, the Mississippi River provided a hindrance to this movement of livestock and meat to the East at first, because until 1874, when the Eads Bridge was completed, no bridge linking Missouri to Illinois had been constructed.  This meant that livestock from the West had to be unloaded in St. Louis, then ferried across the river to East St. Louis, Illinois, where it would then be stocked until it could be taken by railroad to eastern cities.  This inefficiency provided additional costs to producers, both in time lost and money spent on ferry fees.  It was these problems that caused a group of eastern financiers to invest in the construction of a large stockyard complex outside the already well-established rail center of East St. Louis.

The St. Louis National Stockyards Company is formed, 1873

National City had its beginnings as a business investment by East-Coast venture capitalists in the early 1870s.  East St. Louis mayor John Bowman had envisioned a new stockyard operation in East. St. Louis that would rival the famous Union Stock Yards in Chicago and make the stockyards in nearby St. Louis minor by comparison, and he approached a group of wealthy investors about establishing it.  Most of these investors were railroad men, and virtually all of them were from the East.  The man who led this group of investors was Archibald M. Allerton of the New York law firm Allerton, Dutcher and Moore, who also was one of the owners of New York’s National Drove Yard.  Allerton and his fellow investors believed such an operation would be a successful venture, but had several conditions they wanted met before they would invest in East St. Louis:  1) they wanted to build their operation on land not incorporated into any existing city, so as to avoid strict regulations, with a promise that East St. Louis would never attempt annexation of their property, 2) they wanted to build their own infrastructure independently of East St. Louis, and 3) they wanted East St. Louis to provide their property with city services such as fire protection.  Mayor Bowman acquiesced to these conditions, and the agreement was made official on July 17, 1872, at the East St. Louis city council meeting.  The investors had purchased  of land known as Gallagher Pastures (400 acres of which was procured from Mayor Bowman and W.D. Griswold for $145,000, and  from Virginia Matthews for $50,000) on the northeast edge of East St. Louis upon which to build their new stockyard operation, and construction had begun on May 30, 1871.  Ultimately, they would spend $1.5 million to construct the complex.  It included  of animal pens and  for sheds, as well as the Allerton House (later known as the National Hotel, at which Theodore Roosevelt once stayed)—one of the finest hotels in the area—and a new Exchange Building.  On October 31, 1872, the original 17 stockholders who had invested in the new stockyard operation met in Mayor Bowman’s office and elected the first Board of Directors for the operation, with Archibald Allerton as its first President.  The St. Louis National Stockyards Company was incorporated in Illinois four days later on November 4 and officially opened for business on November 19, 1873.

The early years (1873-1907)

Consolidation and national prominence

Once established, the St. Louis National Stockyards did not take long to become a major player in the livestock and meatpacking industries.  The first shipment of cattle had arrived at the complex in June 1873, almost five months before the yards officially opened, and many more shipments would follow.  The National Stockyards had been built to accommodate up to 15,000 head of cattle, 10,000 sheep, 20,000 hogs, in addition to a large quantity of non-meat animals such as horses and mules.  This large capacity did not go unnoticed by the meatpacking firms in the East, who very shortly after the Stockyards’ inception began to build plants there—which the Stockyards’ board had anticipated by purchasing enough land to accommodate packinghouse operations alongside the yards.  The centralization of stockyard operations along railroad terminals had led the major meatpacking companies to follow suit, locating their major operations near the stockyard operations to trim shipping costs connected to transporting whole animals by killing and processing their meat in a single location and shipping only the finished product.  The first packinghouse operation to build a plant at the National Stockyards was the White House Provision Company.  It was followed soon after by Richardson and Company’s East St. Louis Packing and Provision Company, which opened on November 13, 1873.  Richardson’s was able to process 2,000 hogs per day at its beginning, and by the end of 1874 was processing 6,000 per day.  Other packing companies began to arrive right on their heels.  The St. Louis Beef Canning Company relocated to the Stockyards in 1879, and was followed closely by plants owned by the big-name meatpacking firms.  Nelson Morris began operations at the Stockyards in 1889, Gustavus Swift arrived in 1893, and Philip Armour commenced production in 1903.  There were also many other smaller firms who built plants near the yards, who along with the big operations helped to make the St. Louis area—and specifically the St. Louis National Stockyards—one of the nation’s premier meatpacking centers, with the Stockyards directly employing 1,200 workers and processing approximately 50,000 animals weekly and boasting sales of more than $2 million each year at the turn of the 20th century.

Related industries and infrastructure

The centralization of the stockyard and packinghouse operations at the St. Louis National Stockyards also led to the creation and expansion of other related industries at the site.  The National Stock Yards National Bank, established with the yards in 1873, became a major financial institution in the St. Louis area, helping to finance the day-to-day operations of the yards.  Up until the end of World War II, it would be the largest Illinois bank outside of Chicago.  Another major development came as the meatpacking firms began to realize that they could use the vast amount of animal by-products produced by their factories to create new industries—some of which became established at the Stockyards.  Other industries related to livestock also became established there, such as seed and feed businesses, companies that dealt in hardware and farm machinery, lumber, and fertilizer, and tanning and rendering plants.

Other services and infrastructure soon followed.  The St. Louis Live Stock Exchange was established in 1885 to manage livestock trading at the site, and it did not take long until the Stockyards had a United States Post Office, telegraph offices and the offices of The Daily National Live Stock Reporter, a trade newspaper.  The Stockyards had paved roads, which East St. Louis did not have at the time, and its own waterworks that provided cleaner drinking water for the animals there than was available for the people living in downtown St. Louis at the time.  It also boasted a system of fire hydrants to protect the operation from catastrophe.  In the words of Dr. Andrew Theising, a scholar who has studied East St. Louis and the surrounding area, the St. Louis National Stockyards had quickly become “a world unto itself”, and it would not be long until it became officially a town unto itself.

National City, Illinois incorporates, 1907

As the St. Louis National Stockyards and its related industries grew and became established, they returned no small dividends for their investors and provided large profits for both livestock owners and meatpacking firms.  However, things quickly became more complicated for the yards.  The federal government began to push for food regulations and standards, spurred on by Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle, which chronicled the meatpacking industry; the administration of President Theodore Roosevelt had begun to oppose what it called the “beef trust”; and the city of East St. Louis had tried to annex the yards, in violation of the agreement it had made with the company prior to the construction of the complex.  In order to counter the increasing intervention of government into its affairs, the St. Louis National Stockyards and its related commercial interests incorporated as National City, Illinois, in July 1907.  National City was in all respects a company town, as the St. Louis National Stockyards Company owned all the property in the town.  The town consisted of two streets a block long, with about 40 houses arranged in four rows on them, a building that served as a church and school, a police/fire station and a store.  The village had a population at its height of 300, all of whom were employees of the stockyards.  Everything in the town was under the direct control of the company, from the mayor (handpicked by the company, the town only saw three changes of mayor between 1907 and 1982) to the tax assessments.  This control enabled the St. Louis National Stockyards Company to efficiently run its own affairs with minimal outside governmental interference such as taxation and regulation.  National City was the first industrial suburb outside East St. Louis, and it would set an example to be followed by other major industries in the St. Louis area, establishing such other company towns on the Illinois side of the Mississippi as Granite City (steel), Alorton (aluminum), Sauget (chemicals) and Wood River and Roxana (oil refinery).

From incorporation through World War II (1907-1947)

Continued growth

Following its incorporation as National City, the St. Louis National Stockyards continued to grow as a livestock and meat processing center.  World War I in particular expedited this growth.  The Stockyards had numerous government contracts, both for supplying meat and providing horses and mules for use as pack animals.  By 1920, National City had 14,000 people working there, and the St. Louis National Stockyards had the largest horse and mule market in the world, which would continue until shortly after the end of World War II.  In addition, it placed third among American cattle markets and second among hog markets.  In 1919, the total money received by the Stockyards was $8,257,798, illustrating the success of the yards during this time.  However, World War I and its immediate aftermath would also cause the beginnings of dramatic changes for the Stockyards and its related operations—changes that would ultimately be the beginning of the end for National City.

Regulation

During the first world war, inflation began to play a major toll on the Stockyards.  Yardage fees were 20% higher than they had been before the war, and price levels were 60% higher at the end of the war than they had been in 1914.  Exchange members increased their fees charged to livestock producers as well and the producers, feeling they were being cut out of wartime profits by these practices and conditions, appealed to the federal government to regulate the industry.

The federal government responded by passing the Packers and Stockyards Act of 1921.  This law gave to the U.S. Department of Agriculture regulatory rights over ownership, trading practices and financial transactions in the stockyard industry.  Perhaps most importantly, though, it separated the stockyard and meatpacking industries by forcing the major meatpacking firms to give up their majority interests in stockyard companies.  The major business interests in these industries would fight back fiercely against this law’s regulations, to no avail, over the next 20 years.  This mandated divorce between the stockyard and meatpacking industries would be the first step toward the decentralization of both industries later in the 20th century—a major factor in the decline of National City.  However, another major factor evolving in the market during this period would have an even greater impact on National City and hasten its demise:  the truck.

From railroad to truck: transportation evolves

The first truckload of hogs rolled into National City in 1921.  It would not be the last.  Over the next two decades, trucks would gain a greater and greater percentage of the volume of animals delivered to the Stockyards, gradually supplanting the formerly powerful and important railroads as the most important mode of shipment for the yards.  By 1938, 60% of the livestock shipped to National City came by truck, and by 1952, that number would grow to 99% of hogs and 84% of all other animals.  Following World War II, the Stockyards would respond to the evolution of the nation’s transportation network and the increasing mechanization of industry.  The yards were converted to handle truck traffic, and the last auctions of work horses and mules took place in 1948, as those animals became obsolete with the increasing ubiquity of farm machinery.  This shift from railroad-based shipping to truck-based shipping would threaten the terminal livestock markets across the nation as the livestock and meatpacking industries evolved right alongside the transportation network.

Labor issues

Another major change that affected National City during the first half of the 20th century was the unionization of packinghouse workers.  Originally, the packinghouses—and the Stockyards themselves—had targeted immigrants who would work cheap to man their operations.  The “de-skilling” of labor on the assembly lines of the packinghouses meant that workers could be hired with no experience and without even being able to speak English to work for a fraction of what it might cost to pay domestic workers.  National City advertised in Europe, soliciting immigrants primarily from Eastern Europe to come to the U.S. to work in the packinghouses.  Many thousands arrived in National City and the surrounding area, establishing themselves and making their living in the meatpacking plants.  The poor working conditions and low pay of the packinghouses and the rise of unionism during this period, however, ultimately led the packinghouse workers to organize and resist their employers, seeking better wages and working conditions.

Of course, the major meatpacking firms opposed this trend.  Apprehensive of a unified, well-organized labor force, meatpackers—like many other industrialists of this period—hired people from many diverse, non-English-speaking ethnic groups in order to hinder the organization of their employees into unions.  Another tactic used by the meatpackers was to bring in African-Americans from the South as replacement workers to create tension and discourage unionization and strikes.  This latter move played a major role in causing the infamous East St. Louis Race Riots of 1917.  However, the packers were not ultimately able to quell the fires of unionization, and by the 1950s virtually all the industries in National City—packinghouses, railroads, etc.—had become union workplaces.  This led to increased wages and improved working conditions, including shorter workdays, as well as periodic strikes.  These changes in management/labor would eventually play a major role in the packing companies choosing to relocate to the countryside in search of cheaper, nonunion labor.

Decline (1947-1997)

The industry changes

The peak year for the National City Stockyards came in 1947, with 1,860,000 cattle—in addition to other animals—being unloaded there.  The Stockyards continued to do well through the 1950s. Receipts of cattle vacillated during this decade, but National City competed for first in the nation in hog receipts, eventually surpassing Chicago and Omaha to become the largest hog market in the world in 1954 and earning East St. Louis the epithet “Hog Capital of the Nation”.  However, though National City would continue to dominate the hog market for the next decade, its fortunes were changing with the market.  The advent of the truck—and later, the interstate highway system—coupled with rising labor costs connected to unionization and the antiquation of outdated factories was causing the meatpacking industry to decentralize and relocate away from centralized terminal markets such as National City to rural areas, where it could find cheaper, nonunion labor, build new factories close to the livestock producers and buy directly from them, thus eliminating the middleman of the stockyard industry and cutting costs.

In 1959, National City placed fourth among major stockyards in the nation.  However, as the 1960s began, its gradual decline had begun in earnest.  The Armour packinghouse in National City was the first plant owned by a major national firm to close in 1959, laying off 1,400 employees.  It would not be the last.  By 1986, the last meatpacking plant located in National City had closed its doors, ending an era.  As this process of decentralization was underway, the Stockyards themselves continued to gradually diminish in importance to the livestock industry as well.  By 1963, National City had slipped to fifth in stockyard production, losing its place atop the hog market in 1967 to Omaha, and it dropped to third place just a year later as St. Paul overtook it.  This was evidence not just of National City’s decline, but also that of terminal livestock markets as a whole across the country.  In 1970, St. Louis National Stockyards Company President Gilbert Novotny stated that 30% of livestock sold in the U.S. was sold through terminal markets, a dramatic decline from the 90% sales terminal markets boasted in the 1920s.  This precipitous decline mirrored the loss of packinghouse operations to the rural countryside.  In 1965, the St. Louis Metro-East region, of which National City was a part, had 43 packing plants processing 100,000 animals weekly; by 1970, just five years later, there were 32.  In National City, Hunter Packing Company closed its doors in 1980, laying off 1,100 workers; Royal Packing Company followed closely behind in January 1981.  They were followed by others, until Swift Independent Packing Company, the last packinghouse located in National City, shut down for good in 1986.

The stockyards attempt to adjust

The St. Louis National Stockyards Company attempted to reverse its declining fortunes, to no avail.  They introduced the first stocker and feeder cattle auctions in October 1960, and they undertook conversion projects aimed at making the yards more truck-friendly, but these efforts to revitalize the Stockyards were ultimately unsuccessful.  The industry had changed.  Livestock farming in the U.S. had undergone a paradigm shift from a large number of small farmers to a relatively small number of huge corporate farms, where animals could be grown to full-size independently of a centralized stockyard operation.  The interstate highway system constructed in the 1950s enabled the major meatpacking firms to bypass the railroads and terminal stockyard operations and purchase their animals directly from the producers, and with the advent of refrigerated trucks, the packing firms could locate their plants near the source of the animals, being able to ship their products anywhere in the country.  This also provided them a way to avoid costly labor in unionized major cities, as most countryside labor pools were unorganized.  The National City Stockyards were but one victim of this evolution in the market.  Across the nation, the major terminal livestock markets were becoming obsolete and shutting down.  The Chicago Union Stock Yards, long the industry leader, closed down in 1971; that year, the St. Louis National Stockyards Company was one of only 11 remaining terminal markets in the nation.

As the decline continued, the St. Louis National Stockyards saw many changes.  The number of commission houses was cut in half—from 12 to 6—between 1971 and 1990, and the Stockyards went from employing 100 full-time workers to employing just 34.  The National Hotel, no longer necessary as shippers made their trips in one day by truck, was shuttered and demolished in 1986.  That same year, a fire destroyed the Exchange building—a metaphoric picture of what was happening to the Stockyards themselves at that time.  In addition, the industries that the meatpacking industry had spawned at the yards, such as hide processing, rendering, and fertilizer and feed operations, began to leave as well as the meatpacking industry in National City dried up.

National City, Illinois Fire & Police Department Fire, 1996

The National City, IL, Village Hall, police and fire station were destroyed by fire on March 22, 1996, at 4:30 A.M. Damage was estimated at over $1 million.
It was suspected that a high ranking Police official set the fire in the Police Department to hide evidence that money, guns and other items were taken from the department safe. Since the Police and Fire Department was connected the building was destroyed. He was never arrested and since fled the state.

Fire Chief Charles Schreiber and other firefighters arrived within minutes of the alarm but it was too late to get any apparatus out of the building. Schreiber immediately requested mutual aid from the Brooklyn, East St. Louis, Fairmont City and Caseyville fire departments.

Unable to save the structure, firefighters turned their efforts to a vacant warehouse across the street where embers had ignited the roof. This building was saved. The 60-by-120-foot Village Hall was over 70 years old and originally used as a mule barn. Apparatus destroyed included a 1986 E-One pumper with a 50-foot TeleSqurt, a 1968 American LaFrance pumper, a 1960 American LaFrance pumper and a 1956 Ford pumper.

The East St. Louis and Fairmont City fire departments loaned apparatus and equipment to National City so fire protection could be provided until other apparatus could be purchased. Investigators from the federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), Illinois State Fire Marshal’s office and National City police and fire departments. The department has since purchased a 1980 Grumman pumper and a 1971 Ward LaFrance pumper with a 50-foot TeleSqurt to replace the destroyed apparatus.

Video of Fire

Closing down, 1997

In April 1996, the Saint Louis National Stockyards Company, which owned all of the residential property in National City, ordered the town's approximately 50 remaining residents to leave.  The Board of Saint Clair County then requested that the United States Census Bureau conduct a special census of National City, for the purpose of determining whether the town had a sufficient number of residents to avoid dissolution.  The Census Bureau conducted the census, and found that the town had no residents.  The Board then filed a petition in the county's Circuit Court, requesting an order that the town be dissolved.  The Board relied on an Illinois statute that permitted the dissolution of an incorporated community that had fewer than 50 residents according to the most recent federal census.  The Circuit Court granted the petition in 1997, and ordered the town dissolved.  National City, as well as private citizens who had intervened in the case, appealed the order, but the Illinois Appellate Court affirmed it on October 3, 1997.  National City's incorporated existence thus came to end.

Though greatly diminished in importance, the Stockyards would continue to hold hog and cattle auctions until 1997.  Due to the dramatic changes in the livestock market and diminished receipts, the company closed down its livestock division by the end of the year.

The town of Fairmont City, Illinois subsequently annexed the site of National City in 1999.

National City, Illinois is a testament to the dramatic changes in American industry during the late 19th century and the 20th century.  Established as a centralized terminal livestock market, it owed its existence to the railroads, which transformed the livestock and meatpacking industries from spread-out, localized operations to consolidated and integrated major complexes in central urban locations.  When the market evolved again in the mid-20th century with the interstate highway system and trucking coming to prominence, the railroads—once king of shipping—began to diminish, and with them the terminal markets as meatpackers were able to bypass the middlemen of the railroad and stockyard companies, leading to the meatpacking and livestock industries once again becoming decentralized.  This ultimately led to National City’s demise.

Present

In the years after its dissolution, National City was essentially a ghost town.  There were no residents living there, and much of the land was a post-industrial wasteland, with the remains of dilapidated factories—many overgrown with vegetation and covered in graffiti—standing as empty, crumbling shells, testifying to the one-time greatness of the St. Louis National Stockyards as a national meatpacking and livestock center.

Nevertheless, National City was not completely abandoned.  Several industries moved there, including Darling, International, a major rendering company, a recycling plant and Baily International, one of America's largest manufacturers of Asian foods as well as several warehouse, heavy machinery and trucking operations.  In addition, as of April 2010, there were several construction projects begun on the property as part of what was called the National City Redevelopment Area. World Wide Technology Raceway is located on the former community.

A further injection of life into the area came with the planning and construction of the Stan Musial Veterans Memorial Bridge, which carries Interstate 70 over the Mississippi River and which opened to traffic in February 2014. The new bridge has its first Illinois exit near the site of National City.  This made the site attractive to industry and highly marketable.  In the summer of 2012, a new river grain terminal was opened in the area because of its proximity to the future exit.  In 2013, local leaders hoped that the bridge would spark further economic development in the area.

Traffic Tickets

In 1990, National City received attention because of the large number of traffic tickets that its police department issued for moving violations on the one-mile stretch of Illinois Route 3 that bisected the small town.  Although the town had only 70 residents at the time, it had a police department with five full-time officers and seven part-time officers.  In 1989, the officers issued 5,091 citations for alleged moving violations on Route 3.  Most of the citations were for speeding, though some drivers were cited for multiple violations.  Payments of the fines for the citations in 1989 brought more than $122,000 of revenue into the town's treasury, amounting to approximately one quarter of the town government's annual budget.

The town's police chief said at the time that drivers were ticketed for speeding only if they exceeded the posted speed limit by at least 10 miles per hour.  The town's assistant police chief said that the enforcement program had been started five or six years earlier after residents complained about the number of accidents on Route 3.  The assistant police chief also said that the 35 mile per hour speed limit on Route 3 in the town was clearly marked by multiple signs, and that the purpose of the enforcement program was to deter speeding and to prevent people from getting killed.

References

Geography of St. Clair County, Illinois
Unincorporated communities in Illinois
Company towns in Illinois
Populated places established in 1907
Populated places disestablished in 1997
Former municipalities in Illinois
Former populated places in Illinois
Meat processing in the United States


Waverley Market (formerly also known as Waverley Shopping Centre, Princes Mall, and Waverley Mall) is a shopping centre in Edinburgh, Scotland.

The old Waverley Market

The old Waverley Market occupied the same site as the current shopping centre. The location is in the city centre, on a plot bordered by Waverley Bridge, Princes Street , the Balmoral Hotel and Edinburgh Waverley railway station.

Before construction of the railways in Edinburgh, a fruit and vegetable market was located under North Bridge. When the present Waverley station was constructed, this fruit and vegetable market was moved to what is now Waverley Market in 1869. By then the market primarily traded in fruit, vegetables and flowers.

The market was roofed in 1874 by Hanna, Donald & Wilson. The iron and steel roof was built up till street level. It hosted a roof garden, and was very suitable to all kinds of entertainment. In the 1950s most of the vegetable traders moved to warehouses in Market Street. The lower level of Waverley Market then came in heavy use for fairs, circuses, menageries, exhibitions, etc.  By the early 1970s, however, the roof garden was no longer maintained. In 1973 Waverley Market and its roof were demolished.

Shopping centre
The shopping centre succeeded the previous market building. It was once home to mainly independent retailers, but now the mall houses mostly high street chain stores, with local stores having a smaller presence, as well as a large food court.

Designed in the early 1980s, the shopping centre was built with its roof at the street level of Princes Street, with a landscaped plaza at that level, in order to preserve the view from Princes Street across to Edinburgh Castle and the Old Town. It opened as Waverley Market in November 1984, the name referencing the food market that once occupied the site. An official opening by Queen Elizabeth II took place on 25 July 1985.

In the centre's early years the atria were adorned by luxuriant planting and water features, with shoppers descending on escalators from Princes Street through a canopy of trees to the underground plaza.

Major refurbishment in the early 1990s coincided with a change of name to Waverley Shopping Centre. A prominent and popular aspect of the mall introduced at this time was the large water feature which dominated the main atrium and incorporated the 11 ft high Herons Dream sculpture. This was removed during refurbishment in the early 2000s when the centre adopted the name 'Princes Mall'.

The mall suffered a decline in popularity in the early 2000s with 12 of the retail units empty at one stage. Major new lettings to fashion retailers may indicate the reversal of this decline, helped by the improvements carried out by Network Rail to the Waverley Steps access to Waverley Station by the installation of new stairs and escalators, with a glazed roof, and lifts.

In March 2016, following a £4 million renovation, the shopping centre, was officially reopened, rebranded 'Waverley Mall'.

The shopping centre is currently owned by Tradehold, and it reverted to its original name, Waverley Market in September 2021. Edinburgh City Council has given approval for a further redevelopment, which will see the rooftop area being developed, adding 3,000 square metres to the existing 8,000 square metres.

References

External links
Waverley Market website

Shopping centres in Edinburgh
1984 establishments in Scotland
Shopping malls established in 1984


Diambars FC de Saly is a football academy in Saly, Senegal, which plays in the Senegalese National League 1. It's also a part of Diambars, a non-profit organisation certified by UNESCO.

History
Diambars was founded in 2003 by former footballer Patrick Vieira and other players.

Diambars started at the regional championships, after being the best in regional divisions, Diambars elevated to a professional status in 2009. Diambars came up to the national divisions, then to National 1, Diambars promoted itself to Ligue 2 and in 2011 promoted to Ligue 1 for the first time where they remain into the present day.  Their first season was placed in Group A and finished first with 26 points and 8 wins, the goal totals of 18 was shared with Ouakam, the highest.  In the final phase, Diambars was placed second behind Casa Sports. In their second season in Ligue 1, they achieved their only championship title for 2013, Diambars finished with 52 points (club record) and had 14 wins and scored the most goals numbering 42.  In 2014, they were 9th, Djambars was 4th in the 2015–16 season with 38 points and third in goal scoring numbering 30.  Diambars won their only League Cup title for 2016.  Diambars made their 6th Ligue 1 appearance in October 2016, Diambars had a rough start for the 2016-17 season starting 13th in the first round, but slowly headed to the top positions, 4th in the 4th round, then 2nd at the 10th round and held it for two weeks, their positions later dropped to 6th at the 17th round and regained it and finished at a slightly better position of 3rd place, behind the newcomer Génération Foot and well known Guédiawaye but a position ahead of the nation's greatest club Diaraf (or Jaraaf). Diambars had 40 points which was a point more than Djaraf and 10 wins and draws.

Diambars' best players of the club especially in its early years included Pape Souaré, Idrissa Gueye, Kara Mbodj, Saliou Ciss, Omar Wade, Badou (Papa Alioune Ndiaye), Vieux Sané and Serigne Kara. Serigné Kara later signed a deal with Tromsø IL on 17 February 2010 and became the first Senegalese (and probably West African) to play both in Tromsø and a team based north of the Arctic Circle. Salou Ciss later signed and played with that club and was the second Senegalese to play with a Tromsø based club.

Continental competition
The club made its only appearance at the continental Champions League in 2014. There, Djambars played ASFA Yennenga to a 1–1 draw before losing 2–4 on penalty kicks.

Logo and uniform
Its team logo are crimson and black, the footballer (soccer player) is coloured black and its rim edges are in crimson.  The letters "Di", "mb", "rs" is coloured black while the two as are in crimson.

Its home uniform color has a red or crimson t-shirt and socks with white rims on top of the sleeves and black shorts with a white rim. Its away uniform are all in white with rims on top of the t-shirt, two around the collar and another two on its sleeves and on its shorts.

Its uniform colors up to around 2014 were a red t-shirt and shorts with blue shorts for home matches and a blue t-shirt and socks with white shorts for away or alternate matches.

Honours
Senegal Premier League: 1
 2013.

Senegal FA Cup: 0

Coupe de la Ligue: 2
 2016, 2019.

Coupe de l'Assemblée Nationale du Sénégal: 3
 2011, 2012, 2013.

Trophée des Champions du Sénégal: 0

Super Coupe du Sénégal: 0

League and cup history

Performance in CAF competitions
CAF Champions League: 1 appearance

National level

Statistics
Best position: Preliminary round (continental)
Best position at the League Cup: 1st
Appearances at Ligue 1: 6
Appearances at the League Cup: 6
Appearances at the Super Cup: 3
Highest number of wins in a season: 14, in 2013
Highest number of draws in a season: 11, in 2016
Highest number of goals scored in a season: 42, in 2013
Highest number of points in a season: 52, in 2013
Highest goals conceded in a season: 26, in 2014

Notable players
  Joseph Lopy
  Pape Souaré
  Idrissa Gueye
  Kara Mbodj
  Abdoulaye Seck
  Abdou Karim Camara
  Saliou Ciss
  Omar Wade
  Badou
  Vieux Sané
  Mignane Diouf
  Aliou Baldé

References

External links

Club logo

Football clubs in Senegal
Football clubs in Serer country
2003 establishments in Senegal
Sport in Saly
Association football clubs established in 2003


Mínor Díaz Araya  (born 26 December 1980 in Acoyapa) is a retired Costa Rican professional footballer and current manager of Fútbol Consultants Desamparados.

Club career
Díaz had a brief spell with Karlsruher SC in the German 2. Fußball-Bundesliga during the 1999-00 season, appearing in six matches. He then had a lengthy spell at Herediano where he became the league's top goalscorer in 2000/01 and played for Alajuelense and Cartaginés. In May 2008 he moved to Liberia Mia, he then sued his club which was renamed Águilas Guanacastecas for owing him 4 months' wages and in summer 2010 joined UCR.

In January 2012 he returned to Herediano, winning two league titles, and in summer 2014 joined Belén.

International career
Díaz played for Costa Rica at the 1997 FIFA U-17 World Cup finals in Egypt and at the 1999 FIFA U-20 World Cup finals in Nigeria.

Díaz has made 6 appearances for the senior Costa Rica national football team, his debut coming in a friendly against Venezuela on April 18, 2001. He appeared in four matches as Costa Rica finished second at the UNCAF Nations Cup 2001 tournament.

Coaching career
Two months after signing with A.D. Belén, Díaz decided to retire after getting offered an assistant manager position at his former club C.S. Herediano. On 16 February 2016, Díaz took charge of Herediano on an interim basis after manager Odir Jacques was fired until Hernán Medford was hired on 21 February. In the summer 2018, he took charge of the club's reserve team, before he was appointed manager of La U Universitarios on 30 October 2018. On 23 September 2019 the club reported through a press release, that Díaz had left the club by mutual agreement.

On 1 October 2019, Díaz was appointed manager of Fútbol Consultants Desamparado.

Career statistics

International goals
Scores and results list. Costa Rica's goal tally first.

References

External links

 Profile at Nacion

1980 births
Living people
People from Guanacaste Province
Men's association football forwards
Costa Rican men's footballers
Costa Rican expatriate men's footballers
Costa Rica men's international footballers
Costa Rica men's under-20 international footballers
Liga FPD players
Karlsruher SC players
C.S. Herediano footballers
Liga Deportiva Alajuelense footballers
C.S. Cartaginés players
A.D. Municipal Liberia footballers
La U Universitarios footballers
Belén F.C. players
Costa Rican expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Expatriate men's footballers in Germany
C.S. Herediano managers
Costa Rican football managers


Sandra Annear Thompson (born July 6, 1941) is an American linguist specializing in discourse analysis, typology, and interactional linguistics. She is Professor Emerita of Linguistics at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB). She has published numerous books, her research has appeared in many linguistics journals, and she serves on the editorial board of several prominent linguistics journals.

Education
Thompson received her BA in linguistics from Ohio State University in 1963. She earned her MA in linguistics in 1965 and her PhD in 1969, both from Ohio State.

Career
From 1968–1986, Thompson taught at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Since 1986, she has held a position at UCSB.

Thompson is known for her large body of research on Mandarin grammar, much of which she has conducted in collaboration with UCSB colleague Charles Li.  Their 1981 book Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar is widely cited and often compared to Yuen Ren Chao's A Grammar of Spoken Chinese (1968). That work, along with her earlier work in Chinese resultative verb compounds, was a major contribution to the study of Chinese morphosyntax, and stood apart from contemporary research in that it devoted attention to the internal structure of Chinese compound words, whereas other research focused on the syntactic nature of compound words.

She has also conducted research on discourse and grammar, collaborating with linguists such as Paul Hopper on topics including transitivity and emergent grammar. With Christian Matthiessen and Bill Mann she developed rhetorical structure theory. Her interest in discourse led her to be involved in collecting  data for the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English.

Thompson and Charles Li also carried out extensive documentation of the Wappo language, and, with Joseph Sung-yul Park, published a reference grammar of the language in 2006.

Honors and awards
Thompson was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1988. She was President of the International Pragmatics Association from 1991-1994. She was named a Fellow of the Linguistic Society of America in 2007. In 2017, she was given the International Pragmatics Association's John J. Gumperz Life-Time Achievement Award at the 15th International Pragmatics Conference in Belfast. A volume of essays in her honor was published in 2002. The book Building Responsive Action written together with Barbara Fox and Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen received the best book award from the International Society for Conversation Analysis in 2018.

References

Linguists from the United States
Living people
University of California, Santa Barbara faculty
1941 births
Ohio State University College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Women linguists
Fellows of the Linguistic Society of America


The Brass Verdict is the 19th novel by American author Michael Connelly and features the second appearance of Los Angeles criminal defense attorney Michael "Mickey" Haller. Connelly introduced Haller in his bestselling 2005 novel The Lincoln Lawyer.

Plot summary
Since the events of the previous novel, attorney Mickey Haller has spent a year recuperating from his wounds and a subsequent addiction to painkillers. He is called back to the practice of law when an old acquaintance, defense attorney Jerry Vincent, is murdered. Haller inherits Vincent's caseload, which includes the high-profile trial of Walter Elliott, a Hollywood mogul accused of murdering his wife Mitzi and her German lover. Haller secures this "franchise" case, persuading the mogul to keep him on as counsel by promising not to seek a postponement of the trial, which is due to start in nine days.

Meanwhile, maverick LAPD detective Harry Bosch, the main character in several earlier novels written by Connelly, is investigating Vincent's murder. Bosch, warning that Vincent's killer may come after Haller next, persuades the reluctant lawyer to cooperate in the ongoing murder investigation. Meanwhile, Haller shakes off the rust, and lingering self-doubts, as he prepares for the double-murder trial.

Among the cases Haller takes on is that of a former surfing champion, Patrick, who, while addicted to painkillers after a surfing accident, has stolen a diamond necklace while at the home of a friend.  Haller feels sorry for Patrick because of his own history of addiction, and employs the young man to drive his Lincoln.  He manages to get Patrick off the charges against him by playing on a hunch that the stolen diamonds were not genuine.

Assisted by his investigator, Cisco, and his office assistant, Lorna (who is one of Haller's two ex-wives), Haller works out a strategy to defend his client, based on the fact that the gunshot residue found on Elliott's hands is the result of having travelled in a police car used earlier in the day to transport another prisoner.  He also throws doubt as to whether the couple's murderer was actually after Mitzi or her lover.  In the meantime, Walter admits that he is involved with the Mafia and that he believes they murdered both his wife and the lawyer Jerry Vincent.

On the strength of information from Bosch, Haller becomes suspicious that Vincent has bribed someone in the legal process to plant a jury member who would help obtain an acquittal for Walter Elliott, regardless of the evidence.  On investigation, he finds that one of the jurors has stolen someone else's identity, and he ensures that this information becomes known to the judge in the Elliott case, resulting in the trial being brought to a halt just as it begins to go Haller's way.  Elliott, however, confesses to Haller that he actually did kill Mitzi and her lover, and Haller is left pondering on the outcome of the case.  During the evening he receives a call from the police, asking him to help a former client.  When he arrives on the scene, he is attacked by a man who attempts to push him over a precipice.  Bosch and his team, who have been observing Haller, arrive on the scene just in time to prevent the murder, and the attacker is discovered to be the planted juryman.

Haller figures out that the person behind the corruption is in fact a senior judge, and confronts her with his evidence, leading to her arrest by the FBI.  When he learns that Walter Elliott and his secretary have also been murdered, he assumes she is behind that murder, but it turns out that justice has been dispensed by Mitzi's lover's family before their return to Germany.

Unknown to Haller, but revealed in previous Connelly novels, is the fact that Bosch is Haller's half-brother.  Haller works out the puzzle by the end of the book, going mainly on the resemblances between Bosch and his own father (himself a lawyer) but at this point no arrangement is made for the two men to meet again.

Awards
The novel won the 2009 Anthony Award for "Best Novel". It was also nominated for the CWA Ian Fleming Steel Dagger in the same year at the Crime Thriller Awards.

Television series adaptation

On June 25, 2019, it was announced that David E. Kelley had developed and written a television series based on the Haller series with a commitment from CBS. However, on May 2, 2020, it was announced that the pilot would not be moving forward. Netflix subsequently picked up the series and ordered a 10-episode series of The Lincoln Lawyer, with Kelley, on January 11, 2021, based on The Brass Verdict. Filming for the series began on March 31, 2021. On April 6, 2022, the series was given a May 13, 2022 premiere date.

References

2008 American novels
Harry Bosch series
Novels by Michael Connelly
Novels set in Los Angeles
Anthony Award-winning works
Little, Brown and Company books
American novels adapted into television shows


I Belong to Me () is a 1967 Danish musical film directed by Erik Balling and starring Daimi.

Cast

 Daimi – Annie Jensen
 Cæsar – Anders
 Peter Steen – Christian Holgersen
 Ove Sprogøe – Værgen
 Poul Bundgaard – Albert Hyldersen
 Karl Stegger – Tjeneren
 Poul Reichhardt – Kaptajn Sir William
 Henrik Wiehe – Bilist
 Bendt Rothe – Dommeren
 Vigga Bro – Hulda
 Christiane Rohde – Dorothea
 Ole Monty – Bilist
 Else-Marie – Fru Holgersen (as Else Marie)
 Ejner Nørby – Holgersen
 The Defenders – Themselves
 Jørgen Beck – Bonden
 Gunnar Bigum – Bedemand
 Poul Borum – Bartenderen
 Freddy Fræk
 Freddy Grakjær
 Gyda Hansen – Lily
 Lise Henningsen – Luderen
 Lotte Hermann – Rosa
 Edith Hermansen – Bondekonen
 Stig Hoffmeyer
 Inge Hyllested – Opsynet
 Bjørn Spiro – Butleren
 Gert Vindahl
 Kirsten Walther – Fru Hyldersen
 Bent Warburg

References

External links

1967 films
1967 musical films
Danish musical films
1960s Danish-language films
Films directed by Erik Balling


Founded in 1981, the American Journalism Historians Association (AJHA) seeks to advance education and research in mass communication history. Through its annual meeting, regional conferences, committees, awards, speakers and publications, members work to raise historical standards and ensure that all scholars and students recognize the vast importance of media history and apply this knowledge to the advancement of society.

Meetings and conferences

Annual meeting

The organization sponsors an annual fall meeting. Approximately 120 historians attend and participate in discussions surrounding teaching and research in media history. Throughout the meeting, scholars present peer-reviewed research, participate in topical panel discussions and generate ideas for articles and books. At the annual meeting, scholars also participate vigorously in a silent auction that generates thousands of dollars for graduate student aid.

Southeast Symposium

Media history scholars from across the Southeast gather each February for the annual AJHA Southeast Symposium. The conference is designed to promote graduate and undergraduate research and provides a scholarly forum for student research presentations and discussions.

AJHA-AEJMC joint conference

The AJHA partners with the History Division of AEJMC to sponsor a spring conference in New York City. This interdisciplinary gathering accepts submissions in all areas of journalism and communication history from all time periods and welcomes scholars from all academic disciplines and stages of their academic careers.

Task Force on History in the Curriculum

This AJHA committee works to encourage the study of history in graduate and undergraduate mass communication programs. Some of its actions include:
Encouraging all schools to offer an undergraduate history course and require it of their majors
Encouraging graduate schools to recognize that history is as important as theory, social science research or any other area of graduate study
Evaluating the history curricula in doctoral programs.

Speakers bureau

The AJHA Speakers Bureau features members who share their expertise and knowledge with the media and local and national organizations. The diversity of the organization's membership enables its bureau to provide a wealth of educational resources on a wide variety of topics related to mass communication history.

Publications

American Journalism (), the AJHA's quarterly peer-reviewed journal, publishes articles, research notes, book reviews, and correspondence dealing with media history. Recent editions of American Journalism are available via the EBSCO database. Contributions may focus on social, economic, intellectual, political or legal issues. American Journalism also welcomes articles that treat the history of communication in general; the history of broadcasting, advertising, and public relations; the history of media outside the United States; and theoretical issues in the literature or methods of media history.

The Intelligencer is the quarterly newsletter of the AJHA. It includes news about the organization and its members as well as research and conference updates.

Awards
Sidney Kobre Award for Lifetime Achievement in Journalism History - The organization's highest honor recognizes individuals with an exemplary record of sustained achievement in media history through teaching, research, professional activities, or other contributions to the field.
Margaret A. Blanchard Dissertation Prize - Awarded annually for the best doctoral dissertation dealing with mass communication history. A cash award of $500 accompanies the prize.
AJHA History Award - Recognizes a practicing journalist whose work has been exemplary in the host community of the annual meeting.
AJHA Teaching Awards - Honors excellence in the teaching of journalism and mass communication history and recognizes those who make a positive impact on student learning and influence other teachers by example. The award is designed to focus national attention on the importance of teaching in journalism and mass communication history.
AJHA Book Award - Recognizes the best book in media history as judged by a panel of AJHA members. The book award winner is honored at the closing gala of the annual meeting.

During the annual meeting, the AJHA recognizes exceptional peer-reviewed research papers in several categories: faculty paper, student paper, conference paper, minority paper, and women's interest paper. A panel of judges also presents an award to the single best article published during the year in American Journalism.

See also
 Center for Intercultural Dialogue
 List of history awards

External links
Official website

History organizations based in the United States
American journalism organizations
Journalism-related professional associations
History of mass media in the United States
History awards


The Malcolm Preserve is an  nature reserve in Carlisle, Massachusetts. It is co-managed by the Trustees of Reservations and the Carlisle Conservation Foundation. Composed of former farmland, the preserve has a half-mile trail that connects to trails in Estabrook Woods and the Punkatasset Reserve in Concord.

It was purchased for preservation in 1998 by the Carlisle Conservation Foundation and The Trustees of Reservations.

References

External links

 The Trustees of Reservations: Malcolm Preserve

The Trustees of Reservations
Open space reserves of Massachusetts
Protected areas of Middlesex County, Massachusetts
1998 establishments in Massachusetts
Protected areas established in 1998


Tero Puha (born 1971) is a Finnish visual artist, photographer and filmmaker. His work often studies and explores the body image, identities and consumerism in the modern world. He is known for his aesthetic body studies as well as performances and video art. Puha has worked in the last few years mainly outside Finland (London, Paris and Berlin).

His works are included in the collections of the Museum of Contemporary Art Kiasma, Helsinki City Art Museum, Finnish Museum of Photography, Brandts Museum of Photographic Art and Kiyosato Museum of Photographic Arts in Japan).

Puha's first retrospective book Almost Human-Works 1995-2010 (Inky Robot Media]) was published in 2011. The publication includes over 200 illustrations and texts by five Finnish Art experts: Leevi Haapala, Leena-Maija Rossi, Annamari Vänskä, Livia Hekanaho and Anna-Kaisa Rastenberger (Finnish Museum of Photography).

Puha was awarded the Finnish State Prize in Photographic Arts in 2014.

References

Finnish photographers
Finnish filmmakers
1971 births
Living people
Finnish performance artists


The 2008–09 British Columbia pipeline bombings were a series of bombs that targeted gas pipelines owned by EnCana near the towns of Dawson Creek and Tomslake, British Columbia. The first blast occurred on October 12, 2008 and the second overnight between October 15 and October 16. The third was discovered on October 31 and a fourth was reported on January 5, 2009. The attacks brought to question the safety of the energy installations in Canada.

Timeline

On October 31, 2008 letters were sent to local media outlets warning oil and gas companies to leave the area saying: "We will no longer negotiate with terrorists which you are as you keep endangering our families with crazy expansion of deadly gas wells in our home lands". The Royal Canadian Mounted Police warned the companies; however no further action was taken.

On October 12 an explosion occurred on a sour gas pipeline to the east of Dawson Creek British Columbia. The explosion left a 2.5 meter and 2 meter deep crater but did not rupture the pipeline. Had the explosion ruptured the pipeline, toxic gases would most likely have been released. The RCMP sent a specialized team to investigate the explosion four days later.

On October 16 a second blast hit a natural gas pipeline. Workers discovered the blast site at approximately 10:00 a.m. MT off of British Columbia Highway 2. This explosion also did not rupture the pipeline but left a crater in the ground. Following the explosion the Integrated National Security Enforcement Team (INSET) were called in to assist in the investigation of the explosion.

The following day RCMP called a press conference to state that they believe the public is safe despite admitting that it would be very difficult to protect the large expanse of pipeline in the area.

On October 24 police arrested a person in Alberta they believe may have had something to do with the blasts.

On October 31, a third bomb detonated at a natural gas wellhead in the region of Dawson Creek (12 kilometers northwest of Tomslake). Encana reported minimal damage.

On January 5, 2009 a fourth blast destroyed a metering shed near the community of Tomslake.

Investigation

The RCMP was quick to try to convince the public that they believed the bombings were not an act of terrorism and simply an act of sabotage by one person or group. On October 17 RCMP spokesman Sgt. Tim Shields released the following statement: "We believe someone or a group of people have set two deliberate explosions that were intended to rupture and blow up a natural-gas pipeline".

It has also been suggested that the bombings may be associated with the growing annoyance amongst the agricultural community of having pipelines crisscrossing the land. Wiebo Ludwig was arrested in connection with the pipeline bombings on January 8, 2010. He was previously convicted in 2001 of similar bombings which targeted oil and gas pipelines. After an extensive search of his farm by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, he was released without charge.

References

Pipeline bombings
Pipeline bombings
Eco-terrorism
Dawson Creek
Terrorist incidents in North America in 2008
Terrorist incidents in North America in 2009
2008 crimes in Canada
2009 crimes in Canada
Terrorist incidents in Canada in the 2000s


The Chaldean mafia is a criminal organization composed of Chaldean Catholics that have operated narcotics distribution networks from Phoenix and San Diego to Detroit. Involved in violent crimes such as armed robbery, arson, assault, homicide, and kidnapping.

Police investigations
The work of the Detroit Metropolitan Violent Crime Task Force—with representatives from the FBI, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF); the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Detroit Police Department, the Michigan State Police Department, and the Wayne County Sheriff's Office—resulted in the conviction of 111 subjects and the seizure of $5.3 million, 6.5 tons of marijuana, 25 kilograms of cocaine, five pounds of crystal methamphetamine, and 78 firearms.

In 2011 "Operation Shadowbox", a joint investigation between El Cajon, California police and the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration into the trafficking of narcotics, firearms and explosives, allowed for the seizure of more than 13 pounds of methamphetamine; more than 5 pounds of ecstasy, pharmaceuticals, crack cocaine, heroin and cocaine; and more than 3,500 pounds of marijuana, most of which was likely smuggled through mastermind Furat Kalasho of Sterling Heights partnered with the Sinaloa Federation. Investigators also seized more than $630,000 in cash, three luxury cars, 34 firearms and four improvised explosive devices.

Operation Shadowbox
"Operation Shadowbox" was a joint investigation between El Cajon Police and the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. On August 18, 2011 sixty Chaldeans were arrested at a Chaldean Social Club in El Cajon, near San Diego. This operation targeted mastermind Furat Kalasho of Sterling Heights, MI. SWAT teams served search warrants on the club late Wednesday night, seizing more than $160,000 in cash as well as evidence of illegal gambling.

See also
Crime in Detroit, Michigan

References
 George Knox, 2008, The Chaldean Mafia: A Preliminary Gang Threat, http://ngcrc.com./ngcrc/chaldprof.htm, National Gang Crime Research
 Louis Akrawi,
 Detroit Free Press (Harry Kalasho murder), 2010,
 Court of Appeals Document (Ray Akrawi), 2010, http://cases.justia.com/us-court-of-appeals/F2/951/350/257887/
 Court of Appeals Document (Louis Akrawi), 2010,
 Sign On San Diego, "60 Arrested", 2011, http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2011/aug/18/60-arrested-el-cajon-chaldean-organized-crime-case/

Citations

Mafia
Assyrian gangs
Organized crime by ethnic or national origin
Iraqi-American history
Assyrian-American organizations
Organized crime groups in the United States
Gangs in Detroit


Joe Grand is an American electrical engineer, inventor and hardware hacker known in the hacker community as Kingpin. He achieved mainstream popularity after his appearance on Prototype This!, a Discovery Channel television show. He specializes in, "finding security flaws in hardware devices and educating engineers on how to increase the security of their designs". Grand has testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs regarding government and homeland computer security under his internet handle, Kingpin.

Early life and education

Grand became involved in electronics at the age of seven and later joined the Boston-based hacker group L0pht Heavy Industries. He gained a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering from Boston University. He has published two books and co-authored a number of books relating to hardware hacks and network security.

He received an honorary Doctorate of Science in Technology from the University of Advancing Technology, Arizona.

Television

In 2007 and 2008, Grand and his three co-presenters (Mike North, Terry Sandin, and 'Zoz' Brooks) filmed 13 episodes of Prototype This! which were aired later in 2008 and in early 2009. The show received positive reviews and ratings and Grand continues to host additional features and content on his site.

Business ventures

After his television appearance, Grand launched Grand Idea Studio, a San Francisco-based research and development firm. In 2009, Grand was a member of a team that demonstrated vulnerabilities in San Francisco's e-parking meters. He is also the sole proprietor of Kingpin Empire, an apparel project that gives back to the community through charitable donations.

Other activities include exhibiting hardware as art in a San Francisco gallery art exhibition titled When Electronics Become Art and designing the electronic badges for DEFCON 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010. Grand also served as judge of the Electronic Frontier Foundation's DEFCON badge hack contest, and as an instructor at DEFCON Kids.

Grand remains an active member of the electronics engineering and security communities and is a regular guest speaker at international conferences including at Black Hat USA 2013.

References

External links

Grand Idea Studio website
Prototype This! official site
ZombieTech Interview
Joe Grand Interview on The Amp Hour

American electrical engineers
L0pht
Living people
1975 births
21st-century American inventors


Martha (Original title: S/S Martha) is a 1967 Danish comedy film directed by Erik Balling and starring Ove Sprogøe. It enjoys a cult following.

Cast

 Ove Sprogøe - Hovmester Watson
 Morten Grunwald - 2nd Engineer Knud Hansen
 Poul Reichhardt - Chief Engineer Brovst
 Poul Bundgaard - 2nd Engineer Alf
 Karl Stegger - Kaptajn Peter Nielsen
 Preben Kaas - Kokken
 Helge Kjærulff-Schmidt - Skibsreder O.P. Andersen
 Lily Weiding - Frk. Bruun
 Hanne Borchsenius - Lone Andersen
 Eleni Anousaki - Laura
 Henrik Wiehe - Styrmanden
 Birger Jensen - Halfdan
 Paul Hagen - Telegraph operator Marius Knudsen
 Bjørn Puggaard-Müller - Johansen
 Gunnar Bigum - Regnskabschef
 Holger Vistisen - Dørmand
 Sverre Wilberg - Skibsreder Amundsen
 Sotiris Moustakas - Hector
 Antonis Papadopoulos - Aias
 Odd Wolstad - Kaptajn på Harald
 Lone Luther - Rengøringsdame
 Stavros Christofides - Fyrbøder Alexander

References

External links

1967 films
1967 comedy films
1960s Danish-language films
Danish comedy films
Films directed by Erik Balling
Films with screenplays by Erik Balling


Henry Hanford (1784–1866) was a farmer and the first Euro-American settler of Lewistown, Ohio, United States.

Hanford was born in Norwalk, Connecticut. He emigrated with his brother Thaddeus, who had preceded him to the then new country, to Hamilton County, Ohio in 1806. He settled at Columbia Township, on the Ohio river and was engaged in running a provision boat from Columbia to Natchez. In 1810 Henry Hanford married Harriet Chamberlin, a native of New York. Two years later the young family moved to Champaign County, now Clark County.

In January 1834 Henry Hanford purchased  of public land (according to the provisions of the Land Act of 1820) in Logan County, Ohio, utilizing the land office at Piqua. Later he acquired more land, using the Wapakoneta land office, until he owned  in Logan County. He opened a general store and became the first postmaster of Lewistown.

Henry and Harriet Hanford had "seven children, all of whom grew to years of maturity". Henry Hanford died on December 31, 1866, and was buried at Lewistown Cemetery, Ohio.

Further reading
 "Henry Hanford", History of Logan County and Ohio. Chicago: O.L. Baskin & Co., 1880. (p. 735) ()

References

External links

American pioneers
Founding settlers of Norwalk, Connecticut
People from Logan County, Ohio
1784 births
1866 deaths


The Saunders-Roe (later British Hovercraft Corporation) SR.N6 hovercraft (also known as the Winchester class) was essentially a larger version of the earlier SR.N5 series. It incorporated several features that resulted in the type becoming one of the most produced and commercially successful hovercraft designs in the world.

While the SR.N2 and SR.N5s operated in commercial service as trials craft, the SR.N6 has the distinction of being the first production hovercraft to enter commercial service. In comparison to the SR.N5, the SR.N6 was stretched in length, providing more than double the seating capacity. Some models of the craft were stretched further, enabling an even greater capacity.

Experience gained in the development of the SR.N6 has been attributed as heavily contributing towards the design and production of the largest civil hovercraft to be ever produced, the SR.N4. Several major design features of the SR.N6 appeared on both the SR.N4 and further hovercraft designs by Saunders-Roe and its successor, the British Hovercraft Corporation.

Development

Origins
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, British inventor Christopher Cockerell had, in cooperation with British aerospace manufacturer Saunders-Roe, developed a pioneering new form of transportation, embodied the form of the experimental SR.N1 vehicle, which became widely known as the hovercraft. By late 1964, Saunders-Roe had commenced design work on multiple hovercraft designs; in addition to the relatively huge SR.N4 and studies into a prospective 2,000 ton freighter, there was also interest in developing its existing smaller hovercraft range.

In particular, the company had observed there to be customer demand for a model of the SR.N5 that would be capable of carrying a much greater payload; there was a view that the existing craft was uneconomic for what payload it could carry and that an expanded, or 'stretched', model would be able to rectify this. According to Saunders-Roe's own projections, an increase of the craft's payload by 110 per cent would only reduce performance by 10 per cent as the increased payload was in part offset by the expanded cushion area, which meant that cushion pressure would not need to be substantially increased instead.

The first craft to be lengthened in this manner, in effect becoming the first SR.N6, was the ninth SR.N5 to have been produced. Following three months of work to adapt the craft to the new configuration, this first prototype was launched for the first time on 9 March 1965. Portions of the SR.N6's development were performed in conjunction with Hovertravel, a newly formed operating company located near Saunders-Roe's East Cowes facility. In June 1965, following an initial series of trials, the SR.N6 prototype was delivered to operated by Scandinavian Hovercraft Promotions of Oslo, Norway under the name 'Scanhover'; it was followed by a second craft later that same month.

Further development
The SR.N6 had been designed in such a fashion that it could be extended from its initial 36 seat capacity to 58 without having to perform a major redesign or incurring high building costs. Work on the stretched SR.N6 was headed by Ray Wheeler, the chief designer of the British Hovercraft Corporation (BHC) - which Saunders-Roe had by then merged into.  Many components and systems remained unchanged, including the relatively expensive Bristol Gnome turboshaft engine. Perhaps the most substantial change on the stretched craft, beyond the increased length, was the adoption of a twin-propeller configuration, which was done in order to reduce tip speed and thus noise. Hovertravel produced its first stretched SR.N6, achieved with engineering support from the BHC, by converting an existing damaged SR.N6 and two SR.N5s.

Design

The Saunders-Roe SR.N6 (also known as the Winchester class) is a medium-sized hovercraft primarily designed for passenger service. The initial models of the type were capable of accommodating up to 38 passengers, which was greater than the maximum capacity of 18 that could be carried by the smaller SR.N5. The SR.N6 was subsequently further stretched to accommodate a further 20 passengers; this capacity upgrade let to it being considered to be more viable for commercial operations than any previous hovercraft design. By eventually increasing the capacity to 58 seats, the SR.N6 Mk.1S became the first hovercraft to be capable of transporting a typical coach load of people. In a military configuration, the SR.N6 is capable of carrying up to 55 fully equipped troops, or alternatively up to 6 tons of equipment.

The SR.N6 was powered by a single marinised model of the Bristol Gnome turboshaft engine; this drove both a single rear-facing 9 ft (2.74 m) diameter 4-bladed Dowty Rotol variable-pitch propeller along with a 7 ft (2.13 m) diameter centrifugal lift fan. The Gnome engine was an expensive component for operators, leading to some establishing their own internal overhaul facilities and making arrangements with other Gnome operators, including the Royal Navy, to reduce costs from relying on costly services from Rolls-Royce Limited. Around 20 per cent of the operating costs of the type have been attributed to maintenance of the 4 ft flexible skirt, which reportedly lasted for up to 500 hours, while similar cost levels have been reported for fuel.

Early on, the SR.N6 was outfitted with an improved skirt, featuring fingers and forward puff ports, which resulted in improved forward control and reduced skirt wear; fingers had not been present upon the initial version of the skirt used prior to 1966. The endurance of the fingers would be progressively improved over time, issues with salt spray negatively affecting both the engine and propeller were also encountered early on. An initial experience of some components having short overhaul lifespans or being unreliable was encountered during early days. During the early years of not only the SR.N6 but other hovercraft as well, the hovercraft skirt remained an unresolved area of difficulty during this era.

The SR.N6 was piloted from a forward-seated position at the front of the main passenger cabin. The pilot would exercise control over the direction of the craft via a series of control surfaces that was located immediately behind the variable pitch propeller. Early on, pilots were normally aviators who had been recruited from the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm, however it has been claimed that experienced mariners would often be more skilled at operating the type, if not taking more time to adapt to its atypical form of propulsion, in part due to their familiarity at safely navigating within uncontrolled maritime environments. For navigation purposes, some SR.N6s were outfitted with onboard radar; multiple radar arrangements were used with the type, including pilots receiving radio guidance from on-shore radar operators in some circumstances.

Operational history

Civilian use

Norwegian operator Scanhover served as the SR.N6's launch customer. In June 1965, the first SR.N6 entered commercial service and was quickly joined by another craft. They operated on a 120-mile route, with six stopping points, in the Ålesund area. These craft were later operated between Aarhus and Kalundborg in Denmark and, during February and March 1966, also successfully underwent cold weather trials in Sweden, in the Gulf of Bothnia. The introduction of regular hovercraft services in the form of the SR.N6 attracted worldwide interest.

On 24 July 1965, British operator Hovertravel took delivery of its first SR.N6, placing it into service in the Solent area on a route between the Ryde Transport Interchange on the Isle of Wight and Southsea. This route was particularly well suited to hovercraft, as the tidal conditions of the surrounding coastline made berthing ships difficult, as well as a high volume of traffic; by 2012, Hovertravel had become the oldest hovercraft operator in the Western world, continuing to operate the same route.

British Rail, using the operating name of Seaspeed, started a hovercraft service using the SR.N6 across the Solent between Southampton and Cowes on the Isle of Wight in 1965. This was later taken over by Hovertravel. The service ended in 1980 because of rising costs and increased competition.

In 1966, operator P & A Campbell, in conjunction with Townsend Ferries, purchased SR.N6-024 to conduct a Townsend Car Ferries service, initially performing cross-Channel services between Dover and Calais. This service did not prove popular and was terminated after roughly two months. During 1966 and 1967, Campbell toured various holiday resorts across Great Britain, offering pleasure rides on the craft. SR.N6-024 was subsequently sold to Hovertravel, which soon deployed it on board the Cunard ocean liner RMS Sylvania in order to perform practical demonstrations in the Mediterranean to officials of various nations as well as some trips for passengers on board.

In 1967, Hoverwork, a subsidiary of Hovertravel, operated a pair of SR.N6s at Expo 67, a World's fair held in Montreal, Canada, to provide passenger services between the exhibition site and Montreal itself. In 1968, a single Hoverwork SR.N6 traversed a 2,400 km route of inhospitable jungle terrain within central South America, between Manaus, Brazil and Port of Spain, Trinidad, for a National Geographic scientific expedition. Between Hoverwork and Hovertravel, a fleet of up to nine SR.N6s was employed on both scheduled and chartered operations around the world.

Prior to its introduction of the far-larger SR.N4, British Rail's hovercraft operating division, named Seaspeed, decided to adopt a pair of SR.N6s for route proving and information gathering purposes. In October 1966, Charles Brindle and several engineers surveyed several potential sites on both the British and French sides of the English Channel, using an SR.N6 to determine their suitability for the future SR.N4 service. In late 1971, the company stretched its SR.N6 to the larger Mk 1S standard and fitted more powerful Gnome engines to account for the increased payload. However, in the long term, it was determined by Seaspeed that the SR.N6 could not be profitable on the Cowes-Southampton route to which it had tasked the type.

During the late 1960s, Hoverlloyd also launched a cross-Channel service using a pair of SR.N6s, running four return trips per day. Like Seaspeed, Hoverlloyd used its SR.N6 fleet to gain experience prior to its own acquisition of the larger SR.N4.

In 1998, the Canadian Coast Guard decommissioned its last SR.N6 that was in active service, commissioned as CCGH 045.

Military use
Military variants have seen service with the Italian Navy, Egyptian Navy, Iraqi Navy (Mk 6C), Iranian Navy and the Saudi Arabian Frontier Force.

The Iraqi Navy operated its fleet of six SR.N6s as patrol vehicles along Iraq's contested border with Iran, and were used during the Iran–Iraq War.

The British Royal Marines operated SR.N6 XV589 in the Falkland Islands in the late 1960s and early 1970s to evaluate them for use in remote regions. A. Cecil Hampshire writes that Naval Party 8902 was established with a strength of 10 to use an SR.N6 in June 1967. The British Army under the Royal Corps of Transport had 200 Hovercraft Trials Squadron at lee On Solent and Browndown formed in 1966 and disbanded in 1974.

The North Korean Kongbang-class hovercraft is derived from the SR.N6. Currently the North Korean Navy fields 130 such hovercraft.

Accidents and incidents
On 4 March 1972, SRN6-012 of Hovertravel capsized in the Solent whilst on a flight from Ryde, Isle of Wight to Southsea, Hampshire. Five of the 27 people on board were killed.

Survivors
The original prototype SR.N6 Mk.1 (009) is currently on display at the Hovercraft Museum in Lee-on-the-Solent, England. With 22,000 hours of service over a 20-year period it is the world's most extensively operated hovercraft. The museum has several other SR.N6 on display or in various states of restoration. One production model is operational and occasionally used for demonstrations.

Merchandise
The SR.N6 has been the subject of two popular toy versions. A small metal replica was produced for over 20 years by Matchbox Toys, while a much larger die-cast version was produced in the 1970s by Dinky Toys. A 12.7 cm model was released by Matchbox in 1974 as part of its Super Kings range.

Specifications

SR.N6 Mk. 1S Winchester Class - SR.N6 Mk 8 (in production)
Designer / Manufacturer: Saunders-Roe, (later British Hovercraft Corporation)
Crew 3
Dimensions
Length 17.78 metres
Width 7.97 metres
Height (on cushion) 6.32 meters
full load displacement 10.9 tons
Propulsion
Motor: gas turbine engine
Power: 1 Rolls-Royce Gnome turbine engine 1,050 horsepower for lift and propulsion
Propellers: 1 four-bladed Dowty Rotol variable-pitch propeller
Performance
Speed	50 knots
Range 170 miles at 30 knots
Military Lift: 55 fully equipped troops or 6 tons of equipment
Weapons
Either a ring-mounted machine gun (0.5in or 7.62 mm) or short range wire guided surface-to-surface missiles mounted on the side decks.

References

Citations

Bibliography

 McGimpsey, Kevin & Stewart Orr. "Collecting Matchbox Diecast Toys: The First Forty Years." Major Productions Ltd, 1989. .
 Paine, Robin and Roger Syms. "On a Cushion of Air." Robin Paine, 2012. .
 Saunders, Stephen (RN). "Jane's Fighting Ships 2003-2004." Jane's Information Group, June 2003. .

External links
 "Hovercraft Museum: SR.N6 Technical Information".
 "Hovercraft Museum: Craft Built".
 Footage of an SR.N6 arriving in Nanaimo BC in 1969

Hovercraft
Landing craft
Saunders-Roe
Ship classes of the Islamic Republic of Iran Navy


INS Betwa (F39) is a  guided missile frigate currently in service with the Indian Navy. The ship is named for the Betwa River.

Operations

Operation Sukoon
Betwa was a part of Task Force 54, returning from the Mediterranean, when the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Conflict broke out. As a part of Operation Sukoon, Betwa participated in the evacuation of Indian citizens from Lebanon to Cyprus.

Cyclone Tauktae Rescue Operations
The ship took part in search and rescue operations in the wake of Cyclone Tauktae in May 2021.

Incidents

On 4 January 2014, the ship hit an unidentified object underwater and cracked the sonar dome, and had also seen salt water ingress into sensitive equipment.

On 5 December 2016, Betwa slipped off support blocks and over onto its port side when refloating and undocking inside the cruiser graving dock at the Naval Dockyard in Mumbai during refit repairs, killing 2 sailors and injuring 15 others. The ship's main mast was also damaged.

Sources initially reported that the salvage and repair of the ship would take approximately two years. Resolve Marine Engineering, a US-based firm, was contracted to salvage the flooded vessel in January 2017 for a sum of Rs. 20 Crore (200 million Indian Rupees, approximately USD 3 million at the time).

On 22 February 2017, it was reported that the ship was made upright and refloated. Betwa was restored to an upright position by the US salvage company by systematically flooding and pumping her compartments without using any external lifting mechanisms.
Three Naval Officers were court martialed and found guilty of negligence.

It was reported on 10 January 2021 that a 22 year old sailor on the ship died from a bullet injury, allegedly due to suicide.

References

1998 ships
Brahmaputra-class frigates
Frigates of the Indian Navy
Training ships of the Indian Navy
Ships built in India
Maritime incidents in 2016


Lucas Tirigall Caste (born 1974 in Buenos Aires, Argentina), also known as Lucas TC, is considered one of Argentina's leading multimedia artists and pioneer in digital media who is recognized for his talents intertwining creative disciplines such as music and visual design through programmatic environments. Lucas studied audio-visual design on the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism. He is the author of “Evolutionary Art” (2004) and co-founder of the artist marketplace Society6 (2009).

Biography
Lucas began his artistic career in 1994 as an audiovisual designer and creative editor. His work won international fame in 1999 when he became the most famous Argentine on the Web under the pseudonym Lucas TC. He became not only the most listened to Argentine artist around the world but also one of the most legally-downloaded artists worldwide with his debut album totaling more than 1,800.000 downloads.

Notes

External links
 Lucas TC's Official Site
 About Society6

1974 births
Living people