Mexican muralism refers to the art project initially funded by the Mexican government in the immediate wake of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) to depict visions of Mexico's past, present, and future, transforming the walls of many public buildings into didactic scenes designed to reshape Mexicans' understanding of the nation's history. The murals, large artworks painted onto the walls themselves had social, political, and historical messages. Beginning in the 1920s, the muralist project was headed by a group of artists known as "The Big Three" or "The Three Greats". This group was composed of Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros. Although not as prominent as the Big Three, women also created murals in Mexico. From the 1920s to the 1970s, many murals with nationalistic, social and political messages were created in many public settings such as chapels, schools, government buildings, and much more. The popularity of the Mexican muralist project started a tradition which continues to this day in Mexico; a tradition that has had a significant impact in other parts of the Americas, including the United States, where it served as inspiration for the Chicano art movement.

Background

Mexico has had a tradition of painting murals, starting with the Olmec civilization in the pre Hispanic period and into the colonial period, with murals mostly painted to evangelize and reinforce Christian doctrine. The modern mural tradition has its roots in the 19th century, with this use of political and social themes. The first Mexican mural painter to use philosophical themes in his work was Juan Cordero in the mid-19th century. Although he did mostly work with religious themes such as the cupola of the Santa Teresa Church and other churches, he painted a secular mural at the request of Gabino Barreda at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria (since disappeared).

The latter 19th century was dominated politically by the Porfirio Díaz regime. This government was the first to push for the cultural development of the country, supporting the Academy of San Carlos and sending promising artists abroad to study. However, this effort left out indigenous culture and people, with the aim of making Mexico like Europe. Gerardo Murillo, also known as Dr. Atl, is considered to be the first modern Mexican muralist with the idea that Mexican art should reflect Mexican life. Academy training and the government had only promoted imitations of European art. Atl and other early muralists pressured the Diaz government to allow them to paint on building walls to escape this formalism. Atl also organized an independent exhibition of native Mexican artists promoting many indigenous and national themes along with color schemes that would later appear in mural painting. The first modern Mexican mural, painted by Atl, was a series of female nudes using "Atlcolor", a substance Atl invented himself, very shortly before the beginning of the Mexican Revolution. Another influence on the young artists of the late Porfirian period was the graphic work of José Guadalupe Posada, who mocked European styles and created cartoons with social and political criticism. Critiquing the political policies of the Díaz dictatorship through art was popularized by Posada. Posada influenced muralists to embrace and continue criticizing the Díaz dictatorship in their works. The muralists also embraced the characters and satire present in Posada's works.

The Mexican Revolution itself was the culmination of political and social opposition to Porfirio Díaz policies. One important oppositional group was a small intellectual community that included Antonio Curo, Alfonso Reyes and José Vasconcelos. They promoted a populist philosophy that coincided with the social and political criticism of Atl and Posada and influenced the next generation of painters such as Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros.

These ideas gained power as a result of the Mexican Revolution, which overthrew the Díaz regime in less than a year. However, there was nearly a decade of fighting among the various factions vying for power. Governments changed frequently with a number of assassinations, including that of Francisco I. Madero who initiated the struggle. It ended in the early 1920s with one-party rule in the hands of the Álvaro Obregón faction, which became the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). During the Revolution, Atl supported the Carranza faction and promoted the work of Rivera, Orozco and Siqueiros, who would later be the founders of the muralism movement. Through the war and until 1921, Atl continued to paint murals among other activities including teaching the Mexico's next generation of artists and muralists.

Mural movement

In 1921, after the end of the military phase of the Revolution, General Alvaro Obregón rose to power. In the aftermath of the Revolution, Mexico had entered a transition from an "oligarchic" state to a "modernizing" state, one that favored urbanization and the bourgeoisie citizens of society. As the country underwent this reformation, General Obregón realized that the reconstruction of a post-revolution Mexico would require a comprehensive alteration of symbols associated with Mexican identity on both cultural and political grounds.

Shortly after the wars end, Obregón appointed José Vasconcelos to act as the Secretaría de Educación Pública, or Minister of Public Education. In his efforts to help raise a sense of nationalism and promote the inclusion of the masses in political and social ideologies, it was Vasconcelos' idea to have a government-backed mural project. His time as secretary was short but it set how muralism would develop. His image was painted on a tempera mural in 1921 by Roberto Montenegro, but this was short lived. His successor at the Secretaría de Educación Pública ordered it painted out.

Parallel to the utilization of murals during the pre-Hispanic and the colonial period, the murals were not to simply satisfy aesthetic purposes, but to promote certain social ideals in the Mexican people. These ideals or principles were to glorify the Mexican Revolution and the identity of Mexico as a mestizo nation. This placed great emphasis on the pride associated with the indigenous culture of Mexico. The government began to hire the country's best artists to paint murals, calling some of them home from their time in Europe, including Diego Rivera. These initial muralists included Dr. Atl, Ramón Alva de la Canal, Federico Cantú and others but the main three artists that spearheaded the muralist project were David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Diego Rivera. These three artists, commonly known as "Los Tres Grandes", claimed to act as both the "'voice and vote' of the Mexican national consciousness," calling themselves "guardians of the national soul". The muralists differed in style and temperament, but all believed that art was for the education and betterment of the people. This was behind their acceptance of these commissions as well as their creation of the Syndicate of Technical Workers, Painters, and Sculptors.

The first government sponsored mural project was on the three levels of interior walls of the old Jesuit institution Colegio San Ildefonso, at that time used for the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria. Most of the murals in the Escuela National Preparatoria, or National Preparatory School, were done by José Clemente Orozco with themes of a mestizo Mexico, the ideas of renovation, and the reality of the Revolution's violence. Also at the National Preparatory School, Fernando Leal painted Los Danzantes de Chalma (Dancers of Chalma) no earlier than 1922. Opposite that mural, Jean Charlot painted La conquista de Tenochtitlán (Conquest of Tenochtitlan) by Jean Charlot—invited by Leal. Rivera also contributed his first-ever government-backed mural to the National Preparatory School in 1922 called Creation, functioning as an allegorical depiction of the holy trinity representing love, hope, and faith.
The movement was strongest from the 1920s to the 1950s, which corresponded to the country's transformation from a mostly rural and mostly illiterate society to an industrialized one. While today, Murals are seen as symbols of Mexican identity, at the time they were controversial, especially those with socialist messages plastered on centuries-old colonial buildings. One of the basic underpinnings of the nascence of a post revolutionary Mexican art was that it should be public, available to the citizenry and above all not the province of a few wealthy collectors.  The great societal upheaval made the concept possible as well as a lack of relatively wealthy middle class to support the arts. On this, the painters and the government agreed. One other point of agreement was that artists should have complete freedom of expression. This would lead to another element added to the murals over their development.

In addition to the original ideas of a reconstructed Mexico and the elevation of Mexico's indigenous and rural identity, many of the muralists, including the three main painters, also included elements of Marxism, especially in trying to frame the struggle of the working class against oppression. This struggle, which had been going on since the sixteenth century, along with class, culture, and race conflicts were interpreted by muralists.

The inception and early years of Mexico's muralist movement are often considered the most ideologically pure and untainted by contradictions between socialist ideals and government manipulation. This initial phase is referred to as the "heroic" phase while the period after 1930 is the "statist" phase with the transition to the latter phase caused by José Vasconcelos's resignation in 1924. Scholar Mary Coffey describes those who "acknowledge a change but refrain from judgment about its consequences" as taking the soft line and those who see all murals after 1930 as "propaganda for a corrupt state" as taking a hard line.  Another stance is that the evolution of Mexican muralism as having an uncomplicated relationship with the government and as an accurate reflection of avant-garde and proletariat sentiments. However, hard liners see the movement as complicit in the corrupt government's power consolidation under the guise of a socialist regime.

Art historian Leonard Folgarait has a slightly different view. He marks 1940 as the end of the post-revolutionary period in Mexico as well as the renaissance era of the muralist movement. The conclusion of the Lázaro Cárdenas administration (1934 – 1940) and the beginning of the Manuel Avila Camacho (1940 – 1946) administration saw the rise of an ultraconservative Mexico.  The country's policy was aimed at maintaining and strengthening a capitalist society. Mural artists like the Big Three spent the post-revolutionary period developing their work based on the promises of a better future, and with the advent of conservatism they lost their subject and their voice.

The Mexican government began to distance itself from mural projects and mural production became relatively privatized. This privatization was a result of patronage from the growing national bourgeoisie. Murals were increasingly contracted for theaters, banks, and hotels.

Mexican School of Painting and Sculpture

Mexican populist art production from the 1920s to the 1950s is often grouped under the name of Escuela Mexicana de Pintura y Escultura, coined in the 1930s by art historians and critics. The term is not well-defined as it does not distinguish among some important stylistic and thematic difference, there is no firm agreement which artists belong to it nor if muralism should be considered part of it  or if these artworks should be left separate from the more well-known murals of the movement. It is not a school in the classic sense of the word as it includes work by more than one generation and with different styles that sometimes clash. However, it does involve a number of important characteristics.

Mexican School mural painting was a combination of public ideals and artistic aesthetics "positioned as a constituent of the official public sphere." Three formal components of official Mexican muralism are defined as:
1) Direct participation in official publicity and discourse
2) Reciprocal integration of the visual discourse of the mural to an array of communicative practices participant in defining official publicity (including a variety of scriptural genres, but also public speech, debate and provocative public "event")
3) The development and public thematizing of a social-realist aesthetic (albeit multiform in character) as the visual register for the public sense of the mural work and as the doxic, or unquestioned, limits for public dispute over the representational space of the mural image
Most painters in this school worked in Mexico City or other cities in Mexico, working almost uninterrupted on projects and/or as teachers, generally with support of the government. Most were concerned with the history and identity of Mexico and politically active. Most art from this school was not created for direct sale but rather for diffusion in both Mexico and abroad. Most were formally trained, often studying in Europe and/or in the Academy of San Carlos.

A large quantity of murals were produced in most of the country from the 1920s to 1970, generally with themes related to politics and nationalism focused often on the Mexican Revolution, mestizo identity and Mesoamerican cultural history. Scholar, Teresa Meade also states that "indigenismo; the glorification of rural and urban labor and the working man, woman, and child; social criticism to the point of ridicule and mockery; and denunciation of the national, and especially, international ruling classes" were also themes present in the murals at this time. These served as a form of cohesion among members of the movement. The political and nationalistic aspects had little directly to do with the Mexican Revolution, especially in the later decades of the movement. The goal was more to glorify the revolution itself, highlighting its results as a means to legitimatize the post Revolution government. The other political orientation was that of Marxism, especially class struggle. This political group grew strongest in the early movement with Rivera, Orozco and Siqueiros all of which being openly avowed communists. The political messages became less radical but they remained firmly to the left.

Much of the mural production glorified indigenismo, or the indigenous aspect of Mexican culture as artists of the movement collectively considered it to be an important factor in the reconstruction of a more modern Mexico. These themes were added with the idea of reexamining the country's history from a different perspective. One other aspect that most of the muralists shared was a rejection of the idea that art was only for the elite, but rather as a benefit for the masses. The various reasons for the focus on ancient Mesoamerica may be divided into three basic categories: the desire to glorify the accomplishments of the perceived original cultures of the Mexican nation; the attempt to locate residual pre-Hispanic forms, practices, and beliefs among contemporaneous indigenous peoples; and the study of parallels between the past and present. Within this last context, the torture of Cuauhtémoc was painted by Siqueiros in 1950 in the Palacio Nacional, one of his few depictions of indigenous cultures of any period.

Many of the murals from the muralist project took on monumental status because of where they were situated, mostly on the walls of colonial era government buildings and the themes that were painted. The mural painters of Mexico freely shared ideas and techniques in public spaces in order to capture the attention of the masses. While many of the themes are shared between artists, the work of each artist was distinctive as the government did not impose a set style. These artists were so distinctive that they can generally be deduced without needing to look at the artist's signatures. Techniques used in the production of these murals also included the revival of old techniques such as the fresco, painting on freshly plastered walls and encaustic or hot wax painting. Others used mosaics and high fire ceramics, as well as metal parts, and layers of cement. The most innovative of the artists was Siqueiros, who worked with pyroxene, a commercial enamel, and Duco (used to paint cars), resins, asbestos and old machinery, and was one of the first to use airbrush for artistic purposes. He pored, sprayed, dripped and splattered paint for the effects they created haphazardly.

Artists

Los Tres Grandes (The Three Greats)

By far, the three most influential muralists from the 20th century are Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, and David Siqueiros, called "los tres grandes" (the three great ones). All believed that art was the highest form of human expression and a key force in social revolution. Their work was the driving force that defined the movement originally set into motion by Vasconcelos. It created a mythology around the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican people which is still influential to this day, as well as promote Marxist ideals. At the time the works were painted, they also served as a form of catharsis over what the country had endured during the war. However, the three were different in their artistic expression. To summarize the general types of contributions the Three Greats made,  Rivera's works were utopian and idealist, Orozco's were critical and pessimistic, while the most radical of the three was Siqueiros, who heavily focused on a scientific future. These three different points of views on the war was shaped by their own personal experiences with Mexican Revolution. In Rivera case, he was in Europe during the revolution and had never experienced the horrors of the war. While never experiencing the war first hand, his art primarily focused on what he perceived to be the social benefits from the revolution. Orozco and Siqueiros, on the other hand, both fought in the war, which subsequently resulted in a more pessimistic approach to their artwork when depicting the revolution; with Siqueros' artwork being notably more radical and focused on portraying a scientific future.

Of the three, Diego Rivera was the most traditional in terms of painting styles, drawing heavily from European modernism. In his narrative mural images, Rivera incorporated elements of cubism His themes were Mexican, often scenes of everyday life and images of ancient Mexico. He originally painted this in bright colors in the European style but modified it to more earthy tones to imitate indigenous murals. His greatest contribution is the promotion of Mexico's indigenous past into how many people both inside and outside of the country view it. One of the most prominent examples of this is Rivera's contribution to the Mexican National Palace, translated as The History of Mexico, which he worked on from1929-1935.

José Clemente Orozco's art also began with a European style of expression; however, his art developed into an angry denunciation of oppression especially by those he considered  to be of the evil and brutal higher economic class. His work was somber and dire, with emphasis on human suffering and fear of the technology of the future, intent on displaying the reality of the war. His work shows an "expressionist use of color, slashing lines, and parodic distortions of the human figure." Like most other muralists, Orozco condemned the Spanish as destroyers of indigenous culture, but he did have kinder depictions such as that of a Franciscan friar tending to an emaciated indigenous period. Unlike other artists, Orozco never glorified the Mexican Revolution, having fought in it, but rather depicted the horrors of this war. It caused many of his murals to be heavily criticized and even defaced.

David Alfaro Siqueiros was the youngest and most radical of the three. He joined the Venustiano Carranza army when he was eighteen and experienced the Revolution from the front lines. Although all three muralists were communists, Siqueiros was the most dedicated, as evidenced by his portrayals of the proletarian masses. His work is also characterized with rapid, sweeping, bold lines and the use of modern enamels, machinery and other elements related to technology. His style showed a "futurist blurring of form and technique." His fascination with technology as it relates to art was exemplified when he emphasized the mass communications visual technology of photograph and motion picture in his eventual movement toward neorealism. His radical politics made him unwelcome in Mexico and the United States, so he did much of his work in South America. However, his masterpiece is considered to be the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros, located in Mexico City.

El Cuarto Grande (The Fourth Great One)

While Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros are usually regarded as the most influential mural artists of the period, Rufino Tamayo also contributed to the movement of the 1920s. Tamayo was younger than the Big Three and he often argued against their attitudes. He argued against their isolationist work after his art studies in Europe where he became heavily influenced by post World War II abstractions. He believed that the Mexican Revolution would ultimately harm Mexico due to the progressive attitudes that were arising. When he returned to Mexico after staying in Europe, he wanted his artwork to express pre-Conquest art but in his own abstract style.

Tamayo was heavily influenced by the early pre-Columbian history of Mexico and it is evident in his piece titled "Nacimiento de Nuestra Nacionalidad". He expresses the violence that was used during the Spanish conquest of native Mexicans. The center shows a human figure holding a mechanical weapon, sitting atop a horse and surrounded by a glowing light which depicted a 'godlike' Spanish conquistador. The horse is shaped like a majestic creature because it was a creature that the native Mexicans had never seen before. Overall, this piece offers an immense amount of imagery and is a reflection of the initial defeat of Mexican nationalism and shows the traumatic and oppressive history. Tamayo was proud of his Mexican roots and expressed his nationalism in a more traditional way than Rivera or Siqueiros. His focus was on accepting both his Spanish and native background and ultimately expressing the way he felt through the colors, shapes and culture in a modern abstract way. Ultimately, Tamayo wanted the Mexican people to not forget their roots; it shows why he was so persistent in using inspiration from the pre-Columbian period as well as incorporating his own perspective of the Mexican Revolution.

Revolutionary themes and ideas
One of the best examples of Rivera's perspective on the revolution can be seen in his mural at the chapel of the Chapingo Autonomous University (murals) The most dominant artwork in this mural is  The Liberated Earth 1926-27 Fresco  which depicts Rivera's second wife, Guadalupe Marín, Voluptuous and recumbent, hand held aloft, she symbolizes the fertility of the land, and exudes a dominant, life-affirming energy which triumphs artistically against the injustices depicted elsewhere. This artwork sits as the final site to be seen, representing Rivera's view of what the Mexican revolution would bring – a free and productive earth in which natural forces being able to be harnessed for the benefit of man. To say Liberated Earth acts as a fictional finalism of a social Mexico would be supported by the preceding artworks in Chapingo Chapel. These prior artworks showcase the evolution of the agrarian movement paralleled with the evolution of Earth, both timelines of events being heavily reflective of Rivera's own positive views.

Orozco's view point on the Mexican Revolution can be seen in his mural The Trench (1922-1924),  Mexico that can be found at the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria. The dynamic lines and diluted color palette exemplify the dismal tone Orozco sets to exemplify his negative attitude towards the revolution. Contrary to many other revolutionary artists, one can also note how Orozco leaves the faces of the soldiers hidden, further displaying his own ideologies about the war. This form of anonymity functions as commentary towards the war and the soldiers that fought for the revolution – that they will be forgotten, despite their courageous sacrifice in hopes of a brighter future. From this more violent and realistic representation of the revolution, Orozco's aim is to get viewers to question if the revolutionary war was worth the sacrifices made. These artworks sparked massive controversy, even leading to the defacing of this mural, but was then later repainted in 1926.

Siqueiros brought a nuance to the idea of the Mexican Revolution. Although he held a radically negative opinion towards the revolution, he also depicted images of the scientific future while the other two artists' primary focus was on their experience and view on the revolution. In 1939 Siqueros, in collaboration with a group of other revolutionary artists, constructed a mural at the Electrical Workers Union Building titled Portrait of the Bourgeoise (1939), Mexico City Mexico. Together, these artists aimed to present their belief that the violence of the revolutionary war stemmed from the utilization of the flaw economic system they knew as capitalism, used as a tool of perpetuating the control of fascist leaders. This piece of art demonstrates the horrors of war, the artists' own negative views toward the role of capitalism during the Revolution, and how the proletariat Mexican citizens were being overlooked and taken advantage of by the Bourgeoise. The emotional toll of war is also highlighted by the reaction of a frightened, on-looking mother and child pair, further reflecting the artist's own reactions toward capitalism. Among all of the pessimistic imagery is also a symbol of hope manifested by a lone man dressed in the clothing of a guerrilla fighter. He's seen grasping a rifle pointed towards Bourgeoise leaders present during the revolution. This symbolizes a promising future in which Mexico overcomes the obstacles faced in the revolution and embraces technology, as seen in the depictions of electrical towers at the top of the mural.

Political expression
The Big Three struggled to express their leftist leanings after the initial years painting murals under government supervision. These struggles with the post-revolution government lead the muralists to create a union of artists and produce a radical manifesto. José Vasconcelos, the Secretary of Public Education under President Álvaro Obregón (1920–24) contracted Rivera, Siqueiros, and Orozco to pursue painting with the moral and financial support of the new post-revolutionary government. Vasconcelos, while seeking to promote nationalism and "la raza cósmica," seemed to contradict this sentiment as he guided the muralists to create works in a classic, European style. The murals became a target of Vasconcelos's criticism when the Big Three departed from classical proportion and figure. Siqueiros was dissatisfied with the incongruity between the murals and the revolutionary concerns of the muralists, and he advocated discussion among the artists of their future works.

In 1922 the muralists founded the Union of Revolutionary Technical Workers, Painters, and Sculptors of Mexico. The Union then released a manifesto listing education, art of public utility, and beauty for all as the social goals of their future artistic endeavors.

Influence

After nearly a century since the beginning of the movement, Mexican artists still produce murals and other forms of art with the same "mestizo" message. Murals can be found in government buildings, former churches and schools in nearly every part of the country. One recent example is a cross cultural project in 2009 to paint a mural in the municipal market of Teotitlán del Valle, a small town in the state of Oaxaca. High school and college students from Georgia, United States, collaborated with town authorities to design and paint a mural to promote nutrition, environmental protection, education and the preservation of Zapotec language and customs.

Mexican muralism brought mural painting back to the forefront of Western art in the 20th century with its influence spreading abroad, especially promoting the idea of mural painting as a form of promoting social and political ideas. It offered an alternative to non-representational abstraction after World War I with figurative works that reflect society and its immediate concerns. While most Mexican muralists had little desire to be part of the international art scene, their influence spread to other parts of the Americas. Muralists influenced by Mexican muralism include Carlos Mérida of Guatemala, Oswaldo Guayasamín of Ecuador and Candido Portinari of Brazil.

Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros all spent time in the United States. Orozco was the first to paint murals in the late 1920s at Pomona College in Claremont, California, staying until 1934 and becoming popular with academic institutions. During the Great Depression, the Works Progress Administration employed artists to paint murals, which paved the way for Mexican muralists to find commissions in the country.  Rivera lived in the United States from 1930 to 1934. During this time, he put on an influential show of his easel work at the Museum of Modern Art. The success of Orozco and Rivera prompted U.S. artists to study in Mexico and opened doors for many other Mexican artists to find work in the country. Siqueiros did not fare as well. He was exiled to the US from Mexico in 1932, moving to Los Angeles. During this time, he painted three murals, but they were painted over. The only one of the three to survive, América Tropical (full name: América Tropical: Oprimida y Destrozada por los Imperialismos, or Tropical America: Oppressed and Destroyed by Imperialism), was restored by the Getty Conservation Institute and the América Tropical Interpretive Center opened to provide public access.

The concept of mural as political message was transplanted to the United States, especially in the former Mexican territory of the Southwest. It served as inspiration to the later Chicano muralism but the political messages are different. Revolutionary Nicaragua developed a tradition of muralism during the Sandinista period.

Women of Mexican muralism

Aurora Reyes Flores, the first woman muralist

Aurora Reyes Flores was a political activist, teacher, and the first recognized female Mexican muralist. She focused on highlighting problems of those that she considered unprotected. Her first mural, "Atentado a Las Maestras Rurales" (Attack on Rural Teachers), depicts a woman who is being dragged by the hair by a man who is also tearing up a book with his other hand. Another man, whose face is covered by the large sombrero on his head, also begins beating the woman with the butt of his rifle. Behind a door stand three children witnessing the violence take place as they look on in utter shock and disbelief. The mural reflected Reyes' concerns with the education system and the struggle to improve social conditions for working women.

Elena Huerta Muzquiz, created the largest mural in Mexico by a woman
Elena Huerta's 450 square meter work is the largest mural created by a woman in Mexico, taking her two years to complete. Located in Saltillo, Mexico, the mural shows two different scenes. One scene depicts the independence of Mexico in 1810 with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, while the other scene shows Hidalgo alongside contemporary independence leaders who contributed to the independence movements of Mexico.

Huerta was not only known for her artwork, but also for her literary works, as she was a writer and feminist. In her lifetime, she was able to create only three murals. She captured the true essence of the Mexican Muralist movement through her passion and ability to keep Mexican culture viable.

Rina Lazo, Rivera's "Right Hand" woman
As Rina Lazo worked alongside Rivera, she became heavily influenced by his artwork and even helped him on one of the most outstanding murals of the Mexican Revolution: "Sueno de Una Tarde Dominical en la Alameda Central" (Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Central Park). She became Rivera's assistant for a total of ten years, right up until his death in 1957. However, she also worked on her own pieces and ultimately had to navigate through her own personal struggles on how to fully depict Mexican nationalism in her own way. Moreover, painting alongside Rivera helped her understand the concepts of Mexican muralism which captured social and political awareness but also showed the indigenous roots that have shaped Latin Americans and Mexicans. At the time, it was rare for a woman to have such popularity and independence, but despite working in a heavily male dominated field, Lazo successfully managed to become a muralist. While she was originally from Guatemala, Huerta began to grow fond of Mexico during her collaboration with Rivera despite originally being from Guatemala, ultimately showing the influence that the Mexican Revolution had through her artwork.

Fanny Rabel
Considered one of the first female artists of the Mexican muralism movement, she painted several murals, the most important one being located at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

Additional prominent artworks
 Diego Rivera, Creation, National Preparatory School, 1922
 Diego Rivera, History of Mexico, National Palace, 1929–35
 Diego Rivera, The Sleeping Earth, Chapingo Chapel, 1926-1928
 Diego Rivera, Fecund Earth, Chapingo Chapel, 1926-1928
 Diego Rivera, Underground Organization of the Agrarian Movement, Chapingo Chapel, 1926-1928
 Orozco, The Revolutionary Trinity, National Preparatory School, 1923-1924
 Orozco, The Rich People, National Preparatory School, 1924
 Orozco, The Trench, National Preparatory School, 1926
 Orozco, Catharsis, Palacio de Bellas Artes, 1934-1935
 Siqueiros & Renau, Portrait of the Bourgeoisie, Electrical Workers Union,1939-1940

See also
 Mexican art
 :Category:Mexican muralists
 Murals of Los Angeles

References

Further reading
Anreus, Robin Adèle Greeley, and Leonard Folgarait, eds. Mexican Muralism: A Critical History. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 2012.
Barnet-Sanchez, Holly. "Mexican Mural Movement." The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures vol 2. New York : Oxford University Press, 2001.
Campbell, Bruce. Mexican Murals in Times of Crisis. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003.

Charlot, Jean. The Mexican Mural Renaissance, 1920-1925. New Haven: Yale University Press 1967.
Coffey, Mary. How a Revolutionary Art Became Official Culture: Murals, Museums, and the Mexican State. Durham: Duke University Press 2012.
Elliott, Ingrid. "Visual Arts: 1910-37, The Revolutionary Tradition." Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1576-1584.
Folgarait, Leonard. Mural Painting and Social Revolution in Mexico, 1920-1940. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998.

 Good, Carl and John V. Waldron, eds. The Effects of the Nation: Mexican Art in an Age of Globalization. Philadelphia: Temple University Press 2001.
Hurlburt, Laurance P. The Mexican Muralists in the United States. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press
Indych-López, Anna. Muralism Without Walls: Rivera, Orozco, and Siqueiros in the United States, 1927-1940. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 2009.
Jaimes, Héctor.  Filosofía del muralismo mexicano: Orozco, Rivera y Siqueiros. México: Plaza y Valdés, 2012.
Jolly, Jennifer "Art of the Collective: David Alfaro Siqueiros, Josep Renau, and Their Collaboration at the Mexican Electricians' Syndicate," Oxford Art Journal 31.1 (2008): 129–151; and Laurance Hurlburt, The Mexican Muralists in the United States. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989.
Lear, John. Picturing the Proletariat: Artists and Labor in Revolutionary Mexico, 1908-1940. Austin: University of Texas Press 2017.
Lee, Anthony. Painting on the Left: Diego Rivera, Radical Politics, and San Francisco's Public Murals. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1999.

Rivera, Diego, and Wolfe, Bertram David.  Portrait of Mexico: Paintings by Diego Rivera and text by Bertram D. Wolfe. New York: Covici, Friede, 1937.
Rodríguez, Antonio. A History of Mexican Mural Painting. London: Thames & Hudson 1969.
Rochfort, Desmond.Mexican Muralists. San Francisco: Chronicle Books 1993.
Wechsler, James. "Beyond the Border: The Mexican Mural Movement's Reception in Soviet Russia and the United States." in Luis Martín Lozano, ed. Mexican Modern Art: 1900-1930. Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada 1999.

External links

 mural.ch Largest public accessible database on modern muralism with thousands of works, authors, and literature entries
 The Art that made Mexico on BBC Four
Collection: "Era of the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican Muralist Movement" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
Exhibition: "Vida Americana: Mexican Muralists Remake American Art" at the Whitney Museum of American Art
Mexican Muralism at the Museum of Modern Art
Mexican Mural History Project at the Heritage Society at Sam Houston Park
Mexican Muralism: Los Tres Grandes—David Alfaro Siqueiros, Diego Rivera, and José Clemente Orozco
The History of Mexico: Diego Rivera's Murals at the National Palace

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Art movements
20th century in Mexico
20th-century murals
1920s in Mexico
1920s murals
Arts in Mexico City
Modern art
Mestizo art


Enterprise life cycle (ELC) in enterprise architecture is the dynamic, iterative process of changing the enterprise over time by incorporating new business processes, new technology, and new capabilities, as well as maintenance, disposition and disposal of existing elements of the enterprise.

Overview
The enterprise life cycle is a key concept in enterprise architecture (EA), enterprise engineering and systems engineering. The Enterprise Architecture process is closely related to similar processes, as program management cycle or systems development life cycle, and has similar properties to those found in the product life cycle.

The concept of enterprise life cycle aids in the implementation of enterprise architecture, and the capital planning and investment control (CPIC) process that selects, controls, and evaluates investments. Overlying these processes are human capital management and information security management. When these processes work together effectively, the enterprise can effectively manage information technology as a strategic resource and business process enabler. When these processes are properly synchronized, systems migrate efficiently from legacy technology environments through evolutionary and incremental developments, and the Agency is able to demonstrate its return on investment (ROI). The figure on top illustrates the interaction of the dynamic and interactive cycles as they would occur over time.

Enterprise life cycle topics

Enterprise architecture process

As a prerequisite to the development of every enterprise architecture, each Agency should establish the need to develop an EA and formulate a strategy that includes the definition of a vision, objectives, and principles. The figure shows a representation of the EA process. Executive buy-in and support should be established and an architectural team created within the organization. The team defines an approach and process tailored to Agency needs. The architecture team implements the process to build both the baseline and target EAs.

The architecture team also generates a sequencing plan for the transition of systems, applications, and associated business practices predicated upon a detailed gap analysis. The architecture is employed in the CPIC and the enterprise engineering and program management processes via prioritized, incremental projects and the insertion of emerging new technologies. Lastly, the architectures are maintained through a continuous modification to reflect the Agency's current baseline and target business practices, organizational goals, visions, technology, and infrastructure.

Architecture life cycle

The figure depicts the life of the architecture as it evolves and shows the process that the architecture description supports in the development, analysis, and evolution of the implemented architecture. In this illustration, the Operational View is used to drive the requirements that are evaluated against the Systems View. Operational deficiencies are derived from the analysis, and viable candidates are identified. These candidates can take the form of either materiel or non- materiel solutions and are modeled back into the Operational and Systems Views of the architecture.

The architecture is re-analyzed, and the process continues until the operational deficiencies are minimized. The final sets of viable candidates are assessed for operational viability. Based on the results of the assessments, design changes are made and submitted for inclusion into the budgeting process. This process of developing, analyzing, and modifying continues throughout the architecture’s life cycle.

Enterprise life cycle activities

An enterprise life cycle integrates the management, business, and engineering life cycle processes that span the enterprise to align its business and IT activities. Enterprise life cycle refers generally to an organization's approach for managing activities and making decisions during ongoing refreshment of business and technical practices to support its enterprise mission. These activities include investment management, project definition, configuration management, accountability, and guidance for systems development according to a system development life cycle (SDLC).

The enterprise life cycle applies to enterprise-wide planning activities and decision making. By contrast, a System Development Life Cycle generally refers to practices for building individual systems. Determining what systems to build is an enterprise-level decision.

The figure on the right depicts notional activities of an enterprise life cycle methodology. Within the context of this document, Enterprise Life Cycle does not refer to a specific methodology or a specific bureau's approach. Each organization needs to follow a documented Enterprise Life Cycle methodology appropriate to its size, the complexity of its enterprise, and the scope of its needs.

Enterprise Performance Life Cycle

The Enterprise Performance Life Cycle (EPLC) encompasses the major business functions executed under the Office of the Chief Information Officer (CIO), and in particular, shows at a high level the relationship among the different business functions and both the general order and the iterative nature of their execution. The placement of enterprise architecture in the center of the EPLC conceptual diagram, shown in the figure, reflects the supporting and enabling role that enterprise architecture serves for the major business functions in the Enterprise Performance Life Cycle.

The Enterprise Architecture (EA) Program explicitly considers the information needs of the Enterprise Performance Life Cycle (EPLC) processes in developing and enhancing the EA Framework, collecting and populating data in the EA Repository, and developing views, reports, and analytical tools that can be used to facilitate the execution of the EPLC processes. The EPLC conceptual diagram in the figure provides a Departmental perspective of key business functions. The EPLC is also relevant from an individual investment or project perspective, as each new investment passes through each phase of the EPLC. The investment-level perspective is detailed in the Enterprise Performance Life Cycle Framework.

See also

 Business analysis
 Enterprise architecture planning
 Enterprise modeling
 Organizational life cycle
 Product lifecycle management
 Service-oriented modeling life cycle
 Software lifecycle processes
 Systems development life cycle
 Technology life cycle
 Whole-life cost
 Enterprise integration

References

Further reading
 Alain Bernard, Serge Tichkiewitch (2008). Methods and Tools for Effective Knowledge Life-Cycle-Management.
 Peter Bernus, Laszlo Nemes, Günter Schmidt (2003). Handbook on Enterprise Architecture.
 Jeffrey O. Grady (2006). System requirements analysis
 Arturo Molina, Jose Manuel Sanchez, Andrew Kusiak (1998). Handbook of Life Cycle Engineering: Concepts, Models, and Technologies.
 François Vernadat (1996). Enterprise Modeling and Integration: Principles and Applications.

External links

 Enterprise Life Cycle Management presentation 2005
 EA in the Federal Enterprise Life Cycle EA in the Federal Enterprise Life Cycle presentation 2006.

Enterprise architecture


Gwimokbong  is a mountain in Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi-do in South Korea. It rests between the peaks of Cheonggyesan and Myeongjisan. Gwimokbong has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province
One-thousanders of South Korea


AL-34662 is an indazole derivative drug that is being developed for the treatment of glaucoma. It acts as a selective 5-HT2A receptor agonist, the same target as that of psychedelic drugs like psilocin, but unlike these drugs, AL-34662 was designed specifically as a peripherally selective drug, which does not cross the blood–brain barrier. This means that AL-34662 can exploit a useful side effect of the hallucinogenic 5-HT2A agonists, namely reduction in intra-ocular pressure and hence relief from the symptoms of glaucoma, but without causing the hallucinogenic effects that make centrally active 5-HT2A agonists unsuitable for clinical use. In animal studies, AL-34662 has been shown to be potent and effective in the treatment of symptoms of glaucoma, with minimal side effects.

Peripherally acting 5-HT2A agonists have been a rich field of research in recent years, with potential glaucoma treatments being the main proposed application for 5-HT2A agonists at present, as centrally acting agonists for this receptor tend to be hallucinogenic and thus their medical usefulness is currently limited to the treatment of psychiatric disorders. While many novel, potent and selective 5-HT2A agonists have been developed for this application,

 retaining peripheral selectivity can be a problem, and several of the more lipophilic compounds closely related to AL-34662 such as those shown below, did cross the blood–brain barrier and produced hallucinogen-appropriate responding in animals.

See also
 AAZ-A-154
 AL-38022A
 Ro60-0175
 SCHEMBL5334361
 VER-3323
 YM-348

References

Indazoles
Amines
Peripherally selective drugs
Serotonin receptor agonists
Hydroxyarenes


A public viewing area is a space set aside for members of the public to safely view sites of interest, such as airports, railroads, construction sites or other facilities.  Sometimes they are known as visitor centers or interpretive sites.

In locations that have inherent dangers and would not normally be accessible to the public, viewing areas provide a way to satiate the public curiosity without exposing inordinate risk.  Many sites contain descriptive signs, viewing pavilions, picnic facilities, toilets, radio receivers and brochures.

Examples

Airports
Austin-Bergstrom International Airport (KAUS), Family Viewing Area is located near the State Aircraft Pooling Board (fancy talk for where aircraft belonging to the State of Texas gets maintained and stored) at the end of Golf Course Road. and faces west to runway 17L/35R. The Family Viewing Area also has paved parking, grassy areas, a picnic table.
Baltimore–Washington International Airport (KBWI), has the Thomas A Dixon Jr Aircraft Observation Park located just to the south of Dorsey Road which is a viewing area complete with parking, picnic tables, trash cans, and a playground. The BWI Loop Trail also runs through the park.
Charlotte-Douglas International Airport (KCLT) in Charlotte, North Carolina has the Charlotte Airport Overlook which is located on the west side of the airport on Old Dowd Road, near the  threshold of 18C. It is also equipped with a large parking lot, benches and picnic tables.
Chicago Executive Airport (Palwaukee) (KPWK) in Wheeling, Illinois, has a public viewing area along Palatine Frontage Road that allows the public to view aircraft operations at the airport and provides seating, parking and airport information.  A speaker with Air Traffic Control radio operations allows visitors to hear the planes and control tower.
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (KDFW) has a public viewing area located at Founders Plaza. The 6-acre (2.4 ha) plaza features a granite monument and sculpture, post-mounted binoculars, piped-in voices of air traffic controllers and shade pavilions. In 2010, a memorial honoring Delta Air Lines Flight 191 was dedicated at the plaza.
Mitchell International Airport (KMKE) in Milwaukee, WI has a public viewing area located on the north edge of the airport along Layton Avenue providing parking and rebroadcast of ATC communications.
Aurora Municipal Airport (KARR) in Sugar Grove, Illinois has a picnic table next to the control tower where the public can safely view operations.
DeKalb Airport (KDKB) in DeKalb, Illinois has a viewing area set up at the east end of the hangar row.
McCarran International Airport (KLAS) in Paradise, Nevada (Las Vegas) has a viewing area along Sunset Road next to the longest two runways at the airport. Tower communications are available on FM radios.
Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport (KMSP) has a viewing area located at the end of Cargo Road next to the FedEx Shipping Center where plane spotters can see aircraft land and take off from two different runways. Picnic tables, trash cans, and parking are provided.
Nashville International Airport (KBNA) in Nashville, TN has a viewing area off of Vultee Avenue, east of Briley Parkway (TN-155). Picnic tables, trash cans and parking are provided.
Palm Beach International Airport (KPBI) in Palm Beach, Florida has a viewing area in a small park on the south side of the field on Perimeter Rd, just east of the approach end of Runway 31. Picnic tables, trash cans and parking are provided.
Fort Lauderdale/Hollywood International Airport (KFLL) in Fort Lauderdale, Florida has three viewing areas. The Ron Gardner Aircraft Observation Area is on the south side of the approach end of Runway 10L, just east of the Animal Shelter. Picnic tables, trash cans and parking are provided. A loudspeaker monitors the tower. Another observation area is located on the top level of the Hibiscus Parking Garage. A third viewing area is just south of Runway 10R in the Airport Greenbelt Park.
Fort Lauderdale Executive Airport (KFXE) in Fort Lauderdale, Florida has a viewing area southwest of Runway 8. Picnic tables, trash cans, and parking are provided. A loudspeaker monitors the tower.
Hinckley Airport in Hinckley, Illinois has a picnic table along the grass strip for people to watch the aircraft operations and skydivers returning. The airport is used mostly for glider operations (Windy City Soaring) and skydiving, the skydivers (usually) return to a clearing just north of runway 9/27.
Rochelle Municipal Airport in Rochelle, Illinois hosts the Chicagoland Skydiving Center, and its ramp is open to the public for viewing. A bar and restaurant affords views of the operations. Aside from the skydiving operations (with airplanes and helicopters) other airport operations are easily viewed and photographed.
Glendale Municipal Airport in Glendale, Arizona has a $100 Hamburger restaurant overlooking the main apron and runway, this also has a patio outside where visitors can enjoy the weather, view the aircraft operations and have meals. When the restaurant is closed the patio remains open for seating.
Phoenix Deer Valley Airport in Phoenix, Arizona has a patio area facing the runways adjacent to the terminal building and a restaurant with a view of the runways. Radio receivers for the Ground Control and both Control Tower channels allow one to hear the radio traffic.
Manchester Airport in Manchester, England has had public viewing areas since the airport opened in 1938. The "Runway Visitor Park" not only allows viewing of aircraft movements, but also has a café, aviation souvenir shop, and several aircraft on display, including retired Concorde G-BOAC and others.
Scottsdale Municipal Airport in Scottsdale, Arizona has an outside patio with benches and control tower audio accessible thru the terminal building. While glass windows separate the ramp from the patio (making pictures difficult) and excellent view of the ramp and runway is afforded. Control Tower radio traffic is also heard in the terminal itself.
Raleigh Durham International Airport (KRDU) has Observation Park which provides sweeping views of RDU’s 10,000-foot runway and is located near the Air Traffic Control Tower. It has an elevated observation area, radios that play tower communications, and a picnic area. Free parking and restrooms are provided.
Van Nuys Airport has a public viewing center on the east side of the airport near the intersection of Woodley Ave. and Waterman Drive.

Railroads
Rochelle, Illinois, has built a public viewing area at the crossing of the Union Pacific and BNSF railroads there, complete with an elevated shelter, parking lot, gift shop, toilet facilities and BBQ grills.  They pipe in railroad radio audio on 106.9 MHz so visitors can listen to the radio traffic on FM radios.  Trains magazine also sponsors a webcam to allow viewing of via the Internet.
Folkston, Georgia has a small but well-appointed viewing area, overlooking the "Folkston Funnel", a stretch of track where two CSX lines have combined for a large amount of rail traffic. The shelter itself has some chairs, rail radio broadcasts, ample parking and electrical outlets for charging camera batteries. The only amenity it lacks is a restroom, but there is a McDonald's within a block that is railfan friendly. Highlights of viewing include up to 60 trains a day, including the auto train and the Tropicana juice train.
Homewood, Illinois has built a public viewing platform at the south end of the CN (former Illinois Central) Markham Yard.  This location is on the east side of the tracks and is connected by a tunnel under the tracks to the Homewood Metra / Amtrak station.  Near the station is a static display of an IC GP10 and caboose.  There is a Starbucks coffee shop on the other side of Harwood Avenue from the viewing platform and there are several restaurants within an easy walk in downtown Homewood.

Locks and dams
Many lock and dam facilities along the various rivers in the US have public viewing areas, including:

 Lock and Dam No. 15 in Rock Island, Illinois on the Mississippi River
 Olmsted Locks and Dam in Olmsted, Illinois on the Ohio River
 Lock and Dam No. 12  in Bellevue, Iowa on the Mississippi River
 Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant near Lewiston, New York, on the Niagara River, has an extensive interpretive center known as the Niagara Power Vista.
 Hoover Dam near Boulder City, Nevada, on the Colorado River, has an extremely large interpretive center and tour facility.
 Parker Dam near Parker, Arizona, on the Colorado River, has a basic viewing area with views of the dam and interpretive signs.

Construction sites
These are, by necessity, often temporary in nature.  Harkening back to the "knotholes" in fences used by passersby to view the progress of a site, some large projects provide a glimpse into the construction by intentionally placing viewing ports in fences, often geared toward selling space in the final project.

Sports venues
Some stadiums provide locations where the public can view games in progress without entering the stadium or paying for an admission. AT&T Park in San Francisco, California, home of the San Francisco Giants has such an area.

External links
 Bruce's Planespotting guide: https://web.archive.org/web/20080923210623/http://www.bruceleibowitz.net/spotting-guide.htm
 Airport Spotters Wiki: http://www.spotterswiki.com
 Homewood Viewing Platform: https://web.archive.org/web/20080509075915/http://blackhawk.artsalive.org/homewood.htm

References

Visitor centers
Viewing area


Queen Liz was the pseudonym of an American thief and pickpocket who was a prominent member of New York's underworld during the mid-to late 19th century. She was among the elite "inner circle" of female career criminals under Marm Mandelbaum during the 1860s and 1870s. Among these included fellow thieves, blackmailers and confidence women such as Lena Kleinschmidt, Sophie Lyons, Kid Glove Rosey, Little Annie, Big Mary and Old Mother Hubbard, all of whom were regular guests at her extravagant dinner parties.

References

Further reading
Byrnes, Thomas. 1886 Professional Criminals of America. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1969.
Petronius. New York Unexpurgated: An Amoral Guide for the Jaded, Tired, Evil, Non-conforming, Corrupt, Condemned, and the Curious, Humans and Otherwise, to Under Underground Manhattan. New York: Matrix House, 1966.

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
Criminals from New York City


Frederick Reef is in the Coral Sea Islands, over  northeast of Gladstone, Queensland. The reef gets its name from Frederick, which first reported sighting the reef.

Frederick Reef is a small atoll with a large rock called Ridge Rock at the southern end, a sand cay called Observatory Cay, and a lighthouse at the northern end, which is the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide. The reef is around 30km2.

The reefs are in a J shape that forms a semi-enclosed lagoon known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about , with an area of .

The reef is located in some deep water and drops sharply to over  on the western side.

General description

The Frederick Reefs are a small group of remote reefs located beyond the southern reaches of the Great Barrier Reef,

The reef complex lies  due east from the city of Mackay, Queensland or  northeast of the city of Gladstone. The reefs are part of the southern reefs of the Coral Sea and as such are located in deep oceanic waters off the Coral Sea Shelf.

Aside from its coastal neighbours, it also lies  east from the Swains Reefs; the lower part of the Great Barrier Reef. Frederick Reefs is approximately  northeast of the Saumarez Reefs and  west of the northwest extremity of Kenn Reefs.

The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon or body of water known as Anchorage Sound; protected on most sides but open on the north side. On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, (21°02'S., 154°23'E.), the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide. Observatory Cay is approximately  above sea level; with a possible landing site on its northern side through a boat channel which leads in from North East through the reef. As the cay lies near the southern edge of the reef, the surf sometimes breaks over it in heavy gales.

Similar to other smaller sand cays and spits, the position of the sand spit can move. In 1983, it was reported that Observatory Cay lay about  west of the charted position. It has also been reported that the reef complex has at least 4 or 5 other sand cays on the southern reef which does not cover with water at high tide other than Observatory Cay.

A solitary leaning rock,  high, lies on the western extremity of the Observatory Cay southern reef,  west-northwest of Observatory Cay.

From Observatory Cay, the southern part of the reef extends to the north and northeast for .

Danger Ridge (21°00'S., 154°21'E.) is a narrow ridge connecting the western end of Observation Cay and Ridge Rock.

The North Reef Extreme is located to the north of Observatory Cay with its southern extremity about  north southern extremity of the Observatory Cay reef. It is about  long and about  wide.

A small cay ls located  south of Frederick Reef Light. The Light is located at the northeastern tip of the reef which is the only section permanently out of the water.  The Light is accessible by boat only. It has a nominal range of .

History

Discovery
The reefs were discovered in 1812 by the Frederick. The reefs were described in the ship's log:

Shipwreck of Royal Charlotte
On 29 April 1825, Royal Charlotte arrived in Sydney from England with a load of convicts. The ship then took on detachments of the 20th, 46th, and 49th Regiments for transport to India by Batavia. On 11 June, the ship ran aground on Frederick Reefs; the masts were cut away to steady her while the crew and soldiers moved to shore with water and provisions before she sank. Only two lives were lost. A party took the surviving longboat and travelled to Moreton Bay, arriving in July and causing the brig Amity to be dispatched to collect survivors.

The discovery of the wreck was announced in January 2012.

Grounding of USS Tiru
On 2 November 1966, the United States submarine USS Tiru departed from Brisbane for Subic Bay. On 4 November, the submarine ran aground on Frederick Reef. For two days, the submarine attempted to back off the reef under her own power, but was unsuccessful. On 6 November, Australian destroyer HMAS Vendetta and civilian tugboat Carlock arrived to assist the salvage of Tiru. The submarine was towed to Brisbane, where she was drydocked for emergency repairs and damage assessment.

Following temporary repairs to her sonar dome, outer hull, and keel, the submarine gingerly made her way from Australia to the United States Naval Ship Repair Facility, Yokosuka, Japan. En route, Tiru called at Guam to provision alongside  and pick up new crew members. Arriving at Yokosuka on 29 November, the submarine entered drydock for restricted availability.

Grounding of Jhansi Ki Rani
On 23 April 1986, Jhansi Ki Rani, an India-flagged bulk carrier departed from Newcastle, New South Wales for Japan with 74,000 tonnes of coal on board. The route for the voyage had been planned and plotted by the Second Officer, approved by the Master, and was to take the vessel  east of Frederick Reef sometime on 26 April.

During the Second Officer's watch, constant rain had reduced visibility from  to . At 1515, an object was detected on radar,  away to port. It was assumed that this was the Frederick Reefs Lighthouse, but was actually another ship, MV Fort Resolution. Two hours later, another radar echo was picked up,  away. While attempting to clarify the indistinct radar signal, it became obscured by rain clutter, then vanished. Assumed to be a ship, the lookout was instructed to keep watch off the starboard bow. The ship's Master arrived on the bridge at 1725, to confirm the progress of the voyage and to prepare for the passing of Frederick Reefs.

Shortly after this, the Chief Officer and lookout both reported a white line close ahead; waves breaking over the edge of the reef. The ship was ordered to swing hard to port, but did not swing far enough to clear the southern edge of the reef, running aground  from the tower. The engines were stopped, and at 1736 were put full astern in an attempt to pull the ship off the reef. After almost two hours, the failed attempts ceased.

Some oil pollution was observed after the grounding. This pollution was attributed to the forward oil fuel deep tank, which was damaged. All other fuel tanks were situated aft and were intact .

The vessel was recovered and refloated on 4 May, and after being anchored for inspection, was towed to Singapore for repairs, then put up for auction with her cargo of coal.

See also
 List of lighthouses in the Coral Sea Islands
 List of islands of Australia

References

 Loney, J. K. (Jack Kenneth), 1925–1995. Australian shipwrecks Vol. 1 through 5

External links

 Detailed report of the USS Tiru incident from the Australian Navy
 nautical description (Sailing Directions)

Great Barrier Reef
Coral Sea Islands
Reefs of Australia
Lighthouses in Coral Sea Islands


James L. Archibald (born June 6, 1961) is a Canadian former ice hockey player.  He played right wing and played 16 games in the National Hockey League for the Minnesota North Stars between 1985 and 1987. He lives in Brainerd, Minnesota.

After playing in junior level with the Moose Jaw Canucks, Archibald was drafted in the seventh round, 139th overall by the Minnesota North Stars in the 1981 NHL Entry Draft. He attended school at the University of North Dakota the same year until 1985. In his NHL career he played in 16 regular season games scoring one goal and two assists. He also had spells in the American Hockey League for the Springfield Indians and the International Hockey League with the Kalamazoo Wings.

While head coach at Brainerd, his son, Josh Archibald, played there. After his senior season, Josh was drafted by the Pittsburgh Penguins in the sixth round of the 2011 NHL Entry Draft. Josh was a finalist for the Minnesota Mr. Hockey Award in 2011.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

Awards and honours

References

External links

1961 births
Living people
Canadian expatriate ice hockey players in the United States
Canadian ice hockey right wingers
Ice hockey people from Saskatchewan
Kalamazoo Wings (1974–2000) players
Minnesota North Stars draft picks
Minnesota North Stars players
Moose Jaw Canucks players
NCAA men's ice hockey national champions
North Dakota Fighting Hawks men's ice hockey players
People from Craik, Saskatchewan
Springfield Indians players


is a railway station in Izumi, Kagoshima, Japan.
The station opened on October 15, 1923.

Lines
Kyushu Railway Company
Kyushu Shinkansen
Hisatsu Orange Railway
Hisatsu Orange Railway Line

Platforms

Hisatsu Orange Railway

JR Kyushu

Adjacent stations

External links

 JR Kyushu-Izumi Station

Railway stations in Kagoshima Prefecture
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1923
Stations of Hisatsu Orange Railway


The Ruby Theater is a small movie theater located in Chelan, Washington. Built in 1914, it was named after Ruby Potter, the step-daughter of its manager, Frank Potter. The original owners were Herbert R. Kingman and Morrison M. Kingman. Original seating capacity was 225 on the main level and 125 in the balcony. The theater was equipped as a cinema and as a vaudeville house. With the exception of 1972-1974, the Ruby has been showing movies for over ninety years, and is one of the oldest movie theaters in Washington.

History
Frank Potter moved his operation from the storefront Gem Theater to the Kingmans' new Ruby when the Kingmans' purpose-built theater opened. Competition initially came from the Auditorium, which burned shortly after the Ruby opened in 1914. Potter committed a murder/suicide in 1919, killing his wife and leaving behind 15-year-old Ruby. That year the Kingmans sold the theater to a barber named Kelsey from Omak. The Kelseys operated the theater themselves until 1937, then leased it to operators through 1972. The theater reopened in 1974.

Description
The Ruby theater is located in the central business district of Chelan. The facade is stuccoed, with a central snack bar window flanked by recessed arched entries. The entries are sheltered by a prominent projecting marquee guyed from the facade, lit with bare electric light bulbs. The marquee spans the width of the building, with a shallow central arch. The upper level of the facade features a pair of windows flanked by single sash windows in a slightly recessed bay, with a prominent RUBY THEATRE above. The original entrance was in the center. The lobby spans the width of the building with entries into the house on either side of the shallow space. The house is a narrow rectangular space with a small horseshoe-shaped balcony over the last few rows of seats. The twelve-foot-deep stage is elevated and features a gilded plaster proscenium. Additional depth is provided by a non-historic thrust stage extension, about  deep. The stage retains its trap doors and lighting, as well as storerooms and ventilation equipment under the stage. The projection room is on the upper level behind the balcony, as are the toilets.

The Ruby Theater was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 7, 1991.

References

External links
Ruby Theatre

Theatres on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
Buildings and structures in Chelan County, Washington
Theatres completed in 1914
Cinemas and movie theaters in Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Chelan County, Washington
1914 establishments in Washington (state)


Mohamed Salih Omer (محمد صالح عمر in Arabic) (1934–1969) was a Sudanese politician.

Early life and education
Omer was born in Badien Island in 1934. His father was Sheikh Omer Mohamed Al Amein and his mother was Farhein Seid Ahmed Haj. He attended Badein Primary school, Algolid Intermediate School, and Wadi Seidna Boy's Secondary School (1st Grade March 1955, index No. 358). He graduated from the Faculty of Law (Sharia) of the University of Khartoum on April 1, 1959 (second class upper). He received his master's degree of Law from the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London on 24 October 1961.

Political career
He joined the Muslim Brotherhood while at secondary school. He was selected as a Minister of Animal Resources in the Ministry of Sirr Al-Khatim Al-Khalifa after the October Revolution in 1964, representing the Islamic Charter Front. In 1969 he joined the Palestinian Resistance movement Fatah. When the Communist Party came to power in Sudan under Jaafar Nimeiry in May 1969, he returned to Sudan to participate in the Sudanese National Front, and joined Immam Alhadi Almahdi on Aba Island to fight the communists. He was killed on Aba Island (Aljazeera Aba) during an armed confrontation with Nimeiry's army in 1969.

1934 births
1969 deaths
People from Northern (state)
National Islamic Front (Sudan) politicians
Government ministers of Sudan
University of Khartoum alumni
Alumni of SOAS University of London


Ivar Waller (11 June 1898 – 12 April 1991) was a Swedish professor of theoretical physics at Uppsala University. He developed the theory of X-ray scattering by lattice vibrations of a crystal, building upon the prior work of Peter Debye. The Debye–Waller factor, which he introduced in his doctoral thesis in 1925, is the definitive treatment of the effect of thermal vibrations in X-ray crystallography. He was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences from 1945, and the Nobel Committee for Physics 1945-1972.

One of his notable doctoral students was the quantum chemist Per-Olov Löwdin.

External links
 Obituary in Journal of Applied Crystallography, 1992

1898 births
1991 deaths
Swedish physicists
Academic staff of Uppsala University
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Burials at Uppsala old cemetery
Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala


Gyegwansan  is a mountain in South Korea. Its area extends over Gapyeong County in Gyeonggi-do and Chuncheon, the capital of Gangwon-do. Gyegwansan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gangwon Province, South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


The Emperor Lays an Egg is a non-fiction children's picture book by Brenda Z. Guiberson, with pictures by Joan Paley.

Summary
An emperor penguin father has to protect his egg for two months while the mother is off searching for food. The book has information about the birth cycle of emperor penguins and it has a story of a mother and father caring for their egg.

Reception
A Kirkus Reviews review says, "Although The Emperor's Egg, by Martin Jenkins (1999), covers similar territory, school and public libraries will find this title useful for elementary school science reports, and nature lovers will love the pictures".
It was reviewed by Booklist. and Horn Book Magazine.

References

2001 children's books
Children's non-fiction books
American non-fiction books
American picture books
Zoology books
Children's books about penguins


Salvijus "Sal" Bercys (born 8 September 1989 in Lithuania) is an American International Master. His peak FIDE rating is 2512. He is a major figure in Michael Weinreb's book The Kings of New York and was part of the "dream team" from the Edward R. Murrow school, along with Alex Lenderman (now a grandmaster).

References

External links

 130 Games at New In Chess
 USCF tournament history

1989 births
American chess players
Chess International Masters
Living people
Edward R. Murrow High School alumni
Lithuanian chess players


Maʿrūf Karkhī (), known also by his full name Abū Maḥfūẓ Maʿrūf Ibn Firūz al-Karkhī, was a Sufi Muslim saint.

Biography
Maruf was born in the district of Wasit or Karkh in Baghdad. According to some sources, he is of Mandaean origin. His father's name was Firuz, which suggests that he was of Persian origin. Attar narrates in his Memorial of the Saints that Maruf converted to Islam at a young age at the hands of Ali al-Ridha after rejecting all forms of polytheism.  Tradition recounts that he immediately went and told his father and mother, who rejoiced at his decision and became Muslims themselves. After accepting Islam, Maruf became a student of Dawud al-Ta'i, and underwent a severe trial of his discipleship. Maruf, however, remained steadfast and proved himself so devout that his righteousness became locally famous.

Maruf is also known to have a close relationship with Ahmad ibn Hanbal, in which ibn Hanbal is reported to have said "True knowledge is only that which Ma‘ruf has achieved.”

Sufi tradition
In Sufism, those of the order of Marufi are those connected to Maruf Karkhi. Maruf thus forms a penultimate link in what is known as the Golden Chain, the initiation line which forms an unbroken chain to Muhammad. Maruf, being the disciple of Ali al-Ridha, formed part of that lineage, while at the same time maintaining the teachings of his master Dawud Ta'i and thus being his successor as well. Sufis venerate Maruf highly for the multiple spiritual chains which interlock in his teachings.

See also
 List of Sufis
 Seyyed Qutb al-Din Mohammad Neyrizi

Notes

Converts to Islam
People from Baghdad
Sunni Sufis
Sufi mystics


Nebuchadnezzar is a colour monotype print with additions in ink and watercolour portraying the Old Testament Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II by the English poet, painter, and printmaker William Blake. Taken from the Book of Daniel, the legend of Nebuchadnezzar tells of a ruler who through hubris lost his mind and was reduced to animalistic madness and eating "grass as oxen".

According to the biographer Alexander Gilchrist (1828–1861), in Blake's print the viewer is faced with the "mad king crawling like a hunted beast into a den among the rocks; his tangled golden beard sweeping the ground, his nails like vultures' talons, and his wild eyes full of sullen terror. The powerful frame is losing semblance of humanity, and is bestial in its rough growth of hair, reptile in the toad-like markings and spottings of the skin, which takes on unnatural hues of green, blue, and russet."

Nebuchadnezzar was part of the so-called Large Colour Prints; a series begun in 1795 of twelve 43 cm × 53 cm colour monotype prints, of most of which three copies were made.  These were painted on millboard,  after which the board was put through Blake's printing-press with a sheet of dampened paper to make the prints.  After they were printed, Blake and his wife Catherine added ink and watercolour to the impressions. It existed in four impressions (copies), now in: Tate Britain in London, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Minneapolis Institute of Art, and a fourth which has been missing since 1887.  Blake believed that Nebuchadnezzar was connected to the Christian apocalypse and to his personal view on the stages of human development.

History

Nebuchadnezzar was adapted from an earlier print in Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.  The plates for the Large Colour Prints and the first prints were made in 1795, but further impressions seem to have been printed in about 1805.  In the late summer of 1805, Blake sold to Thomas Butts Jr. eight impressions of the Large Colour Prints,  including the Tate Nebuchadnezzar, for £1.1s each.

John Clark Strange bought Butts's prints on 29 June 1853 and later acquired the rest of the collection that was sold to Henry George Bohn. Although he originally wanted to produce a biography on Blake, he later abandoned this idea after he learned of Gilchrist's biography. However, his journal was filled with his notes for the biography, and contain many accounts from those who knew Blake, excerpts from Blake's journal, and analysis of Blake's work. In his journal, he describes Nebuchadnezzar "crawling on his belly, naked covered with hair & nails grown long, eating grass.—'What was singular was that Blake's conception was almost a facsimile of an ancient German print of the same subject and which design Blake had never seen." Kenneth Clark identified the earlier image as a book illustration of a werewolf by Lucas Cranach the Elder, although a closer similarity is with the small figure of the saint in Albrecht Dürer's 1496 engraving The Penance of St. John Chrysostom.

Other versions
Blake had earlier depicted Nebuchadnezzar on Plate 24 of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell  naked on hands and knees carrying his crown.  Nebuchadnezzar is represented as being in the wilderness and is, according to Samuel Palmer, similar to an older German woodcut where "almost the very same figure appears. Many years had elapsed after making his own design before Blake saw the wood cut." A further depiction was added to Edward Young's Night Thoughts Volume VII.

The image of Nebuchadnezzar is connected in Blake with the apocalypse in which the three people that the biblical Nebuchadnezzar burned to death were united with the Son of God, and this image is also connected to Blake's belief in four states of existence in which those burned are able to transcend into the final stage of human existence. Also, Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a statue represents human history from the beginning until the Apocalypse, and the image of Nebuchadnezzar's rule is connected to Blake's myth of Albion in The Four Zoas.

Critical response
Alexander Gilchrist believed that "the metallic tinting of the moss-grown crags is rendered almost as successfully as in 'Newton', and the printing throughout the picture is well carried out, with none of the opaque oily surfaces which occur in some others of the series". Dante Gabriel Rossetti commented: "Crawling on all fours in his shaggy insanity. The tawny beard trails across the left hand: the nails are literally 'like birds' claws', and the flesh tints very red and 'beefy'. The glaring eyes, too, have almost lost their human character. The background represents a thick jungle. A fine wild conception". The image inspired a passage in the poem The City of Dreadful Night (1870s) by James Thomson (1834–1882):

After a hundred steps I grew aware
Of something crawling in the lane below;
It seemed a wounded creature prostrate there
That sobbed with pangs in making progress slow,
The hind limbs stretched to push, the fore limbs then
To drag; for it would die in its own den.

But coming level with it I discerned
That it had been a man; for at my tread
It stopped in its sore travail and half-turned,
Leaning upon its right, and raised its head,
And with the left hand twitched back as in ire
Long grey unreverend locks befouled with mire.

A haggard filthy face with bloodshot eyes,
An infamy for manhood to behold. – Canto XVIII, from line 13<ref>[http://www.cf.ac.uk/encap/skilton/poetry/thoms01d.html Text of the City of Dreadful Night] – the figure speaks in the following passage.  The link between poem and image is the subject of Harper's article. See also Maunder, 127–28</ref>

Trivia
 The British rock group Atomic Rooster selected Blake's image for their 1970 album Death Walks Behind You.
 In The Garden of Cyrus, Thomas Browne alludes to the Babylonian King's transformation as depicted by Blake thus: "Nebuchodnosor.... beautifully repaired that City; and so magnificently built his hanging gardens;..... till over-delighted with the bravery of this Paradise; in his melancholy metamorphosis, he found the folly of that delight, and a proper punishment, in the contrary habitation, in wilde plantations and wanderings of the fields."

Notes

References
 Bentley, G. E. Jr. The Stranger From Paradise. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003.
 Damon, S. Foster. A Blake Dictionary. Hanover: University Press of New England, 1988.
 Frye, Northrop. Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
 Gilchrist, Alexander. The Life of William Blake. (reprint) New York: Dover Publications, 1998.
 Glausser, Wayne. Locke and Blake: a conversation across the eighteenth century. Miami: University Press of Florida, 1998.
 Harper, George M. "Blake's "Nebuchadnezzar" in "The City of Dreadful Night". Studies in Philology, Vol. 50, No. 1 (Jan., 1953), 68–80
 Lincoln, Andrew. "From America to The Four Zoas" in The Cambridge Companion to William Blake edited by Moriss Eaves, 210–30. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. .
Maunder, Andrew.  Grace Moore; Victorian Crime, Madness and Sensation, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004.
 Myrone, Martin. The Blake Book. London: Tate Gallery, 2007.
 Raine, Kathleen. William Blake. London: Thames and Hudson.
 Wilson, Simon; Tate Gallery, An Illustrated Companion, 1990, Tate Gallery,

Further reading
Butlin, Martin. The Paintings and Drawings of William Blake''. 2 vols. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981.

1795 prints
Collection of the Tate galleries
Prints based on the Bible
Art by William Blake
Nude art
Cultural depictions of Nebuchadnezzar II
Monotype prints


Hamwangbong is a mountain in Yangpyeong County, Gyeonggi-do in South Korea. It has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


Homyeongsan is a mountain in Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi-do in South Korea. It has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


"Totally Nude Island" is the debut single by The Superions, a side project of Fred Schneider of The B-52s.  The single was released to iTunes Stores internationally as a digital download on October 31, 2008.  "Totally Nude Island (Ursula 1000 Remix)" was also released as a digital single on December 18, 2008.  Both the original version and the Ursula 1000 remix were remastered in 2009 and released with two more remixes by The Lolligags and Marshmallow Coast on The Superions EP by Happy Happy Birthday To Me Records as a digital download on January 19, 2010, the CD and Limited Edition 12" were released on February 23, 2010.

Track listing
 "Totally Nude Island" 4:07

Notes
 The running time of the new remastered version on The Superions EP is 4:05

Personnel
Band
 Fred Schneider - vocals
 Noah Brodie - keyboards
 Dan Marshall - programming

Production
 Producer: The Superions
 Mastering: Bob Katz at Digital Domain
 Additional Mixing: Robin Reumers at Digital Domain
 Management: Dave Brodie
 Artwork: Dan Marshall

References

The Superions songs
2008 songs
Songs written by Fred Schneider


O'Leary Peak is an extinct Pleistocene lava dome volcano within the San Francisco volcanic field, north of Flagstaff, Arizona, and to the northwest of Sunset Crater National Monument. A fire lookout tower was built on a subsidiary eastern peak. It has an elevation of .

References

External links

 "O'Leary Peak Trail". Coconino National Forest.

Volcanoes of Arizona
Mountains of Arizona
Landforms of Coconino County, Arizona
Extinct volcanoes of the United States
Mountains of Coconino County, Arizona


Vivi Flindt (née Gelker; born 22 February 1943; Copenhagen) is a Danish dancer. She studied at the Royal Danish Ballet School, then joined the company, making her debut as Birgit Cullberg's Miss Julie in 1965 and being promoted to soloist in 1967. She married the choreographer and dancer Flemming Flindt in 1970 and created roles in several of his ballets:
1967 The Miraculous Mandarin
1968 Sacre du printemps
1971 Triumph of Death
1973 Felix Luna
1978 Salome

She presently works as a choreographer and recently worked with the Ballet San Jose on their production of The Toreador in 2008 using the Bournonville method.

References

Danish ballerinas
1943 births
Living people
Royal Danish Ballet dancers
20th-century ballet dancers


The Buffalo Indians were a professional American football team that competed in the third American Football League in 1940 and in 1941. The team played its home games in Civic Stadium in Buffalo, New York. Owned by the Buffalo American Legion, the Indians were managed by Earl "Red" Seick, who was also player-coach for the team for the first five games in 1940 (he was replaced by Orlando Nesmith for the rest of the season). While most of the AFL membership focused on raiding the rosters of the local members of the National Football League teams, the Indians (which did not have a local NFL competitor) concentrated on signing local talent, castoffs from the NFL, and men who played in the defunct second American Football League.

Featuring the running talents of halfback Carl Littlefield, the Indians struggled to a 2-8 record in 1940 (having been shut out four times and forfeited one game; they also won one game by forfeit) and finished in fifth place. The club was reorganized in early 1941, with a new name (Buffalo Tigers) and a new coach (Tiny Engebretsen). The changes yielded the same results once league play resumed that fall, Buffalo finishing with a 2-6 record and fourth place in the five team loop  before the AFL suspended operations after the Pearl Harbor attack and the U.S. entry into World War II.

By the time the war ended, both the league and the Buffalo Tigers officially ceased to exist, but Buffalo's foray into major league football was not forgotten as the All-America Football Conference formed in 1946 with a new team, the Buffalo Bisons, being the new tenants in the newly renamed War Memorial Stadium.

Origin
The history of the Buffalo Indians begins in early 1940, with an agreement among businessmen in Buffalo, New York City, and Boston to start a new major league football league to compete with the established National Football League. At roughly the same time, a minor league calling itself the American Football League announced plans for expansion with the goal of becoming a major league itself. When the businessmen convinced the owners of the Columbus Bullies, Cincinnati Bengals and the newly minted expansion team, the Milwaukee Chiefs to join their league, the minor AFL imploded as the formation the new six-team "major league," the third "major" American Football League, was announced July 14, 1940.

The Indians were originally owned by the Buffalo American Legion, which "Red" Seick acting in the triple role of player, coach, and business manager. The team drew its players from two sources, area college stars and men who once played in the NFL and the second AFL.

1940
Within two weeks of the league's organizational meeting (held in Buffalo's Hotel Lafayette, August 4–5, 1940), Seick proceeded to sign up local college talent and players who had been out of pro football for one or two years. The team's first quarterback was Steve Banas, former Pittsburgh Steeler and Detroit Lion. New starting tackle Ed Karp was another former Steeler who helped Byron White's rushing game decades before he became a U.S. Supreme Court justice. A third former Steeler, Carl Littlefield, became the Indians' starting halfback.

Despite the presence of local and veteran talent, the Indians suffered from a lack of offense. Banas was shifted from quarterback to fullback in the fourth game and was replaced behind center by former St. Bonaventure star Steve Hrycyszyn. About the same time, former New York Yankee Orlando "Ole" Nesmith was signed to be a backup halfback; a week later, Nesmith replaced Seick as player-coach of the Indians (which, at that time, had a 1-4 record). Buffalo then proceeded to lose four more games (one by forfeit) before winning its last scheduled game (against the Cincinnati Bengals) by forfeit.

Two forfeits
While the Bengals had two games cancelled (against the Milwaukee Chiefs and against the New York Yankees) in 1940, the Buffalo Indians were involved in two forfeits, the last two forfeited games in the history of major professional football.

On November 17, 1940, the last scheduled home game in Buffalo was called after a storm dumped four inches of snow on the field, which was covered by a tarpaulin. The snow had partially melted overnight, and then froze on top of the cover... and also froze the tarp to the ground itself. Early-arriving fans assisted the grounds crew in a futile attempt to clear the field of snow and remove the tarp while other fans struggled to find usable seats in the stands. When the time for kickoff approached, it became apparent that the field would not be in playable condition for the game; so the officiating crew declared a forfeit in favor of the visiting New York Yankees.

Two weeks later, the Tigers were scheduled to play their last game of the season, but the scheduled opponent, the Cincinnati Bengals, were so diminished by a rash of injuries that they couldn't field a team in time for the game. A forfeit was declared, this time in favor of the Tigers, the last forfeit to be declared in major professional football in the United States.

1941
The span of time between the last game of the 1940 season and the first game of 1941 brought sizable changes to the Buffalo AFL team. A reorganization resulted in a new owner (coal magnate Fiore Cesare), a new coach (Paul Engebretsen), and a new team name (the Buffalo Tigers). Most of the 1940 Indians players did not return to Buffalo in 1941 to play as Tigers, but stars Steve Hrycyszyn, Steve Banas, and Carl Littlefield were back in the hope of improving on the 2-8 record the team had in 1940.

Engebretsen signed former Milwaukee Chief end Sherm Barnes and back Andy Karpus, who had started for four teams in two American Football Leagues. Joe Ratica, formerly of the Brooklyn Dodgers and Boston Bears, became the Tigers' new starting center.

The efforts to improve the offense from its four-shutout performance in 1940 appeared to be in vain as the 1941 season began when the Tigers were shut out by the Cincinnati Bengals (a team that lost twice to Buffalo the previous season) by a score of 29-0, and then to the newly renamed New York Americans 26-7 three days later, but the rematch with the Bengals ended in a 16-0 victory for the Tigers. It was the first on-field victory for the Buffalo franchise in over a year.

While Tiny Engebretsen's upgrades in the team's offense were taking hold (the Tigers scored touchdowns in each remaining game except one), they were still losing with regularity, matching the two wins they had in 1940. A 14-0 whitewash by the Milwaukee Chiefs ended the Tigers' 2-6 season.

One game with Johnny "Blood" McNally
The third American Football League featured teams with fluid rosters, and the Buffalo Indians and Tigers were no exception. For the October 8, 1941, game against the New York Americans, three members of the Kenosha Cardinals appeared in Buffalo Tigers uniforms: two members of the Cardinals roster (Johnny Dolan, former Pittsburgh Steeler and Chicago Cardinal Ernie Wheeler) and the Kenosha coach, eventual Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee Johnny "Blood" McNally. (McNally, to date, is the only player to have played in this particular incarnation of the AFL to be inducted into the Hall.

The Kenosha Cardinals had an unexpected two weeks off after the cancellation of two games between the Cardinals and the Milwaukee Chiefs when McNally took notice of his old teammate Tiny Engebretsen's Buffalo Tigers were outmanned by the Cincinnati Bengals in the first game of the AFL season by the score of 29-0. McNally, Dolan, and Wheeler traveled from Kenosha to Buffalo for the Tigers' second game.

Against the Americans, McNally rushed five times in the game (longest run: eight yards), but the Tigers lost again, 26-7. While NcNally returned to Kenosha, Wheeler and Dolan stayed with the Tigers for a rematch with Cincinnati on October 19, 1941, a 16-0 victory for Buffalo. Dolan and Wheeler returned to Kenosha after the game, but a month later, Wheeler returned to Buffalo, this time with Kenosha teammate Clem Naughton in tow, for the Tigers' last two games of the 1941 season (both losses against the Milwaukee Chiefs).

Demise
Although the AFL lost the Boston Bears franchise prior to the beginning of the 1941 season, its owners were optimistic about the league's long-term future. Although the league's average attendance was less than that of the more-established NFL, the AFL seemed to be on as firm a financial footing as the older league. By the end of the 1941 season, the new Detroit franchise was preparing for a 1942 debut in the AFL. The league was the first major football league to complete a double round robin schedule, in which each team played each other twice.

All the plans for 1942 came to a sudden stop upon the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the start of World War II on December 7, 1941. With the induction of college and professional players into the U.S. military, it became increasingly apparent to the AFL owners that the global conflict would put the continued success of the league into question.

On September 2, 1942, AFL president William B. Cox announced the suspension of league activities until the end of the war. Neither the third AFL nor the Buffalo Tigers returned; 1946 saw the beginning of a new professional football team in Buffalo (the Bisons, later renamed the Bills) in a new major league (the All-America Football Conference).

References

Defunct American football teams in New York (state)
American football teams established in 1940
American football in Buffalo, New York
1940 establishments in New York (state)
1942 disestablishments in New York (state)
Sports clubs and teams disestablished in 1942
American Football League (1940) teams


Hwaaksan  is a mountain in South Korea whose area extends over Gapyeong County, Gyeonggi-do and Hwacheon County, Gangwon-do. It has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Gapyeong County
Hwacheon County
Mountains of Gangwon Province, South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province
One-thousanders of South Korea


Fanthorp Inn State Historic Site is a historic hotel in Anderson, Texas. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department acquired the  site by purchase in 1977 from a Fanthorp descendant. Ten years were spent researching and restoring the Inn to its 1850 look. The site was opened to the public on October 4, 1987.

The clapboard-covered log house was built in 1834 by an English immigrant, Henry Fanthorp, as a home for his third wife, Rachel Kennard. He bought  and built his house in 1834 along the road that crossed his land. The building was enlarged in about 1850 to accommodate its usage as a hotel and store.

Henry Fanthorp was appointed postmaster by the Provisional Texas Government in 1835. The building was the first post office in the region. Fanthorp Inn became a well-known stopping place for stagecoaches, travelers, and the community.

On July 3, 1845, Kenneth Lewis Anderson, vice-president of the Republic of Texas died from illness at the Inn while en route home from Washington-on-the-Brazos.

On September 1, 2019, Fanthorp Inn State Historic Site was transferred from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department to the Texas Historical Commission.

See also

Log house
National Register of Historic Places listings in Grimes County, Texas
Stagecoach Inn in Bell County, Texas
Stagecoach Inn in Washington County, Texas

References

External links
Fanthorp Inn State Historic Site website

Texas state historic sites
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
Protected areas of Grimes County, Texas
Historic house museums in Texas
Museums in Grimes County, Texas
Houses completed in 1834
Log houses in the United States
Houses in Grimes County, Texas
National Register of Historic Places in Grimes County, Texas
Log buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas


Southern Hotel may refer to:

in the United States
(by state)
 Southern Hotel (Perris, California), listed on the NRHP in California
 Southern Hotel (Dolores, Colorado), listed on the NRHP in Colorado
Southern Hotel (Covington, Louisiana), on National Registry of the Historic Hotels of America
 Southern Hotel (St. Louis, Missouri)
 Southern Hotel (Joliet, Montana), listed on the NRHP in Montana
 Great Southern Hotel and Theatre, Columbus, OH, listed on the NRHP in Ohio
 Southern Hotel (El Reno, Oklahoma), listed on the NRHP in Oklahoma
 Columbia Southern Hotel, Shaniko, OR, listed on the NRHP in Oregon
 New Southern Hotel, Jackson, Tennessee, listed on the NRHP in Tennessee
 Southern Hotel (Llano, Texas), listed on the NRHP in Texas