Katherine Beers (born December 30, 1982) is an American woman who was kidnapped when she was 9 years old in Bay Shore, New York by John Esposito, a friend of the family, and held in an underground bunker from December 28, 1992, to January 13, 1993.

Background
Katie Beers lived with her mother Marilyn Beers and older half-brother John Beers in Long Island, New York. Her biological father has never been identified. From a young age, Katie also lived with her godmother Linda Inghilleri and Inghilleri's husband, Salvatore. Marilyn frequently neglected Katie and John, leaving them in the care of the Inghilleris, from whom they would endure abuse including frequent sexual assaults by Salvatore.

John Esposito was a friend of the Beers family who would frequently give attention and gifts to Katie and John Beers, but would also sexually abuse John. Esposito had previously been arrested in 1977 for the attempted abduction of a twelve-year-old boy.

Kidnapping
Beers was lured into Esposito's house at Bay Shore, New York on December 28, 1992, two days before her 10th birthday, by the promise of birthday presents. After Beers played a video game in Esposito's bedroom, he forced her into an underground concrete bunker.

The 6-foot-by-7-foot bunker hill was located under Esposito's garden and accessed via a six-foot long tunnel. The entrance tunnel was concealed by a 200-pound concrete trap door and hidden behind a removable bookcase in Esposito's office. The bunker contained a commode toilet and closed-circuit television system. Within the bunker was a coffin-size soundproofed room containing a bed and television where Beers was chained. Esposito would later tell police he had built the bunker specifically for Beers. Beers herself later recalled playing in the dirt displaced by the bunker as Esposito dug it a few years before the kidnapping.

Immediately after forcing Beers into the bunker, Esposito made her record a message where she claimed a man with a knife had taken her. Esposito played the message at a pay phone outside the Spaceplex amusement arcade at Nesconset, New York and told the arcade's staff that he had lost Beers within the building. Police were called when she couldn't be located.

During her captivity, Esposito would frequently visit Beers to sexually abuse her while also providing food, blankets and toys. He allowed Beers into the larger part of the bunker when he visited her but would force her back into the smaller room when she was alone, although Beers was able to unchain herself and escape to the larger room in Esposito's absence after hiding a key under her pillow, but was unable to escape the bunker itself. Esposito told Beers he intended to keep her in the bunker for the remainder of her life, and planned to take a photo of her asleep and send it to police so they would believe she was dead, although the photo was never taken.

Esposito was a suspect from an early stage in the police investigation, following accusations of previous sexual abuse towards John Beers and witnesses at Spaceplex stating that he entered the arcade alone on the day of Beers' disappearance. Police also determined that Beers' phone message about a man with a knife was from a previously made recording based on a lack of background noise.

On January 13, 1993, 17 days after the kidnapping, Esposito confessed to holding Beers captive and took police to the bunker where they rescued her.

Aftermath
Esposito pleaded guilty to kidnapping on June 16, 1994 and was sentenced on July 27, 1994 to 15 years to life, a sentence he served at Sing Sing prison in Westchester County, New York. During Esposito's trial, Beers said he had raped her during her captivity. Although he was not charged with this, the judge sentencing him agreed with her. Esposito was found dead in his cell of apparently natural causes on September 4, 2013, shortly after his fourth parole hearing in 20 years.

Sal Inghilleri was convicted of two counts of sexual abuse and served 12 years for molesting Beers. During the investigation into the kidnapping, authorities discovered that Inghilleri had sexually abused the girl before she was abducted. He was prosecuted additionally for those crimes. He died in prison in 2009.

Shortly after her rescue, Beers was sent to live with foster parents in East Hampton, New York due to the neglect and abuse the two children had experienced before the kidnapping. Beers was provided with anonymity and raised by her foster parents until adulthood. In January 2013, Beers spoke publicly for the first time about her ordeal and revealed that she was now married with two children and working in insurance. During the same month, she published a memoir about her ordeal.

Media
In the months following the kidnapping, two books covering the case were published: My Name Is Katherine: The True Story of Little Katie Beers written by Maria Eftimiades and Joe Treen, and 17 Days: The Katie Beers Story by Arthur Herzog.

Beers' memoir, Buried Memories (known as Help Me in the United Kingdom) was co-written by reporter Carolyn Gusoff, who had covered Beers' case as it was happening, and was published on January 13, 2013, on the 20th anniversary of her rescue.

ABC's 20/20 episode "Saved" covered the Katie Beers story in February 2013.

Investigation Discovery recounted the case on an episode of its 2020 documentary miniseries Killer Carnies. It included accounts from Beers, the lead police detective, and others.

See also
List of kidnappings
List of solved missing persons cases

External links
 "Buried Memories: A Vulnerable Girl and Her Story of Survival" at Amazon.
 Reddit Ask Me Anything (AMA) page, January 2018 - Katie Beers

Further reading

References

1982 births
1990s kidnappings in the United States
1990s missing person cases
1992 crimes in the United States
1992 in New York (state)
Crimes in New York (state)
Crimes on Long Island, New York
December 1992 crimes
December 1992 events in the United States
Formerly missing people
Kidnappings in the United States
Kidnapped American children
Living people
Missing person cases in New York (state)
Islip (town), New York
Incidents of violence against girls


Świercze () is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  west of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Tarcze  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north of Zbuczyn,  east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Tarcze


Tchórzew  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Tchórzew-Plewki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Tęczki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-east of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Wesółka  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Zbuczyn,  east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Wólka Kamienna  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Siedlce County


Zawady  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Zawady


Zbuczyn  is a village in Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Zbuczyn. It lies approximately  south-east of Siedlce and  east of Warsaw.

The history of Zbuczyn dates back to the 14th century, which makes it one of the oldest towns of Lublin Voivodeship’s Lukow Land (province of Lesser Poland). In 1418, King Wladyslaw Jagiello established here a Roman Catholic parish, also granting Magdeburg rights to the village. Zbuczyn remained a town for some 350 years, as on October 11, 1750, King Augustus III officially turned it back to the status of a village.

Until the Partitions of Poland, Zbuczyn belonged to the historic province of Lesser Poland. In 1815, it became part of Russian-controlled Congress Poland, in which it remained until World War I.

References

Zbuczyn
Lesser Poland
Lublin Voivodeship (1474–1795)
Siedlce Governorate
Lublin Governorate
Lublin Voivodeship (1919–1939)


Zdany  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Zbuczyn, within Siedlce County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Zbuczyn,  south-east of Siedlce, and  east of Warsaw.

References

Zdany


Antoniewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Antoniewo


Białuty may refer to the following places:
Białuty, Sierpc County in Masovian Voivodeship (east-central Poland)
Białuty, Warsaw West County in Masovian Voivodeship (east-central Poland)
Białuty, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (north Poland)


Białuty  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Bombalice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Bombalice


Bonisław  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Bronoszewice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Bronoszewice


Western Local Escort Force (WLEF) referred to the organization of anti-submarine escorts for World War II trade convoys from North American port cities to the Western Ocean Meeting Point (WOMP or WESTOMP) near Newfoundland where ships of the Mid-Ocean Escort Force (MOEF) assumed responsibility for safely delivering the convoys to the British Isles.

Background
On the basis of experience during World War I, the Admiralty instituted trade convoys in United Kingdom coastal waters from September 1939. Convoys gradually extended westward until HX 129 left Halifax, Nova Scotia on 27 May 1941 as the first convoy to receive escort for the entire trip from Canada. The American Neutrality Zone offered some protection in North American coastal waters until United States declaration of war in December 1941.

Organization
The Royal Canadian Navy organized the Halifax-based Western Local Escort Force in February 1942 as German U-boats began patrolling North American coastal waters during the "second happy time". The Royal Navy provided the WLEF with twelve old, short-range destroyers well-equipped for anti-submarine warfare and manned by experienced personnel. Newly commissioned Canadian s and s were assigned to the WLEF. s , , and  were assigned to the WLEF after their endurance proved inadequate for MOEF assignments. During the winter of 1942–43, some of these destroyers were organized into Western Support Force (WSF) groupings of three ships to augment protection of convoys coming under attack in the western Atlantic.

Operations
The WLEF was theoretically organized into eight escort groups able to provide an escort of four to six ships to each convoy. WLEF escort group assignments were more dynamic than the MOEF escort groups, and WLEF escorts seldom worked with the same team of ships through successive convoys. A WLEF escort group would typically meet a westbound ON convoy at WOMP and then individual WLEF ships would be detached with elements of the convoy proceeding separately to Halifax, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Quebec ports on the St. Lawrence River, Saint John, New Brunswick, Boston, Massachusetts, or New York City. Some WLEF escorts were assigned to coastal convoys reaching as far south as the Caribbean Sea. Eastbound HX convoys and SC convoys worked in reverse forming with a few WLEF escorts in New York City and picking up others as ships joined from New England ports or the Maritimes. Short range escorts or escorts experiencing mechanical problems might be similarly detached and replaced at intermediate points between WOMP and New York City. The most frequent location for escort exchanges was the Halifax Ocean Meeting Point (HOMP) off the WLEF home port of Halifax.

The WLEF operated exclusively within range of anti-submarine patrol bombers; although weather often limited flight operations. U-boats were deployed cautiously in areas where air patrols were expected, so single U-boat encounters were more common than wolf pack engagements.  The name was shortened to "Western Escort Force" (WEF) in the summer of 1943.

Major combat event chronology
 12 May 1942 –  sank two ships in the St. Lawrence River.
 6 July 1942 –  sank three ships from convoy QS 15 escorted by Canadian Bangor-class minesweepers  and .
 20 July 1942 – U-132 sank one ship from convoy QS 19 escorted by Flower-class corvette , Bangor-class minesweeper  and anti-submarine motor launches Q059, Q064 and Q074.
 29 July 1942 – U-132 sank one ship from convoy ON 113 escorted by WLEF.
 27 August 1942 – Flower-class corvette  sank  while  sank two ships from convoy TAW 15.
 3 September 1942 –  sank one ship from convoy NL 6 escorted by Flower-class corvette HMCS Weyburn and Bangor-class minesweeper .
 6–7 September 1942 –  sank one ship and the armed yacht  and U-517 sank three ships from convoy QS 33 escorted by Flower-class corvette , Bangor-class minesweepers  and , and motor launches Q065 and Q083.
 11 September 1942 – U-517 sank the Flower-class corvette  that had been traveling with the Bangor-class minesweeper HMCS Clayoquot.
 15–16 September 1942 – U-517 sank two ships and U-165 sank two ships from convoy SQ 36 escorted by Town-class destroyer , Flower-class corvette HMCS Arrowhead, Bangor-class minesweeper HMCS Vegreville, and three motor launches.
 21 September 1942 – Bangor-class minesweeper  defended convoy SQ 38 from U-517.
 13 October 1942 –  sank the ferry  from convoy NL 9 escorted by Flower-class corvettes , HMCS Arrowhead and .
 7–8 September 1944 – Flower-class corvette  attacked  in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
 14 October 1944 –  torpedoed   escorting convoy ONS 33G in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
 23 October 1944 – Three torpedoes from  missed troopship Lady Rodney off Halifax.
 2 November 1944 – U-1223 torpedoed freighter  in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
 14 January 1945 –  torpedoed Liberty ship  and tankers Athelviking and British Freedom off Halifax Harbour.

Convoy routes
 AH – Aruba to Halifax Harbour a brief tanker series from July to September 1942
 BS – Corner Brook, Newfoundland to Sydney, Nova Scotia
 BW – Sydney, Nova Scotia to St. John's, Newfoundland
 BX – Boston to Halifax Harbour
 CL – St. John's, Newfoundland to Sydney, Nova Scotia
 FH – Saint John, New Brunswick to Halifax Harbour
 HA – Halifax Harbour to Curaçao (1942)
 HF – Halifax Harbour to Saint John, New Brunswick
 HHX – Halifax Harbour to meet HX convoys originating in New York City at the Halifax Ocean Meeting Point (HOMP)
 HJ – Halifax Harbour to St. John's, Newfoundland
 HON – Halifax Harbour to ON convoys at the Halifax Ocean Meeting Point (HOMP)
 HS – Halifax Harbour to Sydney, Nova Scotia
 HT – Halifax Harbour to Trinidad (replaced by HA convoys)
 JH – St. John's, Newfoundland to Halifax Harbour
 JN – St. John's, Newfoundland to Labrador
 LC – Sydney, Nova Scotia to St. John's, Newfoundland
 LN – St. Lawrence River to Labrador
 NJ – Newfoundland coast to St. John's, Newfoundland
 NL – Labrador to St. Lawrence River
 QS – Quebec to Sydney, Nova Scotia
 SB – Sydney, Nova Scotia to Corner Brook, Newfoundland
 SH – Sydney, Nova Scotia to Halifax Harbour
 SHX – Sydney, Nova Scotia to HX convoys
 SQ – Sydney, Nova Scotia to Quebec
 TH – Trinidad to Halifax Harbour
 WS – Wabana, Newfoundland to Sydney, Nova Scotia
 XB – Halifax Harbour to Boston

See also
Battle of the St. Lawrence

Notes

References

Escort Groups of the Royal Navy in World War II
North American Coastal convoys of World War II
North Atlantic convoys of World War II
American Theater of World War II
Battle of the Atlantic
History of Halifax, Nova Scotia
Royal Canadian Navy
Military units and formations of Canada in World War II
Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom


Cetlin  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Cetlin


Czachorowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Czachorowo


Czachowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Czachowo


Czarnominek  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Czarnominek


Dzięgielewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Głuchowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


The Malcolm Miller is a sistership of the three-mast schooner Sir Winston Churchill designed by Camper & Nicholsons. She was built by John Lewis & Sons in Aberdeen and first served as a Sail training ship before being converted into a yacht.

History
The Malcolm Miller was built in 1967. Half of the construction cost was donated by Sir James Miller, a former Lord Mayor of London and Lord Provost of Edinburgh. She was named in memory of Sir James's son Malcolm, who had been killed in a car accident. She was used by the Sail Training Association as a sail training ship.

In 2000, the Malcolm Miller was replaced in service by the Stavros S Niarchos. In 2001, the Malcolm Miller was sold and her new owners renamed her Helena C. She was rebuilt and redelivered in 2004 as a private pleasure ship. She crossed the Atlantic ocean on two occasions.

In June 2008 she was damaged by fire while being refurbished, leaving one man with serious burns. In August 2009, the ship was moored to a buoy in Falmouth harbour, mastless and bearing the name Malcolm Miller. In November 2011, she was laid up off Tolverne on the River Fal. Subsequently she was sold to the owner of a commercial yard in Cyprus. In January 2012, she was towed to Saint Peter Port and then to Gdańsk, to undergo a complete refit at the Conrad shipyard. She was relaunched in 2014, and in July 2016 made a brief visit to the UK.

See also
 List of schooners

References

Schooners
Sail training ships
Tall ships of the Cayman Islands
Merchant ships of the Cayman Islands
Ships built in Aberdeen
1967 ships


Gnaty  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Gnaty


Golejewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Golejewo


Gozdowo  is a village in Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Gozdowo. It lies approximately  south of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Kolczyn  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Kolczyn


Kowalewo Podborne  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Kowalewo Podborne


Kowalewo-Boguszyce  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Kowalewo-Boguszyce


Kowalewo-Skorupki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

Kowalewo-Skorupki was part of the local gentry called Kowalewo. In the thirteenth century, there were already settlements called Kowalewo (the establishment of the parish in Gozdowo in 1305). The name Skorupki showing for the first time in 1404, from the daughter of Nicholas Diwkę the Skorupki. The name of the village until the sixteenth century was written differently, Kowalewo alias Skorupki, or Skorupki Kowalewo.

Near the village there was a settlement Kowalewo-Sule having been listed at the end of the eighteenth century (lying between Kovalev and Białutami Podbornym). Initially it was a village belonging to one branch of the Kowalewo family. A list of Tax from 1531 mentions two heirs, Paweł and Andrzej Jana Mścicha. They belonged to the family coat of arms Junosza Kowalewskich. Inventory tax in 1578 shows the breakdown of the village into three parts. In the second half of the seventeenth century, mainly Kowalewscy lived here, with six nobility. In 1734 the divisions of the Kowalewo area were: Kowalewscy, Łukoscy, Umińscy, Kuskowscy, Rycharski and Czachorowski. According to the census of the landowners of the late eighteenth century inherited here: Czarnomski, Koskowscy, Kowalewscy, Roman, Rycharscy, Umieński. So, it was a village divided between a number of nobles. Some belonged to the poor gentry, and others to a richer small farm. In 1827 the Skorupki was recorded 8 houses 59 residents. During the January Uprising gentry was the basic strength of the insurgent troops.

The Skorupki in 1883 counted 8 houses and 80 residents. The whole village had 338 acres of land including 302 acres of land of the manor. This small village parochial become an important educational center in the area. Since 1890 there has been a parish school here. They then created a folk school. At the same time the construction of a brick elementary school took place (before World War I). It was one of the first brick school in the district. It was one of the rebel schools during the events of 1905–1907, apparently burning portraits of the Tsar. In 1921, this town had 9 houses and 91 residents, belonged to the municipality of Białyszewo. There are two historic buildings: the wooden house number 8 from the mid-nineteenth century, the property of J. Kowalewski, and the wooden house from the mid-nineteenth century, J. Kowalewski property. In 1975-1998 the town administratively belonged to the province of Plock.

References

Kowalewo-Skorupki


Kozice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Kozice


Kuniewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Kuniewo


Kurówko  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Kurowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Kurowo


Lelice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Lelice


Lisewo Duże  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Lisewo Małe  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

Notable people
Notable people associated with Lisewo Małe include:
Czesław Kaczmarek (1895-1963), bishop of Kielce 1938–1963

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Eugene "Buddy" Moss (January 16, 1914 – October 19, 1984) was an American blues musician. He is one of two influential Piedmont blues guitarists to record in the period between Blind Blake's final sessions in 1932 and Blind Boy Fuller's debut in 1935 (the other being Josh White). A younger contemporary of Blind Willie McTell, Curley Weaver and Barbecue Bob, Moss was part of a coterie of Atlanta bluesmen. He was among the few of his era whose careers were reinvigorated by the blues revival of the 1960s and 1970s.

He began as a musical disciple of Blake. Moss's career was halted in 1935 by a six-year jail term and then by the Second World War, but he lived long enough to be rediscovered in the 1960s, when he revealed that his talent had been preserved through the years. He was reputed to have been cantankerous and mistrusting of others.

In later years, Moss credited his friend and bandmate Barbecue Bob with being a major influence on his playing. Scholars also contend that Blind Blake was a major force in his development, as both share certain mannerisms and inflections. It has also been suggested by Alan Balfour and others that Moss may have been an influence on Blind Boy Fuller, although they never met and Moss's recording career ended before Fuller's began – Moss's first recordings display some inflections and nuances that Fuller did not put down on record until some years later.

Biography

Early life
Moss was one of 12 children born to a sharecropper in Jewell, Georgia, in Warren County, midway between Atlanta and Augusta. There is some disagreement about the year of his birth, some sources indicating 1906 and many others of more recent vintage claiming 1914. He began teaching himself the harmonica at a very early age, and he played at local parties around Augusta, where the family moved when he was four and remained for the next 10 years. By 1928, he was busking around the streets of Atlanta. "Nobody was my influence," he told Robert Springer of his harmonica playing, in a 1975 interview. "I just kept hearing people, so I listen and I listen, and listen, and it finally come to me."

Early musical career
By the time he arrived in Atlanta, he was noticed by both Curley Weaver and Robert "Barbecue Bob" Hicks, who began working with the younger Moss. Weaver and Barbecue Bob secured his first recording date when he was 16, as a member of their group the Georgia Cotton Pickers, on December 7, 1930 at the Campbell Hotel in Atlanta, cutting four songs for Columbia: "I'm on My Way Down Home," "Diddle-Da-Diddle," "She Looks So Good," and "She's Comin' Back Some Cold Rainy Day." The group that day consisted of Barbecue Bob and Weaver on guitars and Moss on harmonica. Moss did not record anything more for the next three years.

By 1933, Moss had taught himself the guitar. He frequently played with Barbecue Bob until Bob's death of pneumonia on October 21, 1931. Moss found a new partner and associate in Blind Willie McTell, performing with him at parties around Atlanta.

In January 1933, he made his debut as a recording artist in his own right for the American Record Company (ARC) in New York City, accompanied by Fred McMullen and Curley Weaver, cutting three songs, "Bye Bye Mama," "Daddy Don't Care," and "Red River Blues." Another eight songs followed over the next three days, and all 11 were released, more than were released for McMullen or Weaver from those same sessions.

The debut sessions also featured Moss returning to the harmonica, as a member of the Georgia Browns – which comprised Moss, Weaver, McMullen and the singer Ruth Willis – for six songs done at the same sessions. Moss's records were released simultaneously on various budget labels associated with ARC and were so successful that, in mid-September 1933, he returned New York City along with Weaver and McTell. Moss recorded another dozen songs for the company, this time accompanied by Weaver; he also accompanied Weaver and McTell on their numbers.

In mid-1934, this time as a solo guitarist and singer, he recorded more tracks. At this point, Moss's records were outselling those of  Weaver and McTell and were widely heard in the southern and border states. His "Oh Lordy Mama" from these sessions became well known as "Hey Lawdy Mama", a song interpreted by various artists. AllMusic noted that "This body of recordings also best represents the bridge that Moss provided between Blind Blake and Blind Boy Fuller – his solo version of "Some Lonesome Day" and also "Dough Rollin' Papa," from 1934, advanced ideas in playing and singing that Fuller picked up and adapted to his own style, while the lingering influence of Blake can be heard in "Insane Blues"."

By August 1935, Moss's fee per song fee doubled, from $5 to $10. He continued to perform with McTell and Weaver, before going back to recording with a new partner, Josh White. They recorded 15 songs the same month, but personal and legal disasters hit his growing reputation.

Prison and parole
In 1936, Moss was arrested and tried for the shooting murder of his wife and was convicted and sentenced to prison. After the death of Fuller in 1941, his manager, J. B. Long, made efforts to secure Moss' release as a replacement for Fuller. By the combination of Moss' own good behavior as a prisoner and the entreaties of two outside sponsors (Long and Columbia Records) willing to ensure his compliance with parole, Moss was released from prison. While working at Elon College for Long under the parole agreement, Moss met a group of other blues musicians under Long's management, including Sonny Terry and Brownie McGhee.

Effects of World War II
In October 1941, Moss, Terry and McGhee went to New York City to record for Okeh Records/Columbia, creating 13 numbers by Moss featuring his two new colleagues. Only three of the songs were ever released, and then events conspired to cut short Moss's recording comeback. With the entry of the United States into World War II, the government began rationing shellac, which was used in making 78-rpm records, in 1942; barely enough was allocated to the recording industry to keep it functioning, and record companies were forced to curtail recordings by all but the most commercially viable artists. Also in 1942, the musicians' union placed a ban on recording by its members. Furthermore, the popularity of acoustic country blues began to wane, further reducing record companies' interest in recording it.

Later career
Moss continued performing in the area around Richmond, Virginia, and Durham, North Carolina, during the mid-1940s. He performed again with Weaver in Atlanta during the early 1950s, but music was no longer able to maintain a living. He went to work on a tobacco farm, drove trucks, and worked as an elevator operator, among other jobs, over the next 20-odd years.

Despite being referred to as one of the most influential bluesmen of the 1930s, he was overlooked by the blues revival. This could be due to the fact that his recording career had been so short (from 1933 to 1935) and he had never recovered from the interruption in his work while he was in prison. In 1964, Moss chanced to hear that his old partner Josh White was giving a concert at Emory University in Atlanta. Moss visited White backstage at the concert and Moss was persuaded to resume performing in a series of concerts before college audiences. He also had new recording sessions for the Columbia label in Nashville, but none of the material was issued during his lifetime.

A concert in Washington, D.C., on June 10, 1966, was recorded, and portions of it were later released by Biograph Records. Moss performed at the Newport Folk Festival in 1969 and appeared at  Electric Circus, in New York, in the same year. During the 1970s, he performed at the John Henry Memorial Concert in West Virginia for two consecutive years. He also performed at the Atlanta Blues Festival and the Atlanta Grass Roots Music Festival in 1976, and later at the National Folk Festival, held at Wolf Trap Farm Park in Vienna, Virginia.

Death and legacy
Moss died in Atlanta on October 19, 1984, once again largely forgotten by the public. In the years since, his music has been available from Biograph Records, which reissued the 1966 performance, and from Document Records, which has released virtually every side that he released between 1930 and 1941. As a result, his reputation has once again grown, although he is still not nearly as well known among blues enthusiasts as McTell or Fuller.

Discography

Album
Atlanta Blues Legend (Biograph, 1967) re-released in 1970 as Rediscovery

Compilations
Georgia Blues Volume Two (Kokomo, 1968)
Georgia Blues 1930–1935 (Travelin' Man, 1983)
Red River Blues: 1933–1941 (Travelin' Man, 1984)
Buddy Moss 1933–1935 (Document, 1988)
Buddy Moss 1930–1941 (Travelin' Man, 1990)
Complete Recorded Works Vol. 1; 1933 (Document, 1992)
Complete Recorded Works Vol. 2; 1933–1934 (Document, 1992)
Complete Recorded Works Vol. 3; 1935–1941 (Document, 1992)
Buddy Moss: The Essential (Document, 2002)

References

External links
 Illustrated Buddy Moss discography

1914 births
1984 deaths
People from Warren County, Georgia
Columbia Records artists
African-American guitarists
African-American male singer-songwriters
American blues guitarists
American male guitarists
Blues revival musicians
Piedmont blues musicians
20th-century American guitarists
Guitarists from Georgia (U.S. state)
20th-century African-American male singers
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)


Lisice-Folwark  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Lisice-Folwark


Łysakowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-east of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Miodusy  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Miodusy


Bernard Charles Henri Clavel (29 May 1923 – 5 October 2010) was a French writer.

Clavel was born in Lons-le-Saunier. From a humble background, he was largely self-educated. He began working as a pastry cook apprentice when he was 14 years old. He later had several jobs until he began working as a journalist in the 1950s. After the war, he worked for the social insurance, and he could not dedicate himself to literature until 1964. He lived and worked in many places, and was living in Savoy at the time of his death.

His first novel was L'Ouvrier de la nuit (Night Worker, 1956). He later published works for young people and numerous novels, at times organised into series: La grande patience (The Great Patience, 4 volumes — 1962–1968), Les Colonnes du ciel (Heaven's Pillars, 5 volumes — 1976–1981), or Le Royaume du nord (Northern Kingdom, 6 volumes — 1983–1989).

In his writings, he employed simple language and attached importance to humble characters and to the defence of humanist values by questioning violence and war.

He died in Grenoble.

Prizes and memberships
 Prix Goncourt for Les Fruits de l'hiver: 1968
 Member of Académie Goncourt 1971–1977.
 Member of Coordination française pour la Décennie de la culture de paix et de non-violence.
 Member of Non-Violence XXI group since 2001.

Partial bibliography
 Cargo pour l'enfer, 1993
 Malataverne, 1993
L'Arbre qui chante
Les Roses de Verdun
Collection La Grande Patience
 La Maison des autres
 Celui qui voulait voir la mer
 Le Cœur des vivants
 Les Fruits de l'hiver
Collection Les Colonnes du ciel
 La Saison des loups
 La Lumière du lac
 La Femme de guerre
 Marie Bon pain
 Compagnons du Nouveau Monde
 Collection Le Royaume du nord
 Harricana, 1983
 L'Or de la terre, 1984
 Miséréré, 1985
 Amarok, 1987
 L'Angélus du soir, 1988
 Maudits sauvages, 1989

Film adaptations
 God's Thunder (1966), Denys de La Patellière, from the book Qui m'emporte.
 Le Voyage du père (1966), Denys de La Patellière.

Television adaptations
 La Maison des autres (1977), Jean-Pierre Marchand Bernard Clavel.
 L'hercule sur la place.
 L'Espagnol (1967), directed by Jean Prat.
 Le Tambour du bief
 Le Silence des armes
 Malataverne
 La Bourelle
Les colonnes du ciel, adaptation by Gabriel Axel in 5 episodes of 90 minutes.

References

External links

 Official website
 Official website
 Bibliography

1923 births
2010 deaths
People from Lons-le-Saunier
20th-century French non-fiction writers
20th-century French male writers
Writers from Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
Prix Goncourt winners
Prix Maison de la Presse winners
Knights of the National Order of Quebec
Legion of Honour refusals


Ostrowy  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Ostrowy


Reczewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Reczewo


The following are international rankings of Saudi Arabia.

Cities
Riyadh

Metropolitan area by population
Most expensive cities

Communications
The World Factbook: Second number of mobile phones in use ranked
OECD: number of broadband Internet users ranked
Economist Intelligence Unit: e-readiness 2008 ranked out of 70 countries
The second position among G20 countries for telecoms expansion

Demographics
United Nations: Population ranked out of 221 countries
 Population density ranked out of 241 countries
United Nations report World Population Policies 2005, Number of immigrants ranked out of 192 countries

Economy
 United Nations: Human Development Index, ranked out of 177 countries
Nominal GDP growth rate: ranked out of 215 countries
Nominal GDP: ranked13 out of 179 countries ($ IMF; $ World Bank; $ CIA)
Nominal GDP per capita 2006, ranked out of 179 IMF; out of 170 World Bank; out of 185 CIA
 A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine: Globalization Index 2006, ranked out of 62 countries
 The Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal: 2006  Index of Economic Freedom, ranked out of 155 countries
 The Economist: Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005, ranked out of 111 countries
 World Economic Forum: Global Competitiveness Index 2006-2007, ranked 24 out of 125 countries
World Tourism Organization World Tourism rankings ranked out of all countries
World Economic Forum: Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2008, ranked out of 130 countries

Education

According to ARWU

1	            King Abdulaziz University	101-150
2	            King Saud University	151-200
3	            King Abdullah University of Science and Technology	201-300
4	            King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals	401-500

Energy

Oil
The World Factbook: oil imports 2007, ranked 73 out of 207 countries
The World Factbook: oil consumption 2009, ranked 9 out of 207 countries
The World Factbook: oil exports 2007, ranked 1 out of 209 countries
The World Factbook: oil production 2009, ranked 2 out of 208 countries
The World Factbook: proven oil reserves 2010, ranked 1 out of 204 countries

Natural gas
The World Factbook: natural gas imports 2008, ranked 135 out of 204 countries
The World Factbook: natural gas consumption 2009, ranked 11 out of 209 countries
The World Factbook: natural gas exports 208, ranked 130 out of 205 countries
The World Factbook: natural gas production 2009, ranked 11 out of 207 countries
The World Factbook: natural gas proven reserves 2010, ranked 5 out of 205 countries

Environment
 Yale University Center for Environmental Law and Policy and Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network: Environmental Sustainability Index, ranked out of 145 countries
 US Department of Energy: CO2 emissions per capita 2004, ranked out of 206 countries
The World Factbook: water resources ranked out of 174 countries

Geography
 Total area ranked out of 234 countries

Globalization
KOF: Index of Globalization 2007, ranked out of 122 countries
A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine: Globalization Index 2006, ranked out of 62 countries

Industry
OICA automobile production 2007, ranked out of 51 countries The first country of the Arab World to invest in industrial heritage, 2019, International Committee for the Conservation of the Industrial Heritage.

Military
Center for Strategic and International Studies: active troops ranked out of 166 countries

National Brand

Politics
 Transparency International: Corruption Perceptions Index, ranked 80th out of 180 countries
 Reporters without borders: Worldwide press freedom index, ranked 163 out of 167 countries
The Economist Democracy Index 2007, ranked 161 out of 167 countries

Society
 Save the Children: State of the World's Mothers report 2006, ranked out of 110 countries
World Health Organization: Suicide rate ranked out of 100 countries

Technology
 OECD: number of broadband Internet users 2007, ranked out of the 30 OECD countries
Brown University Taubman Center for Public Policy 2006: ranked in online government services
Internet Freedom
The 1st rank in the Arab World in the Global Cybersecurity Index
The 13th worldwide rank in Global Cybersecurity Index

Transportation

Other

References

Saudi Arabia


Rękawczyn  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Rempin  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Rempin


Rogienice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Rogienice


Rogieniczki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Gozdowo,  south-east of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Rogieniczki


Rycharcice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-east of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Rycharcice


Smorzewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Smorzewo


Stradzewo may refer to the following places:
Stradzewo, Lubusz Voivodeship (west Poland)
Stradzewo, Masovian Voivodeship (east-central Poland)
Stradzewo, West Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-west Poland)


Stradzewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Stradzewo


Węgrzynowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Zakrzewko  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Zakrzewko


Zbójno  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Gozdowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Gozdowo,  south of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


The atomic nucleus is the small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.  After the discovery of the neutron in 1932, models for a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons were quickly developed by Dmitri Ivanenko and Werner Heisenberg.  An atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus, with a cloud of negatively charged electrons surrounding it, bound together by electrostatic force. Almost all of the mass of an atom is located in the nucleus, with a very small contribution from the electron cloud. Protons and neutrons are bound together to form a nucleus by the nuclear force.

The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of  () for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about  for uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about  ()) to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about ).

The branch of physics concerned with the study and understanding of the atomic nucleus, including its composition and the forces that bind it together, is called nuclear physics.

Introduction

History

The nucleus was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's efforts to test Thomson's "plum pudding model" of the atom. The electron had already been discovered  by J. J. Thomson. Knowing that atoms are electrically neutral, J. J. Thomson postulated that there must be a positive charge as well. In his plum pudding model, Thomson suggested that an atom consisted of negative electrons randomly scattered within a sphere of positive charge. Ernest Rutherford later devised an experiment with his research partner Hans Geiger and with help of Ernest Marsden, that involved the deflection of alpha particles (helium nuclei) directed at a thin sheet of metal foil. He reasoned that if J. J. Thomson's model were correct, the positively charged alpha particles would easily pass through the foil with very little deviation in their paths, as the foil should act as electrically neutral if the negative and positive charges are so intimately mixed as to make it appear neutral. To his surprise, many of the particles were deflected at very large angles. Because the mass of an alpha particle is about 8000 times that of an electron, it became apparent that a very strong force must be present if it could deflect the massive and fast moving alpha particles. He realized that the plum pudding model could not be accurate and that the deflections of the alpha particles could only be explained if the positive and negative charges were separated from each other and that the mass of the atom was a concentrated point of positive charge. This justified the idea of a nuclear atom with a dense center of positive charge and mass.

Etymology
The term nucleus is from the Latin word , a diminutive of  ('nut'), meaning 'the kernel' (i.e., the 'small nut') inside a watery type of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used the term to refer to the "central point of an atom". The modern atomic meaning was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term "nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis stated, in his famous article The Atom and the Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the kernel and an outer atom or shell."
Similarly, the term kern meaning kernel is used for nucleus in German and Dutch.

Nuclear makeup

The nucleus of an atom consists of neutrons and protons, which in turn are the manifestation of more elementary particles, called quarks, that are held in association by the nuclear strong force in certain stable combinations of hadrons, called baryons. The nuclear strong force extends far enough from each baryon so as to bind the neutrons and protons together against the repulsive electrical force between the positively charged protons. The nuclear strong force has a very short range, and essentially drops to zero just beyond the edge of the nucleus. The collective action of the positively charged nucleus is to hold the electrically negative charged electrons in their orbits about the nucleus. The collection of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus display an affinity for certain configurations and numbers of electrons that make their orbits stable. Which chemical element an atom represents is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus; the neutral atom will have an equal number of electrons orbiting that nucleus. Individual chemical elements can create more stable electron configurations by combining to share their electrons. It is that sharing of electrons to create stable electronic orbits about the nuclei that appears to us as the chemistry of our macro world.

Protons define the entire charge of a nucleus, and hence its chemical identity. Neutrons are electrically neutral, but contribute to the mass of a nucleus to nearly the same extent as the protons. Neutrons can explain the phenomenon of isotopes (same atomic number with different atomic mass). The main role of neutrons is to reduce electrostatic repulsion inside the nucleus.

Composition and shape
Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different values of the strong isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function since they are not identical quantum entities. They are sometimes viewed as two different quantum states of the same particle, the nucleon. Two fermions, such as two protons, or two neutrons, or a proton + neutron (the deuteron) can exhibit bosonic behavior when they become loosely bound in pairs, which have integer spin.

In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, containing one or more strange quarks and/or other unusual quark(s), can also share the wave function. However, this type of nucleus is extremely unstable and not found on Earth except in high-energy physics experiments.

The neutron has a positively charged core of radius ≈ 0.3 fm surrounded by a compensating negative charge of radius between 0.3 fm and 2 fm. The proton has an approximately exponentially decaying positive charge distribution with a mean square radius of about 0.8 fm.

Nuclei can be spherical, rugby ball-shaped (prolate deformation), discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.

Forces
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This force is much weaker between neutrons and protons because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the same way that electromagnetic forces between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces that act between two inert gas atoms) are much weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the parts of the atoms together internally (for example, the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom bound to its nucleus).

The nuclear force is highly attractive at the distance of typical nucleon separation, and this overwhelms the repulsion between protons due to the electromagnetic force, thus allowing nuclei to exist. However, the residual strong force has a limited range because it decays quickly with distance (see Yukawa potential); thus only nuclei smaller than a certain size can be completely stable. The largest known completely stable nucleus (i.e. stable to alpha, beta, and gamma decay) is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons). Nuclei larger than this maximum are unstable and tend to be increasingly short-lived with larger numbers of nucleons. However, bismuth-209 is also stable to beta decay and has the longest half-life to alpha decay of any known isotope, estimated at a billion times longer than the age of the universe.

The residual strong force is effective over a very short range (usually only a few femtometres (fm); roughly one or two nucleon diameters) and causes an attraction between any pair of nucleons. For example, between protons and neutrons to form [NP] deuteron, and also between protons and protons, and neutrons and neutrons.

Halo nuclei and nuclear force range limits
The effective absolute limit of the range of the nuclear force (also known as residual strong force) is represented by halo nuclei such as lithium-11 or boron-14, in which dineutrons, or other collections of neutrons, orbit at distances of about  (roughly similar to the  radius of the nucleus of uranium-238). These nuclei are not maximally dense. Halo nuclei form at the extreme edges of the chart of the nuclides—the neutron drip line and proton drip line—and are all unstable with short half-lives, measured in milliseconds; for example, lithium-11 has a half-life of .

Halos in effect represent an excited state with nucleons in an outer quantum shell which has unfilled energy levels "below" it (both in terms of radius and energy). The halo may be made of either neutrons [NN, NNN] or protons [PP, PPP]. Nuclei which have a single neutron halo include 11Be and 19C. A two-neutron halo is exhibited by 6He, 11Li, 17B, 19B and 22C. Two-neutron halo nuclei break into three fragments, never two, and are called Borromean nuclei because of this behavior (referring to a system of three interlocked rings in which breaking any ring frees both of the others). 8He and 14Be both exhibit a four-neutron halo. Nuclei which have a proton halo include 8B and 26P. A two-proton halo is exhibited by 17Ne and 27S. Proton halos are expected to be more rare and unstable than the neutron examples, because of the repulsive electromagnetic forces of the excess proton(s).

Nuclear models

Although the standard model of physics is widely believed to completely describe the composition and behavior of the nucleus, generating predictions from theory is much more difficult than for most other areas of particle physics.  This is due to two reasons:

 In principle, the physics within a nucleus can be derived entirely from quantum chromodynamics (QCD). In practice however, current computational and mathematical approaches for solving QCD in low-energy systems such as the nuclei are extremely limited. This is due to the phase transition that occurs between high-energy quark matter and low-energy hadronic matter, which renders perturbative techniques unusable, making it difficult to construct an accurate QCD-derived model of the forces between nucleons. Current approaches are limited to either phenomenological models such as the Argonne v18 potential or chiral effective field theory.
 Even if the nuclear force is well constrained, a significant amount of computational power is required to accurately compute the properties of nuclei ab initio. Developments in many-body theory have made this possible for many low mass and relatively stable nuclei, but further improvements in both computational power and mathematical approaches are required before heavy nuclei or highly unstable nuclei can be tackled.

Historically, experiments have been compared to relatively crude models that are necessarily imperfect. None of these models can completely explain experimental data on nuclear structure.

The nuclear radius (R) is considered to be one of the basic quantities that any model must predict. For stable nuclei (not halo nuclei or other unstable distorted nuclei) the nuclear radius is roughly proportional to the cube root of the mass number (A) of the nucleus, and particularly in nuclei containing many nucleons, as they arrange in more spherical configurations:

The stable nucleus has approximately a constant density and therefore the nuclear radius R can be approximated by the following formula,

where A = Atomic mass number (the number of protons Z, plus the number of neutrons N) and r0 = 1.25 fm = 1.25 × 10−15 m. In this equation, the "constant" r0 varies by 0.2 fm, depending on the nucleus in question, but this is less than 20% change from a constant.

In other words, packing protons and neutrons in the nucleus gives approximately the same total size result as packing hard spheres of a constant size (like marbles) into a tight spherical or almost spherical bag (some stable nuclei are not quite spherical, but are known to be prolate).

Models of nuclear structure include:

Liquid drop model

Early models of the nucleus viewed the nucleus as a rotating liquid drop. In this model, the trade-off of long-range electromagnetic forces and relatively short-range nuclear forces, together cause behavior which resembled surface tension forces in liquid drops of different sizes. This formula is successful at explaining many important phenomena of nuclei, such as their changing amounts of binding energy as their size and composition changes (see semi-empirical mass formula), but it does not explain the special stability which occurs when nuclei have special "magic numbers" of protons or neutrons.

The terms in the semi-empirical mass formula, which can be used to approximate the binding energy of many nuclei, are considered as the sum of five types of energies (see below). Then the picture of a nucleus as a drop of incompressible liquid roughly accounts for the observed variation of binding energy of the nucleus:

Volume energy.  When an assembly of nucleons of the same size is packed together into the smallest volume, each interior nucleon has a certain number of other nucleons in contact with it. So, this nuclear energy is proportional to the volume.

Surface energy.  A nucleon at the surface of a nucleus interacts with fewer other nucleons than one in the interior of the nucleus and hence its binding energy is less. This surface energy term takes that into account and is therefore negative and is proportional to the surface area.

Coulomb energy. The electric repulsion between each pair of protons in a nucleus contributes toward decreasing its binding energy.

Asymmetry energy (also called Pauli Energy).  An energy associated with the Pauli exclusion principle. Were it not for the Coulomb energy, the most stable form of nuclear matter would have the same number of neutrons as protons, since unequal numbers of neutrons and protons imply filling higher energy levels for one type of particle, while leaving lower energy levels vacant for the other type.

Pairing energy.  An energy which is a correction term that arises from the tendency of proton pairs and neutron pairs to occur. An even number of particles is more stable than an odd number.

Shell models and other quantum models

A number of models for the nucleus have also been proposed in which nucleons occupy orbitals, much like the atomic orbitals in atomic physics theory. These wave models imagine nucleons to be either sizeless point particles in potential wells, or else probability waves as in the "optical model", frictionlessly orbiting at high speed in potential wells.

In the above models, the nucleons may occupy orbitals in pairs, due to being fermions, which allows explanation of even/odd Z and N effects well-known from experiments. The exact nature and capacity of nuclear shells differs from those of electrons in atomic orbitals, primarily because the potential well in which the nucleons move (especially in larger nuclei) is quite different from the central electromagnetic potential well which binds electrons in atoms. Some resemblance to atomic orbital models may be seen in a small atomic nucleus like that of helium-4, in which the two protons and two neutrons separately occupy 1s orbitals analogous to the 1s orbital for the two electrons in the helium atom, and achieve unusual stability for the same reason. Nuclei with 5 nucleons are all extremely unstable and short-lived, yet, helium-3, with 3 nucleons, is very stable even with lack of a closed 1s orbital shell. Another nucleus with 3 nucleons, the triton hydrogen-3 is unstable and will decay into helium-3 when isolated. Weak nuclear stability with 2 nucleons {NP} in the 1s orbital is found in the deuteron hydrogen-2, with only one nucleon in each of the proton and neutron potential wells. While each nucleon is a fermion, the {NP} deuteron is a boson and thus does not follow Pauli Exclusion for close packing within shells. Lithium-6 with 6 nucleons is highly stable without a closed second 1p shell orbital. For light nuclei with total nucleon numbers 1 to 6 only those with 5 do not show some evidence of stability. Observations of beta-stability of light nuclei outside closed shells indicate that nuclear stability is much more complex than simple closure of shell orbitals with magic numbers of protons and neutrons.

For larger nuclei, the shells occupied by nucleons begin to differ significantly from electron shells, but nevertheless, present nuclear theory does predict the magic numbers of filled nuclear shells for both protons and neutrons. The closure of the stable shells predicts unusually stable configurations, analogous to the noble group of nearly-inert gases in chemistry. An example is the stability of the closed shell of 50 protons, which allows tin to have 10 stable isotopes, more than any other element. Similarly, the distance from shell-closure explains the unusual instability of isotopes which have far from stable numbers of these particles, such as the radioactive elements 43 (technetium) and 61 (promethium), each of which is preceded and followed by 17 or more stable elements.

There are however problems with the shell model when an attempt is made to account for nuclear properties well away from closed shells. This has led to complex post hoc distortions of the shape of the potential well to fit experimental data, but the question remains whether these mathematical manipulations actually correspond to the spatial deformations in real nuclei. Problems with the shell model have led some to propose realistic two-body and three-body nuclear force effects involving nucleon clusters and then build the nucleus on this basis. Three such cluster models are the 1936 Resonating Group Structure model of John Wheeler, Close-Packed Spheron Model of Linus Pauling and the 2D Ising Model of MacGregor.

Consistency between models

As with the case of superfluid liquid helium, atomic nuclei are an example of a state in which both (1) "ordinary" particle physical rules for volume and (2) non-intuitive quantum mechanical rules for a wave-like nature apply. In superfluid helium, the helium atoms have volume, and essentially "touch" each other, yet at the same time exhibit strange bulk properties, consistent with a Bose–Einstein condensation. The nucleons in atomic nuclei also exhibit a wave-like nature and lack standard fluid properties, such as friction. For nuclei made of hadrons which are fermions, Bose-Einstein condensation does not occur, yet nevertheless, many nuclear properties can only be explained similarly by a combination of properties of particles with volume, in addition to the frictionless motion characteristic of the wave-like behavior of objects trapped in Erwin Schrödinger's quantum orbitals.

See also

Notes

References

External links

 The Nucleus – a chapter from an online textbook
 The LIVEChart of Nuclides – IAEA in Java  or HTML
 Article on the "nuclear shell model", giving nuclear shell filling for the various elements. Accessed September 16, 2009.
 Timeline: Subatomic Concepts, Nuclear Science & Technology.

Atoms
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear physics
Subatomic particles
Radiochemistry
Proton
Electron


Adamowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Adamowo


Bendorzyn  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Bendorzyn


Bożewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Bożewo Nowe  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Choczeń  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Cieślin  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Mochowo,  south-west of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Dobaczewo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Dobaczewo


Dobrzenice Małe  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw. From the name of the village was derived a Polish surname Dobrzeniecki.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Florencja  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Florencja


Gozdy  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Gozdy


Grabówiec  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Grodnia  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Grodnia


Kapuśniki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north of Mochowo,  west of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Kokoszczyn  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Kokoszczyn


Ligówko  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Mochowo,  south-west of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Ligowo  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Ligowo


Lisice Nowe  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Lisice Nowe


Mani Madhava Chakyar: The Master at Work is a 1994 biographical film on the life and work of Māni Mādhava Chākyār, maestro of Kutiyattam. The film is directed by Kavalam Narayana Panicker and produced by Sangeet Natak Akademi, New Delhi.

See also
Māni Mādhava Chākyār
Manifestations of Shiva (film)
Kutiyattam

External links

1994 films
Indian biographical films
1990s biographical films
1990s English-language films


Acetic acid , systematically named ethanoic acid , is an acidic, colourless liquid and organic compound with the chemical formula  (also written as , , or ). Vinegar is at least 4% acetic acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water and other trace elements.

Acetic acid is the second simplest carboxylic acid (after formic acid). It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used primarily in the production of cellulose acetate for photographic film, polyvinyl acetate for wood glue, and synthetic fibres and fabrics. In households, diluted acetic acid is often used in descaling agents. In the food industry, acetic acid is controlled by the food additive code E260 as an acidity regulator and as a condiment. In biochemistry, the acetyl group, derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A, it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats.

The global demand for acetic acid is about 6.5 million metric tons per year (t/a), of which approximately 1.5 t/a is met by recycling; the remainder is manufactured from methanol. Vinegar is mostly dilute acetic acid, often produced by fermentation and subsequent oxidation of ethanol.

Nomenclature

The trivial name "acetic acid" is the most commonly used and preferred IUPAC name. The systematic name "ethanoic acid", a valid IUPAC name, is constructed according to the substitutive nomenclature. The name "acetic acid" derives from the Latin word for vinegar, "", which is related to the word "acid" itself.

"Glacial acetic acid" is a name for water-free (anhydrous) acetic acid. Similar to the German name "Eisessig" ("ice vinegar"), the name comes from the solid ice-like crystals that form with agitation, slightly below room temperature at  (the presence of 0.1% water lowers its melting point by 0.2 °C).

A common symbol for acetic acid is AcOH (or HOAc), where Ac is the pseudoelement symbol representing the acetyl group ; the conjugate base, acetate (), is thus represented as . (The symbol Ac for the acetyl functional group is not to be confused with the symbol Ac for the element actinium; the context prevents confusion among organic chemists). To better reflect its structure, acetic acid is often written as , , , and . In the context of acid–base reactions, the abbreviation HAc is sometimes used, where Ac in this case is a symbol for acetate (rather than acetyl). Acetate is the ion resulting from loss of  from acetic acid. The name "acetate" can also refer to a salt containing this anion, or an ester of acetic acid.

History
Vinegar was known early in civilization as the natural result of exposure of beer and wine to air, because acetic acid-producing bacteria are present globally. The use of acetic acid in alchemy extends into the third century BC, when the Greek philosopher Theophrastus described how vinegar acted on metals to produce pigments useful in art, including white lead (lead carbonate) and verdigris, a green mixture of copper salts including copper(II) acetate. Ancient Romans boiled soured wine to produce a highly sweet syrup called sapa. Sapa that was produced in lead pots was rich in lead acetate, a sweet substance also called sugar of lead or sugar of Saturn, which contributed to lead poisoning among the Roman aristocracy.

In the 16th-century German alchemist Andreas Libavius described the production of acetone from the dry distillation of lead acetate, ketonic decarboxylation. The presence of water in vinegar has such a profound effect on acetic acid's properties that for centuries chemists believed that glacial acetic acid and the acid found in vinegar were two different substances. French chemist Pierre Adet proved them identical.

In 1845 German chemist Hermann Kolbe synthesised acetic acid from inorganic compounds for the first time. This reaction sequence consisted of chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride, followed by pyrolysis to tetrachloroethylene and aqueous chlorination to trichloroacetic acid, and concluded with electrolytic reduction to acetic acid.

By 1910, most glacial acetic acid was obtained from the pyroligneous liquor, a product of the distillation of wood. The acetic acid was isolated by treatment with milk of lime, and the resulting calcium acetate was then acidified with sulfuric acid to recover acetic acid. At that time, Germany was producing 10,000 tons of glacial acetic acid, around 30% of which was used for the manufacture of indigo dye.

Because both methanol and carbon monoxide are commodity raw materials, methanol carbonylation long appeared to be attractive precursors to acetic acid. Henri Dreyfus at British Celanese developed a methanol carbonylation pilot plant as early as 1925. However, a lack of practical materials that could contain the corrosive reaction mixture at the high pressures needed (200 atm or more) discouraged commercialization of these routes. The first commercial methanol carbonylation process, which used a cobalt catalyst, was developed by German chemical company BASF in 1963. In 1968, a rhodium-based catalyst (cis−) was discovered that could operate efficiently at lower pressure with almost no by-products. US chemical company Monsanto Company built the first plant using this catalyst in 1970, and rhodium-catalyzed methanol carbonylation became the dominant method of acetic acid production (see Monsanto process). In the late 1990s, the chemicals company BP Chemicals commercialised the Cativa catalyst (), which is promoted by iridium for greater efficiency. This iridium-catalyzed Cativa process is greener and more efficient and has largely supplanted the Monsanto process, often in the same production plants.

Interstellar medium
Interstellar acetic acid was discovered in 1996 by a team led by David Mehringer using the former Berkeley-Illinois-Maryland Association array at the Hat Creek Radio Observatory and the former Millimeter Array located at the Owens Valley Radio Observatory. It was first detected in the Sagittarius B2 North molecular cloud (also known as the Sgr B2 Large Molecule Heimat source). Acetic acid has the distinction of being the first molecule discovered in the interstellar medium using solely radio interferometers; in all previous ISM molecular discoveries made in the millimetre and centimetre wavelength regimes, single dish radio telescopes were at least partly responsible for the detections.

Properties

Acidity
The hydrogen centre in the carboxyl group (−COOH) in carboxylic acids such as acetic acid can separate from the molecule by ionization:

Because of this release of the proton (), acetic acid has acidic character. Acetic acid is a weak monoprotic acid. In aqueous solution, it has a pKa value of 4.76. Its conjugate base is acetate (). A 1.0 M solution (about the concentration of domestic vinegar) has a pH of 2.4, indicating that merely 0.4% of the acetic acid molecules are dissociated. However, in very dilute (< 10−6 M) solution acetic acid is >90% dissociated.

Structure
In solid acetic acid, the molecules form chains, individual molecules being interconnected by hydrogen bonds. In the vapour at , dimers can be detected. Dimers also occur in the liquid phase in dilute solutions in non-hydrogen-bonding solvents, and a certain extent in pure acetic acid, but are disrupted by hydrogen-bonding solvents. The dissociation enthalpy of the dimer is estimated at 65.0–66.0 kJ/mol, and the dissociation entropy at 154–157 J mol−1 K−1. Other carboxylic acids engage in similar intermolecular hydrogen bonding interactions.

Solvent properties
Liquid acetic acid is a hydrophilic (polar) protic solvent, similar to ethanol and water. With a relative static permittivity (dielectric constant) of 6.2, it dissolves not only polar compounds such as inorganic salts and sugars, but also non-polar compounds such as oils as well as polar solutes. It is miscible with polar and non-polar solvents such as water, chloroform, and hexane. With higher alkanes (starting with octane), acetic acid is not miscible at all compositions, and solubility of acetic acid in alkanes declines with longer n-alkanes. The solvent and miscibility properties of acetic acid make it a useful industrial chemical, for example, as a solvent in the production of dimethyl terephthalate.

Biochemistry
At physiological pHs, acetic acid is usually fully ionised to acetate.

The acetyl group, formally derived from acetic acid, is fundamental to all forms of life. When bound to coenzyme A, it is central to the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Unlike longer-chain carboxylic acids (the fatty acids), acetic acid does not occur in natural triglycerides. However, the artificial triglyceride triacetin (glycerine triacetate) is a common food additive and is found in cosmetics and topical medicines.

Acetic acid is produced and excreted by acetic acid bacteria, notably the genus Acetobacter and Clostridium acetobutylicum. These bacteria are found universally in foodstuffs, water, and soil, and acetic acid is produced naturally as fruits and other foods spoil. Acetic acid is also a component of the vaginal lubrication of humans and other primates, where it appears to serve as a mild antibacterial agent.

Production

Acetic acid is produced industrially both synthetically and by bacterial fermentation. About 75% of acetic acid made for use in the chemical industry is made by the carbonylation of methanol, explained below. The biological route accounts for only about 10% of world production, but it remains important for the production of vinegar because many food purity laws require vinegar used in foods to be of biological origin. Other processes are methyl formate isomerization, conversion of syngas to acetic acid, and gas phase oxidation of ethylene and ethanol.

Acetic acid can be purified via fractional freezing using an ice bath. The water and other impurities will remain liquid while the acetic acid will precipitate out. As of 2003–2005, total worldwide production of virgin acetic acid was estimated at 5 Mt/a (million tonnes per year), approximately half of which was produced in the United States. European production was approximately 1 Mt/a and declining, while Japanese production was 0.7 Mt/a. Another 1.5 Mt were recycled each year, bringing the total world market to 6.5 Mt/a. Since then the global production has increased to 10.7 Mt/a (in 2010), and further; however, a slowing in this increase in production is predicted. The two biggest producers of virgin acetic acid are Celanese and BP Chemicals. Other major producers include Millennium Chemicals, Sterling Chemicals, Samsung, Eastman, and .

Methanol carbonylation
Most acetic acid is produced by methanol carbonylation. In this process, methanol and carbon monoxide react to produce acetic acid according to the equation:

The process involves iodomethane as an intermediate, and occurs in three steps. A catalyst, metal carbonyl, is needed for the carbonylation (step 2).

Two related processes exist for the carbonylation of methanol: the rhodium-catalyzed Monsanto process, and the iridium-catalyzed Cativa process. The latter process is greener and more efficient and has largely supplanted the former process, often in the same production plants. Catalytic amounts of water are used in both processes, but the Cativa process requires less, so the water-gas shift reaction is suppressed, and fewer by-products are formed.

By altering the process conditions, acetic anhydride may also be produced on the same plant using the rhodium catalysts.

Acetaldehyde oxidation
Prior to the commercialization of the Monsanto process, most acetic acid was produced by oxidation of acetaldehyde. This remains the second-most-important manufacturing method, although it is usually not competitive with the carbonylation of methanol. The acetaldehyde can be produced by hydration of acetylene. This was the dominant technology in the early 1900s.

Light naphtha components are readily oxidized by oxygen or even air to give peroxides, which decompose to produce acetic acid according to the chemical equation, illustrated with butane:

Such oxidations require metal catalyst, such as the naphthenate salts of manganese, cobalt, and chromium.

The typical reaction is conducted at temperatures and pressures designed to be as hot as possible while still keeping the butane a liquid. Typical reaction conditions are  and 55 atm. Side-products may also form, including butanone, ethyl acetate, formic acid, and propionic acid. These side-products are also commercially valuable, and the reaction conditions may be altered to produce more of them where needed. However, the separation of acetic acid from these by-products adds to the cost of the process.

Similar conditions and catalysts are used for butane oxidation, the oxygen in air to produce acetic acid can oxidize acetaldehyde.

Using modern catalysts, this reaction can have an acetic acid yield greater than 95%. The major side-products are ethyl acetate, formic acid, and formaldehyde, all of which have lower boiling points than acetic acid and are readily separated by distillation.

Ethylene oxidation
Acetaldehyde may be prepared from ethylene via the Wacker process, and then oxidised as above.

In more recent times, chemical company Showa Denko, which opened an ethylene oxidation plant in Ōita, Japan, in 1997, commercialised a cheaper single-stage conversion of ethylene to acetic acid. The process is catalyzed by a palladium metal catalyst supported on a heteropoly acid such as silicotungstic acid. A similar process uses the same metal catalyst on silicotungstic acid and silica:

It is thought to be competitive with methanol carbonylation for smaller plants (100–250 kt/a), depending on the local price of ethylene.
The approach will be based on utilizing a novel selective photocatalytic oxidation technology for the selective oxidation of ethylene and ethane to acetic acid. Unlike traditional oxidation catalysts, the selective oxidation process will use UV light to produce acetic acid at ambient temperatures and pressure.

Oxidative fermentation
For most of human history, acetic acid bacteria of the genus Acetobacter have made acetic acid, in the form of vinegar. Given sufficient oxygen, these bacteria can produce vinegar from a variety of alcoholic foodstuffs. Commonly used feeds include apple cider, wine, and fermented grain, malt, rice, or potato mashes. The overall chemical reaction facilitated by these bacteria is:

A dilute alcohol solution inoculated with Acetobacter and kept in a warm, airy place will become vinegar over the course of a few months. Industrial vinegar-making methods accelerate this process by improving the supply of oxygen to the bacteria.

The first batches of vinegar produced by fermentation probably followed errors in the winemaking process. If must is fermented at too high a temperature, acetobacter will overwhelm the yeast naturally occurring on the grapes. As the demand for vinegar for culinary, medical, and sanitary purposes increased, vintners quickly learned to use other organic materials to produce vinegar in the hot summer months before the grapes were ripe and ready for processing into wine. This method was slow, however, and not always successful, as the vintners did not understand the process.

One of the first modern commercial processes was the "fast method" or "German method", first practised in Germany in 1823. In this process, fermentation takes place in a tower packed with wood shavings or charcoal. The alcohol-containing feed is trickled into the top of the tower, and fresh air supplied from the bottom by either natural or forced convection. The improved air supply in this process cut the time to prepare vinegar from months to weeks.

Nowadays, most vinegar is made in submerged tank culture, first described in 1949 by Otto Hromatka and Heinrich Ebner. In this method, alcohol is fermented to vinegar in a continuously stirred tank, and oxygen is supplied by bubbling air through the solution. Using modern applications of this method, vinegar of 15% acetic acid can be prepared in only 24 hours in batch process, even 20% in 60-hour fed-batch process.

Anaerobic fermentation
Species of anaerobic bacteria, including members of the genus Clostridium or Acetobacterium can convert sugars to acetic acid directly without creating ethanol as an intermediate. The overall chemical reaction conducted by these bacteria may be represented as:

These acetogenic bacteria produce acetic acid from one-carbon compounds, including methanol, carbon monoxide, or a mixture of carbon dioxide and hydrogen:

This ability of Clostridium to metabolize sugars directly, or to produce acetic acid from less costly inputs, suggests that these bacteria could produce acetic acid more efficiently than ethanol-oxidizers like Acetobacter. However, Clostridium bacteria are less acid-tolerant than Acetobacter. Even the most acid-tolerant Clostridium strains can produce vinegar in concentrations of only a few per cent, compared to Acetobacter strains that can produce vinegar in concentrations up to 20%. At present, it remains more cost-effective to produce vinegar using Acetobacter, rather than using Clostridium and concentrating it. As a result, although acetogenic bacteria have been known since 1940, their industrial use is confined to a few niche applications.

Uses
Acetic acid is a chemical reagent for the production of chemical compounds. The largest single use of acetic acid is in the production of vinyl acetate monomer, closely followed by acetic anhydride and ester production. The volume of acetic acid used in vinegar is comparatively small.

Vinyl acetate monomer
The primary use of acetic acid is the production of vinyl acetate monomer (VAM). In 2008, this application was estimated to consume a third of the world's production of acetic acid. The reaction consists of ethylene and acetic acid with oxygen over a palladium catalyst, conducted in the gas phase.

Vinyl acetate can be polymerised to polyvinyl acetate or other polymers, which are components in paints and adhesives.

Ester production
The major esters of acetic acid are commonly used as solvents for inks, paints and coatings. The esters include ethyl acetate, n-butyl acetate, isobutyl acetate, and propyl acetate. They are typically produced by catalyzed reaction from acetic acid and the corresponding alcohol:
, R = general alkyl group
For example, acetic acid and ethanol gives ethyl acetate and water.

Most acetate esters, however, are produced from acetaldehyde using the Tishchenko reaction. In addition, ether acetates are used as solvents for nitrocellulose, acrylic lacquers, varnish removers, and wood stains. First, glycol monoethers are produced from ethylene oxide or propylene oxide with alcohol, which are then esterified with acetic acid. The three major products are ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate (EEA), ethylene glycol monobutyl ether acetate (EBA), and propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate (PMA, more commonly known as PGMEA in semiconductor manufacturing processes, where it is used as a resist solvent). This application consumes about 15% to 20% of worldwide acetic acid. Ether acetates, for example EEA, have been shown to be harmful to human reproduction.

Acetic anhydride
The product of the condensation of two molecules of acetic acid is acetic anhydride. The worldwide production of acetic anhydride is a major application, and uses approximately 25% to 30% of the global production of acetic acid. The main process involves dehydration of acetic acid to give ketene at 700–750 °C. Ketene is thereafter reacted with acetic acid to obtain the anhydride:

Acetic anhydride is an acetylation agent. As such, its major application is for cellulose acetate, a synthetic textile also used for photographic film. Acetic anhydride is also a reagent for the production of heroin and other compounds.

Use as solvent
As a polar protic solvent, acetic acid is frequently used for recrystallization to purify organic compounds. Acetic acid is used as a solvent in the production of terephthalic acid (TPA), the raw material for polyethylene terephthalate (PET). In 2006, about 20% of acetic acid was used for TPA production.

Acetic acid is often used as a solvent for reactions involving carbocations, such as Friedel-Crafts alkylation. For example, one stage in the commercial manufacture of synthetic camphor involves a Wagner-Meerwein rearrangement of camphene to isobornyl acetate; here acetic acid acts both as a solvent and as a nucleophile to trap the rearranged carbocation.

Glacial acetic acid is used in analytical chemistry for the estimation of weakly alkaline substances such as organic amides. Glacial acetic acid is a much weaker base than water, so the amide behaves as a strong base in this medium. It then can be titrated using a solution in glacial acetic acid of a very strong acid, such as perchloric acid.

Medical use

Acetic acid injection into a tumor has been used to treat cancer since the 1800s.

Acetic acid is used as part of cervical cancer screening in many areas in the developing world. The acid is applied to the cervix and if an area of white appears after about a minute the test is positive.

Acetic acid is an effective antiseptic when used as a 1% solution, with broad spectrum of activity against streptococci, staphylococci, pseudomonas, enterococci and others. It may be used to treat skin infections caused by pseudomonas strains resistant to typical antibiotics.

While diluted acetic acid is used in iontophoresis, no high quality evidence supports this treatment for rotator cuff disease.

As a treatment for otitis externa, it is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

Foods

Acetic acid has  per 100 g. Vinegar is typically no less than 4% acetic acid by mass. Legal limits on acetic acid content vary by jurisdiction. Vinegar is used directly as a condiment, and in the pickling of vegetables and other foods. Table vinegar tends to be more diluted (4% to 8% acetic acid), while commercial food pickling employs solutions that are more concentrated. The proportion of acetic acid used worldwide as vinegar is not as large as commercial uses, but is by far the oldest and best-known application.

Reactions

Organic chemistry

Acetic acid undergoes the typical chemical reactions of a carboxylic acid. Upon treatment with a standard base, it converts to metal acetate and water. With strong bases (e.g., organolithium reagents), it can be doubly deprotonated to give . Reduction of acetic acid gives ethanol. The OH group is the main site of reaction, as illustrated by the conversion of acetic acid to acetyl chloride. Other substitution derivatives include acetic anhydride; this anhydride is produced by loss of water from two molecules of acetic acid. Esters of acetic acid can likewise be formed via Fischer esterification, and amides can be formed. When heated above , acetic acid decomposes to produce carbon dioxide and methane, or to produce ketene and water:

Reactions with inorganic compounds
Acetic acid is mildly corrosive to metals including iron, magnesium, and zinc, forming hydrogen gas and salts called acetates:

Because aluminium forms a passivating acid-resistant film of aluminium oxide, aluminium tanks are used to transport acetic acid. Metal acetates can also be prepared from acetic acid and an appropriate base, as in the popular "baking soda + vinegar" reaction giving off sodium acetate:

A colour reaction for salts of acetic acid is iron(III) chloride solution, which results in a deeply red colour that disappears after acidification. A more sensitive test uses lanthanum nitrate with iodine and ammonia to give a blue solution. Acetates when heated with arsenic trioxide form cacodyl oxide, which can be detected by its malodorous vapours.

Other derivatives
Organic or inorganic salts are produced from acetic acid. Some commercially significant derivatives:
Sodium acetate, used in the textile industry and as a food preservative (E262).
Copper(II) acetate, used as a pigment and a fungicide.
Aluminium acetate and iron(II) acetate—used as mordants for dyes.
Palladium(II) acetate, used as a catalyst for organic coupling reactions such as the Heck reaction.

Halogenated acetic acids are produced from acetic acid. Some commercially significant derivatives:
Chloroacetic acid (monochloroacetic acid, MCA), dichloroacetic acid (considered a by-product), and trichloroacetic acid. MCA is used in the manufacture of indigo dye.
Bromoacetic acid, which is esterified to produce the reagent ethyl bromoacetate.
Trifluoroacetic acid, which is a common reagent in organic synthesis.

Amounts of acetic acid used in these other applications together account for another 5–10% of acetic acid use worldwide.

Health effects and safety
Concentrated acetic acid is corrosive to skin. These burns or blisters may not appear until hours after exposure.

Prolonged inhalation exposure (eight hours) to acetic acid vapours at 10 ppm can produce some irritation of eyes, nose, and throat; at 100 ppm marked lung irritation and possible damage to lungs, eyes, and skin may result. Vapour concentrations of 1,000 ppm cause marked irritation of eyes, nose and upper respiratory tract and cannot be tolerated. These predictions were based on animal experiments and industrial exposure.

In 12 workers exposed for two or more years to acetic acid airborne average concentration of 51 ppm (estimated), produced symptoms of conjunctive irritation, upper respiratory tract irritation, and hyperkeratotic dermatitis. Exposure to 50 ppm or more is intolerable to most persons and results in intensive lacrimation and irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat, with pharyngeal oedema and chronic bronchitis. Unacclimatised humans experience extreme eye and nasal irritation at concentrations in excess of 25 ppm, and conjunctivitis from concentrations below 10 ppm has been reported. In a study of five workers exposed for seven to 12 years to concentrations of 80 to 200 ppm at peaks, the principal findings were blackening and hyperkeratosis of the skin of the hands, conjunctivitis (but no corneal damage), bronchitis and pharyngitis, and erosion of the exposed teeth (incisors and canines).

The hazards of solutions of acetic acid depend on the concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of acetic acid solutions:

Concentrated acetic acid can be ignited only with difficulty at standard temperature and pressure, but becomes a flammable risk in temperatures greater than , and can form explosive mixtures with air at higher temperatures (explosive limits: 5.4–16%).

See also
Acetic acid (data page)
Acids in wine

Notes

References

External links

National Pollutant Inventory – Acetic acid fact sheet
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Method for sampling and analysis
29 CFR 1910.1000, Table Z-1 (US Permissible exposure limits)
ChemSub Online: Acetic acid
Calculation of vapor pressure, liquid density, dynamic liquid viscosity, surface tension of acetic acid
Acetic acid bound to proteins in the PDB
Swedish Chemicals Agency. Information sheet – Acetic Acid
 Process Flow sheet of Acetic acid Production by the Carbonylation of Methanol

Acids in wine
Antiseptics
Commodity chemicals
E-number additives
Flavors
Household chemicals
Otologicals
Photographic chemicals
Solvents
World Health Organization essential medicines
Organic compounds with 2 carbon atoms


Łukoszyn  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Łukoszyno-Biki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  south of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Malanówko  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Mochowo,  south-west of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Villages in Sierpc County


Malanowo Nowe  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Mochowo,  south-west of Sierpc, and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Malanowo Nowe


Malanowo Stare  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-west of Mochowo,  southwest of Sierpc, and  northwest of Warsaw.

References

Malanowo Stare


Mochowo  is a village in Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Mochowo. It lies approximately  south-west of Sierpc and  north-west of Warsaw.

References

Mochowo


Mochowo-Dobrzenice  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Mochowo-Dobrzenice


Mochowo-Parcele  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Mochowo-Parcele


Myszki may refer to the following places:
Myszki, Greater Poland Voivodeship (west-central Poland)
Myszki, Masovian Voivodeship (east-central Poland)
Myszki, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (north Poland)


Myszki  is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Mochowo, within Sierpc County, Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland.

References

Myszki