Pleasant Hills is a historic home located near Upper Marlboro in Prince George's County, Maryland, United States. It is a large, two-part brick house with Greek Revival detailing. The more recent, main block, was built in 1836 by Zaddock Sasscer.

Pleasant Hills was built in a side-hall-and-double-parlor plan style that was popular among the wealthy planter class of Prince George's County during the early part of the 19th century. The property was the homestead of the Sasscer and Hill family, prominent in local politics and commerce, since the property was purchased by Zaddock Sasscer in 1807 as his "dwelling plantation".

The architectural details of the main block of the house suggest that it was constructed during the 1830s. In fact, the architrave around the windows and doorways are identical to one that appears in an Asher Benjamin builder's book of 1830. The two-story hyphen and wing date from earlier, however, and were already standing when Zaddock Sasscer bought them from Colmore Beans (brother to William Beanes of "Star Spangled Banner" fame) in 1807. According to the last owners from the family, their restoration/renovation process revealed building methods and materials in the kitchen wing that pre-dates the rest of the main block. This is also supported by a family legend that the original main block burned to the ground.

The side-hall and double-parlor plan in which Pleasant Hills was constructed is typical of homes built by the wealthy planter class of Prince George's County. The double parlors allowed for a "best parlor" for receiving guests and a less formal back parlor (also known as dining parlor or sitting room) where the family could retire. Double parlors could also allow for the partially separate, yet concurrent, entertaining of ladies and gentlemen. One parlor contained the typical accouterments of an early 19th-century parlor, including a dozen chairs, sofa, table, parlor mirror and three pictures.

The second of the two parlors contained a parlor lamp, sideboard, two tables, book stand, liquor case, and a few odds and ends. As was typical of the family parlor, this room appears to have been used for dining and reading or other forms of relaxation. Still another room (probably the one adjoining the kitchen in the old section) lists a sideboard, cupboard, table, and chairs.

The considerable amount of space given over to the hall passage further reflects the rise in the importance of separating social space from family space, and the control over circulation through rooms that occurred during the mid-18th century. The large hall served as both a formal entry into the house and a transitional space between the two parlors and the outside. It also allows for entry into either parlor without having to go through multiple rooms. The hall passage which runs from front to rear as seen at Pleasant Hills also allowed for cross ventilation, which was particularly important during summer months. Numerous inventories indicate that these passages were often used as living rooms during that time. It is not unusual to see listed dining or other tables, couches, desks, etc. within passages (or even bedsteads in second-floor passages). From these inventories the hall passage is speculated to be an integral part of the overall plan and probably served as more than just a formal entry.

The period in architecture in which Pleasant Hills was constructed embraced the neoclassical in both its Roman and Greek forms: Adamesque Georgian, Federal and Greek Revival. These elements are seen at Pleasant Hills in their vernacular form. Houses such as Pleasant Hills, located in rural areas removed from large, fashionable cites, were built by local carpenter/builders using builders' guides or pattern books. In fact, the architrave molding found around the windows and doors of the first story of the main block can be found in Asher Benjamin's builder's book, The Practical House Carpenter, published in 1830 (plate 46).  Benjamin outlines Grecian-influenced patterns for moldings, architraves, frontispieces, and so on. As stated by Benjamin, "I consider it necessary that all practical house carpenters should be fully acquainted with the orders of architecture, particularly those who reside in the country, where they have no opportunity of consulting an architect."

Zaddock Sasscer's property included 350 acres of "Four Hills," "Moore's Craft" and "Littleworth." Sasscer also had an additional 400-acre "plantation", inherited from his father, on which he raised tobacco. As his will states, "...I wish the tobacco now on hand to be sold...." Also mentioned in the tax assessment records for William Sasscer is the "land with distillery on it... 3-3/4 acres" (and included in the inventory of his estate are 22 barrels). The inventory also indicates that sheep and lamb were raised on the plantation, which also included oxen, cows and pigs; and twenty-six slaves (fourteen men and boys and twelve women and children).

Pleasant Hills was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.

References

External links
, including photo in 1974, at Maryland Historical Trust website
Pleasant Hills, 7001 Croom Station Road, Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, MD: 18 photos and 18 data pages, at Historic American Buildings Survey
Pleasant Hills, Dependencies, Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, MD: 1 photo and 1 data page, at Historic American Buildings Survey
Pleasant Hills, Granary, Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, MD: 1 photo and 1 data page, at Historic American Buildings Survey
Pleasant Hills, Large Tenant House, Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, MD: 1 photo and 1 data page, at Historic American Buildings Survey
Pleasant Hills, Small Tenant House, Upper Marlboro, Prince George's County, MD: 1 photo and 1 data page, at Historic American Buildings Survey

Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
Houses in Prince George's County, Maryland
Greek Revival houses in Maryland
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland


Hungary–Poland relations are the foreign relations between Hungary and Poland. Relations between the two nations date back to the Middle Ages. The two Central European peoples have traditionally enjoyed a very close friendship, brotherhood and camaraderie rooted in a deep history of shared rulers, cultures, struggles, and faith. Both countries commemorate their fraternal relationship on the 23rd of March.

From 1370 to 1382 the Kingdom of Poland and Kingdom of Hungary entered into a personal union and were ruled by the same King, Louis the Great. This period in Polish history is sometimes known as the Andegawen Poland. Louis inherited the Polish throne from his maternal uncle Casimir III. After Louis's death the Polish nobles (the szlachta) decided to end the personal union, since they did not want to be governed from Hungary, and chose Louis's younger daughter Jadwiga as their new ruler, while Hungary was inherited by his elder daughter Mary. A second personal union with Poland was formed for the second time from 1440 to 1444, when King Władysław III of Poland was also King of Hungary.

Both countries are full members of NATO, joining it on the same day (March 12, 1999) and are also both members of the European Union, the OECD, the Council of Europe, the Visegrád Four (along with Slovakia and the Czech Republic), the Bucharest Nine, the Three Seas Initiative, the OSCE and the World Trade Organization.

The leaders of the two countries have been holding regular secret meetings to improve bilateral relations and work more closely together. Hungarian-Polish political scientist Dominik Hejj states: "The relations are very strong, and almost every week a Polish minister visits Hungary and vice versa". The two countries first joined NATO in 1999 and then the European Union in 2004.

Historic relations

Good relations between Poland and Hungary date back to the Middle Ages. Both countries shared a border for nearly 800 years, from the 10th century to the First Partition of Poland in 1772. The Polish and Hungarian ruling dynasties (such as the Piast dynasty or House of Árpád) often intermarried. Louis the Great was king of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and king of Poland from 1370 until his death in 1382. He was his father's heir, Charles I of the House of Anjou-Sicily (King of Hungary and Croatia) and his uncle's heir, Casimir III the Great (king of Poland – last of the Piast dynasty). King Casimir had no legitimate sons. Apparently, in order to provide a clear line of succession and avoid dynastic uncertainty, he arranged for his nephew, King Louis I of Hungary, to be his successor in Poland. Louis' younger daughter Saint Jadwiga of Poland inherited the Polish throne, and became one of the most popular monarchs of Poland. In 1440–1444, the two countries shared the same King again, after King Władysław III of Poland became also King of Hungary. He was eventually killed in the Battle of Varna in which a coalition of Central and Eastern European countries led by Poland and Hungary was defeated by the Turks. Poles fought on the side of Hungary in subsequent Ottoman–Hungarian wars, including the battles of Kosovo (1448) and Mohács (1526). From 1490 to 1526, both countries were ruled by separate but closely related branches of the Jagiellonian dynasty, after Polish prince Władysław, son of Polish King Casimir IV Jagiellon, became King Vladislaus II of Hungary. In 1576, Poland elected the Hungarian nobleman Stephen Báthory as its king, who is regarded as one of Poland's greatest rulers. The famous Polish hussars were modelled after Hungarian hussars.

Hungarian and Polish fights for independence

Poles gave shelter to Hungarian insurgents and aided them during the Rákóczi's War of Independence against Austria. In 1701 Hungarian conspirators  and Francis II Rákóczi fled to Poland, where they established contacts with the Polish Royal court and gained the support of several Polish magnates for the planned Hungarian uprising. In Poland, Bercsényi and Rákóczi received protection from the Austrians, who still tried to capture them through attempts of the Habsburg ambassador to Poland. After the Hungarian uprising broke out in 1703, an insurgent delegation went to Poland to find Rákóczi and ask him to lead the uprising. A meeting of the then insurgent leader  with Rákóczi and Bercsényi took place in May 1703 in Brzeżany, Poland, and it also was the place where Rákóczi and Bercsényi signed a proclamation, which called on Hungarians to fight for independence. Rákóczi and Bercsényi then went to Hungary separately, each with Polish troops lent by Polish magnates. In September 1703, Polish King Augustus II the Strong in an official document to the port city of Gdańsk prohibited the purchase of weapons for the Hungarian insurgents, but at the same time he secretly assured Rákóczi of his friendship, and many weapons were supplied to the Hungarians through Gdańsk during the war. The Hungarians maintained close contact with Poland, both through correspondence and their envoys, and also thanks to the numerous visits of Poles at Rákóczi's court in Szentmiklós in 1707–1710.

After the fall of the uprising in 1711, 3,000 Kurucs, including Rákóczi himself, took refuge in Poland. Rákóczi then lived in Jarosław and Gdańsk before leaving Poland in 1712 for France, where he unsuccessfully sought support for Hungarian national liberation efforts. A number of Hungarians remained in Poland, including painter Ádám Mányoki, who became a court painter of Polish Kings, and Ádám Jávorka, who became a general of the Polish Army.

There were cases of Hungarians, who in small groups or individually, made their way to the Russian Partition of Poland to help the Polish November Uprising of 1830–1831. The Hungarian counties voiced their support for the uprising. In 1832, after the fall of the uprising, the Hungarian parliament agreed with the position of the Hungarian counties on the uprising. The pro-Polish stance of the Hungarian parliament was exceptional among the predominantly indifferent European countries. After the uprising, the Polish National Committee formed in exile in Paris issued a proclamation to the Hungarian people, thanking them for their support, stating that "there was no nation which would more openly and boldly acknowledge the friendship and righteousness of our cause." Among the founding members of the committee was Charles Kraitsir, a Hungarian-born doctor decorated with the Order of Virtuti Militari for his services in the November Uprising, who spent the rest of his life as part of the Polish Great Emigration. Committee leader Joachim Lelewel saw him as a link between the committee and the Hungarian people. Kraitsir issued a proclamation to the Hungarian people, calling for help for the Polish emigration in Western Europe. This proclamation was smuggled into Austrian-ruled Hungary, and its distribution carried the risk of repression by the Austrians.

In the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, a Polish general, Józef Bem, became a national hero of both Hungary and Poland. He was entrusted with the defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as General of the Székely troops. On October 20, 1848 Józef Wysocki signed an agreement with the Hungarian government to form a Polish infantry battalion of about 1,200 soldiers. After the agreement, Wysocki organized the Polish Legion in Hungary, which contained 2,090 infantry soldiers and 400 Polish uhlans. They took part in the siege of the Arad fortress in the spring of 1849 and participated in all important battles at Szolnok, Hatvan, Tápióbicske and Isaszeg. After the Battle of Temesvár in August 1849, and the Hungarian capitulation at Világos, 800 of the remnants of the Legion escaped to Turkey.

As part of the International Legion in Italy, both Hungarians and Poles led by István Türr and Ludwik Mierosławski fought alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi in the Expedition of the Thousand of 1860–1861, which paved the way for the creation of a united Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Afterwards, Poles and Hungarians in exile worked together to organize a large-scale uprising of Hungarians, Poles and Italians against Austria, while Poles and Hungarians in the Austrian Partition of Poland and Austrian-ruled Hungary cooperated to achieve political and cultural autonomy for their nations, including the right to use their native languages, and to hinder Austrian attempts to centralize power in Vienna. In Paris, György Klapka, Ludwik Mierosławski and Giuseppe Garibaldi decided that Hungarian and Italian revolutionaries would help in the event of a Polish uprising.

In 1861, the Austrian Emperor dissolved the Hungarian parliament because of its resistance to the Austrian plan of centralization of administration, and then the Austrians implemented their orders by force, and even declared a state of emergency in Hungary and threatened to repress resistant Hungarians. Polish politicians from Galicia (Austrian Partition of Poland) spoke out against such Austrian policies and defended the political and historical rights of the Hungarian people. , Polish deputy who delivered a splendid speech against the Austrian centralist plans and in defense of the rights of the Hungarians, received dozens of letters of thanks and honorary citizenships from Hungarian counties and towns. In response, Smolka thanked the Hungarian people in an open letter, assuring them of the friendship of the Polish nation and declaring to the Hungarians that "your cause is our cause, and our cause is your cause."

Several hundred Hungarian volunteers fought alongside Poles in the January Uprising in the Russian Partition of Poland in 1863–1864, forming a large group among the foreign volunteers. Among them were Major  and Captain Albert Esterhazy, who died at the battles of Panasówka and Mełchów respectively. In Hungary, funds and weapons were collected by the people and sent to the Polish insurgents. After the fall of the uprising, about 4,000 Polish refugees were received in Hungary.

Interwar years 1919–1939

Friendship between Poland and Hungary typified the interwar period. However Poland was among the victors of World War I, and therefore supported the status quo, while Hungary suffered unparalleled losses, and therefore pursued a revisionist policy. The ruling forces in both countries suppressed all revolutionary movements, and forced the Communist Party underground. As a result, both were hostile to Soviet Russia and Czechoslovakia. Support for a pro-Hungarian policy in Poland came mainly from conservative aristocratic centers in Kraków and Wilno. Anti-Czech feelings led Poland and Hungary to support Hitler during the Munich crisis in 1938. However pro-Polish feelings made it impossible for Hungary to side with Hitler against Poland when it invaded in 1939.

During the Polish–Soviet War (1919–21), after the Béla Kun government in Hungary was overthrown, Hungary offered to send 30,000 cavalry to Poland's aid, but the Czechoslovak government refused to allow them through the demilitarized zone that had existed between Czechoslovakia and Hungary since the end of the First World War. Nevertheless, Hungarian munitions trains did reach Poland.

In the beginning of July 1920, the Hungarian government of Prime Minister Pál Teleki made a decision to help Poland, delivering for free and at a critical moment of war at Hungary's own expense through Romania's military supply: 48 million rounds of Mauser ammunition, 13 million rounds of Mannlicher ammunition, artillery ammunition, 30 thousand Mauser rifles and several million spare parts, 440 field kitchens, and 80 field ovens. On August 12, 1920, Skierniewice received transport, among others 22 million rounds to Mauser from the Manfréd Weiss factory in Csepel. It was the single most important foreign military contribution to Polish war effort. Hundreds of Hungarian volunteers fought on the side of Poland in the war, and some stayed in Poland after the war.

The first international match of the Poland national football team was a friendly game against Hungary played in Budapest in 1921.

From the Middle Ages well into the 20th century, Poland and Hungary had shared a historic common border. In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious allies had, at Versailles, transferred Upper Hungary as well as Carpathian Ruthenia, with its Slavic population, from defeated Hungary to Slavic-German-Hungarian nascent Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement (September 30, 1938) — which doomed Czechoslovakia to takeover by Germany — Poland and Hungary, from common as well as their own special interests, worked together, by diplomatic as well as paramilitary means, to restore their historic common border by engineering the return of Carpathian Rus to Hungary. A step toward their goal was realized with the First Vienna Award (November 2, 1938).

Until mid-March 1939, Germany considered that, for military reasons, a common Hungarian-Polish frontier was undesirable. Indeed, when in March 1939 Hitler made an about-face and authorized Hungary to take over the rest of Carpatho-Rus (which was by then styling itself "Carpatho-Ukraine"), he warned Hungary not to touch the remainder of Slovakia, to whose territory Hungary also laid claim. Hitler meant to use Slovakia as a staging ground for his planned invasion of Poland. In March 1939, however, Hitler changed his mind about the common Hungarian-Polish frontier and decided to betray Germany's ally, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, who had already in 1938 begun organizing Ukrainian military units in a sich outside Uzhhorod, in Carpathian Ukraine, under German tutelage — a sich that Polish political and military authorities saw as an imminent danger to nearby southeastern Poland, with its largely Ukrainian population. Hitler, however, was concerned that, if a Ukrainian army organized in Carpathian Rus were to accompany German forces invading the Soviet Union, Ukrainian nationalists would insist on the establishment of an independent Ukraine; Hitler, who had designs on Ukraine's natural and agricultural resources, did not want to deal with an independent Ukrainian government.

World War II

Hitler would soon have cause to rue his decision regarding the fate of Carpatho-Ukraine. In six months, during his 1939 invasion of Poland, the common Polish-Hungarian border would become of major importance when Admiral Horthy's government, on the ground of long-standing Polish-Hungarian friendship, declined, as a matter of "Hungarian honor," Hitler's request to transit German forces across Carpathian Rus into southeastern Poland to speed up that country's conquest. The Hungarian refusal allowed the Polish government and tens of thousands of military personnel to escape into neighboring Hungary and Romania, and from there to France and French-mandated Syria to carry on operations as the third-strongest Allied belligerent after Britain and France. Also, for a time Polish and British intelligence agents and couriers, including Krystyna Skarbek, used Hungary's Carpathorus as a route across the Carpathian Mountains to and from Poland. In total, over 100,000 military and civilians, including children, fled from Poland to Hungary.

The Hungarian authorities resisted German pressure to close the Polish Institute in Budapest, a Polish cultural institution established before the war. In order to do so, the Hungarians referred to the autonomy of the Royal Hungarian Pázmány Péter University, whose employee was the director of the Institute, Professor Zbigniew Załęski. The Institute was a place where Polish culture was freely and legally cultivated at a time when it was brutally suppressed in German- and Soviet-occupied Poland and Europe. The Institute also published Polish literature and press, and in addition to cultural activities, it helped Polish refugees and civilians in Hungary, and gave Hungarian language lessons to Poles so that they could study at Hungarian universities. It was closed only in 1944 due to the German occupation of Hungary, to be reopened after the war in 1951.

Dozens of Polish elementary schools were established in Hungary, 27 of which existed throughout the entire stay of Poles in Hungary, as well as high schools, including the significant Gymnasium and Lyceum in Balatonboglár, which functioned until the German invasion of Hungary in 1944.

In German-occupied southeastern Poland, Hungarian soldiers gave shelter to Poles fleeing Ukrainian-perpetrated massacres, aided the Polish population with food, repelled attacks on Poles and Jews by Ukrainian nationalists, and hunted Ukrainian murderers of Poles. In 1941, the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists called for the mass murder of Poles, Hungarians, Jews and Russians. In 1944, Hungarians gave shelter to Poles who escaped the Ukrainian murderers to Hungary, and also facilitated further escapes.

In 1944, Hungarian soldiers refused to help Germans suppress the Warsaw Uprising in German-occupied Poland. Instead, Hungarians gave weapons, ammunition and medical supplies to the Polish insurgents. Some Hungarians who were caught doing so were executed by the Germans. Captured Polish insurgents were bandaged and fed by Hungarians, then released, given weapons and food, and shown the way out of German encirclement. Hungarians also rescued Polish insurgents by refusing to turn them over to the Germans, warned Poles of planned German pacifications, and took care of surviving Polish civilians. Some Hungarians even joined the fights on the side of the Polish insurgents. After the uprising, Hungarians shared food, medicines, and bandages with the expelled Polish population, whom they were supposed to convoy. The Hungarians also managed to save some Poles from deportation to German forced labour camps and concentration camps, for example by unhitching some of the wagons on the deportation trains.

Revolution of 1956

A student demonstration in Budapest in support of the Polish October and asking for similar reforms in Hungary was one of the events that sparked the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. During the revolution, Poles demonstrated their support for the Hungarians by donating blood for them; by 12 November 1956, 11,196 Poles had donated. The Polish Red Cross sent 44 tons of medical supplies to Hungary by air; even larger amounts were sent by road and rail. Also, funds and food were sent to Hungary, and demonstrations of support for the Hungarians were organized in various cities. Polish aid to Hungary was the largest of all countries. One-third of all worldwide aid came from Poland. There are several memorials commemorating Polish aid to Hungarians, including a monument in Budapest, and monuments and plaques in Szczecin, Lublin, Kraków, Białystok, Olsztyn, Wrocław, Warsaw, Poznań and Gdańsk (funded or co-funded by the Hungarians).

Modern relations
There is a Polish Institute in Budapest and a Hungarian Cultural Institute in Warsaw.

Polish firefighters helped in flood recovery in Hungary in 2000.

On March 12, 2007, Hungary's parliament declared March 23 the "Day of Hungarian-Polish Friendship", with 324 votes in favor, none opposed, and no abstentions. Four days later, the Polish parliament declared March 23 the "Day of
Polish-Hungarian Friendship" by acclamation.

Closer relations in the 2010s

April 18, 2010, day of the state funeral of Lech and Maria Kaczyński, was declared a day of national mourning in Hungary to commemorate the 96 victims of the Smolensk air disaster, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński and his wife Maria Kaczyńska. The President, Prime Minister and former Prime Minister of Hungary attended the funeral in Kraków.

In 2015–2016, Polish Border Guard and police officers assisted their Hungarian counterparts in protecting Hungary's border during the European migrant crisis.

The Hungarian Parliament on 29 February 2016 adopted a decree in a unanimous vote that declared 2016 a year of Hungarian-Polish solidarity. Under the order, state celebrations were organized throughout the year to mark the 60th anniversary of the anti-communist uprising in Poland's Poznań in June 1956. Hungary's anti-Soviet revolution was four months later. The decree was submitted by the House speaker, the Polish minority in Hungary, and the group leaders of the five parliamentary parties. An order with the same content was adopted by the Polish Senate and by the Sejm earlier that month.

Poland is one of Hungary's main trading partners. In 2019, Poland was the fourth largest source of imports and the eighth largest export destination for Hungary.

In February 2021, Hungary returned to Poland the Renaissance armor of Polish King Sigismund II Augustus, which ended up in Hungary in the interbellum as a result of a misunderstanding, as it was believed to be the armor of King Louis II of Hungary. The gesture is perceived as another example of Polish-Hungarian friendship.

Russian invasion of Ukraine
However, from the beginning of 2022 relations have started to falter due to the Russo-Ukrainian War. This is because while the Polish government has been backing the Ukrainian side, the Hungarian government has taken a more hostile stance that has been more in line with Russia and its demands, for fear of being cut off from their main gas supply. Poland has repeatedly expressed support for Ukraine and has been steadfast in sending both humanitarian and military aid. Meanwhile Hungary has explicitly denied providing any foreign aid to Ukraine and even has gone so far as to block other countries' aid from transiting its borders. Many attribute these actions as Viktor Orbán attempting to appease the Kremlin, since it has been long seen that he is President Putin's frontman in Europe. Although Orban has continued to superficially follow the EU's stance on Ukraine out of fear of losing funds, his refusal to help and outright block Ukraine continued to anger the Polish government. Relations so far have come to an impasse, with the Polish PM Mateusz Morawiecki stating "The paths of Poland and Hungary have diverged" in the summer of 2022. Polish society, too, has become increasingly disillusioned. In a recent poll by CBOS, the popularity of Hungarians among Poles has plummeted by 21 per cent and is at its lowest level for 30 years, just hovering above that for the Germans.

European Union
Both countries became members of the European Union in 2004.

NATO
Both countries became members of NATO in 1999.

Resident diplomatic missions
 Hungary has an embassy in Warsaw, consulates-general in Gdańsk and Kraków and a vice-consulate in Wrocław,
 Poland has an embassy in Budapest.

Honorary consulates
There are honorary consulates of Hungary in Łódź, Poznań, Bydgoszcz and Szczecin, and honorary consulates of Poland in Keszthely, Szeged and Szentendre.

See also
Foreign relations of Hungary
Foreign relations of Poland
Pole and Hungarian brothers be
List of twin towns and sister cities in Poland
List of twin towns and sister cities in Hungary
Hungarians in Poland
Poles in Hungary

References

Further reading

Józef Kasparek, "Poland's 1938 Covert Operations in Ruthenia", East European Quarterly", vol. XXIII, no. 3 (September 1989), pp. 365–73.1
 Kovács, E. "Hungarian—Polish Relations between the Two World Wars." Acta Historica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 18.1/2 (1972): 161-169 online.

Other languages

Józef Kasparek, Przepust karpacki: tajna akcja polskiego wywiadu (The Carpathian Bridge: a Covert Polish Intelligence Operation), Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Czasopism i Książek Technicznych SIGMA NOT, 1992, .
Edmund Charaszkiewicz, "Referat o działaniach dywersyjnych na Rusi Karpackiej" ("Report on Covert Operations in Carpathian Rus"), in Zbiór dokumentów ppłk. Edmunda Charaszkiewicza (Collection of Documents by Lt. Col. Edmund Charaszkiewicz), opracowanie, wstęp i przypisy (edited, with introduction and notes by) Andrzej Grzywacz, Marcin Kwiecień, Grzegorz Mazur, Kraków, Księgarnia Akademicka, 2000, , pp. 106–30.

External links
 Hungarian embassy in Warsaw (in Hungarian and Polish only)
 Polish embassy in Budapest (in Hungarian and Polish only)

Poland
Bilateral relations of Poland


The Prussian Class P 6s were passenger locomotives operated by the Prussian state railways with a leading axle and three coupled axles.

The P 6 was conceived as a so-called universal locomotive. The first vehicle was manufactured in 1902 at Düsseldorf by the firm of Hohenzollern. This engine has a number of features that are characteristic of its designer, Robert Garbe: a narrow chimney located well forward and the unusual position of the boiler. As a result, and in spite of the relatively small,  diameter, driving wheels (on the prototype they were only ), the locomotives were authorised to travel at up to , a speed which could not be attained in practice due to its poor riding qualities.

The smokebox superheater installed on the first machines was soon replaced by a smoke tube superheater. In all, 275 engines of this class were built up to 1910. 110 examples had to be handed over after the First World War as reparations: 44 to Poland (PKP Oi1), 24 to Belgium, 19 to France (16 to the Nord (3.1551–3.1566), 3 to Alsace-Lorraine), 9 to Italy (FS 626), 6 to Lithuania, 4 to Latvia and 4 to the Territory of the Saar Basin (2101–2104). 163 locomotives were taken over by the Deutsche Reichsbahn as DRG Class 37.0-1, where they were allocated the running numbers 37 001 to 37 163. In 1935 the four Saar locomotives were incorporated into the DRG fleet as 37 164 to 37 167.

The locomotives with numbers 37 201–206 were, by contrast, G 6 and P 6 class engines respectively of Lübeck-Büchen Railway (LBE), that had a different design from the Prussian locomotives.

The Prussian P 6s were retired by about 1950. The few engines left after the Second World War were no longer employed by the Deutsche Bundesbahn and the Reichsbahn.

The locomotives taken over by the Polish State Railways (PKP) were given the designation Oi1.
One of them has been preserved and can be viewed in the Warsaw Railway Museum.
The engines were equipped with Prussian tenders of class pr 2'2' T 16.

See also
 Prussian state railways
 List of Prussian locomotives and railcars
 List of preserved steam locomotives in Germany

Notes

References

Further reading

2-6-0 locomotives
P 06
Railway locomotives introduced in 1902
Berliner locomotives
Hohenzollern locomotives
Passenger locomotives
Standard gauge locomotives of Germany
Standard gauge locomotives of Poland
1′C h2 locomotives


Paul George Benson (born June 3, 1946) is an American academic, and the former President of the College of Charleston in Charleston, South Carolina.

Early life and education
Benson was born in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania to Paul Benson (1911-1975) and Anna Louise Stolz Benson (1921-2014). His father was the CEO of Royal Imprints, Inc. and his mother taught mathematics at Bucknell University. In 1951, Benson's brother Charles ("Chuck") Edward Benson was born. In 1960, his father sold Royal Imprints and returned to teaching statistics and mathematics at Bucknell University, which he had done for several years in the 1940s. After being a homemaker in the 1950s, his mother returned to teaching at Milton Junior High School, as she worked on a Master of Science degree in Education at Bucknell, which she received in 1964. She then became a guidance counselor at Lewisburg Joint High School until she retired in 1983.

Benson graduated from Lewisburg Joint High School in 1964.  He attended Bucknell University in his hometown, graduating with a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics in 1968.  While a student at Bucknell, Benson joined the Kappa chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity and played varsity golf. He worked as a Management Analyst for the Army Security Agency in Arlington, Virginia for a year after graduating from Bucknell. He assisted in determining the Agency's personnel needs worldwide. In June 1969, Benson joined Bell Telephone Laboratories in Whippany, N.J. as a Computer Program Design Engineer and Member of Technical Staff. He was part of a team responsible for developing and maintaining AT&T's first data management system. While at Bell Labs, Benson did graduate work in operations research at New York University. In September 1971, he entered the management science PhD program in what is now the Warrington College of Business at the University of Florida. He received a PhD in Decision Sciences with minors in statistics and economics in August 1977.

Career
In spring of 1976, Benson was hired as an assistant professor in the Department of Management Sciences at the University of Minnesota's Carlson School of Management. He moved to Minnesota in late December 1976 and began teaching in January 1977.  He was promoted to associate professor with tenure in May 1982. From 1983 to 1988, he was the Area Head of Decision Sciences and from 1992 to 1993 was the Director of the Operations Management Center. In June 1993, he became the Dean of Rutgers University's Business School, as well as a professor of decision sciences.  In June 1998, Benson became the Dean of the University of Georgia's Terry College of Business and the Simon S. Selig Jr. Chair for Economic Growth.  He held this position until February 1, 2007, when he became President of the College of Charleston.

He stepped down as President of the College of Charleston on July 1, 2014. South Carolina Lieutenant Governor Glenn F. McConnell was appointed as his successor.
Benson took a one-year sabbatical before returning to the College of Charleston as a faculty member in the School of Business.  Benson is currently teaching Business Statistics in the Supply Chain and Information Management Department.

Benson sits on three corporate boards: AGCO Corporation, Crawford & Company, and Primerica, Inc. He is the Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Foundation for the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. The foundation is a nonprofit, private-sector organization that raises funds to support the Baldrige Performance Excellence Program. The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) was established in 1987 and it is presented annually by the President of the United States to organizations that demonstrate quality and performance excellence.  It was established by Congress to identify and recognize role-model businesses; establish certain criteria for evaluating improvement efforts; and share best practices. It was expanded to include healthcare and education in 1998 and the nonprofit sector in 2005.

References

1946 births
Living people
Warrington College of Business alumni
New York University Stern School of Business alumni
Presidents of the College of Charleston
People from Lewisburg, Pennsylvania
Bucknell University alumni
University of Minnesota faculty


Hungarian-Romanian relations are foreign relations between Hungary and Romania. Relations between the two nations date back to the Middle Ages, including Wallachia and Moldavia. Modern diplomatic relations between the two states date back to Romanian unification in 1859 and independence in 1877.

Both countries share  of common border. Both nations are full members of NATO and of the European Union. However, there are historical nationalist tensions over Transylvania.

Bilateral relations
Romania's ethnic Hungarian party also participated in all the government coalitions between 1996 and 2008 and from 2009. In 1996, Romania signed and ratified a basic bilateral treaty with Hungary that settled outstanding disagreements, laying the foundation for closer, more cooperative relations.

Economic relations
In 2012, the total amount of international trade between Romania and Hungary was 7.3 billion euro, of which exports from Romania were 2.4 billion euro, whereas exports from Hungary were 4.9 billion euro. Hungary ranks as the third of Romania's trade partners, after Germany and Italy.

MOL Group and OTP Bank, two of Hungary's largest companies, are present in Romania since 2003 and 2004 respectively. MOL Group operates (as of August 2013) a network of 138 fuel stations in Romania, which accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total network. OTP Bank has a widespread network of branches in Romania, with presence in every county.

Wizz Air is a low-cost airline from Hungary, which operates flights from several airports in Romania (Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Târgu Mureș, Sibiu, Timișoara, Iasi, Suceava and Craiova) to various destinations in Europe. It is the largest low-cost airline operating in Romania, and in 2013 it carried 3.2 million passengers on its over 72 local routes.

RCS & RDS, Romania's leading company in internet and cable and satellite television services, is arguably the second or third company on the television market in Hungary, with (as of August 2013) around 22.4 percent of market share.

Hungary → Romania

Most important Hungarian investors in Romania: MOL, OTP Bank, Gedeon Richter Plc.

Most important Romanian investors in Hungary: RCS & RDS, Automobile Dacia.

Conflict

Thinking about Dacia, Romanians consider it the old territory of their ancestors before any Huns arrived in Europe. The ancient Kingdom of Dacia was established and documented starting in 168 BC. In regards to Hungary, there is disagreement over Transylvania, which Romanians believe is claimed to be Hungarian by Hungarians, despite prehistoric records of Geto-Dacians  suggesting otherwise.
Under Attila, the Huns did conquer Transylvania in 376 who kept it until the death of Attila in 453. Later, the territory was periodically occupied and exploited by the Huns.

Despite having a mostly positive relationship, many Hungarians believe that Romania does not deserve the current territory of Transylvania, because Transylvania was also an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary (1000-1526, 1848-1849, 1867-1920) and the Lands of the Hungarian Crown (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (1526-1570), Principality of Transylvania (1570-1867)) until the Treaty of Trianon.

World War I

During the war, initially the Kingdom of Romania was neutral to the Central Powers, thus with Austria-Hungary. In August 1916  Romania entered the war on side of the Allies and attacked the Kingdom of Hungary, however it was pushed back to the frontier in October and by January 1917, two-thirds of Romania were occupied by the Central Powers. The Romanians were forced to retreat to the historical region of Moldavia, but were able to stave off complete collapse in 1917 by reorganizing their army and repulsing the Central Powers' offensive at Mărășești and Oituz. Nevertheless, after the October Revolution of 1917, Russia fell into civil war, and the Russian government signed two ceasefire agreements with the Central Powers, followed later (on December 15) by a full armistice. Lacking Russian support, the Romanian government was subsequently forced to sue for peace, concluding in December 1917 the Armistice of Focșani.

Hungarian–Romanian War

In 1918, Romania re-entered the war with similar objectives to those of 1916. During the 1919 Hungarian–Romanian War Hungary, led by Communist forces, tried to secure its borders, however it was soon defeated and later occupied by Romanian forces.

Treaty of Trianon

The Treaty of Trianon was the peace agreement of 1920 that formally ended World War I between most of the Allies (among them the Kingdom of Romania) and the Kingdom of Hungary, the latter being one of the successor states to Austria-Hungary. As a result of the treaty the regions of Transylvania, parts of the Banat, Crișana and Maramureș became part of the Kingdom of Romania.

Interwar period and World War II

The Treaty of Trianon and its consequences dominated Hungarian public life and political culture in the inter-war period. Moreover, the Hungarian government swung then more and more to the right; eventually, under Regent Miklós Horthy, Hungary established close relations with Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy and Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. These politics and the sought for revision succeeded to regain the territories of southern Czechoslovakia by the First Vienna Award in 1938 and the annexation of the remainder of Subcarpathia in 1939. These were only a fraction of the territories lost by the Treaty of Trianon, anyway the loss that the Hungarians resented the most was that of Transylvania ceded to the Romanians.

In 1940, the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina inspired Hungary to escalate its efforts to resolve "the question of Transylvania". Hungary hoped to gain as much of Transylvania as possible, but the Romanians submitted only a small region for consideration. Eventually, the Hungarian-Romanian negotiations fell through entirely. After this, the Romanian government asked Italy and Germany to arbitrate. Foreign Ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop of Germany and Galeazzo Ciano of Italy met on 30 August 1940 at the Belvedere Palace in Vienna and decided that Romania cede Northern Transylvania, with an area of  and a population of 2,577,260, out of which, according to the Romanian estimates, 1,304,903 were Romanians (50.2%) and 978,074 (37.1%) Hungarians, or, according to the Hungarian census of 1941, 53.5% were Hungarians and 39.1% Romanians.

In 1940, ethnic disturbances between Hungarians and Romanians continued after some incidents following the occupation of Northern Transylvania by the Hungarian military, culminating in massacres at Treznea and Ip. After some ethnic Hungarian groups considered unreliable or insecure were sacked/expelled from Southern Transylvania, the Hungarian officials also regularly expelled some Romanian groups from Northern Transylvania. Also, many Hungarians and Romanians fled or chose to opt between the two countries. There was a mass exodus; over 100,000 people on both sides of the ethnic and political borders relocated.

During World War II, Hungary and Romania became allies and participated in the war against the Soviet Union. But after the coup on 23 August 1944 Romania switched sides and fought against Hungary. Consequently, Soviet and Romanian troops invaded Hungary, occupied Northern Transylvania by October 1944 and re-established the Romanian administration in the region in March 1945. The 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary as originally defined in Treaty of Trianon 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania.

Post-Cold War Era
Soon after the demise of the Communist regimes in Hungary and Romania, in March 1990, violent ethnic clashes in Transylvania strained the relationship between both countries to the brink of war. As a result, the first Open Skies Treaty in the world to mutually assess the strength and disposition of opposing military forces was worked out and became effective in 1992. This is considered a direct precursor of the 2002 multilateral Treaty on Open Skies that once included Russia and the United States.

Hungary and Romania are NATO allies and members of the European Union. However, nationalist tension persists.

Resident diplomatic missions
 Hungary has an embassy in Bucharest, consulates-general in Cluj-Napoca and Miercurea Ciuc, and honorary consulates in Timișoara, Iași, Constanța and Drobeta-Turnu Severin
 Romania has an embassy in Budapest and has consulates-general in Gyula and Szeged.

See also
 Foreign relations of Hungary
 Foreign relations of Romania
 Hungarians in Romania
 Romanians in Hungary
 Hungary–Romania football rivalry
 Transylvanianism
 Union of Hungary and Romania
 2004 enlargement of the European Union
 2007 enlargement of the European Union

References

Romania
Bilateral relations of Romania


is a former Japanese football player.

Playing career
Soda was born in Sapporo on July 5, 1978. After graduating from University of Tsukuba, he joined J1 League club Consadole Sapporo in 2001. He played many matches as forward from first season. In 2002, he also played as center back not only forward. However the club was relegated to J2 League from 2003. He was completely converted to center back in 2003 and became a regular player. He played many matches as center back for a long time and the club won the champions in 2007 and was promoted to J1 from 2008. However he could hardly play in the match in 2008 and the club was relegated to J2 in a year. On November 17, 2009, he announced his retirement. On November 29, he played as substitute forward from the 87th minute and scored a goal in 89th minute against Yokohama FC. This match is the only his match in 2009 season and his last match in his career.

Club statistics

References

External links

1978 births
Living people
University of Tsukuba alumni
Japanese men's footballers
J1 League players
J2 League players
Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo players
Men's association football defenders
Association football people from Sapporo


Pleasant Prospect is a historic home  located at Mitchellville, Prince George's County, Maryland.  It is an outstanding and important example of a Federal style plantation house, consisting of a 2½-story main structure over a full basement with a 2-story kitchen linked by a 1-story hyphen. The kitchen wing and hyphen are typical of late eighteenth century ancillary architecture in Southern Maryland. The walls are laid in Flemish bond, and the chimneys are typical of Maryland; wide on the side, thin and high above the ridge, rising on the gable ends of the house flush with the building wall. The interior exhibits outstanding Federal style trim, including elaborate Adamesque moldings and plasterwork ornamentation such as garlands, swags, and urns applied to interior doorways and mantles. A pyramidal roof, log meat house stands on the immediate grounds.

The architectural design and unique features of the house were documented in the permanent collection of the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) at the Library of Congress in 1936 and again in 1983. This documentation notes: "Pleasant Prospect reflects the wealth and elegance of the upper class of planters in Prince George's County during the late 18th and early 19th century. The house was unusually large and well appointed for its time, with a large hall or passage, formal parlor, separate dining room and a library in the main block of the first floor."

Pleasant Prospect was built c. 1798 for Dr. Isaac Duckett, described as one of the most opulent slave owners in the state.  It is one of four houses built in Prince George's County during this period that were valued at $1,500 (~$ in ) or more in the 1798 Federal Direct Tax assessment and is described in that document as "a new Two story Brick dwelling, very elegantly furnished with passage 20 by 16, kitchen 19 by 14, all of Brick." Pleasant Prospect is one of three plantations built by the Duckett family in Prince George's County.  The other two are Fairview, built by Isaac Duckett's brother Baruch around 1800, and Melford in the 1840s.

Pleasant Prospect was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1976.

Gallery

References

External links
, at Maryland Historical Trust website

Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
Houses completed in 1798
Houses in Prince George's County, Maryland
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Federal architecture in Maryland
Plantation houses in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland
Plantations in Maryland


Günter Pfitzmann (8 April 1924 – 30 May 2003) was a German film actor who appeared in more than 60 films between 1950 and 2001. He was born and died in Berlin, Germany.

He narrowly escaped death due to heart problems which lead to him cancelling his seat aboard Concorde flight AF4590, which crashed in Paris on 25 July 2000.

Selected filmography

 Only One Night (1950)
 All Clues Lead to Berlin (1952)
 Emil and the Detectives (1954)
 The Captain and His Hero (1955), as Hauptmann Roeder
 Sergeant Borck (1955), as Wachtmeister Heinz Ohlsen
 Your Life Guards (1955), as Charly
 Siebenmal in der Woche (1957), as Policeman
 Heart Without Mercy (1958), as Dr. Knoll
 Doctor Crippen Lives (1958), as Kriminalassistent Pierre
 Taiga (1958), as Dickmann
 I'll Carry You in My Arms (1958), as Georg
 Nick Knatterton’s Adventure (1959), as Max
 Stalingrad: Dogs, Do You Want to Live Forever? (1959), as Kunowski
 Die Brücke (1959), as Unteroffizier Heilmann
 Abschied von den Wolken (1959), as Howard Sims
 Triplets on Board (1959), as Mac
 Darkness Fell on Gotenhafen (1960), as Oberleutnant Dankel
 Am grünen Strand der Spree (1960, TV miniseries), as Bob Arnoldis
  (1960), as Werner
  (1960), as Frank Mossdorf
 The Miracle of Father Malachia (1961), as Rudolf Reuschel
 Auf Wiedersehen (1961), as Willi Kuhlke
 Gestatten, mein Name ist Cox (1961–1965; leading role in TV series), as Paul Cox
 The Phone Rings Every Night (1962), as Robert Bullinger
 The Squeaker (1963), as Frankie Sutton
 Wilhelmina (1968; leading role in TV miniseries), as Georg
 Das Kriminalmuseum: Die Postanweisung (1968, TV series episode), as Kommissar Marquardt
 Die Unverbesserlichen (1970–1971; TV series), as Jürgen Hechler
 The Captain (1971), as Oldenburg
  (1973; leading role in TV series), as Herr Linderode
 PS (1975; leading role in TV series), as Jochen Neubert
  (1976), as Prangel
 Sladek oder Die schwarze Armee (1976, TV film), as Knorke
 Tatort:  (1977; TV series), as K. F. Kastrup
 Drei Damen vom Grill (1977–1986; leading role in TV series), as Otto Krüger
  (1978, TV series), as Mr. Kalubrigkeit
  (1980), as Consul Meier
 Berliner Weiße mit Schuß (1984–1995; leading role in TV series)
 Praxis Bülowbogen (1987–1996; leading role in TV series), as Dr. Peter Brockmann
 Der Millionenerbe (1990–1993; leading role in TV series), as Johannes Redlich
 Der Havelkaiser (1994–2000; leading role in TV series), as Richard Kaiser
 Letzte Chance für Harry (1998; TV film), as Simon Spradow
 Das Traumschiff: Bali (1999; TV series), as Alfred Sander
 Die Meute der Erben (2001; TV film), as Arno Adelmann
 In aller Freundschaft (2002; TV series, one episode), as Theo Köckritz

References

External links

1924 births
2003 deaths
Burials in Germany
German male film actors
German male television actors
20th-century German male actors
21st-century German male actors
Male actors from Berlin
Burials at the Waldfriedhof Zehlendorf


is a former Japanese football player.

Playing career
Ikeuchi was born in Tobetsu, Hokkaido on November 1, 1977. After graduating from high school, he joined the J1 League club Kashima Antlers in 1996. However he did not actually play in any matches from then through 1998. In 1999, he moved to the J2 League club Consadole Sapporo on loan. He played as a defensive midfielder and side back for two seasons and the club won the championship in 2000. In 2001, he returned to Kashima Antlers. He played as a center back and the club won the championship of the 2001 J1 League and the 2002 J.League Cup. However, he did not get as much playing time in 2004 as younger players Seiji Kaneko and Daiki Iwamasa. In 2005, he moved to the J2 club Consadole Sapporo again. He became a regular player as a left back of a three-back defense. In 2007, he played side back of a four-back defense and the club won the championship and was promoted to J1 in 2008. Although he played often, he retired at the end of the 2008 season.

Club statistics

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
Association football people from Hokkaido
Japanese men's footballers
J1 League players
J2 League players
Kashima Antlers players
Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo players
Men's association football defenders


Benchasiri Park (, , ; "Park Commemorating the Fifth Cycle Birthday Anniversary") is a garden located on Sukhumvit Road, Khlong Toei District, Bangkok, Thailand.

Built on  next door to the Emporium and Emsphere shopping complex, it serves to commemorate the fifth cycle (sixtieth) birthday anniversary of Queen Sirikit on 12 August 1992. Construction began in 1990 on land which originally housed the Bangkok Meteorological Department until its relocation to Bang Na. Built around an ornamental lake, it contains 12 pieces of contemporary sculpture by Thai artists and is often used for open-air events.

It can be reached from Phrom Phong Station (Sukhumvit Line of the BTS Skytrain), and is located between Soi 22 and 24.

Facilities

Sports area

This is large area for people who want to go jogging and it has a multi-purpose outdoor court to support volleyball, basketball and skating. This area is surrounded by trees for shade.

Swimming pool

There is a 12.5 x 25 meter swimming pool. This was created as a result of a survey of park users who wanted a place in the area to bring their children to use.

Playground

The playground attracts many children. It is particularly busy on holidays. This area has a large number of items of play equipment.

Regular Weekly Events
Dhamma ni suan

There is a Buddhist service Sunday from 07.00 – 09.00,  aimed to support people who are uncomfortable attending a temple.

Dontri ni suan

Dontri ni suan occurs on Saturdays and Sundays, to provide relaxing from work and other stresses. There are many songs in Thai and other music from around the world.

References

Parks in Bangkok
1992 establishments in Thailand
Khlong Toei district


Stanislav Ledinek (26 June 1920 – 30 March 1969) was a German film actor. He appeared in more than 90 films between 1953 and 1968. He died in Istanbul, Turkey.

Selected filmography

 Such a Charade (1953)
 Red Roses, Red Lips, Red Wine (1953)
 Life Begins at Seventeen (1953)
 Confession Under Four Eyes (1954)
 My Sister and I (1954)
 The Spanish Fly (1955)
 One Woman Is Not Enough? (1955)
 The Tour Guide of Lisbon (1956)
 The Girl from Flanders (1956)
 Victor and Victoria (1957)
 Stresemann (1957)
 It Happened Only Once (1958)
 Peter Voss, Hero of the Day (1959)
 The Blue Sea and You (1959)
 Nick Knatterton’s Adventure (1959)
 A Thousand Stars Aglitter (1959)
 Every Day Isn't Sunday (1959)
 We Will Never Part (1960)
 Auf Wiedersehen (1961)
 Beloved Impostor (1961)
 The Last of Mrs. Cheyney (1961)
 The Gypsy Baron (1962)
  (1962)
  (1963)
 Piccadilly Zero Hour 12 (1963)
 The Squeaker (1963)
 The Phantom of Soho (1964)
  (1966)
  (1966, TV film)
 Love Nights in the Taiga (1967)
  (1967, TV miniseries)

References

External links

1920 births
1969 deaths
German male film actors
20th-century German male actors
Place of birth missing


The Battle of Jinyang () was fought in modern-day Taiyuan between the elite families of the State of Jin, the house of Zhao and the house of Zhi (智), in the Spring and Autumn period of China. The other houses of Wei and Han first participated in the battle in alliance with the Zhi, but later defected to ally with Zhao to annihilate the Zhi house. This event was a catalyst to the Tripartition of Jin in 434 BC, the forming of the three states of Zhao, Wei, and Han, and the start to the Warring States period. It is the first battle described in the Song Dynasty history compendium Zizhi Tongjian.

Background
By 490 BC, after the destruction of the houses of Fan (范) and Zhonghang (中行), control of the State of Jin, then the largest state in China, was contested by four elite families: Zhi, Wei, Zhao, and Han. With multiple military victories under his belt, Zhi Yao (or Zhi Bo Yao 智伯瑤) of the house of Zhi exerted the most influence in the Jin court – all decisions of the state had to pass through him. He also controlled the most territory within the state. The reigning duke of Jin, Duke Ai, was powerless to restrain him. So Zhi Yao, in his pride, began to demand lands from the other three houses. The houses of Wei and Han reluctantly complied to evade Zhi's wrath, but Zhao Xiangzi (趙襄子) refused to cede the territories of Lin (藺) and Gaolang (皋狼), both in modern-day Lishi, to Zhi. Zhi, in retribution, formed a secret alliance with the houses of Wei and Han to attack Zhao.

Zhao Xiangzi suspected an attack from Zhi, since he had heard that Zhi sent envoys to Han and Wei three times, but never to Zhao. After rejecting suggestions to move to Zhangzi or Handan out of concern for the people there, Zhao Xiangzi asked his minister Zhang Mengtan (張孟談) where he could prepare his defence, and Zhang Mengtan suggested Jinyang because Jinyang had been well-governed for generations. Zhao agreed, and summoned Yanling Sheng (延陵生) to lead the army carriages and cavalry ahead to Jinyang, Zhao himself to follow later. Once in Jinyang, Zhao Xiangzi, following the suggestions of Zhang Mengtan, issued orders to refill the granaries and the treasuries, repair walls, make arrows, and melt copper pillars for metal. By virtue of past governance, the treasuries, granaries, and arsenals were filled within three days, and the walls repaired within five. Thus all of Jinyang was prepared for war.

Battle

When the three armies of Zhi, Wei, and Han reached Jinyang in 455 BC, they laid siege to the city, but for three months they could not take the city. They  fanned out and surrounded the city, and a year later diverted the flow of the Fen River to inundate the city. All buildings under three stories high were submerged, and the people of Jinyang were obliged to live in nest-like perches above the water and hang their kettles from the scaffolding in order to cook.

By the third year, supplies had run out for the Zhao, diseases broke out, and the populace were reduced to eating each other's children. Although the common people remained firm in the defence, the court ministers' loyalties began to waver. Zhao Xiangzi asked Zhang Mengtan, "Our provisions are gone, our strength and resources are exhausted, the officials are starving and ill, and I fear we can hold out no longer. I am going to surrender the city, but to which of the three states should I surrender?" Zhang Mengtan, much alarmed, persuaded Zhao not to surrender but instead send him out to negotiate with the houses of Wei and Han.

The houses of Wei and Han were promised an even split of Zhao's territories when the battle was won, however both the Wei and Han leaders were uneasy, since they understood that they too would be conquered if Zhao fell to Zhi. Zhi Yao's minister, Xi Ci (郤疵), warned Zhi that the two houses were going to revolt, since "the men and horses [of Jinyang] are eating each other and the city is soon to fall, yet the lords of Han and Wei show no signs of joy but instead are worried. If those are not rebellious signs, then what are they?" Zhi paid Xi Ci no heed, and instead told the lords of Han and Wei of Xi's suspicion. Xi, knowing that his warning fell to deaf ears, excused himself from the battlefield by going to the State of Qi as an envoy.

Indeed, when Zhang Mengtan secretly met with Wei Huan-zi and Han Kangzi (韓康子), who confessed that they were secretly planning to mutiny against Zhi. The three discussed their plans and settled on a date to execute the plans. Zhang Mengtan returned to Jinyang to report back to Zhao Xiangzi, and Zhao, in joy and apprehension, bowed to Zhang several times as a sign of great reverence.

One of Zhi Yao's clansmen, Zhi Guo (智過), by happenstance, observed the leaders of Wei and Han after the secret meeting, and warned Zhi Yao of the possibility that they might rebel, judging by their lack of restraints like before. Zhi again chose to put his trust in his two allies, saying: "Since I have been this good to them, they would surely not attack or deceive me. Our troops have invested Jinyang for three years. Now when the city is ready to fall at any moment and we are about to enjoy the spoils, what reason would they have for changing their minds?" Zhi told Wei and Han what Zhi Guo said, and the two learnt to be cautious when they saw Zhi Guo the next day. Zhi Guo, seeing the change in their looks, insisted to Zhi Yao that the two ought to be executed. Zhi Yao would not hear of it, and Zhi Guo suggested another plan to buy their friendship: to bribe the influential ministers Zhao Jia (趙葭) of Wei and Duan Gui (段規) of Han with enfeoffment of the Zhao lands. Zhi Yao rejected the proposal because the Zhao lands were going to split in three already, and he did not want to receive less than one third of the eventual spoils. Since Zhi Yao would not listen, Zhi Guo left him and changed his surname to Fu (輔) as a precaution.

Hearing this, Zhang Mengtan urged Zhao Xiangzi to take action immediately, lest Zhi Yao changes his mind. Zhao then dispatched Zhang Mengtan to the camps of Wei and Han, alerting them of the time of the final attack. On the night of May 8, 453 BC, Zhao troops killed the men guarding the dams of the Fen River and let the river flood the Zhi armies. As the Zhi armies fell into chaos trying to stop the water, the Wei and Han armies attacked Zhi from the sides and Zhao led his soldiers in a frontal attack. Together they inflicted a severe defeat on Zhi Yao's army and took him prisoner.

Zhao Xiangzi had a grudge on Zhi Yao because Zhi had often humiliated him in the past, thus he executed Zhi and made his skull into a winecup. No one in the house of Zhi was spared except for Zhi Guo's family, who had already changed their surnames and fled. The territories of Zhi were evenly distributed among the three victors.

Aftermath
With the elimination of the Zhi house, control of the State of Jin fell to the remaining three families, their powers unchecked by anyone in the state. In 434 BC, following the death of Duke Ai, the three families annexed all of Jin's lands, leaving only the capital estates of Jiang and Quwo for the next duke of Jin. In 403 BC, the Wei, Zhao and Han lords all went to King Weilie of Zhou in Luoyang and were made marquises in their own right, establishing the three states of Zhao, Wei, and Han, ushering in the beginning of the Warring States period by Sima Guang's definition. Most historians, when referring to those three states, call them the "Three Jins" (三晉). The State of Jin continued to exist with a tiny piece of territory until 376 BC when the rest of the territory was partitioned by the Three Jins.

The Legalist thinker Han Feizi of the late Warring States period used this battle as an example of failure via greed and perversity, one of the "Ten Faults" that a ruler should not have. He reasoned that because Zhi Yao was too fond for profit, he opened himself to the destruction of the state and his own demise.

The Song Dynasty statesman Sima Guang, in his Zizhi Tongjian, attribute Zhi Yao's failure to his lacking virtue compared to his talents, and thus invited disaster.

Notes

References
Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian
Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian
Liu Xiang et al., Zhan Guo Ce
Watson, Burton (2003). Han Feizi: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press. .

455 BC
453 BC
Jinyang 455 BC
5th century BC in China
Jinyang 455 BC
Jin (Chinese state)
Jinyang 455 BC
Han (state)
Zhao (state)
Wei (state)
History of Taiyuan


South County may refer to the following:

Geographic places
South County (Rhode Island), a vernacular name for Washington County, Rhode Island
 South County (Massachusetts), a region of Massachusetts
 South County, a name for the southern part of St. Louis County, Missouri used by residents of the Greater St. Louis area of Missouri and Illinois

Other
South County Airport, an airport in Santa Clara County, California
South County Center, a shopping mall in Mehlville, Missouri
South Dublin (UK Parliament constituency), a county constituency in Ireland from 1885 to 1922
South County Secondary School, a school in Lorton, Virginia


Bulgarian-Polish relations are foreign relations between Bulgaria and Poland. Both countries are full members of the European Union, NATO, Bucharest Nine, Three Seas Initiative, OSCE, Council of Europe and World Trade Organization.
Poland has given full support to Bulgaria's membership in the European Union and NATO.

History

Relations between Bulgaria and Poland date back to the Middle Ages. Bulgarians and Poles fought together as part of a larger European coalition at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396 in an attempt to stop the Ottoman invasion and conquest of Bulgaria. In 1444, a coalition of Central and Eastern European countries led by Poland and King Władysław III of Poland fought in the Battle of Varna against the Ottoman Empire, in an attempt to repel the Ottoman invasion of Europe and liberate the already conquered nations of Southeast Europe, including Bulgaria. Bulgarian insurgents of Fruzhin fought alongside Poles in hope of restoring independence, however, the battle ended in the defeat of the coalition army and the death of the Polish king.

In the 19th century both nations shared a similar fate, as both were under the rule of foreign powers. Bulgaria was ruled by the Ottoman Empire, and Poland was partitioned between Austria, Prussia (afterwards Germany) and Russia. Bulgaria eventually regained independence in 1878, and Poland in 1918, and then both countries established diplomatic relations. In independent Bulgaria, a memorial complex dedicated to King Władysław III of Poland was erected in Varna, with a symbolic mausoleum of the fallen king.

One of the escape routes of Poles who fled to Hungary after the German-Soviet invasion of Poland, which started World War II, to Polish-allied France, where the Polish Army was reconstituted to continue the fight against Germany, led through Bulgaria. Bulgaria confidentially authorized the evacuation of Poles through its territory, after difficulties began to arise in escaping through Yugoslavia and Greece, due to those countries' fear of Germany.

In 1949, the Polish Institute in Sofia was established.

Recent political relations

April 18, 2010, day of the state funeral of Lech and Maria Kaczyński, was declared a day of national mourning in Bulgaria to commemorate the 96 victims of the Smolensk air disaster, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński and his wife Maria Kaczyńska.

For the first time in 13 years, on 18 April 2016, the Polish president, Andrzej Duda, was on a state visit to Sofia to meet his counterpart Rossen Plevneliev and Bulgaria's prime minister Boyko Borisov. The heads of states discussed the options to expand business relations and deepen bilateral cooperation in the security sphere.  In a joint press conference Presidents Plevneliev and Duda called for Russia to give up its "aggressive actions" and "come back" to international order and stood by the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine.

Prime minister Borisov noted that Poland is a "very important country" for Bulgaria and Sofia values the development of bilateral relations in the context of the EU and NATO. Other topics of discussion were cooperation in defense and security, trade and economic relations and opportunities to realize their full potential. Mr. Borisov added that Bulgaria "relies" on Poland to support "common interests" in the field of energy security and in establishing the EU's Energy Union.

President Duda said that his visit in Sofia is a "realization of the ABC format" – Adriatic, Baltic, Black Sea  (in Polish – Adriatyk, Bałtyk, Czarne [Morze]) – a project to  expand the transport and energy infrastructure in this large region.  Mr. Duda also said "there is no doubt" that NATO must strengthen its eastern flank from the Baltic to the Black Sea. In a joint statement, Mr. Duda and Mr. Plevneliev said that the forthcoming NATO summit in Warsaw in July is "crucial for the security of the countries of Eastern Europe".  Mr. Plevneliev stressed the need for increased NATO presence in Central and Eastern Europe, as well as conducting more joint exercises and drills.

Economic relations
Trade exchanges between the two countries have doubled over the past five years, from EUR 670 million in 2010 to EUR 1.3 billion in 2015. Bulgaria is also traditional destination for Polish tourists as last year 260,000 Polish tourists visited Bulgarian resorts, the statement said.  Statistical data from Bulgaria's National Statistical Institute confirms the figures and also shows that the trade exchange is more or less balanced, with imports from Poland slightly exceeding exports for the same period. For example, the trade data for 2015 shows that imports and exports from and to Poland are at about the same level as those with the Netherlands, a traditional investor and trade partner for Bulgaria. Tourist visits from Poland have increased with 7% in 2014 and 3.2% in 2015. In 2015, Poland occupied the 8th spot in the top 10 ranking for most important tourist markets for Bulgaria. In January 2016, the Bulgarian Ministry of Tourism said it expects a 40% increase in the number of Poles visiting Bulgaria in 2016. Major Bulgarian cities like the capital Sofia and Varna on the Black Sea coast have purchased Polish-made trams and buses for their public transport systems. According to media reports, the total figure of the purchase is valued at about EUR 90 million. Finally, for those observers careful enough to notice, apart from the gross figures, a couple of visits at Bulgarian supermarkets will show the large number of Polish-made goods available for sale.

Military cooperation
In October 2015, Bulgaria signed a contract with two Polish companies to carry out repair works on six engines for the country's Mig-29 fighter jets. Maintenance and supply for the Soviet-made military hardware was usually done by Russia's RSK MiG, but in September 2015 the contract ran its course. The price of the Polish contracts was EUR 6.1 million and reports said it was lower than what the Russian company had offered, although a figure was never made public. Bulgaria's defense minister Nikolay Nenchev said the new contract would be about EUR 12 million cheaper. In December 2015, Poland delivered two spare Mig-29 engines to Bulgaria to be used while repairs on the other six engines will be ongoing. At the end of March, the Bulgarian government approved a EUR 1.2 billion program aiming to modernize its ageing armed forces. During Mr Nenchev's working visit to Warsaw in February 2015, the then-minister of defense of Poland, Tomasz Siemoniak, said Bulgaria was interested in Poland's experience with military reforms, drill programs, and equipment and military hardware.

Upcoming projects
In March 2016, at an international conference in Warsaw government representatives from Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey, Hungary and Ukraine signed a declaration on promoting the construction of the new transport route named Via Carpathia. Bulgaria was not a signatory to the document, but a Polish government spokesman was reported by Polish media as saying that Bulgaria supported the project and would "join it in the future". The statements by Presidents Duda and Plevneliev made in Sofia touch upon the development of trans-border links and infrastructure.

European Union
Bulgaria joined the EU in 2007. Poland joined the EU in 2004.

NATO
Bulgaria joined NATO in 2004. Poland joined NATO in 1999.

Resident diplomatic missions
 Bulgaria has an embassy in Warsaw.
 Poland has an embassy in Sofia.

Honorary consulates
There are honorary consulates of Bulgaria in Białystok, Częstochowa, Gdańsk, Kraków and Wrocław, and an honorary consulate of Poland in Nesebar.

See also
 Foreign relations of Bulgaria
 Foreign relations of Poland
 Bulgarians in Poland
 Poland in the European Union

References

External links
 Bulgarian embassy in Warsaw
 Polish embassy in Sofia

Poland
Bilateral relations of Poland


is a former Japanese football player.

Playing career
Nishijima was born in Kawai, Nara on April 7, 1982. After graduating from high school, he joined J1 League club Sanfrecce Hiroshima in 2001. However he could not play at all in the match until 2003. Although he moved to Vissel Kobe in 2004, he could not play at all in the match. In September 2004, he moved to J2 League club Consadole Sapporo. He became a regular player as left defender of three backs defense and played all matches until end of the season. Although his opportunity to play decreased for injuries from 2005, he became a regular player again from summer 2006. Consadole won the champions in 2007 season and was promoted to J1. Although Consadole was relegated to J2 in a year, he played many matches as mainly side back until 2010. In 2011, he moved to Tokushima Vortis. He played as regular side back in 2 seasons. In 2013, he moved to Yokohama FC. Although he played in 2 seasons, he could not play many matches. In 2015, he moved to Giravanz Kitakyushu. He played many matches in 2015 season. However his opportunity to play decreased from 2016 and Giravanz was also relegated to J3 League end of 2016 season. He retired end of 2017 season.

Club statistics

References

External links

1982 births
Living people
Association football people from Nara Prefecture
Japanese men's footballers
J1 League players
J2 League players
J3 League players
Sanfrecce Hiroshima players
Vissel Kobe players
Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo players
Tokushima Vortis players
Yokohama FC players
Giravanz Kitakyushu players
Men's association football defenders


Tomás Carbonell was the defending champion but lost in the quarterfinals to Gilbert Schaller.

Hicham Arazi won in the final 3–6, 6–1, 6–2 against Franco Squillari.

Seeds

  Karim Alami (semifinals)
  Hicham Arazi (champion)
  Roberto Carretero (first round)
  Gilbert Schaller (semifinals)
  Richard Fromberg (second round)
  Tomás Carbonell (quarterfinals)
  Oliver Gross (second round)
  Emilio Benfele Álvarez (quarterfinals)

Draw

Finals

Top half

Bottom half

External links
 1997 Grand Prix Hassan II draw

1997 ATP Tour
1997 Grand Prix Hassan II


Grijzegrubben (;  ) is a hamlet in the municipality of Beekdaelen in the province of Limburg, the Netherlands.

The name Grijzegrubben contains the toponym Grubbe, which in Limburg often refers to a hollow way.
The name was already in use in the year 1637, when Aleidis of Grijzegrubben leased some land to the nobleman Bartholomeus van Reymersbeeck.
Archeologists found in Grijzegrubben in August 2002 the remains of a Roman farm or storehouse, originating from approximately the 2nd century.

In September 1944, a tree with a Christian cross was accidentally destroyed by an American armoured car.
Due to the cross and the preservation of Grijzegrubben during World War II, community members built a chapel at this spot in 1945. The chapel is still owned by the community.

Grijzegrubben has place name signs. It was home to 229 people in 1840. Nowadays, it consists of about 100 houses.

The Southern Limburg horse market is held each year in Grijzegrubben since 2005.

References

 Community Grijzegrubben Official website
 Hoven, Frank van den (2003) Op ontdekkingsreis door Zuid-Limburg : Reisgids en naslagwerk voor toeristen en streekbewoners (Filatop Streekreeks nr.3). , p. 420
 The chapel of Grijzegrubben

Populated places in Limburg (Netherlands)
Beekdaelen


Caffeyl alcohol is the organic compound with the formula (HO)2C6H3-4-CHCHCH2OH.  This colourless solid is related to catechol by attachment to allyl alcohol. It is the precursor to one of the three principal lignols.

Preparation and occurrence
In the laboratory, caffeyl alcohol can be synthesized from 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde.  It is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of coniferyl alcohol, the conversion being effected by caffeate O-methyltransferase.

Related compounds
Two related compounds are caffeyl aldehyde and caffeic acid, the latter also being a minor component of coffee.

References

Phenylpropanoids
Primary alcohols


Estonia–Poland relations is the official relationship between Estonia and Poland. Both nations enjoy close and friendly relations, and are close allies. Both nations are members of the European Union, NATO, OECD, OSCE, Bucharest Nine, Three Seas Initiative, United Nations, Council of Europe, Council of the Baltic Sea States, HELCOM and World Trade Organization.
The two countries became members of the European Union in 2004.

History

Estonia, then known as Livonia, was incorporated into the territory of Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which become Duchy of Livonia under Polish rule. The Livonian War further secured Polish authority, having halted Russian attempt to conquer the region.  Livonia didn't hold any significant position in the Commonwealth's history since it was divided between the Poles, Swedes and Danes; as for its remoteness outside tax incomes, and this would remain until both fell into the hand of the Russian Empire.

Under the Russian rule however, Livonia, and later Estonia, was seen to be the least oppressed under the rule of tsarist Russia and received a nominal level of autonomy, notably the rise of Orthodox Christianity; however, Congress Poland and later Russian Poland did not receive similar sympathy, and was under complete oppression led by the Russian Imperial government. Nonetheless, in 1905, unrests in Russia became widespread and it hit to Estonia and Poland. For the Estonians, their major opponent was not the Russians but the Germans at the time, but since the Germans were given privileges in Russia, anti-German unrest in Estonia aimed directly against tsarist authoritarian rule. For the Poles, the Russians and Germans were both common oppressors, also rose up against both.

After the end of World War I, both Estonia and Poland regained independence. However, increasing invasions from the Bolsheviks put two nations into one common front against the Soviet Russians. Estonia was not able to repel the Soviets, but Polish success in the Polish–Soviet War helped both to keep their independence. From 1920s, Poland and Estonia were allies, though there was little contact between them. In 1922, Poland and Estonia were among signatories of the Warsaw Accord, which however did not enter into force, as its other signatory Finland did not ratify it under pressure of Germany, which was hostile to Poland. Instead, in 1925, Poland and Estonia together with Finland and Latvia signed a convention on conciliation and arbitration in Helsinki.

In 1937–1938, both ethnic Poles and Estonians in the Soviet Union were subjected to genocidal campaigns carried out by the NKVD, known as the Polish Operation and the Estonian Operation respectively. Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Poland and Estonia were both invaded and occupied during World War II. Poland was occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union since September 1939, while Estonia was occupied solely by the Soviet Union since June 1940. Both nations were under common oppression, and many Poles and Estonians were forcefully deported by the Russians to Siberia. In the course of Operation Barbarossa, from mid-1941, both countries were entirely occupied by Germany.

In 1944–1945, both countries were again occupied by Soviet forces. Soviet repressions and deportations of both Estonian and Polish citizens continued. Poland's formal independence was eventually restored, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime, while Estonia was annexed into the Soviet Union, thus both had no relationship until the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Today

With both Estonia and Poland freed from Soviet oppression, two countries reestablished tie in 1991.

Since 1991, trades and cooperation between Estonia and Poland had increased dramatically, turning them into economic and political partnership. Estonia considers Poland as its priority on their relations.

Both Estonia and Poland are member of NATO and the European Union. Their relations have enjoyed a significant boost since 2000s. The threat from Russia, which increased under Vladimir Putin, has also prompted two countries to set closer tie together against a common foe.

April 12, 2010, was declared a day of national mourning in Estonia to commemorate the 96 victims of the Smolensk air disaster, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński and his wife Maria Kaczyńska.

There is a small dispute between Estonia and Poland over desynchronisation, which Poland was reluctant to establish the AC link to Estonia.

The Polish Air Force takes part in the NATO Baltic Air Policing mission to guard the airspace over the Baltic states including Estonia. In 2021, Prime Minister of Estonia Kaja Kallas named Poland a key ally of Estonia.

Poland and Estonia co-hosted the 2021 Men's European Volleyball Championship.

In November 2021, during the Belarus–European Union border crisis, Estonia decided to send 100 troops from the Estonian Defence Forces to help Poland.

From December 2021-April 2022, Estonian soldiers arrived in Poland and helped build bridges, barbed wire fences, reinforced roads, and other border barriers along the Polish-Belarusian border during the Wisent joint military exercise.

In 2022, Estonian and Polish gas grids were connected, following the commissioning of the GIPL interconnection, also providing Estonia with a connection to the EU gas market. The Rail Baltica and Via Baltica, modern rail and road links of vital importance, connecting Estonia with Poland and Central Europe, remain under construction (as of 2022).

European Union
Both countries became members of the European Union in 2004.

NATO
Poland joined NATO in 1999. Estonia joined NATO in 2004.

Resident diplomatic missions
 Estonia has an embassy in Warsaw.
 Poland has an embassy in Tallinn.

See also
 Foreign relations of Estonia
 Foreign relations of Poland
 Latvia–Poland relations
 Lithuania–Poland relations
 Poland in the European Union

References

External links
Embassy of the Republic of Poland in Tallinn
Embassy of Estonia, Warsaw

Poland
Bilateral relations of Poland
Relations of colonizer and former colony