The Valle dei Templi (; ), or Valley of the Temples, is an archaeological site in Agrigento (ancient Greek Akragas), Sicily. It is one of the most outstanding examples of ancient Greek art and architecture of Magna Graecia, and is one of the main attractions of Sicily. The term "valley" is a misnomer, the site being located on a ridge outside the town of Agrigento.

Since 1997, the entire area has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The archaeological and landscape park of the Valle dei Templi, with its 1300 hectares, is the largest archaeological park in Europe and the Mediterranean basin.

Overview

The Valley includes remains of seven temples, all in Doric style. The ascription of the names, apart from that of the Olympeion, are a mere tradition established in Renaissance times. The temples are:

Temple of Concordia, whose name comes from a Latin inscription found nearby, and which was built in the 5th century BC. Turned into a church in the 6th century AD, it is now one of the best preserved in the Valley.
Temple of "Hera", also built in the 5th century BC. It was burnt in 406 BC by the Carthaginians.
Temple of Heracles, who was one of the most venerated deities in the ancient Akragas. It is the most ancient in the Valley: destroyed by an earthquake, it consists today of only eight columns.
Temple of Olympian Zeus, built in 480 BC to celebrate the city-state's victory over Carthage. It is characterized by the use of large scale atlases.
Temple of Castor and Pollux. Despite its remains including only four columns, it is now the symbol of modern Agrigento.
Temple of Hephaestus (Vulcan), also dating from the 5th century BC. It is thought to have been one of the most imposing constructions in the valley; it is now however one of the most eroded.
Temple of Asclepius, located far from the ancient town's walls; it was the goal of pilgrims seeking cures for illness.

The Valley is also home to the so-called Tomb of Theron, a large tuff monument of pyramidal shape; scholars suppose it was built to commemorate the Romans killed in the Second Punic War.

Temple of Concordia

Due to its good state of preservation, the Temple of Concordia is ranked amongst the most notable edifices of the Greek civilization existing today. Notably the UNESCO symbol alludes to this temple's six column facade. It has a peristasis of 6 x 13 columns built over a basement of 39.44 x 16.91 m; each Doric column has twenty grooves and a slight entasis, and is surmounted by an architrave with triglyphs and metopes; also perfectly preserved are the tympani. The cella, preceded by a pronaos, is accessed by a single step; also existing are the pylons with the stairs which allowed to reach the roof and, over the cella's walls and in the blocks of the peristasis entablature, the holes for the wooden beam of the ceiling. The exterior and the interior of the temple were covered by polychrome stucco. The upper frame had gutters with lion-like protomes, while the roof was covered by marble tiles.

When the temple was turned into a church the entrance was moved to the rear, and the rear wall of the cella was destroyed. The spaces between the columns were closed, while 12 arched openings were created in the cella, in order to obtain a structure with one nave and two aisles. The pagan altar was destroyed and sacristies were carved out in the eastern corners. The sepultures visible inside and outside the temple date to the High Middle Age.

Temple of "Hera"

This temple lies at the easternmost end of the ridge and is built on a huge artificial terrace. It dates to c. 450 BC, measuring 38.15 x 16.9 m: it is in Doric style, peripteros six columns wide by thirteen long, preceded by a pronaos and opisthodomos. The base has four steps.

Current remains (including anastylosis from the 18th century onwards) consist of the front colonnade with parts of the architrave and of the frieze. Only fragments of the other three sides survive, with few elements of the cella. The building was damaged in the fire of 406 BC and restored in Roman times, with the substitution of marble tiles with ones of clay, and the addition of a steep rise in the area where today can be seen the remains of the altar.

Nearby are arcosolia and other sepultures from Byzantine times, belonging to the late 6th century AD renovation of the Temple of Concordia into a Christian church.

Temple of Asclepius
The Temple of Asclepius is located in the middle of the San Gregorio plain. Its identification is based on a mention by Polybius (I, 18, 2), who states that the temple was "in front of the city", one mile away. However, as the actual distance does not correspond and the size of the building is relatively small, scholars remains dubious about this attribution.

The small temple, probably dating to the late 5th century BC and measuring 21.7 x 10.7 m, rises over a basement with three steps. Its peculiarity is the fake opysthodomus with two semi-columns in the external side of the rear cella. Also extant are parts of the entablature, with lion-like protomes, a frieze and a geison pediment.

The sanctuary housed a bronze statue of Apollo by Myron, a gift to the city by Scipio, which was stolen by Verres.

Temple of Heracles

The traditional name of this temple comes from another mention by Cicero about a temple dedicated to the classical hero "not far from the forum"; however, it has never been proven the latter (the agora of the Greek city) was located in this point.

Stylistically, the temple belongs to the last years of the 6th century BC. It has also been suggested that this temple was one of the first built under Theron. Also the entablature, of which parts have been found, would date it to the 470–460s or the middle 5th century BC (though the more recent remains could be a replacement of the older ones). One hypothesis is that the temple was begun before the Battle of Himera, to be completed only in the following decades. Polyaenus mentions a temple of Athena being built under Theron outside the city, which could be identified with that of "Hercules", though also with a new one in the inner acropolis.

The building, with 20th-century anastylosis, measures 67 x 25.34 m, with a peristasis of 6 x 15  Doric columns and a cella with pronaos and opysthodomus, is located over a three-step basement. It is the first example (later become common in the Agrigento temples) of pylons inserted between the pronaos and cella, housing the stair which allowed inspections of the roof. The columns are rather high and have wide capitals. On the eastern side are remains of the large altar.

Olympeion field

On the other side of the road running through the Golden Gate of the ancient city, is a plain commanded by the huge Olympeion field. This includes a platea with a large temple to Olympian Zeus, plus other areas still under investigation. These include a sanctuary, with remains of a paved square, a complex sacellum ("holy enclosure") and a tholos. This, after another gate, is followed by a sanctuary of chthonic deities, an archaic sanctuary, the so-called colimbetra (where was a still unknown gate) and the tip of the spur where the sanctuary is located, with the Temple of Vulcan.

The Olympeion complex' main attraction is the huge Temple of Olympian Zeus, which was described with enthusiastic words by Diodorus Siculus and mentioned by Polybius. Today it is reduced to ruins due to destruction begun in antiquity and continued through the 18th century, when the temple was used as a quarry for the port of Porto Empedocle.

Near the south-western corner of the temples is a small edifice (12,45 x 5,90 m) with two naves and a deep pronaos, a double entrance and what has been identified as an altar. Its dating is controversial, though scholars have assigned it to the Archaic era, due to the discovery of numerous 6th century BC vases. Also archaic is another sacellum, which later was replaced by a classical edifice. These are followed by the scant remains of a temple (called "Tempio L") dating to the mid-5th century BC, measuring 41.8 x 20.20 meters, to which, in the 3rd century BC, a Hellenistic entablature was added.

Temple of the Dioscuri

North of Temple L is the "Temple of the Dioscuri," Castor and Pollux, the northwest corner of which is in a misleading modern reconstruction from the early 19th century, created using pieces from various other temples. It includes four columns and an entablature. The temple itself measures , and would likely have been a Doric peripteral with 6 x 13 columns, dating to about the mid-5th c. BC.

Temple of Hephaestus
On the other side of the valley is the last spur of the hill, commanded by the remains of the Temple of Hephaestus (also called the Temple of Vulcan), although the exact deity to whom it is dedicated is unknown. It is a Doric-style peripteral building measuring , mounted on a four-step crepidoma and having 6 x 13 columns; it dates to around 430 BC. It was built over an archaic sacellumm which measures . Its decoration, dating to ca. 560-550 BC, has been recently reconstructed.

Other remains
On the western side of the city are the remains of Gates VI and VII, the first probably lying on the road to Heracles, the second having two towers and two external bastions (one having 15-metre thick walls); northwards are the remains of Gates VIII and IX, now surrounded by illegal buildings.

At the western tip of the area in which the Temple of Concordia lies, are parts of a late-ancient or early-medieval necropolis, constructed on existing cisterns. Other tombs and catacombs are visible in the so-called Grotte Fragapane, dating to the 4th century AD.

These late-Roman and Byzantine necropolises lie in an area used for tombs since ancient times. One of these, the so-called Tomb of Theron, is a naiskos sepulchre with square plan. Gate IV is located near the tomb of Theron: probably one of the most important in the city, as it led to the sea.

West of the Olympeion, are remains of two insulae (residences) 38 m wide, connected by a square to the ancient Gate V. It is likely that they were built re-using structures belonging to the sacred area of the Olympeion. Nearby is a sanctuary with an L-shaped portico from the early 5th century BC, which is annexed to Gate V. In the area are also two archaic (mid-6th century BC) temples.

On the northern side of Gate V is a large stone square leading to the "Sanctuary of the Chthonic Gods".

The so-called "Oratory of Phalaris" is in fact a Roman temple, measuring 12.40 x 8.85 m.

Excavations

Much of the excavation and restoration of the temples was due to the efforts of archaeologist Domenico Antonio Lo Faso Pietrasanta (1783–1863), who was the Duke of Serradifalco from 1809 through 1812. During the 20th century, the archeological excavation was mainly funded by Captain Alexander Hardcastle. He permitted excavations within the archaeological park including the straightening of the eight columns on the south side of the Temple of Heracles. For his contributions to archaeology he was made an honorary citizen of the city of Agrigento and was granted in 1928 the rank of Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy.

See also

Architecture of Ancient Greece
Greek temple
List of Greco-Roman roofs

References

External links

The Valley of the Temples. A visitor's guide to the Valley of the Temples
 Valley of the Temples - photo gallery
 Valley of the Temples at Google Cultural Institute

Archaeological sites in Sicily
Buildings and structures in the Province of Agrigento
Agrigento
Temples of Asclepius
Tourist attractions in Sicily
Museums in Sicily
Archaeological museums in Italy
Museums of ancient Greece in Italy
World Heritage Sites in Italy
Archaeological parks


The Portuguese East India Company ( or ) was a short-lived and ill-fated attempt by Philip III of Portugal, to create a chartered company to ensure the security of their interests in India, in the face of the mounting pressure and influence by their rivals; the Dutch East India Company and the English East India Company, following the personal union of the Portuguese and Spanish Crowns.

Background

Portuguese trade with India had been a crown monopoly since the Portuguese captain Vasco da Gama opened the sea route to India in 1497–1499.  The monopoly had been managed by the Casa da Índia, the royal trading house founded around 1500, it is a first to start a joint stock company to trade in india. The Casa was responsible for the yearly India armadas. However, by 1560, the Casa's finances were in dire straits and in 1570, King Sebastian of Portugal issued a decree opening up trade to India to any private Portuguese national.  As few took up the offer, the free trade decree was replaced in 1578 by a new system of annual monopolies, where the Casa sold India trading contracts to a private Portuguese merchant consortium, granting them a monopoly for one year.  This annual contract system was abandoned in 1597, and the royal monopoly resumed.

The Iberian Union of 1580, which gave King Philip II of Spain the crown of Portugal, changed little at first. However, the increasing influence of the Dutch and English East India Companies on the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere in the East Indies after 1598 led the king to experiment with different arrangements to secure the Portuguese colonial empire.  In 1605, he created the Conselho da Índia, to bring affairs in Portuguese India under closer supervision of the Habsburg crown.  But this conflicted with older lines of Portuguese authority, and the council was eventually dissolved in 1614.

Proposal

It was around this time that the idea of a chartered private Portuguese East Indies company, organized along the lines of Dutch and English companies, was first conceived.  This was promoted by Portuguese New Christian merchant and Mercantilist pamphleteer Duarte Gomes Solis who lived in Madrid, most notably in his Spanish language tract Discursos sobre los Comercios de las Indias (published 1622, although circulated earlier). Solis argued that a private joint-stock company could raise more capital, revive the Asian trade and compete more efficiently with the Anglo-Dutch in the Indian Ocean.

King Philip III of Portugal put the idea in motion in 1624 and appointed D. Jorge Mascarenhas, mayor of Lisbon and member of the Council of State, to head a committee to implement Solis proposal. Despite being supported by Olivares, the proposal faced much skepticism and opposition, particularly by the Duke of Villahermosa (head of the Council of Portugal), and Mascarenhas had considerable trouble securing investment commitments.

The Company

The Companhia do commércio da Índia (or Companhia da Índia Oriental) finally came into existence in August 1628, when it was granted a charter by King Philip III.  The Companhia was to be governed by a Câmara de Administração Geral, composed of a president (Jorge Mascarenhas) and six administrators, elected by the investors, with full powers, although its judicial acts, administrative practices and finances were subject to review by an advisory Conselho do Comércio (Board of Trade) in the king's court in Madrid.  The charter envisaged a two-year transition period, during which the royal Conselho da Fazenda would continue to supervise the India fleets, the Casa da Índia and the Armazém da Índia, before passing them all over to the Companhia's administration.  The Companhia would be in charge of running & collecting the customs dues payable at the Casa.

The Companhia was established with a joint-stock block of six years, renewable for another six with a minimum subscription of 100 cruzados.  The Companhia was granted a monopoly on trade in coral, pepper, cinnamon, ebony and cowrie shells, and could be extended to other items upon request. It had full administrative & juridical privileges, including the right to keep all spoils from seizures of Dutch and English ships (after deducting the royal fifth).

The crown was the largest investor, committing 1,500,000 cruzados for the first three years.  Although some municipalities (esp. Lisbon) also invested, private individuals were less interested.  To make it attractive, subscribers were guaranteed an annual return of 4% plus dividends and the subscriptions were laced with various privileges (e.g. title in king's household, protection from debt seizure, even the capital of New Christians convicted by the Portuguese Inquisition, had a measure of protection).  Although there were provisions against allowing any other East Indies company to be formed in Habsburg territories, investment in the Companhia was open to all subjects of Philip III and his allies (thus Spaniards, Italians, Flemings, etc.) Nonetheless, none of this was enough to garner much enthusiasm from private individuals.  The company was launched with only around half the capital it originally sought to raise.

The end

The Companhia proved unsuccessful.  Investors remained skeptical, overseas Portuguese merchants rejected the new Companhia's authority, and the Anglo-Dutch breach of the old Portuguese empire in Asia had become irreparable, squeezing margins on the spice trade.  The Companhia proved unprofitable, and soon ceased operating and was liquidated in April, 1633. The Casa da Índia and the India trade was brought back under the supervision of the Conselho da Fazenda (royal finance council).

See also

 List of trading companies

References

Further reading

 Disney, A.R. (1977) "The First Portuguese India Company, 1628-33", Economic History Review, Vol. 30 (2), p. 242-58.

Chartered companies
Portuguese Empire
Portuguese India
Defunct companies of Portugal
Colonial Indian companies
Maritime history of Portugal
Trading companies
1628 establishments in Portugal
1633 disestablishments in Portugal
Companies established in 1628
1620s establishments in Portuguese India


Salah Aboud Mahmoud (born 1942; Arabic: صلاح عبود محمود missing since March 2003) is a former Iraqi Army general, best known for his role in Battle of Khafji and 73 Easting, during the Gulf War.

Career
On January 29, 1991, Mahmoud took part in battle with coalition forces to take control of the Saudi Arabian city of Khafji. Mahmoud also took part in the Iran–Iraq War of 1980–1988, along with the tank battle of 73 Easting.

Mahmoud was appointed commander of the Iraqi Third Corps in the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, a regular process in the Iraqi military to ensure that former high-ranking officers did not pose a threat to the Ba'athist Iraqi government. He was later governor of Dhi Qar Province, a Shia province which had briefly been taken by the 1991 Iraqi insurgency before it was brutally suppressed.

1990s
In December 1994, Major-General Wafiq Al-Samarrai defected to Jordan and called on officers to revolt against Saddam Hussein's regime. Mahmoud was one of them he called on. He did not, and despite his connections to many of the purged officers he was never executed. Rather, he was gradually forced out of his government roles. President Hussein divided Iraq into four administrative regions in 1998. Many expected Mahmoud would be recalled to the military and appointed to the Central Euphrates governorship as governor Mizban had been dismissed. However this did not come to pass and Mizban was reinstated.

Invasion of Iraq
After the invasion of Iraq in March 2003, Mahmoud disappeared and his current whereabouts are unknown.

See also
List of people who disappeared

References
 Kenneth Pollack, Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–1991, University of Nebraska Press, 2002, p. 243–244.
 Spencer C. Tucker and Priscilla Mary Roberts, The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars, October 2010, page 763.

1950 births
2000s missing person cases
Iraqi military personnel
Missing aviators
Missing person cases in Iraq


Y Prifardd, literally The Chief Bard, is the Welsh title given to bards who have won either the chair or the crown in the National Eisteddfod of Wales. It is a very highly respected title in the Welsh language community, due to an acknowledgement of the artistic talent required to acquire it.
Prifardd is used both as a common noun ("he is a prifardd") and as an honorific that precedes the title-holder's name in the way that 'The Reverend' or 'The Honourable' would be used in English; for example, "Y Prifardd Christine James".

For lists of chaired and crowned bards, see Chaired Bards (category) and Crowned Bards (category).

References

Eisteddfod
Titles
Welsh poetry


Rodney D. Bagley (October 2, 1934-April 13, 2023) was an engineer and  co-inventor of the catalytic converter.

Rodney Bagley was born in Ogden, Utah, on 2 October 1934. He earned a B.S. in geological engineering in 1960, and a PhD in ceramic engineering in 1964, both from the University of Utah. He worked for Corning Incorporated from 1963 until his retirement in 1994, researching unique ceramic materials. Bagley is a Corning Research fellow, an American Ceramic Society fellow, and recipient of the Geijsbeck Award (1985) and the International Ceramics Prize (1996). He was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002.

The Clean Air Act (1970) set new standards for automotive emissions. Bagley, as part of a Corning team that also included Irwin Lachman and geologist Ronald Lewis, invented the core, or substrate, used in modern catalytic converters. They developed the extrusion die along with a process that made a thin-walled, honeycomb cellular ceramic substrate. Thousands of cellular channels through the structure allowed for a large surface area. The inside surface area was then coated with a catalyst that reacted with pollutants, converting 95% of exhaust pollutants into harmless emissions, including carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. A restriction of the ceramic substrate was that due to its sensitivity, only lead-free gasoline could be used.  Ceramic substrate technology is now used by every automotive manufacturer in the world and is credited with reducing automotive pollutants by more than three billion tons worldwide.

References

1934 births
Living people
People from Ogden, Utah
20th-century American inventors
University of Utah alumni
National Medal of Technology recipients


White Wolf is a Canadian heavy metal band from Edmonton, Alberta, led by Don Wolf.

History
White Wolf originally formed in 1975 under the name Slamm, then changed to Warrior before settling on White Wolf. The group played locally for several years before landing a recording contract with RCA Records; their debut album, Standing Alone, was issued on the label in 1984. The band toured in Canada, the United States, Europe and Japan in support of the album.

A second album, Endangered Species, was released in 1986.  The album included one song which was made into a music video: "She".

The group disbanded shortly after completing the album, but released a third album with new material, Victim Of The Spotlight, in 2007. They came together again for a tour of Germany that year; a concert from this tour was recorded live and released in 2008 by Escape Music as WHITE WOLF Live in Germany.

As of 2016, White Wolf continues to perform occasionally at local venues.

Members
Current members:
Don Wolf (Wilk) - vocals, keyboards
Cam McLeod - lead guitar, vocals, record producer
Scott Webb - rhythm & lead guitar, backing vocals
Russel Berquist - bass, backing vocals
Brendan Ostrander - drums, backing vocals
David J Petovar - keyboards, backing vocals

Past members:
Rick Nelson - guitar
Loris Bolzon - drums
Les Schwartz - bass
Martin Kronlund - guitar
Richard Quist - bass, keyboards
Imre Daun - drums
Dale Christie - guitar

Discography
Standing Alone (RCA, 1984), U.S. No. 162
Endangered Species (RCA, 1986), U.S. No. 137
Victim of the Spotlight (Escape Music, 2007)
Standing Alone/Endangered Species (2 disc digipack) (Escape Music, 2007)
Live in Germany (Escape Music, 2009)

References

Canadian heavy metal musical groups
Musical groups established in 1975
Musical groups disestablished in 1986
Musical groups from Edmonton
1975 establishments in Alberta
1986 disestablishments in Canada


Phoenix is the fifth album by the American singing trio Labelle. The album was moderately successful, peaking at #44 on the pop charts and #10 on the R&B charts. Only one minor hit was released, "Messin With My Mind", written by Nona Hendryx.

Track listing
All tracks composed by Nona Hendryx; except where indicated
Side A
 "Phoenix (The Amazing Flight of a Lone Star)" (6:17)
 "Slow Burn" (3:32)
 "Black Holes in the Sky" (3:21)
 "Good Intentions" (3:57)
 "Far As We Felt Like Goin'" (2:58) (Bob Crewe, Kenny Nolan)
Side B
 "Messin' with My Mind" (4:36)
 "Chances Go Round" (Nona Hendryx, Edward Levone Batts, James Budd Ellison) (2:50)
 "Cosmic Dancer" (5:49)
 "Take the Night Off" (3:38)
 "Action Time" (Edward Levone Batts, James Ellison; with additional lyrics by Nona Hendryx) (3:51)

Charts

Personnel
Nona Hendryx, Patti LaBelle, Sarah Dash - vocals
Edward Batts - guitar; acoustic guitar on tracks A5, B5
Carmine Rojas - bass guitar on tracks A4, B1, B5
James Ellison - keyboards
Larry Davis - drums
Jeffrey Shannon - percussion
with:
George Porter Jr. - bass on tracks A1 to A3, A5, B2 to B4)
Herman Ernest III - drums
Leo Nocentelli (tracks: A1, A2, A4, B1 to B5), Steve Hughes (tracks: A4, B1, B5), Teddy Royal (tracks: A2, A5) - guitar
Allen Toussaint - Fender Rhodes, arrangements
James Booker - organ
Carl Blouin - baritone saxophone
Jim Moore - tenor & alto saxophone, flute
Lon Price - tenor saxophone
Lester Caliste - trombone
John Longo - trumpet
Steve Howard - trumpet, flugelhorn
Vicki Wickham - executive producer
Don Puluse, Ken Laxton - engineers
Tom Huetis - photography

References

External links
 Phoenix on Discogs.com

1975 albums
Labelle albums
Albums produced by Allen Toussaint
Epic Records albums


Cemesto is a sturdy, lightweight, waterproof and fire-resistant composite building material made from a core of sugar cane fiber insulating board, called Celotex, surfaced on both sides with asbestos cement. It was originally developed by the Celotex Corporation and first introduced to the market in 1937.
Cemesto was a pivotal material in the development of World War II-era defense housing, which provided homes for workers mobilized to meet wartime production needs.

Use and Characteristics
Cemesto panels consisted of an inner board of Celotex insulating lumber coated first in a proprietary sealant then in a layer of mixes of asbestos and cement. The base panels are manufactured from bagasse, a fibrous biproduct of sugarcane, using a felting process. It was manufactured in the form of boards and panels that were  wide, about  thick, and  to  long. These boards did not need to be painted and were delivered by the manufacturer precut to the desired size.

Cemesto was primarily used for the interior and exterior walls of low-cost houses, gas stations, factories, and office buildings. The primary structural element of the cemesto house is the window panel. Treated wood frames are attached at the top and bottom of the window unit, which run horizontally around the room as well as along the floor and ceiling. Panels of cemesto are then inserted into these frames. The panels support the weight of the ceiling by distributing it across their length to periodic columns rather than vertically to the foundation.

History
Cemesto was introduced by the Celotex Corporation in 1937.

The John B. Pierce Foundation and Celotex collaborated to develop a prefabrication system for building low-cost housing using cemesto panels, in which single cemesto panels were slid horizontally into light wooden frames to create walls. A prototype cemesto house was displayed at the 1939 World's Fair in New York City. The Pierce system was first used in 1941 for building employee housing at the Glenn L. Martin Aircraft Company, near Baltimore, Maryland. For this development, named Aero Acres, the architecture firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed gable-roofed Cape Cod houses with dimensions of  by , featuring large commercial-style windows in their principal rooms. In 1941, a total of 600 homes were built at Aero Acres using this design.

During World War II, when other building materials were in short supply, cemesto was used extensively in the United States.  Cemesto was used to build temporary office buildings in Washington, D.C. Skidmore, Owings and Merrill adapted the Pierce system and used cemesto panels for the designs of some 2,500 prefabricated homes, known by the nickname "cemestos," erected in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, to house Manhattan Project workers and their families. In 1942, the U.S. Farm Security Administration built 400 cemesto homes in Maryland at a site alongside Aero Acres.

Prior to the wide adoption of cemesto to create prefabricated housing, most rationalized fabrication systems relied on vertical ceiling-height panels supported by a frame.

During the 1940s, the manufacturer of cemesto touted it as a material that would in the future make it possible to mass-produce housing at a low cost. One use of the material during the postwar era was in the late 1940s in Circle Pines, Minnesota, where cemesto panels were used in building the first homes in what was envisioned to be a cooperative housing community for people of color. The use of cemesto in Circle Pines came to be regarded as substandard construction, as the builders failed to adequately seal the joints between cemesto panels.

Several prominent architects embraced cemesto as a modern material and used it in their designs. For the Bousquet-Wightman House in Houston, Texas, built in 1941, architect Donald Barthelme used cemesto panels for exterior sheathing. In 1949, Edward Durell Stone called for cemesto panels in the design of a home to be built in Armonk, New York. That same year, Charles Eames designed his Eames House, Case Study House #8, to use brightly painted and unfinished cemesto panels in a prefabricated steel frame.  Frank Lloyd Wright designed the Raymond Carlson House in Phoenix, Arizona, built in 1950, to use a structural system of wood posts and cemesto boards. In the Arthur Pieper House in Paradise Valley, Arizona, built in 1952 from concrete block, Wright used cemesto for the ceilings.

In addition to houses and office buildings, cemesto was used to build gasoline stations and factories.

References

Building materials
Composite materials


Colin Lindsay, 3rd Earl of Balcarres (1652–1722) was a Scottish aristocrat and politician, and one of the most important supporters of James II of England in Scotland.

Biography

Early life
Colin Lindsay was baptized at Kilconquhar on 23 August 1652, the second surviving son of Alexander Lindsay, first Earl of Balcarres by his wife, Lady Anna Mackenzie, daughter and coheiress of Colin Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Seaforth.

He succeeded to the earldom, while still a child, on the death at the age of twelve, of his brother Charles, second earl, 15 Oct. 1662. In 1670 at the age of sixteen, he was presented at court by his cousin the Duke of Lauderdale, when Charles II, partly because he conceived a liking for him personally, and partly in recognition of his father's services, gave him command of a select cavalry troop manned by gentlemen in reduced circumstances. Not long afterwards he was married to Mademoiselle Mauritiade Nassau, sister of Lady Arlington and the Countess of Nassau, and daughter of Louis de Nassau, count of Beverwaert and Auverquerque in the Dutch Republic; but at the ceremony he reportedly placed a mourning instead of a wedding ring on the finger of the bride. She is said to have taken the evil omen to heart and she died within a year. After her death he went to sea with the Duke of York (the future James II of England), under whom he distinguished himself at the battle of Solebay, 28 May 1672.

Second marriage and public offices
In 1673 he married Lady Jean Carnegie, eldest daughter of David Carnegie, 2nd Earl of Northesk, and thereby incurring the king's displeasure, was forbidden to appear at court. Retiring to the country he occupied his leisure in study. On the death of his wife, six years afterwards, he was permitted to return to court, and on 3 June 1680 was made a privy-councillor and in 1682 sheriff of Fife.
Along with Claverhouse he took active measures against the covenanters in Fife, and in January 1686 obtained a commission to hold with him a justiciary court for their trial.

Reign of James II and after
After the accession of James II Balcarres was, on 3 September 1686, appointed a commissioner of the treasury, and in 1688 was made Lord Lieutenant of Fife. So much was he trusted by the king, that when the scheme for the descent of the Prince of Orange became known, the chancellor, Lord Perth, was ordered to rely on his advice and that of the Earl of Cromarty in the measures to be adopted for the defence of Scotland. Lord Melfort, secretary of state, however, who was jealous of Balcarres's influence, rejected his suggested plan of defence as too expensive, and it was determined instead to send the forces then available in Scotland southwards. Balcarres, meanwhile, was sent by the Scottish  privy council to England to receive further instructions, and succeeded in reaching London.

After the king's return from Faversham, Balcarres, along with Dundee, waited on him on the morning of 17 November in his bedroom at Whitehall. At the request of the king they accompanied him on a walk in the Mall, when, having expressed his final determination to leave the country, he stated that on his arrival in France he would send Balcarres a commission to manage his civil affairs, and Dundee one to command the troops in Scotland.

After the flight of the king Balcarres waited on the Prince of Orange, to whom he was previously known through his first wife, the prince's cousin. While expressing his respect for the prince, Balcarres declined to act against the king, whereupon the prince warned him of the danger he ran if he transgressed the law. Along with Dundee, Balcarres was permitted to return to Scotland, and they arrived in Edinburgh about the end of February 1689.

The Duke of Gordon was already negotiating the surrender of the castle, when Balcarres and Dundee waited on him, and persuaded him to hold out till he saw what the Convention of Estates intended to do. On the capture of a messenger from Ireland with letters to Balcarres from the king, Balcarres was seized and confined in his own lodging. His request for permission to live in England was refused, and on account of further compromising letters sent to him by Melfort, he was confined for four months in the common gaol of Edinburgh. Soon after his release he became connected with the Montgomery plot for James's restoration, and on its discovery in 1690 he left the country.

In exile
He landed at Hamburg, and while journeying to the Dutch Republic, through Flanders, was seized by a party of banditti, who, however, agreed to free him on payment of a hundred pistoles, which he succeeded in obtaining from the jesuits at the Catholic college of Douay. He proceeded to St. Germains, where he was well received by James, to whom he presented his Memoirs touching the Revolution. On account of the misrepresentations of Melfort and others, he, however, found it necessary, after six months at St. Germains, to leave the court, and went to the south of France. Thence he sent an expostulatory letter to James. Ultimately the exiled king invited him to return; but he deemed acceptance of the invitation injudicious while the old favourites were in power, and after a year's sojourn in France finally settled with his family at Utrecht. Here he made the acquaintance of Pierre Bayle, Leclerc, and other learned men.

Return to Scotland
Ultimately, through the interposition of William Carstares and the Duke of Queensberry, who wrote of him pityingly, as an 'instance of the folly of Jacobitism', he was permitted towards the close of 1700 to return to Scotland.
He was now in greatly impoverished circumstances, and although the Duke of Marlborough, an old friend and companion, obtained for him a rent-charge of £500 a year for ten years upon the crown lands of Orkney, he was compelled by his necessities, before the ten years expired, to sell his rights there.
In his extremity he wrote to Queen Anne, asking for the restoration of his pension of £1000 a year, of which he had been deprived at the revolution, and in all probability some allowance was made him.

He was appointed a privy councillor in April 1706, and supported the union with England in 1707. But in 1715 he was unable to resist the invitation to join the Jacobite prince's standard, and he was one of the most zealous of his supporters. On the collapse of the rebellion, it was arranged, owing to the friendly interposition of Argyll and Marlborough, that on his surrendering he should be sent to his own house at Balcarres. He remained a prisoner there under the charge of one dragoon till the indemnity.

He spent the remainder of his life in retirement there, finding a solace for his misfortunes in his love of art and letters. He had latterly so recovered his pecuniary position as to be able to purchase several good pictures by the Dutch masters and others, to add considerably to his library, and also to found the village which he named after himself Colinsburgh. He died at Balcarres in 1722, and was buried there in the private chapel of the family.

Character
John Macky describes him in 1700 as 'a gentleman of very good natural parts,' with 'abundance of application, handsome in his person, very fair, and towards fifty years old.' Circumstances were adverse to the useful employment of his undoubted abilities, but had the folly and infatuation of James II been less, he might have been successful with Dundee in retrieving the Jacobite cause. His 'Memoirs touching the Revolution in Scotland,' published originally in 1714, reprinted 1754, and again, more correctly by the Bannatyne Club, in 1841, are invaluable as a narrative of the proceedings and negotiations of the supporters of the king in 1688–90.

Issue and succession
By his second wife, Lady Jean Carnegie, Balcarres had a daughter Anne, married to Alexander, Earl of Kellie, and afterwards to James Seton, 3rd Viscount of Kingston.

By his third wife, Lady Jean Ker, only daughter of The Earl of Roxburghe, he had a son Colin, Lord Cumberland, master of Balcarres, who died unmarried in 1708, and a daughter Margaret, who married John, Earl of Wigton.

By his fourth wife, Lady Margaret, eldest daughter of James Campbell, 2nd Earl of Loudoun, he had seven children, of whom four survived him - two sons, Alexander, and James, and two daughters, Eleanor, married to the Hon. James Fraser of Lonmay, Aberdeenshire, third son of William Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun, and Elizabeth, who died unmarried.

Works
 An account of the affairs of Scotland, relating to the revolution of 1688, 1714. Reprinted 1754. Republished 1841 as Memoirs touching the revolution in Scotland, Bannatyne Club

Notes

Attribution

References
Lord Lindsay, Lives of the Lindsays
Preface by Lord Lindsay to Balcarres, Memoirs (Bannatyne Club)
Napier, Memorials of Viscount Dundee
W. A. Lindsay, Lindsay Pedigree, in the College of Arms
Sir Robert Douglas's Scottish Peerage (John Philip Wood), i 169–71.]
Paul Hopkins, ‘Lindsay, Colin, third earl of Balcarres (1652–1721)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004; online edn, Jan 2007, accessed 26 Oct 2008

External links

1652 births
1722 deaths
Colin
Colin
Commissioners of the Treasury of Scotland
Members of the Convention of the Estates of Scotland 1689
Scottish Jacobites


The Wyoming Army National Guard Cavalry Stable in Newcastle, Wyoming was built between 1933 and 1936 for the Wyoming National Guard's horses. It is the last National Guard cavalry stable in Wyoming.  It has been used as the Anna Miller Museum by the Weston County Historical Society since 1966.

Anna Miller Museum
The Anna Miller Museums is a museum of local history, with exhibits about the area's pioneers, Native Americans and prehistoric history.

Stable history
Funding for the stables was provided by the Depression-era Civil Works Administration and Works Progress Administration. The Newcastle National Guard unit was formed in 1899 as Company A, Second Regiment, Wyoming National Guard, becoming Company A of the Third Wyoming Infantry Regiment in 1905. In 1921 the Third Infantry Regiment was reorganized as the First Cavalry, finally becoming in 1942 Troop F, 115th Horse Mechanized Cavalry. Similar units with similar facilities existed in Sheridan, Douglas, Casper and Torrington.

The original plans for the stables included a  by  riding hall adjacent to the stables, using the same materials. Footings were started, but due to the onset of World War II the hall was never completed. Stone intended for the hall was appropriated for other local construction projects. Of the Wyoming units, only Torrington had a completed riding hall.

The one story building measures  wide by  long, with a rock-faced sandstone exterior. The walls are solid stone  thick, with the stone obtained from a quarry on Salt Creek. Stonework was by the Sundstrom Brothers, who also worked on the Weston County Courthouse.

The building was built with stables and a caretaker's residence within. Much of the interior has an open ceiling with the roof structure visible above. The roof structure is heavy timber trusses on  centers.

The Wyoming Army National Guard Cavalry Stable was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1994.

References

External links
 at the National Park Service's NRHP database
Wyoming Army National Guard Cavalry Stable at the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office

 Anna Miller Museum - Newcastle Area Chamber of Commerce site
 Anna Miller Museum - information from Planetware
 Museum information from Online Highway

Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
Buildings and structures in Weston County, Wyoming
History museums in Wyoming
Museums in Weston County, Wyoming
Works Progress Administration in Wyoming
National Register of Historic Places in Weston County, Wyoming
Stables in the United States
Newcastle, Wyoming


Bruce is a male given name.

Bruce may also refer to:

People
 Bruce (surname)
 Clan Bruce, a Scottish clan
 House of Bruce, a Scottish royal house
 Robert the Bruce (1274–1329), King of Scotland
 Bruce (Russian nobility), a Russian noble family of Scottish origin

Places

Australia
 Bruce, Australian Capital Territory, a suburb of Canberra
 Bruce, South Australia, a town and locality
 Division of Bruce, an electoral division in Victoria

Canada
 Bruce, Alberta
 Bruce (Alberta provincial electoral district)
 Bruce County, Ontario
 Bruce (Ontario provincial electoral district)
 Bruce Nuclear Generating Station
 Bruce Island (Nunavut)
 Bruce Peninsula, Ontario
 Bruce Mountains, a mountain range on Baffin Island, Nunavut
 Bruce Trail, a hiking trail in Ontario

New Zealand
 Bruce (New Zealand electorate), a former parliamentary electorate
 Bruce statistical area, a census area and ward in the Clutha District

United States
 Bruce, Florida, a place in Florida
 Bruce, Illinois, an unincorporated community
 Bruce, Minnesota, a former town
 Bruce, Mississippi, a town
 Bruce, South Dakota, a city
 Bruce, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
 Bruce, Wisconsin, a village
 Bruce Creek (disambiguation)
 Bruce Township (disambiguation)

Elsewhere
 Bruce (crater), on the Moon
 Bruce Island, Franz Josef Land, Russia

Arts and entertainment
 "Bruce" (song), by Rick Springfield, 1984
 The Brus, also known as The Bruce, a 14th-century narrative poem by John Barbour
 The Bruce (film), a 1996 film about Robert the Bruce
 Bruce!!!, a 2017 American comedy film
 Bruce, the nickname given to the shark in Jaws
 Bruce, a great white shark character in Finding Nemo
 Bruce the Moose, a character in the television series Degrassi: The Next Generation

Maritime
 , a Royal Navy destroyer commissioned in 1918
 current name of RNAS Crail (HMS Jackdaw)
 USS Bruce (DD-329), a US Navy destroyer
 Bruce (ship), a 19th-century British sailing ship
 Bruce (anchor), a type of anchor

Other uses
 Baron Bruce (disambiguation), four subsidiary titles
 Bruce baronets, two titles each in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom and the Baronetage of Nova Scotia
 Bruce Medal, awarded annually by the Astronomical Society of the Pacific for lifetime contributions to astronomy
 Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, on the shore of Lake Huron, Ontario, Canada
 Bruce Publishing Company, an American Catholic publisher acquired by Benziger

See also
 Bruce Castle, a Grade I listed 16th-century[1] manor house in Tottenham, London
 Bruce House (disambiguation)
 Bruce protocol, a diagnostic test used in the evaluation of cardiac function
 Bruces sketch, a comedy sketch in the television show Monty Python's Flying Circus


Charles White (1823 – 18 February 1873) was an English cricketer who played for Surrey. He was born and died in Southwark.

White made a single first-class appearance, in 1850, against Middlesex. Batting in the tailend, he scored a duck in his only innings.

External links
Charles White at Cricket Archive

1823 births
1873 deaths
English cricketers
Surrey cricketers


Pressure Cookin' is the third album by American singing trio Labelle, released in August 1973. This release was their first and only for RCA Records, and was critically raved due to the songs that songwriter and member Nona Hendryx composed. The album is also notable for being the first album released following lead singer Patti LaBelle giving birth to her only child, son Zuri Edwards (she recorded the album while still pregnant with Zuri).

Among notable songs were "Something in the Air"/"The Revolution Will Not Be Televised", in which all three bandmates, Patti LaBelle, Nona Hendryx and Sarah Dash each shared a rap, the biographical "(Can I Speak to You Before You Go to) Hollywood", which was inspired by the events following former member Cindy Birdsong ditching the group during its Blue Belles tenure to join The Supremes and which featured all three members having notable lead vocal parts, mainly from Dash, while Hendryx sang in the beginning and Patti LaBelle sang the following verses, the soulful ballad "Last Dance" and the bossa nova-inspired "Let Me See You in the Light".

Despite RCA releasing the Stevie Wonder composition, "Open Up Your Heart", the album failed to become a success. In spite of its initial failure, the album has gone on to become a cult classic and is considered a revolutionary album because few female groups talked so openly about social issues and other topics. Wonder was uncredited due to contractual reasons - the production credit was listed as "Vicki Wickham and friend". Musicians on this track included members out of a Philadelphia-based band, Buff, and others from a Latin-black band from Queens called Harlem River Drive. Several of them would morph to become Labelle's road band, including guitarist, Eddie Martinez.

Track listing
All songs written and composed by Nona Hendryx, except where noted.

Side A
"Pressure Cookin'" - 3:00
"Medley: Something in the Air/The Revolution Will Not Be Televised" (Speedy Keen/Gil-Scott Heron) - 5:50
"Sunshine (Woke Me Up This Morning)" - 3:18
"(Can I Speak Before You Go To) Hollywood" - 6:38

Side B
"Mr. Music Man" - 4:05
"Goin' On a Holiday" - 3:21
"Let Me See You in the Light" - 6:13
"Open Up Your Heart" (Stevie Wonder) - 3:25
"Last Dance" - 4:15

Personnel
LaBelle
Patti LaBelle - vocals
Nona Hendryx - vocals
Sarah Dash - vocals
Musicians
Buzz Feiten, Eddie Martinez, Hank Redd - guitars
Leroi Conley - guitars, percussion (congas, tambourine)
Andre Lewis - organ, electric piano, clavinet, bass guitar, drums, percussion, arrangements
Luther Eaddy - organ
Carmine Rojas - bass guitar
Larry Davis, Emry Thomas - drums
Daniel Ben Zebulon - percussion
Technical
Mike Moran, Tom Brown - recording engineers
Roger Williams - artwork, design
Bob Gruen - photography

References

External links

''Pressure Cookin''' on Discogs.com

1973 albums
Labelle albums
Albums produced by Vicki Wickham
Albums produced by Stevie Wonder
RCA Records albums


The history of life on Earth is closely associated with environmental change on multiple spatial and temporal scales. Climate change is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional and global climates. These changes have a broad range of observed effects that are synonymous with the term. Climate change is any significant long term change in the expected pattern, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. Predicting the effects that climate change will have on plant biodiversity can be achieved using various models, however bioclimatic models are most commonly used.

Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and geographic distributions of plants, in combination with other factors, thereby modifying patterns of biodiversity. Changes in long term environmental conditions that can be collectively coined climate change are known to have had enormous impacts on current plant diversity patterns; further impacts are expected in the future. It is predicted that climate change will remain one of the major drivers of biodiversity patterns in the future. Climate change is thought to be one of several factors causing the currently ongoing human-triggered mass extinction, which is changing the distribution and abundance of many plants.

Palaeo context

The Earth has experienced a constantly changing climate in the time since plants first evolved. In comparison to the present day, this history has seen Earth as cooler, warmer, drier and wetter, and  (carbon dioxide) concentrations have been both higher and lower. These changes have been reflected by constantly shifting vegetation, for example forest communities dominating most areas in interglacial periods, and herbaceous communities dominating during glacial periods. It has been shown through fossil records that past climatic change has been a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction. The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago. This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles.

Modern context
There is significant current interest and research focus on the phenomenon of recent anthropogenic climate changes, or global warming. Focus is on identifying the current impacts of climate change on biodiversity, and predicting these effects into the future.

Changing climatic variables relevant to the function and distribution of plants include increasing  concentrations, increasing global temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and changes in the pattern of 'extreme weather events such as cyclones, fires or storms. Highly variable species distribution has resulted from different models with variable bioclimatic changes.

Because individual plants and therefore species can only function physiologically, and successfully complete their life cycles under specific environmental conditions (ideally within a subset of these), changes to climate are likely to have significant impacts on plants from the level of the individual right through to the level of the ecosystem or biome.

Effects of

 concentrations have been steadily rising for more than two centuries. Increases in atmospheric  concentration affect how plants photosynthesise, resulting in increases in plant water use efficiency, enhanced photosynthetic capacity and increased growth. Increased CO2 has been implicated in 'vegetation thickening' which affects plant community structure and function. Depending on environment, there are differential responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 between major 'functional types' of plant, such as  and  plants, or more or less woody species; which has the potential among other things to alter competition between these groups. Increased CO2 can also lead to increased Carbon : Nitrogen ratios in the leaves of plants or in other aspects of leaf chemistry, possibly changing herbivore nutrition. Studies show that doubled concentrations of CO2 will show an increase in photosynthesis in C3 plants but not in C4 plants. However, it is also shown that  plants are able to persist in drought better than the  plants.

Effects of temperature

Increases in temperature raise the rate of many physiological processes such as photosynthesis in plants, to an upper limit, depending on the type of plant. These increases in photosynthesis and other physiological processes are driven by increased rates of chemical reactions and roughly a doubling of enzymatic product conversion rates for every 10 °C increase in temperature. Extreme temperatures can be harmful when beyond the physiological limits of a plant which will eventually lead to higher desiccation rates.

One common hypothesis among scientists is that the warmer an area is, the higher the plant diversity. This hypothesis can be observed in nature, where higher plant biodiversity is often located at certain latitudes (which often correlates with a specific climate/temperature). Plant species in montane and snowy ecosystems are at greater risk for habitat loss due to climate change. The effects of climate change are predicted to be more severe in mountains of northern latitude.

Emissions continue to rise and a result, the Earth is now about 1.1 °C warmer than it was in the late 1800s. The decade 2011-2020 was the warmest on record up to that point. Beyond temperature rise, because the Earth is an interconnected system where changes in one area can influence changes in all others the consequences of climate change now include, among others, intense droughts, water scarcity, severe fires, rising sea levels, flooding, melting polar ice, catastrophic storms and declining biodiversity.

Effects of water

As water supply is critical for plant growth, it plays a key role in determining the distribution of plants. Changes in precipitation are predicted to be less consistent than for temperature and more variable between regions, with predictions for some areas to become much wetter, and some much drier. A change in water availability would show a direct correlation to the growth rates and persistence of plant species in that region.

With less consistent, more intense rainfall events the water availability will have a direct impact on the soil moisture in an area. A decrease in soil moisture will have negative impacts on plant's growth, changing the dynamics of the ecosystem as a whole. Plants rely not only on the total rainfall during the growing season, but also the intensity and magnitude of each rainfall event. In addition, drought-like conditions seen more frequently with climate change leave many plant and tree communities vulnerable to fires with a lower chance of survival, significantly decreasing diversity.

General effects
Environmental variables act not in isolation, but in combination with other pressures such as habitat degradation, habitat loss, and the introduction of exotic species that can potentially be invasive. It is suggested that these other drivers of biodiversity change will act in synergy with climate change to increase the pressure on species to survive. As these changes add up, Earth's overall ecosystems are predicted to look much different than they do today. More biologically diverse ecosystems (biodiversity hotspots) such as Mediterranean-type ecosystems are most at risk and sensitive to changes induced by global warming.

Direct impacts

Changes in distributions

If climatic factors such as temperature and precipitation change in a region beyond the tolerance of a species phenotypic plasticity, then distribution changes of the species may be inevitable. There is already evidence that plant species are shifting their ranges in altitude and latitude as a response to changing regional climates. Yet it is difficult to predict how species ranges will change in response to climate and separate these changes from all the other man-made environmental changes such as eutrophication, acid rain and habitat destruction.

When compared to the reported past migration rates of plant species, the rapid pace of current change has the potential to not only alter species distributions, but also render many species as unable to follow the climate to which they are adapted. The environmental conditions required by some species, such as those in alpine regions may disappear altogether. The result of these changes is likely to be a rapid increase in extinction risk. Adaptation to new conditions may also be of great importance in the response of plants.

Predicting the extinction risk of plant species is not easy however. Estimations from particular periods of rapid climatic change in the past have shown relatively little species extinction in some regions, for example. Knowledge of how species may adapt or persist in the face of rapid change is still relatively limited.

It is clear now that the loss of some species will be very dangerous for humans because they will stop providing services. Some of them have unique characteristics that cannot be replaced by any other.

Distributions of species and plant species will narrow following the effects of climate change. Climate change can affect areas such as wintering and breeding grounds to birds. Migratory birds use wintering and breeding grounds as a place to feed and recharge after migrating for long hours. If these areas are damaged due to climate change, it will eventually affect them as well.

Lowland forest have gotten smaller during the last glacial period and those small areas became island which are made up of drought resisting plants. In those small refugee areas there are also a lot of shade dependent plants. As an example , the dynamics of the calcareous grassland were significantly impacted due to the climate factors.

Changes in the suitability of a habitat for a species drive distributional changes by not only changing the area that a species can physiologically tolerate, but how effectively it can compete with other plants within this area. Changes in community composition are therefore also an expected product of climate change.

Changes in life-cycles

The timing of phenological events such as flowering are often related to environmental variables such as temperature. Changing environments are therefore expected to lead to changes in life cycle events, and these have been recorded for many species of plants. These changes have the potential to lead to the asynchrony between species, or to change competition between plants. Both the insect pollinators and plant populations will eventually become extinct due to the uneven and confusing connection that is caused by the change of climate. Flowering times in British plants for example have changed, leading to annual plants flowering earlier than perennials, and insect pollinated plants flowering earlier than wind pollinated plants; with potential ecological consequences. A recently published study has used data recorded by the writer and naturalist Henry David Thoreau to confirm effects of climate change on the phenology of some species in the area of Concord, Massachusetts. Another life-cycle change is warmer winter which can be leads to summer rainfall or summer drought.

Genetic diversity
Species richness and species evenness play a key role in how quickly and productively an ecosystem can adapt to change. By increasing the possibility of a population bottleneck through more extreme weather events, genetic diversity in the population would drastically decrease. Since genetic diversity is a main contributor of how an ecosystem can evolve, the ecosystem would be much more susceptible to getting wiped out since each individual would be similar to the next. An absence of genetic mutations and decrease in species richness greatly enhances the possibility of extinction.

Altering the environment puts stress on a plant to increase its phenotypic plasticity, causing species to change faster than predicted. These plastic responses will help the plants respond to a fast changing environment. Understanding how native species change in response to the environment will help gather conclusions of how mutualistic relationships will react.

Indirect impacts
All species are likely to be directly impacted by the changes in environmental conditions discussed above, and also indirectly through their interactions with other species. While direct impacts may be easier to predict and conceptualise, it is likely that indirect impacts are equally important in determining the response of plants to climate change. A species whose distribution changes as a direct result of climate change may invade the range of another species or be invaded, for example, introducing a new competitive relationship or altering other processes such as carbon sequestration.

In Europe, the temperature and precipitation effects due to climate change can indirectly affect certain populations of people.  The rise of temperatures and lack of precipitation results in different river floodplains, which reduce the populations of people sensitive to flood risk.

Climate change can have an impact on medicinal plants by altering the environmental conditions of where they grow, to the point where the conditions are no longer ideal and habitable.

The range of a symbiotic fungi associated with plant roots (i.e., mycorrhizae) may directly change as a result of altered climate, resulting in a change in the plant's distribution.

A new grass may spread into a region, altering the fire regime and greatly changing the species composition.

A pathogen or parasite may change its interactions with a plant, such as a pathogenic fungus becoming more common in an area where rainfall increases.

Increased temperatures may allow herbivores to expand further into alpine regions, significantly impacting the composition of alpine herbfields.

Coupled natural and human systems work as systems that influence change over broad spatial and temporal extents that are usually seen as indirect effects of climate change. This is especially true when analyzing spillover systems. Environmental factor#Socioeconomic Drivers

Higher level changes
Species respond in very different ways to climate change. Variation in the distribution, phenology and abundance of species will lead to inevitable changes in the relative abundance of species and their interactions. These changes will flow on to affect the structure and function of ecosystems. Bird migration patterns are already showing a change in flying south sooner, and returning sooner, this could over time affect the overall ecosystem. If birds are leaving sooner this would decrease the pollination rates of some plants over time. The observation of bird migrations is more evidence of the climate changing, which would result in plants flowering at different times.

With certain species of plants having a disadvantage with a warmer climate, their insect herbivores may also be taking a hit. Temperature will directly affect diversity, persistence and survival in both the plants and their insect herbivores. As these insect herbivores decrease, so will the higher levels of species that eat those insects. This cascading event would be detrimental to our earth and how we view nature today.

Challenges of modeling future impacts
Accurate predictions of the future impacts of climate change on plant diversity are critical to the development of conservation strategies. These predictions have come largely from bioinformatic strategies, involving modeling individual species, groups of species such as 'functional types', communities, ecosystems or biomes. They can also involve modeling species observed environmental niches, or observed physiological processes. The velocity of climate change can also be involved in modelling future impacts as well.

Although useful, modeling has many limitations. Firstly, there is uncertainty about the future levels of greenhouse gas emissions driving climate change  and considerable uncertainty in modeling how this will affect other aspects of climate such as local rainfall or temperatures. For most species the importance of specific climatic variables in defining distribution (e.g. minimum rainfall or maximum temperature) is unknown. It is also difficult to know which aspects of a particular climatic variable are most biologically relevant, such as average vs. maximum or minimum temperatures. Ecological processes such as interactions between species and dispersal rates and distances are also inherently complex, further complicating predictions.

Improvement of models is an active area of research, with new models attempting to take factors such as life-history traits of species or processes such as migration into account when predicting distribution changes; though possible trade-offs between regional accuracy and generality are recognised.

Climate change is also predicted to interact with other drivers of biodiversity change such as habitat destruction and fragmentation, or the introduction of foreign species. These threats may possibly act in synergy to increase extinction risk from that seen in periods of rapid climate change in the past. Global warming and climate change are becoming a greater threat the longer we resist doing something about it on a massive scale.Though we’re already seeing its effects in droughts, hurricanes, wildfires, and unprecedented temperature extremes both high and low, it’s not too late to slow it down and mitigate the effects.

See also
 Biogeochemistry
 Desertification
 Extinction risk from climate change
 Effects of climate change
 Effects of climate change on ecosystems
 Mycorrhizae and changing climate
 Systems ecology

References

Further reading

External links
(2008) Government report on the effects of climate change on agriculture, land resources, water resources, and biodiversity in the United States.
(2003) Summary report from an international conference on Global Climate Change and Biodiversity, Joint Nature Conservation Committee
(2008) Discussion on the future of modeling climate change impacts on plant species distributions. on wilfried thuiller's website
(2005) The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, including discussion of the effects of climate change on biodiversity
Global Change Biology - a scientific journal with articles relating to the interaction between global changes such as climate, and biological systems
(2011) After the birds vanish, the plants are next to go - New Scientist

Biodiversity
Effects of climate change


The Marsha Warfield Show is an American daytime talk show that aired for ten months on NBC from 1990 to 1991. Comedian and actress Marsha Warfield served as host.

Overview
Each show featured several guests who, on the surface, did not seem to have anything in common. Warfield then got her guests to talk about hot-topic issues. The show was light-hearted and Warfield's set included a basketball hoop.

References

External links

 The Marsha Warfield Show New York Times profile

1990 American television series debuts
1991 American television series endings
1990s American television talk shows
English-language television shows
NBC original programming
Television series by Kline and Friends


Moon Shadow is the second album by American singing trio Labelle. This release was their second and last album for Warner Bros. Records. The album is notable for their soulful rendition of The Who's "Won't Get Fooled Again", the socially conscious "I Believe That I've Finally Made It Home" (a song which members Patti LaBelle, Nona Hendryx and Sarah Dash share lead vocals) and the nine-minute title track in which Patti introduces all the musicians as they do their live solos. This is the first album where member Nona Hendryx begins taking over most of the songwriting.

Track listing
All tracks written by Nona Hendryx except where noted.

Side A
 "Won't Get Fooled Again" (Pete Townshend) (4:45)
 "Sunday's News" (3:30)
 "If I Can't Have You" (3:45)
 "Ain't It Sad It's All Over" (3:30)
 "Peace With Yourself" (Sarah Dash) (2:55)

Side B
 "Moonshadow" (Cat Stevens) (9:24)
 "Touch Me All Over" (3:25)
 "I Believe That I've Finally Made It Home" (4:52)
 "People Say They're Changing" (3:20)

Personnel
Labelle
Patti LaBelle – vocals
Nona Hendryx – vocals
Sarah Dash – vocals

Additional musicians
Kenny Ascher, Leon Pendarvis, Maxayn Lewis, Michael Powell – piano
Andre "Mandre" Lewis – organ
Kenny Ascher, Andre "Mandre" Lewis – clavinet
David Spinozza, Marlo Henderson, Dick Frank – guitar
Chuck Rainey, Russell George – bass guitar
Kenneth "Spider Webb" Rice, Rick Marotta – drums
Maurice Saunders, Rick Marotta – congas
Harold Vick – soprano saxophone (on #1)
Buzzy Linhart – vibraphone (4)
Larry Fallon – string arrangement (7)

References

External links

 Moon Shadow on Discogs.com

1972 albums
Labelle albums
Warner Records albums
Albums arranged by Larry Fallon
Albums produced by Vicki Wickham


The Parting of the Ways is an historic site in Sweetwater County, Wyoming, United States, where the Oregon and California Trails fork from the original route to Fort Bridger to an alternative route, the Sublette-Greenwood Cutoff, across the Little Colorado Desert. Many wagon trains parted company, some preferring the shorter cutoff route, which involved fifty waterless miles, to the longer but better-watered main route.

The junction is marked by a small sandstone boulder about  high, placed by L.C. Bishop and Paul Henderson and  inscribed with a left-pointing arrow with "F. Bridger" and a right-pointing arrow with "S. Cut Off."  The route was not established by Sublette, but rather a mountain man named Greenwood. The error in attribution arose when Joseph E. Ware's Emigrant's Guide to California (1849) listed the alternate path as the "Sublette Cutoff."

References

External links

 photographs at the National Park Service's NRHP database
(WYOHistory.Org} by Wyoming Historical Society
Parting of the Ways at the Wyoming State Historic Preservation Office

Transportation on the National Register of Historic Places in Wyoming
Geography of Sweetwater County, Wyoming
Oregon Trail
Road transportation on the National Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Sweetwater County, Wyoming


is a railway station on the Nippō Main Line operated by JR Kyushu in Usuki, Ōita, Japan.

Lines
The station is served by the Nippō Main Line and is located 169.2 km from the starting point of the line at .

Layout
The station has a side platform and an island platform serving three tracks at grade. Two sidings run to the south of platform 3. The station building is a modern concrete structure which houses an enclosed waiting room, shop and a staffed ticket window. Access to the island platform is by means of a footbridge.

Management of the passenger facilities at the station has been outsourced to the JR Kyushu Tetsudou Eigyou Co., a wholly owned subsidiary of JR Kyushu specialising in station services. It staffs the ticket booth which is equipped with a Midori no Madoguchi facility.

Adjacent stations

History
The private Kyushu Railway had, by 1909, through acquisition and its own expansion, established a track from  to . The Kyushu Railway was nationalised on 1 July 1907. Japanese Government Railways (JGR), designated the track as the Hōshū Main Line on 12 October 1909 and expanded it southwards in phases, with Usuki opening as the new southern terminus on 15 August 1915. It became a through-station on 25 October 1916 when the track was extended further south to .  On 15 December 1923, the Hōshū Main Line was renamed the Nippō Main Line. With the privatization of Japanese National Railways (JNR), the successor of JGR, on 1 April 1987, the station came under the control of JR Kyushu.

On 17 September 2017, Typhoon Talim (Typhoon 18) damaged the Nippō Main Line at several locations. Services between Usuki and  were suspended. Rail services were restored on 18 December 2017. However JR Kyushu reported that recovery work was difficult at the site of the Tokūra Signal Box between Usuki and  which had been covered by a landslide. Of the two tracks there, only one would be restored. According to JR Kyushu, having only a single track there (effectively closing down the signal box) would not have a large impact on its timetables and believed that it amounted to a full restoration of service.

Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2016, the station was used by an average of 700 passengers daily (boarding passengers only), and it ranked 206th among the busiest stations of JR Kyushu.

Environs
The station is near the center of the city, convenient to several sites. Among these are
Usuki Ferry Terminal
Administrative offices including the Usuki City Hall, police and fire stations, court, tax office
Usuki Park, location of the former Usuki Castle
Ōita Prefectural Usuki High School
Usuki Shipyard
The Nogami Yaeko Memorial Museum

See also
Usuki Station (Kagoshima)
List of railway stations in Japan

References
This article incorporates information translated from the article 臼杵駅 (Usuki-eki) in the Japanese Wikipedia, retrieved on October 25, 2008.

External links

Usuki (JR Kyushu)

Railway stations in Ōita Prefecture
Stations of Kyushu Railway Company
Railway stations in Japan opened in 1915


Labelle is the debut album of American singing trio Labelle, formerly a four-girl group known as Patti LaBelle & The Bluebelles. This was Labelle's first release for Warner Bros. Records.

Track listing
Side A
 "Morning Much Better" (Aram Schefrin, Michael Zager) (4:00)
 "You've Got a Friend" (Carole King) (4:16)
 "Baby's Out of Sight" (Sarah Dash, Armstead Edwards) (2:35)
 "Time & Love" (Laura Nyro) (3:45)
 "Too Many Days" (Nona Hendryx) (2:57)
Side B
 "Running Out of Fools/If You Gotta Make a Fool of Somebody" (Kay Rogers, Richard Ahlert/Rudy Clark) (4:15)
 "Shades of Difference" (Nona Hendryx, Patti LaBelle) (3:14)
 "Heart Be Still" (Bert Berns, Jerry Ragavoy) (3:14)
 "Wild Horses" (Mick Jagger, Keith Richards) (3:03)
 "Time" (Patti LaBelle, Armstead Edwards) (3:48)
 "When the Sun Comes Shining Through (The Ladder)" (Mike d'Abo) (3:56)

Personnel
Labelle
Patti LaBelle - vocals
Nona Hendryx - vocals
Sarah Dash - vocals
with:
Buzzy Linhart - rhythm guitar
Kenny Ascher - piano
Gene Casey - piano, musical director
Judy Clay, The Sweet Inspirations - backing vocals
Gene Cornish - guitar
Marlo Henderson - rhythm guitar
Andre Lewis, John Taylor - organ, clavinet
Bob Mann - guitar
Don Payne, Bill Takas - bass guitar
Luther Rix, Dave Williams, Jimmy Johnson - drums
Aram Schefrin - rhythm guitar
David Spinozza - guitar
Ted Castleman - percussion
Al Kooper - organ on "Time"
Technical
Jack Adams - engineer
Jack Douglas - assistant engineer
Bob Gruen - cover photo

References

External links

 Labelle on Discogs.com

1971 debut albums
Labelle albums
Warner Records albums
Albums produced by Kit Lambert
Albums produced by Vicki Wickham


Prince Luís of Orléans-Braganza (26 January 1878 – 26 March 1920), was a claimant to the former throne of the Empire of Brazil. He was born in Brazil, the second son of Prince Gaston, Count of Eu, and Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil.

He was exiled along with his family as the result of the 1889 coup d'état that resulted in the formation of the republic. In 1908, the year he married, his older brother Pedro renounced his claim to succeed his mother in her claim to the imperial throne, leaving Dom Luís as her heir. In this role he worked with monarchists in Brazil in several attempts to restore the monarchy. At the outbreak of World War I he enlisted as an officer with the British Armed Forces and saw action in Flanders where he contracted a virulent form of rheumatism that caused his death at the age of 42. His efforts on behalf of the Allies of World War I saw him decorated by Belgium, France and Great Britain.

Childhood
Luís was born at Petrópolis on 26 January 1878, to Prince Gaston d'Orléans, Count of Eu, and Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil. His maternal grandparents were Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil, and Princess Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies while his paternal grandparents were Prince Louis, Duke of Nemours, and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. He was named after his paternal grandfather. His name in full was Luís Maria Filipe Pedro de Alcântara Gastão Miguel Rafael Gonzaga. As the second oldest son of the heiress to the imperial throne of Brazil, he was not expected to one day ascend to the throne.

From a young age he demonstrated a strong and determined personality. While on a trip to Europe with his family, an earthquake occurred on 23 February 1887, and while his older brother Pedro appeared very nervous and cried, Luís simply stood calm and showed no emotions. The differences between him and his oldest brother were well-known. His father wrote in a letter dated February 1889 that Pedro was "just as incapable and careless in this [playing pool with Pedro II] as in everything else." Although Pedro was gentle and likeable, he did not like to study and was often clumsy, while Luís had a strong will, was active and apparently intelligent.

Gaston affirmed in another letter, written in March 1890, that "Baby Pedro [was] always notable for laziness and ineptness," while "Luís does the identical course work all by himself with admirable distinction and capacity." The prince very early showed the interest in literature that would result in his authorship of several books about his travels around the world, such as Dans les Alps, Tour d´Afrique, Where four empires meet and Under the Southern Cross.

Luís was always impelled to action thanks to his restless spirit that would take him in his childhood to sports and as an adult to politics. At the height of the campaign for the abolition of slavery in Brazil, he and his brothers published a newspaper in favor of abolitionism in the palace of Petrópolis. When the coup that replaced the monarchy with the republic occurred on 15 November 1889, Isabel preferred to send her children to Petrópolis, where later Luís would remember that "locked up in the palace, they had left us during two long days in the most complete ignorance of what was happening out there" until they were sent back to their parents and then left for forced exile. As they had not been able to take anything with them, except for a few personal objects that they could carry with their hands, the imperial family saw itself in a poor financial situation that was only made worse by Pedro II's refusal to accept the five thousand contos of Réis offered initially by the new republican government. In December 1889, the government stopped the family's income from Brazil. They had no alternative but to accept help from their few friends and from Gaston's father.

In 1890, fifteen-year-old Pedro, thirteen-year-old Luís, and their younger brother Antônio (nicknamed "Totó"), moved along with their parents to the outskirts of Versailles. After the death of Pedro II in 1891 the monarchists made various efforts to restore the monarchy in Brazil. However, none of the imperial family provided any kind of aid or even words of explicit support. Luís's older brother, Pedro, reached the age of majority in 1893, but he had no capacity or desire to assume the monarchist cause. In the same year he left for Vienna, capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to study in the military school at Wiener Neustadt. According to his own mother it was "clear that he must do something and a military career seems to us the only one he should follow". Luís and his brother Antônio followed their older brother at the same military school.

Adulthood

By 1896, Pedro was in love with Austro-Hungarian noblewoman Elisabeth "Elsi" Dobržensky. Meanwhile, Luís was ambitious and active, eager to make his mark on the world. He was a mountaineer, and climbed Mont Blanc in September 1896. He traveled to southern Africa, central Asia and India, and later wrote and published travelogues of his experiences. Luís was seen by his parents as the only member of the Imperial family capable of helping the monarchist movement in Brazil.

After he returned to France in 1907 he planned an ambitious project to defy the decree banishing the imperial family from Brazil by travelling to Rio de Janeiro. His sudden arrival, widely discussed in newspapers, created an uproar in the old imperial capital. It also caused difficulties for Brazilian politicians by placing the imperial family at the center of attention and many Brazilians went to welcome him. However, Luís was prevented from disembarking and was not allowed to set foot on his native land by the republican government. Nonetheless, he sent his mother a telegram saying: "Hindered of disembarking by the Government, I greet the Redeemer of Slaves on the bay of Guanabara in the eve of May 13." Some time later he wrote about his experiences on this trip in the book Under the Southern Cross (Sob o cruzeiro do sul) published in 1913.

Luís became engaged to his cousin Maria Pia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, a granddaughter of a brother of Luís's maternal grandmother, Teresa Cristina. Meanwhile, his brother Pedro, then the heir to Isabel, desired to marry Elizabeth Dobržensky. His mother disapproved of the marriage because Elizabeth was part of the minor nobility rather than royalty. Isabel agreed to accept the marriage with the condition that Pedro would renounce his position as heir. Pedro had no interest in becoming emperor and so he renounced his rights to the succession on 30 October 1908.

I Prince Pedro de Alcântara Luís Filipe Maria Gastão Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga of Orléans and Braganza, having maturely reflected, have resolved to renounce the right that, by the Constitution of the Empire of Brazil, promulgated on March 25, 1824, accords to me the Crown of that nation. I declare, therefore, that by my free and spontaneous will I hereby renounce, in my own name, as well as for any and all of my descendants, to all and any rights that the aforesaid Constitution confers upon us to the Brazilian Crown and Throne, which shall pass to the lines which follow mine, conforming to the order of succession as established by article 117. Before God I promise, for myself and my descendants, to hold to the present declaration.Cannes October 30, 1908 signed: Pedro de Alcântara of Orléans-Braganza

This renunciation was followed by a letter from Isabel to royalists in Brazil:November 9, 1908, [Castle of] EuMost Excellent Gentlemen Members of the Monarchist Directory,With all my heart I thank you for the congratulations upon the marriages of my dear children Pedro and Luís. Luís' took place in Cannes on day 4 with the brilliance that is desired for so solemn an act in the life of my successor to the Throne of Brazil. I was very pleased. Pedro's shall take place next on day 14. Before the marriage of Luís he signed his resignation to the crown of Brazil, and here I send it to you, while keeping here an identical copy. I believe that this news must be published as soon as possible (you gentlemen shall do it in the way that you judge to be more satisfactory) in order to prevent the formation of parties that would be a great evil for our country. Pedro will continue to love his homeland, and will give all possible support to his brother. Thank God they are very united. Luís will engage actively in everything with respect to the monarchy and any good for our land. However, without giving up my rights I want that he be up to date on everything so that he may prepare himself for the position which with all my heart I desire that one day he will hold. You may write to him as many times as you may want to so that he shall be informed of everything. My strength is not the same as it once was, but my heart is still the same to love my homeland and all those who are so dedicated to us. I give you all my friendship and confidence,

The marriage of Luís and Maria Pia was celebrated on 4 November at Cannes, and that of Pedro and Elizabeth ten days later at Versailles. From the union of Luís and Maria Pia three children were born: Pedro Henrique, who became the direct successor to Princess Isabel and Head of the Imperial House of Brazil after her death in 1921; Luís Gastão, and Pia Maria. Isabel did not take long to reveal her opinion about her grandchildren and wrote in a letter in 1914: "I am sending enclosed a photograph of myself with my grandchildren by Luís. Pedro Henrique is growing continually and is a very intelligent child. His grandparents have a particular love for their darling little grandchildren."

Political activity
With the renunciation of the throne by his brother, Luís could finally collaborate effectively with the Brazilian monarchic movement, assuming clearly his position as heir to the throne (after his mother) and trying to assume the leadership of the restoration campaign. His efforts to reverse the damage caused by the imperial family's inertia was valued by their supporters, and in 1909 he presented a political manifest to the Brazilian monarchists with the intent to restart the stalled campaign. He had some success as he was able to congregate coreligionists in several states of Brazil. Some of the letters from the prince reveal his plans to restore the monarchy, such as the one written for Martim Francisco de Andrada III:

"it costs me so much to be here with crossed arms, when I think that a handful of determined men would be enough to pull out our Fatherland from the claws of the adventurers who explore it".

"I still do not know what will be your attitude in the matter of the candidacies. As for me, I judge both the candidates 'undesirable'; but as we have to choose, I would pick Rui "[Barbosa]", whose partisans represent the element more reasonable and with bigger prestige in the country. It seems to me that we could use to advantage of the moment for an agreement with the members of this group in order to obtain a common effort for the restoration just after the presidential elections. What are your thoughts on it?"

The prince was active from 1907 through to his death in 1920, and argued in favor of federalism, obligatory military service and an improvement in the quality of life for laborers. In the first case, he was in favor of a greater degree of decentralization and economical and political freedom for the Brazilian states. In the second, he refuted the old custom of enlistment to the armed forces based on individuals coming only from particular sectors of society in favor of a truly professional military force formed by elements of all parts of society. The third, and more important case, was his proposal for a monarchy supported by social legislation that could make better conditions for Brazilian laborers possible.

Luís defended ideas that were well ahead of his time and the necessity to guarantee worthy conditions of subsistence for the Brazilian workers would only be observed thirty years later during the dictatorship of Getúlio Vargas. At the beginning of the twentieth century, neither the government nor Brazilian politicians admitted even the possibility of such basic rights as vacations, right to strike, and weekly maximum hours of work, amongst others. He said that "we monarchists must convince the laborers that the truth is that in the case of a restoration their situation could only improve". The progressive vision of Luís made him a target for accusations of being a "socialist" and a "radical" when, in reality, his intent was to hinder the work force from adhering to socialism, communism, or even anarchism.

World War I and final years

The start of World War I in August 1914 and the invasion of France by Germany made it possible for Luís to once more prove his idealism and activism as, in his own words, he was a "soldier heart and soul". He and his brother Antônio wanted to defend the homeland of their ancestors. As it was forbidden by law for them to serve in the French armed forces they both enlisted in the British armed forces as officers. Luís joined the army while Antônio served as an air force pilot.

While fighting in the trenches of Flanders in 1915 Luís contracted an aggressive type of bone rheumatism that left him very weak and incapable of walking. The prince was invalided out of active service seriously ill and taken to safety in order to be able to recover from the disease. As a consequence of his actions in the conflict and for his bravery, Luís received several decorations: Military medal of the Yser, from King Albert I of Belgium; Legion of Honour, in the degree of knight, and the Cross of War from the French government; the British War Medal, the Victory Medal and Star from the Great Britain. The serious illness contracted in the trenches proved resistant to all treatments and his health gradually deteriorated until he died on 26 March 1920. As his mother lived until 1921, her successor in pretense to the throne of Brazil was her grandson, Pedro Henrique, Luís's son.

Legacy

Prince Luís is largely unknown to Brazilians today. He is remembered for his role as a claimant to the Brazilian throne beginning in 1908, and he was publicly involved in the campaign for restoring the monarchy. He continued to take an active role in monarchist movements until the First World War.

His support for the social welfare of working-class Brazilians, at a time when it was considered a "police case" by the rulers of the First Brazilian Republic, earned him the epithet "perfect prince" or, in the words of King Albert II of Belgium: "man as few, Prince like none".

In 1918, the Portuguese-Brazilians Rodolfo Smith de Vasconcelos, and his son, Jaime Smith de Vasconcelos, published the Brazilian Nobiliarchic Archive, a work that documents the Brazilian nobility. The authors dedicated the work to His Imperial Highness the Sire Dom Luiz de Orléans-Braganza.

The Municipality of Pimenta Bueno, in the State of Rondônia (Brazil), honored Dom Luís and the entire Brazilian imperial family in 2010 by renaming one of its streets "Príncipe Dom Luiz de Órleans e Bragança".

Honors
 Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I
 Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
 Grand Cross of the Order of the Rose
 Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III, 5 December 1879
 Knight of the Legion of Honor

Children
By his wife, Maria Pia of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (12 August 1878 – 20 June 1973):

 Prince Pedro Henrique of Orléans-Braganza (13 September 1909 – 5 July 1981)
 Prince Luiz Gastão of Orléans-Braganza (19 February 1911 – 8 September 1931)
 Princess Pia Maria of Orléans-Braganza (4 March 1913 – 24 October 2000) ∞ René, Count de Nicolay, at Paris, on 12 August 1933. Pia Maria and René had three sons.

Ancestry

Notes

References
Barman, Roderick J. Princesa Isabel do Brasil: gênero e poder no século XIX. UNESP, 2005.

BR História. nº 4, Year 1. Duetto, 2007.
Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II. Companhia das Letras, 2007.

External links
 Brazilian Nobiliarchic Archive, dated 1918, dedicated to Prince Luís.
  Biography of Prince Pedro Henrique of Orléans-Braganza, son of Prince Luís

1878 births
1920 deaths
Brazilian people of French descent
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Brazilian people of Portuguese descent
Brazilian princes
Burials at the Chapelle royale de Dreux
Luis
Knights of the Legion of Honour


The Charlotte–Genesee Lighthouse is an 1822 stone octagonal lighthouse in the Charlotte neighborhood in northern Rochester, New York, United States.  The  tower is located on Lake Ontario at the mouth of the Genesee River.  It originally had 10 whale oil Argand lamps, which were replaced with a Fresnel lens in 1853.

On February 28, 1881, the lighthouse was turned off.  After nearby piers changed the mouth of the river, it was far from the water.  The light was then moved to a pier in 1884.

In 1965, Charlotte High School students started a letter writing campaign to save the lighthouse from impending destruction. It was declared surplus in 1981 by the government.  It is now owned by Monroe County and managed as a museum by the Charlotte Genesee Lightouse Historical Society, a nonprofit volunteer organization.

It is part of the Seaway Trail, a National Scenic Byway.  It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is also a City of Rochester Landmark.  It is open to the public.

As of 2014, the lighthouse is active, and listed in the United States Coast Guard Light List as light number 2333.

References

Further reading
 Oleszewski, Wes. Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) .

 U.S. Coast Guard. Historically Famous Lighthouses (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1957).
 Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia. Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006)

External links

Official Site

Lighthouses completed in 1822
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Museums in Rochester, New York
Lighthouse museums in New York (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Rochester, New York
1822 establishments in New York (state)
Transportation buildings and structures in Monroe County, New York
Lighthouses of the Great Lakes


Mangifera indica, commonly known as mango, is a species of flowering plant in the family Anacardiaceae. It is a large fruit tree, capable of growing to a height of . There are two distinct genetic populations in modern mangoesthe "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type".

Description
It is a large green tree, valued mainly for its fruits, both green and ripe. Approximately 500 varieties have been reported in India. It can grow up to  tall with a similar crown width and a trunk circumference of more than . The leaves are simple, shiny and dark green.

Red-yellow flowers appear at the end of winter, and also at the beginning of spring. Both male and female flowers are borne on same tree. Climatic conditions have a significant influence on the time of flowering. In South Asia, flowering starts in December in the south, in January in Bihar and Bengal, in February in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and in February–March in northern India. The duration of flowering is 20–25 days for the Dasheri variety, while panicle emergence occurs in early December and flower opening is completed by February. The Neelum variety produces two crops a year in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu, but it flowers only once in North Indian conditions.

The mango is an irregular, egg-shaped fruit which is a fleshy drupe. Mangos are typically  long and greenish yellow in color. The fruits can be round, oval, heart, or kidney shaped. Mango fruits are green when they are unripe. The interior flesh is bright orange and soft with a large, flat pit in the middle. Mangos are mature in April and May. Raw mangos can be used in the making of pickles and chutneys. Ripe mangos are a popular fruit throughout the world. The skin and pulp account for 85% of the mango's weight, and the remaining 15% comes from the stone (seed).

Chemistry
Mangiferin (a pharmacologically active hydroxylated xanthone C-glycoside) is extracted from mango at high concentrations from the young leaves (172 g/kg), bark (107 g/kg), and from old leaves (94 g/kg). Allergenic urushiols are present in the fruit peel.

Taxonomy
Mangoes are believed to have originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. M. indica were domesticated separately in South Asia and Southeast Asia over centuries, resulting in two distinct genetic populations in modern mangoesthe "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type".

The species was first described by Linnaeus in 1753.

Distribution and habitat
Since their domestication in southeastern Asia, mangoes have been introduced to other warm regions of the world.

The tree grows best in well-drained sandy loam; it does not grow well in heavy wet soils. The optimal pH of the soil should be between 5.2 and 7.5.

Cultivation

Toxicity
Urushiols in the fruit peel can trigger contact dermatitis in sensitised individuals. This reaction is more likely to occur in people who have been exposed to other plants from the family Anacardiaceae, such as poison oak and poison ivy, which are widespread in the United States.

The wood is known to produce phenolic substances that can cause contact dermatitis.

Uses

The tree is more known for its fruit rather than for its timber. However, mango trees can be converted to lumber once their fruit-bearing lifespan has finished. The wood is susceptible to damage from fungi and insects. The wood is used for musical instruments such as ukuleles, plywood and low-cost furniture.

Culture
The mango is the national fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines, and is the national tree of Bangladesh.

Gallery

References

Further reading
 Litz, Richard E. (ed. 2009). The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses (2nd edition). CABI. .

External links

 Crop of the Day: Mango, Mangifera indica has a list of helpful resources about this species.

indica
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Flora of Assam (region)
Flora of Myanmar
National symbols of India
National symbols of Pakistan
National symbols of Bangladesh
Flora of Maharashtra
Fruit trees
Trees in Buddhism
Symbols of Gujarat
Symbols of Maharashtra