Project Oilsand, also known as Project Oilsands, and originally known as Project Cauldron, was a 1958 proposal to exploit the Athabasca Oil Sands in Alberta via the underground detonation of up to 100 nuclear explosives; hypothetically, the heat and pressure created by an underground detonation would boil the bitumen deposits, reducing their viscosity to the point that standard oilfield techniques could be used.

The proposal was devised by geologist Manley L. Natland at Los Angeles-based Richfield Oil Corporation. The project was conceived of as part of Operation Plowshare, a United States project to harness the nuclear explosions for peaceful applications.

History
The use of nuclear weapons for oil and gas extraction was first theorized by American geologist Manley L. Natland, of the Richfield Oil Company in 1956. Natland was working on location in the southern desert of Saudi Arabia and contemplated using the immense heat of a nuclear explosion while watching the sun set. Natland posited that drilling a deep borehole and detonating a nuclear weapon would result in an immense release of heat and energy which would crush and melt surrounding rock, separate oil from sand, and create an underground cavity where the oil would pool for conventional extraction. This method could be effective for the oil reserves of the McMurray Formation, which could not be viably exploited with the technology of the time as it buried deep underground and highly viscous.

Natland was dispatched by Richfield to Alberta's Athabasca oil sands in 1957 to scout possible drilling locations, which he found at the Pony Creek site, 8.7 km northwest from the nearest settlement of Chard. Pony Creek was chosen for six reasons: the absence of people and infrastructure, absence of developed oil fields which could be affected by the detonation, the Crown rights to the surface and mineral rights, significant estimated amount of oil to make the experiment viable, the depth of the oil sands deposit could contain the detonation, and the oil quality was high enough to be processed. Richfield entered into an exploration lease on Crown land in the area with Imperial Oil and City Service Athabasca Incorporated for  of land and mineral rights.

Prospects for Natland's hypothesis were boosted by two recent experiments, the Rainier Shot experiment in 1957 where a 1.7 kt underground nuclear test resulted in no fission products vented into the atmosphere, and the conventional explosion at Ripple Rock to remove an underwater mountain in April 1958. With the knowledge of the successful tests, Richfield executives met with United States Atomic Energy Commission chairman Willard Libby and members of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory including proponent of non-military use of nuclear weapons Edward Teller, on May 9, 1958, to discuss the oilsands proposal and begin the process of procuring a nuclear weapon. Richmond received support and interest from the meeting, as the American government saw the value of a new source of strategic oil reserves.

However, some experts had doubts. In 1959, oil sands pioneer Robert Fitzsimmons of the International Bitumen Company wrote a letter to the Edmonton Journal, saying "While the writer does not know anything about nuclear energy and is therefore not qualified to make any definite statement as to  results he does know something about the effect dry heat has on those sands and ventures a guess that if it does not turn the whole deposit into a burning inferno it is almost sure to fuse it into a solid mass of semi glass or coke."

Alberta reaction

A month after the Richfield meeting with the AEC, Natland and Richfield executives travelled to Edmonton to meet Alberta's deputy minister of mines and minerals Hubert H. Somerville to discuss the proposal on June 5, 1958, Somerville was supportive of the idea. Somerville relayed the proposal to Premier Ernest Manning who was interested in exploring the concept. Following the meeting with deputy minister Somerville, Richfield executives met with federal regulators to discuss the proposal. This included staff of the Federal Mines Branch John Convey and Alexander Ignatieff; Donald Watson of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited; and Alexander Longair of the Defence Research Board, which was met with interest from the federal group.

An investigative committee was formed with the support of Alberta's Social Credit government. One of the committee's early recommendations was that, in order to minimize public fears, a "less effervescent name" should be used; Project Cauldron was subsequently renamed Project Oilsand.

In April 1959, the Federal Mines Department approved Project Oilsand; Pony Creek, Alberta ( from Fort McMurray) was selected as a test site. Before the project could continue beyond these preliminary steps, however, the Canadian government's stance on the use of nuclear weapons shifted towards one of non-proliferation; out of concerns that it would increase the risk of Soviet espionage, Project Oilsand was put on hiatus. In April 1962, Canadian Secretary of State for External Affairs Howard Charles Green said "Canada is opposed to nuclear tests, period"; Project Oilsand was subsequently cancelled.

These changes in Canadian public opinion are regarded by historian Michael Payne to be due to the shift in public perception of nuclear explosives following the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Prime Minister John Diefenbaker told Parliament that the decision to detonate an atomic bomb on or under Canadian soil would be made by Canada, not the United States, and ordered Project Cauldron/Oilsand placed on permanent hold, citing the risk of upsetting the Soviet Union during nuclear disarmament negotiations being conducted in Geneva.

Social scientist Benjamin Sovacool contends that the main problem was that the produced oil and gas would be radioactive, which would cause consumers to reject it. In contrast, oil and gas are sometimes considerably naturally radioactive to begin with and the industry is set up to deal with this; moreover. in contrast to earlier stimulation efforts, contamination from many later tests was not a showstopping issue. Rather, it was primarily changing public opinion due to the societal fears caused by events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, that resulted in protests, court cases and general hostility that ended the US exploration. Furthermore, as the years went by without further development and the closing/curtailment in US nuclear weapons factories, this began to evaporate the economies of scale advantage that had earlier existed, with this, it was increasingly found that most US fields could instead be stimulated by non-nuclear techniques which were found to be likely cheaper.

Method

Theoretical background
The general means by which the plan was to work was discussed in the October 1976 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists issue. A patent was granted for the process that was intended: The Process for Stimulating Petroliferous Subterranean Formations with Contained Nuclear Explosions by Bray, Knutson, and Coffer which was first submitted in 1964. With the nuclear detonation option being considered to have served as a forerunner to some of the nascent conventional ideas that are presently in use and proposed to extract oil from the Alberta regions Athabasca oil sands.

Previous underground nuclear weapon tests by the AEC had provided scientific evidence on the effect on rock surrounding the blast. Milliseconds following the detonation of the weapon the temperature of the surrounding area would rise exponentially to millions of degrees, vaporizing and melting any surrounded rock which would expand to create an underground cavity lined with molten rock. The shockwave from the detonation would progress beyond the cavity fracturing rock outside of the cavity, eventually causing liquid parts to drip down below until the cavity pressure and temperature drops resulting in the rock solidifying. The solidified cavity would contain any radioactive gasses and as pressure drops the overburden collapses under the weight, burying most of the radioactive materials at the bottom of the cavity.

Project Oilsand methods

For Project Oilsand, the proposed plan had a  nuclear device buried  underground in the Beaverhill Lake Group,  below the base of the McMurray Formation above. Natland and the AEC believed a 9 kt nuclear device was powerful enough to facilitate a meaningful test and be completely contained at the proposed depth with a "generous safety factor" to ensure radioactive debris could not escape. The decision to drill to 1,250 feet was based on the safe containment formula developed after the Rainier test where depth in feet is equal to 450 times the energy in kilotons to the power of one-third (). The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory considered the formula to be "extremely conservative" due to the resilient overlying Clearwater shale bed, and scientists believed a  nuclear device could be detonated without causing a disruption to the surface, and theorized up to  may have been used safely.

Based on research by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the cavity created by the detonation was estimated to be approximately  in diameter. The cavity was expected to collapse anywhere between a few seconds and few minutes following the detonation, and "several million" cubic feet of oil sand would have fallen into the cavity, the oil separated by the intense heat, allowing recovery through conventional drilling. Natland also believed that the pressure from the resulting shockwave was sufficient to crack the oil, increasing the total recoverable beyond the thermal effects.

See also
 Project Plowshare
 Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Nuclear explosives
Athabasca oil sands
1958 in Canada
1959 in Canada
Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo
Politics of Alberta
Oilsand
Oilsand


Suneeta Rao is an Indian pop singer, playback singer, dancer and stage actress, popular for her songs sung in the 1980s and 1990s. Her most famous song is Paree Hoon Main from the album Dhuan (1991).

Early life and career
Rao was born in Germany. She completed her schooling in Mumbai and higher studies at St. Xavier's College, Mumbai.  During and after college, she acted in many plays such as Evita and musicals such as They're Playing Our Song and Greased Lightning.

Singing and stage career

Rao started her career with the song Suneeta Senorita in 1989. She became popular with the song "Paree Hoon main".

She released a Hindi pop album entitled Dhuan in 1991 with HMV, which sold over 75,000 copies, with music by Lesle Lewis. The song and video of "Paree" from the album made Suneeta Rao a household name, leading the press to affectionately crown her the "Paree of the  Masses".

Her first and only association with A. R. Rahman was "Adi Paru Mangatha", from the 1994 Tamil film May Madham. She released a Hindi pop album entitled Talaash in 1999 with HMV, with music by Ranjit Barot.

Two videos that hit the screen were for the songs "Dehka Dehka" and "Kesariya", two folksy upbeat tracks  that reinstated Rao at the top of the charts. She then released a new single and music video entitled "Chhoti Chhoti Baatein" as part of the Magnasound album A Reason To Smile on the occasion of 50 years of Indian Independence. She also featured in a group song in the album called "Wajah Muskurane Ki".

Besides going platinum, all the above albums were at the top of the Hindi music charts.  Her album Ab Ke Baras has lilting, sensuous, joyous music that blends traditional folk music with modern production values.

Her career includes songs from films like Ghulam-e-Mustafa, Dulhan Hum le Jayenge and Kahin pyar na ho jaye. Suneeta Rao also has shows in Pakistan and Africa in the offing, as well as several other projects for television, theatre and films.

She performed for NDTV in 2008.

Rao wrote and recorded an anthem song for global warming. This was for a campaign initiated by the ICAI and GYAAN called "Planet alert". The song launched the campaign in a radiothon that was aired from 5 June 2009 on BIG 92.7 FM!  The song was produced by Dhruv Ghanekar, and sung by Rao.

Rao launched her new album Waqt on 15 July 2008 at the Hard Rock Cafe. These Raag-based contemporary songs were composed by Rao, with music arranged by Nexus, DJ Gaurav Issar and Dudul Saikia. The CDs were available in stores under the Crescendo Music label.  The first video was of the song "Sun Zara", a song for the Girl Child, supported by the UNFPA, to address the issue of sex-selection. The video was directed by Rachel Reuben, shot by Jason West, and stars Suneeta Rao and leading actress Suchitra Pillai.

Suneeta Rao gave 12 performances in the NDTV Imagine reality show Dhoom Macha De and received the runner up award for the "Dhoom final stopper". In 2005, she acted in an Off-Broadway play in New York called Sidd.

Personal life
Rao is married to Jason West, a cinematographer based in Mumbai.  She is actively involved and is the spokesperson of an initiative called Laadli, organized by an NGO called Population First, started by her uncle, Bobby Sista, whose main agenda is "Saving the Girl Child", population control and other social movements in India.

Discography
 Senorita (1989)
 Dhuan (1991)
 Ekk Pal Hai Zindagi (1995) (Title Song Of TV Serial "Swabhimaan")
 Talaash (1996)
 Choti Choti Batein - Single (1997)
 Ab Ke Baras (2000)
 Mujhe Pyar Ho Gaya - Single (2001)
 Waqt (2008)
 Vaada Karo - Single (2018)
 Dekha Tujhe To Dil Remake (2020)

References

External links
 Official site

21st-century Indian singers
21st-century Indian women singers
Bollywood playback singers
Indian women playback singers
Indian women pop singers
Indian stage actresses
Living people
Singers from Mumbai
St. Xavier's College, Mumbai alumni
Women musicians from Maharashtra
Year of birth missing (living people)


Naturen () is a Norwegian popular science magazine, which has been published since 1877 in Bergen, Norway. It is the earliest still running popular science magazine of the country.

History and profile
Naturen was started by the geologist Hans Reusch in Bergen in 1877. It was subtitled Et illustreret Maanedsskrift for popular Naturvidenskab (An Illustrated Monthly for Popular Natural Sciences). It is connected to the University of Bergen. It has a popular science approach to the natural sciences, including medicine.

Naturen was edited by its founder, Hans Reusch, for the first four years. Among its former editors are Jens Holmboe (1906–1925), Torbjørn Gaarder (1925–1946) and Knut Fægri (1947–1977), and Per Magnus Jørgensen (1991–1997).

References

1877 establishments in Norway
Magazines established in 1877
Mass media in Bergen
Monthly magazines published in Norway
Norwegian-language magazines
Popular science magazines
University of Bergen


Sociedad Deportiva Ordes is a Spanish football team based in Ordes, in the autonomous community of Galicia. Founded in 1953 it plays in Tercera División – Group 1, holding home games at Estadio Vista Alegre, which has a capacity of 3,000 spectators.

Season to season

22 seasons in Tercera División

Notable players

 Manny Aparicio
 Dejan Djermanović

External links
Official website
Futbolme team profile

Football clubs in Galicia (Spain)
Association football clubs established in 1953
1953 establishments in Spain


Željko Franulović was the defending champion but lost in the semifinals to Buster Mottram.

Guillermo Vilas won in the final 6–1, 6–3, 6–3 against Mottram.

Seeds

  Guillermo Vilas (champion)
  Buster Mottram (final)
  Balázs Taróczy (semifinals)
  Karl Meiler (quarterfinals)
  Hans Gildemeister (second round)
  Željko Franulović (semifinals)
  Pat Du Pré (first round)
  Jiří Hřebec (first round)

Draw

Final

Section 1

Section 2

External links
 1978 Romika Cup Singles draw

Singles


Walker v. Armco Steel Corp., 446 U.S. 740 (1980), was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States in which the Court further refined the test for determining whether federal courts sitting in diversity must apply state law as opposed to federal law.  The question in Walker is whether in a diversity action the federal court should follow state law or, alternatively, Rule 3 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in determining when an action is commenced for the purpose of tolling the state statute of limitations (SOL). The Court found no such conflict because a court’s refusal to apply the federal rule at issue would not in fact thwart some purpose the federal rule was intended to achieve. Favored treatment for federal procedural rules under the Rules Enabling Act is only appropriate when a rule is in fact applicable.

Background information
The case dealt with a negligence claim brought by an Oklahoma plaintiff in the United States District Court for the Western District of Oklahoma against the defendant, a foreign corporation having its principal place of business in a state other than Oklahoma. Plaintiff was injured August 22, 1975. The complaint was filed on August 19, 1977, and the summons was issued that day. However, service of process was not made on the respondent until December 1, 1977. On January 5, 1978, the respondent filed a motion to dismiss the complaint on the grounds that it was barred by the applicable Oklahoma Statute of Limitations. Though the action was filed within the two-year SOL, the action is only deemed commenced when the service of the summons is made on the respondent, which in this case occurred after the SOL. Okla. Stat., Tit. 12 § 95 (1971) does not deem the action "commenced" for the purposes of the statute of limitations until service of the summons on the defendant. However, if the complaint is filed within the limitations period, the action is deemed to have commenced from the date of filing if the plaintiff serves the defendant within 60 days, even though that service may occur outside the limitations period.

The District Court dismissed the complaint as being barred by the statute of limitations under the state law of Oklahoma on the grounds that state law applied.  The United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit affirmed.

Court's decision
The Supreme Court affirmed the decision, holding that the action was barred by the Oklahoma statute of limitations because the scope of Rule 3 was not sufficiently broad to control the issue before the District Court. There was no indication that the Rule was intended to toll a state statute of limitations, much less that it purported to displace state tolling rules for purposes of state statutes of limitations. In diversity actions, Rule 3 governs the date from which various timing requirements of the Federal Rules begin to run, but does not affect state statutes of limitations.

In contrast to Rule 3,  the Oklahoma statute is a statement of a substantive decision by that State that actual service on, and accordingly actual notice to,  the defendant is an integral part of the policies.   The establishment of a deadline gives the defendant legitimate peace of mind,  and recognizes that after a certain period of time,  it is unfair to require the defendant to piece together his defense to an old claim.   Rule 3 does not replace such policy determinations found in state law, and that Rule and § 97 can exist side by side, each controlling its own intended sphere of coverage without conflict.   The analysis regarding whether state or federal procedural law applies is not applicable because there is no direct conflict.   In this case, both the applicable federal and state rules, Rule 3 and Okla. Stat., Tit. 12 § 97 (1971),  "can exist side by side...each controlling its own intended sphere of coverage without conflict."

External links

 Rule 3
 Rules Enabling Act
 Federal Rules of Civil Procedure
 United States Code

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Burger Court
United States conflict of laws case law
Diversity jurisdiction case law
1980 in United States case law


Papyrus 22, designated by  (in the Gregory-Aland numbering of New Testament manuscripts), is an early copy of the New Testament in Greek. It is a papyrus manuscript of the Gospel of John, only containing extant John 15:25-16:2, 21–32. Using the study of comparative writings styles, (palaeography), the manuscript has been dated to the early 3rd century CE. It is the only identified New Testament papyrus to have been written originally as a roll; not a codex or re-using the back of a scroll.

Description

The text was written in two consecutive columns on a roll. The reverse side is blank. The manuscript employs conventional Nomina Sacra:      . The text contains no punctuation marks.

The Greek text of this codex is considered a representative of the Alexandrian text-type. Aland described it as a normal text and placed it in Category I. This manuscript displays an independent text. Coincidences with the Codex Sinaiticus are frequent, but divergences are noticeable. There are no singular readings. According to Schofield the fragment rather represents the eclecticism of the early papyri before the crystallizing of the textual families had taken place.

It is currently housed at the Glasgow University Library (MS Gen 1026) in Glasgow.

See also

 List of New Testament papyri

References

Further reading

 B. P. Grenfell & A. S. Hunt, Oxyrynchus Papyri X, (London 1914), pp. 14–16.

External links

 Fifty Treasures from Glasgow University Library
 Images of the codex at the CSNTM

New Testament papyri
3rd-century biblical manuscripts
University of Glasgow Library collection
Early Greek manuscripts of the New Testament
Gospel of John papyri


MindMapper (also known as ThinkWise) is a mind mapping software and mental organization tool developed by SimTech Systems.  It allows users to create a mind map from thoughts in the brain and convert it into software programs such as Word, PowerPoint, or Hangul Office. As of 2020, the software was used by more than 10,000 organizations and companies in 96 countries.

History and overview
MindMapper was first developed as an in-house tool to help with industrial simulation projects for SimTech Systems in 1997. The tool combines the versatility of a mind mapping program with a reliable dashboard and a built-in planner. Some of its main features include knowledge management, brainstorming, creative thinking, visual thinking, clear communication, problem-solving, and project management.

Usage
Mind Mapper is used by corporations, the Army, the Supreme Court, along with education institutes and universities. It can also be used for research review process and synthesis.

Reviews
As per Predictive Analytics Today, the software can be used by students, professionals and artists for information visualizing, analyzing and implementing plans.

References

External links

Concept mapping software
Mind-mapping software


New Princeton is an unincorporated community in Harney County, in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is along Oregon Route 78 between Burns and Burns Junction at an elevation of  above sea level. The South Fork Malheur River begins near Round Mountain, southeast of New Princeton.

The Princeton rural post office was established in 1910 or about 1912, depending on the source consulted. When an upgrade of Route 78 bypassed the original community, it was re-located to New Princeton.

Climate
According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, New Princeton has a semi-arid climate, abbreviated "BSk" on climate maps.

References

Works cited
McArthur, Lewis A., and McArthur, Lewis L. (2003) [1928]. Oregon Geographic Names, 7th ed. Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press. .

External links
Oregon Hometown Locator

Unincorporated communities in Harney County, Oregon
1910 establishments in Oregon
Populated places established in 1910
Unincorporated communities in Oregon


Jens Holmboe (5 May 1880 –  24 July 1943) was a Norwegian botanist, professor and author.

Jens Holmboe was born at Tvedestrand  in Aust-Agder, Norway. He was the oldest son of physician Michael Holmboe (1852-1918) and his wife Eleonore Vogt (1857–1901). His grandfather Jens Holmboe was a prominent politician. He attended Oslo Cathedral School and  studied botany at the University of Christiania (now University of Oslo).

He was hired as a curator of the  Botanical Department of Bergen Museum in 1906, and became professor there in 1914. In 1925 he was appointed professor at the University of Oslo and manager of the University Botanical Garden. Among his notable publications were Planterester i norske Torvmyrer in 1903, Studies on the Vegetation of Cyprus in 1914, and the six-volume Våre ville planter, written with Torstein Lagerberg and published between 1937 and 1940. He was also editor-in-chief of the periodical Naturen between 1906 and 1925.

References

1880 births
1943 deaths
People from Aust-Agder
People from Tvedestrand
People educated at Oslo Cathedral School
University of Oslo alumni
20th-century Norwegian botanists
Academic staff of the University of Bergen
Academic staff of the University of Oslo
Norwegian botanical writers
Jens


Albrecht v. Herald Co., 390 U.S. 145 (1968), was a decision by the United States Supreme Court, which reaffirmed the law (as it then was) that fixing a maximum price was illegal per se. This rule was reversed in 1997 by State Oil Co. v. Khan, which held that maximum price-setting was not inherently anti-competitive and not always a violation of antitrust law, and should therefore be evaluated for legality under the rule of reason rather than a per se rule.

Albrecht drew heavy criticism by economists who asserted that maximum price fixing actually increases consumer welfare, which they considered to be a primary goal of antitrust.

Background
Lester J. Albrecht, an independent newspaper carrier, bought from Herald Publishing Company at wholesale and sold at retail copies of Herald's morning newspaper, the St. Louis Globe-Democrat, under an exclusive territory arrangement terminable if a carrier exceeded the maximum retail price advertised by Albrecht. When Albrecht exceeded that price, Herald Co. protested to him and then informed Albrecht's subscribers that it would itself deliver the paper at the lower price. Herald Co. engaged an agency (Milne) to solicit petitioner's customers. About 300 of Albrecht's 1200 subscribers switched to direct delivery by Herald.

Herald Co. later turned these customers over, without cost, to another carrier (Kroner), who was aware of Herald's purpose and knew that he might have to return the route if Albrecht discontinued his pricing practice. Herald Co. told Albrecht that he could have his customers back if he adhered to the suggested price. Albrecht filed a treble-damage complaint which, as later amended, charged a combination in restraint of trade in violation of section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act, among Herald, Albrecht's customers, Milne, and Kroner. Albrecht's appointment as carrier was terminated and Herald required sale of his route. Albrecht made the sale at a price found to be lower than it would have been but for the conduct of Herald Co.

The jury found for Herald Co. Albrecht moved for a judgment notwithstanding the verdict, asserting that, under United States v. Parke, Davis & Co., and like cases, the undisputed facts showed a combination to fix resale prices, which was per se illegal under § 1 of the Sherman Act. The district court denied the motion.

Ruling of Eighth Circuit
The court of appeals affirmed. It held that there could be no violation of § 1 of the Sherman Act, which requires concerted action, because Herald's action was unilateral. Herald was entitled to refuse to deal with Albrecht because he violated his contract requiring him to observe Herald's maximum price. Herald was entitled to engage in competition with Albrecht because he was not entitled to exclusivity after violating the contract.

Ruling of Supreme Court
The Supreme Court reversed in an opinion by Justice White wrote for the Court; Justice Douglas concurred. Justices Harlan and Stewart dissented.

Majority opinion
The Court decided two principal points, one of which was later overruled. First, the conduct was not unilateral but rather was concerted. Second, later overruled by Khan, maximum price-fixing was illegal per se.

The combination
Based on the Parke Davis case, there was a combination that Herald put together. In Parke Davis the "combination with retailers arose because their acquiescence in the suggested prices was secured by threats of termination; the combination with wholesalers arose because they cooperated in terminating price-cutting retailers." By the same token, "there can be no doubt that a combination arose between respondent, Milne, and Kroner to force petitioner to conform to the advertised retail price." Herald:

hired Milne to solicit customers away from petitioner in order to get petitioner to reduce his price. It was through the efforts of Milne, as well as because of respondent's letter to petitioner's customers, that about 300 customers were obtained for Kroner. Milne's purpose was undoubtedly to earn its fee, but it was aware that the aim of the solicitation campaign was to force petitioner to lower his price. Kroner knew that respondent was giving him the customer list as part of a program to get petitioner to conform to the advertised price, and he knew that he might have to return the customers if petitioner ultimately complied with respondent's demands. He undertook to deliver papers at the suggested price, and materially aided in the accomplishment of respondent's plan. Given the uncontradicted facts recited by the Court of Appeals, there was a combination within the meaning of § 1 between respondent, Milne, and Kroner, and the Court of Appeals erred in holding to the contrary.

Justice White pointed out other possible combinations that Albrecht might properly have argued existed. First, he could have claimed a combination between Herald and himself, at least "as of the day he unwillingly complied" with Herald's advertised price. Second, "he might successfully have claimed that respondent [Herald] had combined with other carriers because the firmly enforced price policy applied to all carriers, most of whom acquiesced in it." A third possible combination was between Herald and Albrecht's customers.

The price fix
Price-fixing agreements and combinations are illegal per se, including ones to fix maximum prices. In Kiefer-Stewart Co. v. Seagram & Sons, the Court pointed out, liquor distributors combined to set maximum resale prices. The court of appeals perceived no restraint of trade, but the Supreme Court reversed. It held "that agreements to fix maximum prices 'no less than those to fix minimum prices, cripple the freedom of traders, and thereby restrain their ability to sell in accordance with their own judgment.'" The Court said that it agreed with the Kiefer-Stewart decision:

Maximum and minimum price-fixing may have different consequences in many situations. But schemes to fix maximum prices, by substituting the perhaps erroneous judgment of a seller for the forces of the competitive market, may severely intrude upon the ability of buyers to compete and survive in that market. Competition, even in a single product, is not cast in a single mold. Maximum prices may be fixed too low for the dealer to furnish services essential to the value which goods have for the consumer or to furnish services and conveniences which consumers desire and for which they are willing to pay. Maximum price-fixing may channel distribution through a few large or specifically advantaged dealers who otherwise would be subject to significant non-price competition. Moreover, if the actual price charged under a maximum price scheme is nearly always the fixed maximum price, which is increasingly likely as the maximum price approaches the actual cost of the dealer, the scheme tends to acquire all the attributes of an arrangement fixing minimum prices. It is our view, therefore, that the combination formed by the respondent in this case to force petitioner to maintain a specified price for the resale of the newspapers which he had purchased from respondent constituted, without more, an illegal restraint of trade under § 1 of the Sherman Act.

Concurring opinion
Justice Douglas agreed that the court of appeals erred, but considered that "this is a 'rule of reason' case."

Harlan dissent
Justice Harlan considered maximum price-fixing beneficial to the public:

Other things being equal, a manufacturer would like to restrict those distributing his product to the lowest feasible profit margin, for, in this way, he achieves the lowest overall price to the public and the largest volume. When a manufacturer dictates a minimum resale price, he is responding to the interest of his [retailer] customers, who may treat his product better if they have a secure high margin of profits. When the same manufacturer dictates a price ceiling, however, he is acting directly in his own interest, and there is no room for the inference that he is merely a mechanism for accomplishing anticompetitive purposes of his customers.

Justice Harlan also disagreed that one who merely acquiesces engages in concerted action within the meaning of § 1 of the Sherman Act.

Stewart dissent
Justice Stewart considered that Herald was justified in fixing maximum prices to its ultimate customers, the consuming public, because that was a necessary defensive measure in the face of the territorial monopoly granted the distributors. By not permitting this—" The Court today stands the Sherman Act on its head."

Judgment
The Supreme Court held that Herald Co. acted unlawfully by requiring retailers to sell newspapers at a particular price.

Economic background
A newspaper's profits are determined by its circulation  and the number of advertisements  it sells. Like in every circulation industry, circulation depends upon the price of a copy, as well as the amount of advertising: . Similarly, the demand for advertising space is determined by . In other words: the higher the circulation, the higher the demand for advertising space. The profit-maxizing newspaper monopolist therefore sets his copy price as:

where  is the cost per copy,  is the marginal cost of advertisement,  is the traditional price elasticity of demand, and  captures the feedback effect of lower copy prices inducing more advertising and vice versa. Most important is the term , which captures the marginal advertising profit from selling additional advertising due to increased circulation. The newspaper monopolist's optimal price is therefore lower than for traditional monopolists in non-circulation industries.

See also
Kiefer-Stewart Co. v. Seagram & Sons, Inc. (1951)

References

Further reading

  Cited by the Supreme Court in State Oil Co. v. Khan (1997).

External links

1968 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
United States antitrust case law
Overruled United States Supreme Court decisions
Mass media in St. Louis


"Why Not Us" is a song recorded by German pop trio Monrose. It was written by English singer-songwriter Alexis Strum and Guy Chambers produced by Pete Kirtley for the band's third studio album I Am (2008). The track was released as the album's third single on 28 November 2008 throughout German-speaking Europe. Peaking only at 27 in Germany, it became the group's lowest-charting single to date.

Music video
The music video for "Why Not Us" was directed by Markus Gerwinat and released on 14 November 2008. It shows the trio in black dresses in an autumn set, featuring visual elements from the Baroque age.

Track listings

Notes
  denotes co-producer
  denotes additional producer

Charts

References

2008 singles
Monrose songs
Songs written by Guy Chambers
2008 songs
Song recordings produced by Guy Chambers


Portonovo Sociedad Deportiva is a Spanish football team based in Portonovo, in the autonomous community of Galicia. Founded in 1948 it plays in Preferente Autonómica – Group Sur, holding home matches at Estadio Baltar, which has a capacity of 5,000 spectators.

Season to season

13 seasons in Tercera División

Notable former players
 Fran Castaño
 Aitor Díaz
 Óscar Guimeráns
 Martelinho
 Lautaro de León

External links
Official website
Futbolme team profile

Football clubs in Galicia (Spain)
Association football clubs established in 1948
Divisiones Regionales de Fútbol clubs
1948 establishments in Spain


MTV Czech Republic () was a 24-hour music and entertainment television channel that served the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
The channel was launched on 29 November 2009 under a licensing agreement between MTV Networks Europe, a subsidiary of MTV Networks and CME, the owner of TV Nova.

The channel featured local advertising and sponsorship opportunities, along with subtitled or dubbed programming in Czech. The channel used a similar on-air identity as other MTV channels  in Europe and around the world, although it had also produced some idents and graphics of its own and had won several awards. It was also one of the few widescreen MTV channels in the world, at the time of its existence.

MTV Czech broadcast weekly on average over 100 hours of pure music content, including various blocks, making it the only MTV channel in the world to do so, alongside MTV Adria.  The most music on MTV Czech is played on Saturday's, from noon (12:05 PM) till Sunday morning (09:35 AM). That is 21 hours straight of pure music content, which basically respects and reflects the original concept of MTV of a 24-hour music-only channel.

MTV Czech mostly played current music videos or videos from the past few years, although occasionally it aired older videos from the early 2000s and mid to late 1990s.  The oldest music videos to air on the network were "Imagine" by John Lennon and "Like a Virgin" by Madonna. Unlike most of the other music channels from MTV Networks around the world, MTV Czech usually played music videos uncut and in full length.

The channel was closed on 31 December 2013.

History

 MTV Czech was launched on 29 November 2009 at 9 PM, replacing the existing feed of MTV Europe with the region.
 The channel launched with a 60 seconds countdown, playing the instrumental theme of We Will Rock You in the background.
 The first music video ever played was Empire State of Mind by Jay-Z.
 During launch, MTV Czech was one of the first widescreen MTV channels in the world.
 Initially, in promotion supporting the launch and during the first months of broadcast, the original first slogan was "Já jsem MTV!" (I am MTV!).
 The channel broadcast a range of music and popular culture programming, mainly imported from MTV US, MTV UK, VH1 and BET.
 On 8 November 2010, MTV Czech started airing new channel idents and the station planned to produce and broadcast local idents of its own in the near future.
 On 18 November 2010, MTV Czech was the first station in the world to broadcast the clip for the new single "Sing" by My Chemical Romance in a 'World Exclusive' television premiere.
 On 29 November 2010, MTV Czech celebrated its first year of broadcast with special party-themed videos, which were featured in between shows and focused around a group of young people at a party, along with the moderators of MTV Czech. These videoclips continued throughout the whole week and varied each day, featuring amongst other guests also the famous Czech band Charlie Straight, who have won two EMA awards for Best Czech & Slovak act.
 Since 6 December 2010, MTV Czech started broadcasting regularly short segments/fillers with the two moderators of the station - Hanka Zajíčková and Dominik Turza. These segments involved different topics each week somehow related to the programming of MTV in the Czech Republic.
 On 17 December 2010, MTV Czech debuted the short film Runaway from Kanye West in a European television premiere.
 During Christmas 2010, MTV Czech used winter idents, which could be seen for example also on MTV UK. In comparison with the UK feed, the idents have aired on MTV Czech in their original widescreen aspect ratio and without the channel logo present on screen.
 On 5 January 2011, MTV Czech debuted its first local show called "Backstage". The two moderators of the station - Hanka Zajíčková and Dominik Turza, take viewers behind the scenes of various concerts, parties, festivals and entertainment shows in the Czech Republic. Viewers can also look forward to interviews with popular singers and bands, not only from the Czech Republic and Slovakia, but from abroad as well.
 On 17 February 2011, it was reported that Lady Gaga's video to "Born This Way" will debut on the channel on 24 February in a 'World Exclusive' television premiere, but this did not happen, as the release date was officially postponed to 28 February The video debuted on MTV Czech at 19:01 CET local time, Monday, making it still the first TV channel in the world to broadcast the video because of time zone differences.
 During Spring 2011, MTV Czech used the line "On. On MTV!" in its promos as opposed to previously used "On MTV!". Adding a second "On." emphasized that the shows could be seen only on MTV.
 On 11 March 2011, MTV Czech, along with some other MTV channels around the world, debuted the music video to Rope of Foo Fighters in an exclusive premiere.
 On 14 March 2011, MTV Czech debuted a new music video from Czech band Charlie Straight in a 7-day exclusive premiere, showing support also for Czech artists.
 On 1 May 2011, MTV Czech removed the one-hour music block "MTV Basechart" from its programming, most probably due to lower ratings. This was the first and also last time the amount of music content on the channel was slightly reduced.
 Instead, later that month, MTV Czech launched two new music blocks titled "Home Sweet Home" and "In Love With MTV", which focus on music from local artists and love songs.
 On 29 May it was announced that MTV Czech will rebrand on 1 July 2011, along with other international MTV channels, adopting the US on-screen logo and new graphics.
 On 30 June the channel started using the new logo on its website and programming guide, although the structure of the website has remained the same.
 On 1 July 2011, 06:00 AM, MTV Czech rebranded and started using the new logo on-air (exactly same as in the US), along with new idents and graphics. They are a unique blend between the previous branding by Universal Everything and the current branding of MTV US by Popkern.
 On 1 July 2011, MTV Czech also changed the words used in the programme progress info bar, highlighting what the viewer is watching, from 'Right Now' to 'You're Watching', making it more simple and personal.
 The third change during the first day of rebrand was the introduction of 'SMS Live' - a service where viewers could text short messages to MTV and see them appear live on-air. It has been limited to the music blocks 'Party Zone' and 'In Love With MTV', which air regularly once a week. 'SMS Live' lasted until 1 December 2011, when it was removed.
 On 29 July 2011, MTV Czech updated its opening theme for 'MTV Menu', replacing the old MTV logo with the new one, confirming that music will remain an important part of its programming even in the future.
 On 5 August 2011, MTV Czech updated also its opening theme for 'MTV Hits', replacing the old MTV logo with the new one, confirming once again that music will remain an important part of its programming even in the future.
 On 8 August 2011, MTV Czech started airing a 1m20s long video using the song 'Youth' by MGMT, with scenes from various music videos and reality shows, to promote the youth. The end of the video features the headline "Youth Is Amazing".
 On 9 August 2011, MTV Czech updated another opening theme with the new logo, this time for the rap/r'n'b block 'Urban'. This is the third opening theme for a music block to be updated after the July rebrand. Eventually all music blocks later updated their themes with the new logo.
 On 1 September 2011, the channel updated its "Coming Up Next - Menu" bumper and started using small image slides (thumbnails) on the side to improve communication with its viewers. It was the first and only MTV channel in Europe to do so.
 In September 2011, MTV Czech premiered the new series Awkward. 2 days ahead of the UK premiere on MTV UK. Apart from that, season 4 of Jersey Shore premiered on the Czech feed 5 days prior to the European premiere on MTV Europe.
 On 1 October 2011, MTV Czech started using a new, third, slogan "MTV - Máš To V Sobě" (It's in you!). The previous, second, slogan "MTV Jsi Ty!" (MTV Is You!) was used from Summer 2010 till September 30, 2011.
 In mid-October MTV Czech started using several other headlines, along with the new slogan, in short 5-second bumpers. These headlines consist of the letters of MTV:
Má To Vyřvaný (Amp It Up!)
Musíš To Vidět (You Must See This!)
Má To Vnady (It Has Bossom!)
Máme Tady Večírek (We Have A Party!)
Můžeš To Vyhrát (You Can Win This!)
 The last headline Můžeš To Vyhrát (You Can Win This!) refers to a competition launched by MTV Czech to accompany its second birthday. Viewers could send their own headlines in the upcoming four weeks. Each week a winner was picked, receiving VIP tickets to MTV's private birthday party and the option to see their headline included on-air.
 During Christmas 2011, MTV Czech celebrated the Holidays with themed programming and mainly aired music videos related to Christmas. There were also numerous TOP 10 countdowns, including 'Best of the Decade', 'Best of Urban 2011', 'Best of Europe 2011', 'Best Singer of 2011', 'Best Alternative of 2011' and more. MTV also aired several special bumpers, similar to those of 2010. The Christmas-centred programming lasted from 24 December 2011 to 1 January 2012. The oldest music video to air during the week was Last Christmas by British pop duo Wham!
 From 9 to 14 February 2012 MTV celebrated Valentine's Day with several new bumpers depicting love between two animated characters. The idents incorporated mainly pink, purple, white and red colours.
 On 15 February 2012, MTV commemorated the death of Whitney Houston and paid tribute to the singer by airing blocks of her music videos throughout the day, a 5-minute segment about her tragic death, a special bumper and running text at the bottom of the screen, a crawler, which stated the following: "We are deeply saddened by the tragic loss of Whitney Houston, who died on Saturday in Los Angeles at age of 48."
 On 8 March 2012, MTV Czech started using short subliminal messages during broadcast as promotion for the upcoming premiere of Beavis and Butt-head. These animated messages were only 1 to 3 seconds long and involved Beavis and Butt-head randomly appearing on the screen, usually beating each other. Another variant of these messages uses colourful silhouettes of their figures. These messages overlay the channel's logo and on-air graphics and have been used exclusively in the past only on MTV US throughout October 2011 to highlight the series premiere. The messages have evoked interest in viewers, causing them to discuss this curiosity online.
 On 23 March MTV Czech officially started promoting the series premiere using the same teasers that have aired in the U.S. These promos have been localized into Czech and it was the first time that MTV Czech has decided to import original MTV US promos instead of producing their own. Apart from that, 6 new bumpers to promote the series have been produced.
 On 8 April 2012, the controversial original uncut version of Michael Jackson's Black or White (without graffiti) was aired on MTV Czech at 4PM during a Michael Jackson 'Top 10' countdown. Due to the fact the channel decided to air also uncut versions of Michael Jackon's other videos, such as 'Bad' and 'Thriller', it ended up being 22 minutes behind schedule.
 On 9 April 2012, MTV Czech received a refresh and started airing a new set of idents by MTV World Design Studio/Staat/Buck - Group Hug, Chameleon and Party Animal.
 Caged premiered on 14 May 2012.
 In mid-June, MTV rolled out a set of new summer idents by company "123 Klan". They include similar characters, along with a tiger, that have been present in bumpers used for Valentine's Day. MTV Czech produced also several bumpers of its own and headed out to all of the major summer festivals and events. Footage from these events was later shown in "Backstage".
 Throughout the first week of September 2012, MTV updated and started airing new promos for all of its main music blocks - including 'Alternative Nation', 'Home Sweet Home', 'In Love With MTV', 'MTV Rocks!', 'Party Zone', 'Urban' and 'Wishlist'. After a short break, a set of new local DJ's returned to put together the 'Party Zone' playlists.
 On 1 October 2012, MTV Czech received another refresh and started airing a new set of idents by MTV World Design Studio/Buck - Brodown, Dream Big and Infectious.
 At the end of October 2012, MTV Czech rolled out a set of three Halloween-themed bumpers that included characters from similar idents used during summer and spring. These were once again produced by company "123 Klan".
 On 28 November 2012, MTV Czech celebrated its 3rd Birthday, accompanied by a party at local popular club ROXY. The event was open also for the public.
 Throughout December 2012, MTV aired a set of Christmas themed bumpers that followed in footsteps of the previous ones used during Autumn, Summer and Spring. They featured the same characters and depicted them in a snow-covered holiday environment. This was the final set of idents by studio "123 Klan". During the holidays, MTV Czech broadcast again several themed musical blocks and charts, although to a lesser extent than in the previous year.
 By February 2013, MTV Czech began dropping its current on-air branding and adopting parts of the branding of MTV US. Most new promos produced and aired after 1 February use the on-air identity and style of MTV US.
 Underemployed premiered on 1 February 2013 at 9PM.
 The L.A. Complex premiered on 17 April 2013 at 9PM.
 From 5 to 26 May 2013, Chill Out Zone was put on hiatus in favor of Geordie Shore seasons one to three marathon re-runs.
 Ke$ha: My Crazy Beautiful Life premiered on 27 May 2013 at 10PM.
 Since late May 2013, MTV Czech has started airing a weekly night block titled "A Night With...", each week focusing on a different artist.
 Washington Heights premiered on 9 June 2013 at 9PM.
 In July MTV started airing two new idents (Adrenaline Rush and Underdog) and most of the music blocks (In Love With MTV, Party Zone, Urban, Wishlist) once again received new promos.
 As of November 2013, MTV Czech Republic still broadcast music videos in a content ratio of 50% music and 50% reality shows, something not seen in other territories where all of the music content was replaced and moved to other MTV channels or removed completely - as for example in the US, UK, Latin America and Russia. At that time, the only MTV channel with more music content than MTV Czech was MTV Adria, with a content ratio of 70% music and 30% reality shows. MTV Czech also remained one of the few widescreen MTV channels in the world even after the global July 2011 rebrand, though it was expected for the majority of other MTV channels in Europe to switch to 16:9 by that time as well.
 In late November 2013 CME announced it will not renew its current licence with MTV Networks for operating the channel and MTV brand in the Czech and Slovak market due to increased debts and will hand over the licence back to Viacom.
 On the same day Viacom has stated it will take charge of MTV Czech Republic as of 1 January 2014, and re-launch the channel in the region on that date, promising more shows, more local content and earlier premieres.
 On 21 November 2013, Viacom announced that MTV Czech will cease operations on 31 December 2013.
 On 1 January 2014, MTV Europe started broadcasting again in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Run from London, UK, it started featuring additional audio and subtitle tracks in Czech, Hungarian, Romanian and other languages relevant to countries where local MTV feeds have ceased or are planning to cease operations. MTV Europe currently features US-imported longform shows throughout most of its daily schedule, with very little music content appearing late in the night and during the early morning hours. Unlike MTV Czech, it no longer features any specialist music shows.

Programming

Music series
 Alternative Nation - classic programming, alternative music
 A Night With... - weekly night block featuring various artists
 Budíček - music aimed to wake you up, aka 'Wake Up Hits' or 'AMTV Dancefloor Chart - top ten dance singles of the week (On Hiatus)
 Home Sweet Home - music block of Czech and Slovak artists
 Chill Out Zone - classic programming, relaxing and calm music
 In Love With MTV - music block of love themed music
 MTV GO! - energetic music aimed to charge you up
 MTV Hits - current and past hits
 MTV Live HD - live performances
 MTV Menu - playlist of music put together daily by MTV, both past and current
 MTV Push - featured artist of the month
 MTV Rocks! - music block of rock music, formerly titled 'MTV Rock Chart'''
 MTV Unplugged - live performances MTV World Stage - live performances Music Non Stop - nonstop music of all genres and ages Party Zone - classic programming, playlist put together by different local DJ's or MTV each week Storytellers - artists telling stories and performing in front of a live audience (on hiatus)
 This Is The New Sh*t - newest music from various artists, updated each week TOP 10 - top 10 singles of various artists, changes each day/week (list featured below)
 TOP 20 - various artists and their top 20 commercial hits Urban - music block of hip-hop, rap and r'n'b'; both old and new
 Wishlist - current music viewers can vote on each week through the MTV website

News series
 Backstage - pre-recorded or live backstage coverage of various festivals, concerts and events with the two hosts
 Movies.MTV - short weekly highlights of current theatrical releases

Documentary series
 Behind the Music (On Hiatus)
 True Life (Season 9/On Hiatus)

Reality series
 16 and Pregnant (Season 4/Reruns)
 Catfish (Season 2/Premiere)
 Geordie Shore (Season 6/Premiere)
 Jersey Shore (Season 6/Reruns)
 Kesha: My Crazy Beautiful Life (Season 1/Reruns)
 MADE (Season 12/Reruns)
 Plain Jane (Season 2/Reruns)
 Punk'd (Season 9/Reruns)
 Ridiculousness (Season 3/Premiere)
 Snooki & JWoww (Season 2/Reruns)
 Teen Mom (Season 4/Reruns)
 Teen Mom 2 (Season 4/Premiere)
 The Real World (Season 27/On Hiatus)
 Washington Heights (Season 1/Reruns)
 Young and Married (Season 1/Reruns)

Competitive series
 The Challenge (Season 23:Battle of the Seasons/On Hiatus)

Comedy series
 Awkward.''' (Season 3/Premiere)
 MTV2's Guy Code (Season 1/Reruns)
 The Inbetweeners (Season 1/Reruns)
 Zach Stone Is Gonna Be Famous (Season 1/Premiere)

Drama series
 Skins (Season 1/Reruns)
 Hollywood Heights (Season 1/Premiere)
 The L.A. Complex (Season 1/Reruns)
 Underemployed (Season 1/Reruns)

Animated series
 Beavis and Butt-head'' (Season 9/Reruns)
 Crash Canyon (Season 1/Reruns)

References

External links
 Official Site
 Official Facebook Page
 Official Twitter Page

MTV channels
Central European Media Enterprises
Defunct television channels
Television stations in the Czech Republic
Television channels and stations established in 2009
Television channels and stations disestablished in 2013
2009 establishments in the Czech Republic
Music organizations based in the Czech Republic
Music organisations based in Slovakia
TV Nova (Czech Republic)
2013 disestablishments in the Czech Republic


Two ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Olympus:

 was an  launched in 1928 and sunk in 1942.
 was an  launched in 1961. She was decommissioned in 1989 and transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy as a training ship. She was put up for disposal in 2002.

See also

Royal Navy ship names


The main U.S. Post Office in New Rochelle (also known as New Rochelle Post Office) is located at 255 North Avenue, at the intersection of North Avenue and Huguenot St. (US 1/the Boston Post Road South), in the city of New Rochelle in Westchester County, New York. The facility currently serves the 10801, 10803 and 10805 ZIP Codes, covering portions of New Rochelle and neighboring Pelham and Pelham Manor.

The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 as part of a Multiple Property Submission. It is one of 94 post offices in New York State that received artistic embellishment, either mural or sculpture, during the Depression through the New Deal art program.

Post office building
New Rochelle was settled by French Huguenots, who purchased the site of the present city in 1687 and 1689 through Jacob Leisler, Acting Governor of the New York colony, from John Pell, Lord of the Manor of Pelham. The community grew around the original Huguenot settlement. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the area expanded rapidly as a commuter suburb of New York City. The population of the city at the time of construction of the present post office had reached 60,000. The first post office was established in 1799 with John Guion, a Huguenot descendant, the first postmaster. The post office was housed in various buildings until the construction of New Rochelle's first federal post office in 1915 on the site of the present post office. That building was demolished and the present post office was constructed between 1936 and 1938. It was authorized as part of the expanded public buildings programs initiated by the federal government to relieve unemployment caused by the Great Depression. The building was designed by New Rochelle resident Frederick Frost with Hart & Shape, Associate Architects.

As originally constructed, the New Rochelle Post Office was an outstanding example of public architecture in New York State. It was one of the few Art Moderne style post offices erected in the state. In addition, it was unusual for the terra-cotta clad exterior walls. Unfortunately, the terra cotta was replaced at an unknown date, probably in the 1960s, and the lobby was completely remodeled. Thus, the building has substantially lost its integrity of design and materials with the exception of three murals placed in the lobby in 1940, which still remain.

Murals
The New Rochelle Post Office is artistically significant for its distinctive intact group of murals commissioned by the United States Treasury Department's Section of Painting and Sculpture.The mural competition was won by David Hutchison of New York City, and his three murals were installed in 1940.  The murals are typical of those painted under the public art programs of the period in that they depict historical scenes of local importance; however, they are distinguished by their large size and unusual shape. The main mural, entitled "The Huguenots Lay the Foundations of the City of New Rochelle" depicts a late seventeenth century scene of a group of French Huguenots building log cabins. The second mural, entitled "John Pell Receives Partial Payment for 6,000 Acres," depicts the purchase of the site of the present city by the Huguenots in the 1680s. The third mural, entitled "The Post Rider Brings News of the Battle of Lexington," depicts the community receiving news of the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, a popular theme for post offices in communities which participated in the war. The central panel is about six feet by thirty-three-and-one-half feet while the latter two murals are approximately seven by fifteen feet each

References

External links

 Archiplanet

Buildings and structures in New Rochelle, New York
Government buildings completed in 1937
New Rochelle
National Register of Historic Places in Westchester County, New York
New York State Register of Historic Places in Westchester County


Three ships and one shore establishment of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Osiris, after the Egyptian god Osiris:

  was an  launched in 1916 and sold in 1921.
  was an  launched in 1928 and sold in 1946, being broken up in 1952.
  was an  launched in 1962 and sold to Canada in 1992, where she was dismantled for spare parts and broken up that year.
  was a shore establishment in Egypt in the late 1940s/early 1950s.

Royal Navy ship names


Sultanabad Colony () is a residential area in Gulbahar of Liaquatabad Town in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.

There are several ethnic groups in Sultanabad Colony including Muhajirs, Sindhis, Kashmiris, Seraikis, Pakhtuns, Balochis, Memons, Bohras,  Ismailis, etc.

The Sultanabad Colony is divided into two parts:

 Sultanabad Colony No. 1 (or "Laal Building")
 Sultanabad No. 2 (or simply "Sultanabad")

Sultanabad No. 2
It is surrounded by:
 Gulbahar Thana (North West)
 Lyari River (South)
 Qureshi Colony (East)
 Firdous Colony (North East)
 Pasban Mohalla / Sindhi Para (West)
 Agror Colony (South East)
 Al-Karim Colony / Sultanaba No. 1 (South East)

These are the parts of colony:
 8 Residential Buildings (Block "D" - Block "K")
 A Jamatkhana (Worship place of Ismaili Community)
 A Ismaili Religious Education Centre / A Community Based School
 A Maintenance Office
 A Dispensary
 An External Shop Line
 A Park With Fountain
 A K.E.S.C. House

Map of Sultanabad No. 2
Visit it for Satellite Map Of Sultanabad No. 2

Residential buildings in Sultanabad No. 2
 Block D: In the northern part if colony. having 4 buildings. Each building consists of 4 floors. and each floor contains 4 flats.
 Block E: In Eastern part of colony, having 5 buildings. Each building consists of 4 floors. Each floor contain 3 flats.
 Block F: In Western part of colony, having a single building consists of 2 floors and G.Floor. Each floor contain 10 Flats.
At the ground floor, Two flats in corner are occupied by Sultanabad Library & Reading Room (Reading Room Section).

 Block G: In Eastern part of colony, having 4 buildings. Each building consists of 4 floors with 4 flats in each.
�* Block H: In Southern part of colony, having 4 buildings. Each building consists of 4 floors with 4 flats in each.

 Block I: In Southern part of colony, having 8 buildings. Each building consists of 4 floors with 4 flats in each. It is the largest building in colony by area, and number of flats.
�* Block J: In central part of Colony, having 4 buildings. Each buildings consists of 4 floors with 4 flats in each.
�* Block 	K: In the Northern part of colony, having 5 buildings labelled A, B, C, E. Each building consists of 4 floors with 2 flats in each, But E contains 4 floors with 4 flats in each.� there is hold Awami National Party.

Neighbourhoods of Karachi


A colossal statue is one that is more than twice life-size. This is a list of colossal statues and other sculptures that were created, mostly or all carved, and remain in situ. This list includes two colossal stones that were intended to be moved. However, they were never broken free of the quarry in which they were carved, and therefore they would be considered carved in situ. Most of these were carved in ancient times.

In many cases, especially in India, these sculptures were carved out of softer rocks like sandstone or volcanic tuff. However, in some cases they were carved out of harder rocks like basalt, or even granite in the case of the unfinished obelisk in Egypt. The Egyptians may have been limited to using  dolerite balls to chip away at the granite. Dynamite was used in the carving of Mount Rushmore's Shrine of Democracy, one of the few colossal sculptures that was carved out of granite.

Africa

Egypt
Great Sphinx of Giza – limestone
Abu Simbel temples – sandstone
The unfinished obelisk at Aswan – granite
Seti I  – limestone

Ethiopia
Lalibela – tuff
Church of Saint George, Lalibela – tuff

Asia

Afghanistan
Buddhas of Bamiyan, destroyed in 2001 by the Taliban

Armenia
 Geghard Monastery

China
 Fuxi sculpture at Xianshan Mountain, Xiangyang
 Leshan Giant Buddha
 Bingling Temple

India

 Ajanta Caves
 Badami Cave Temples
 Barabar Caves
 Cave temples
 Elephanta Caves
 Ellora Caves
 Kailashnath Temple, Ellora
 Kanheri Caves
 Mahabalipuram
 Vijayanagara

Iran
 Behistun
 Naqsh-e Rostam
 Taq-e Bostan
 Colossal Statue of Shapur I, Shapur cave

Jordan
 Petra

Lebanon
 The stone of the south

Philippines
 The Victor (statue)

Saudi Arabia
 Mada'in Saleh

Sri Lanka
 Avukana Buddha statue
 Gal Vihara
 Sigiriya

Turkey
 Cappadocia
 Tombs of the kings of Pontus
 Rock tombs
 Mount Nemrut

Americas

Colombia
Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá, Cundinamarca

Ecuador
El poder brutal, Quito

Peru
Chachapoya cliff tombs at Revash
Chavín de Huantar's Old Temple

United States
Mount Rushmore, South Dakota – granite
Crazy Horse Memorial, South Dakota – pegmatite granite (work in progress)
Stone Mountain, Georgia – granite

Europe

Bulgaria
Madara Rider

Czech Republic
Čertovy hlavy

Greece
 Lion of Bavaria, Nafplio

Italy
Pantalica, Sicily
Santoni, Sicily
Sassi di Matera, Basilicata

Poland
 Wieliczka Salt Mine

Romania
Rock sculpture of Decebalus

Switzerland
Lion Monument

See also
Rock-cut architecture
Indian rock-cut architecture

See also
List of statues; by height; in U.S.A.
List of Roman domes
New 7 Wonders of the World

References

Colossal sculpture in situ

colossal sculpture in situ
colossal sculpture in situ


Ashcombe House at Swainswick, north-east of Bath in Somerset, England is a Gothic revival country house.  It is a Grade II listed building.

Ashcombe House stands on the slopes of the Lam Valley in  of grounds.  It dates from the early nineteenth century, and was altered in the late nineteenth century. It started life as a hunting lodge, and there are the remains of the former kennels in the grounds. The 1900 1:10,560 scale (6 inch) Ordnance Survey map shows the building was known at that time as Ashcombe Farm, with Ashcombe Wood lying to the north-east of it. The house has a rear wing constructed from a converted coach house and stables, and has nine bedrooms and six reception rooms, including a Georgian ballroom.  The house was on the market in 2003  for £1.6 million.

Musician Peter Gabriel rented the property between 1978 and 1987 as his family home and converted the house's barn into his home studio, where he recorded three of his albums: his 1982 album Peter Gabriel, commonly known as 4 (or as Security in the US); the soundtrack for the film Birdy, which he recorded between October and December 1984; and his album So, recorded in 1985 and released in 1986. The track "My Secret Place" from the Joni Mitchell album Chalk Mark in a Rain Storm was recorded at Gabriel's studio at Ashcombe House in 1986, as were parts of the 1987 Robbie Robertson album Robbie Robertson (although the sleeve credits erroneously locate Ashcombe House in London).

References

External links
Images of England page on the house
Photos of the house

Grade II listed buildings in Bath and North East Somerset
Peter Gabriel
Country houses in Somerset
Gothic Revival architecture in Somerset
Grade II listed houses in Somerset


In economics, nonmarket forces (or non-market forces) are those acting on economic factors from outside a market system. They include organizing and correcting factors that provide order to markets and other societal institutions and organizations, as well as forces utilized by price systems other than the free price system.

Uses, rationales and applications

First uses

The term has been employed since at least the late 1940s. A.O. Hirschman defined “exit and voice as market and nonmarket forces, that is, economic and political mechanisms” in 1970, quoting a 1963 article by Kenneth Arrow which referred to “nonmarket social institutions.”

Frequent association with government

In the business, management, economic and political-science literatures, nonmarket is typically associated with government, compared to other non-economic institutions, as in economist Baron’s (1995: 47) often quoted definition in the strategic-management field:

The nonmarket environment includes the social, political, and legal arrangements that structure interactions outside of, but in conjunction with, markets and private agreements. The nonmarket environment encompasses those interactions between the firm and individuals, interest groups, government entities, and the public that are intermediated not by markets but by public and private institutions. Public institutions differ from markets because of characteristics such as majority rule, due process, broad enfranchisement, collective action, and publicness. Activities in the nonmarket environment may be voluntary, as when the firm cooperates with government officials, or involuntary, such as when government regulates an activity or an activist group organizes a boycott of a firm’s product.

However, other researchers have related nonmarket to the equally important societal institutions of civil society (also called community) and culture as well as to command economies, traditional exchange and non-profit organizations.

Other applications of "nonmarket"

Besides its reference to markets and firms in a capitalist economic system, nonmarket has also been applied to:

 command (or centrally-planned) economies where the State owns the economic factors of production and is "the firm" by having internalized private external and internal markets which no longer exist outside of “black markets” (Daniels, Radebaugh & Sullivan, 2007: 141-142)
 traditional types of exchange systems (e.g., intra-family, intra-clan and between-group trade) dominated by social reciprocity which balances out the giving and receiving of goods in the short and long runs in contrast to the market system where prices result from immediate bargaining for economic advantage (Polanyi, 1944; Smelser, 1963: 87)
 the non-profit sector (Lohmann, 1989)
 internal hierarchies (or “private bureaucracies”) within the business firm that has internalized external markets on account of the latter’s higher uncertainty and transaction costs (Williamson, 1991, 1999).

"Nonmarket" as the antonym of "market"

Nonmarket as well as its antecedents “non-economic” and “social” reflects the long search for a term that would encompass what is “not market” after the economic market institution had become the dominant exchange mechanism in modern capitalist economies. “Market” itself is a complex concept which Boyer (1997: 62-66) variously categorized as:

 a contract (that is, a deal)
 a physical place (e.g., a farmer’s market)
 a geographical area where sellers compete for buyers regarding a particular good (e.g., the U.S. market for beef)
 a mechanism for aligning supply and demand for goods and services through prices
 an economic system where competition is dominant and results in the immediate as well as intertemporal coordination and equilibration of many independent demands and supplies (for guns, butter, travel services, etc.)
 any exchange whereby social actors compete for scarce resources (including power, status, legitimacy, justice and love) and ultimately reach some agreement (as in “the market for ideas”).

The following definition of market is adapted from Hollingsworth, Schmitter and Streeck (1994: 5) and is related to Boyer’s fourth and fifth meanings of "market":

Markets are arenas where individual or corporate actors holding separate property rights in different resources voluntarily engage in free, legally enforceable contractual buying and selling exchanges, with prices providing information for the allocation of goods and services.

Association with a capitalist economic system

Most definitions and uses of “nonmarket” and “market” assume a capitalistic economic system characterized by private property in the means of production and where markets provide a social space for voluntary contracts and competitive rivalry (Hollingsworth et al., 1994: 3). Economic markets tend to be very proprietary in that the costs and benefits of exchanges are more closely restricted to the parties directly involved in them – that is, people by and large get only what they pay for, and they pay for what they get – while nonmarket exchange arenas – political, social and cultural – are characterized by much greater spillovers and weaker links between costs and benefits so that a wider universe of parties other than those directly involved in exchanges bear costs and enjoy benefits (Hayes, 1981: 133; Tollison, 1982: 85-89).

Underlying societal transformations

Most modern societies chose to separate what came to be called the "economy" from other subsystems, and they adopted a “market” way of running it. What would later be labeled the nonmarket referred to other macro institutions (i.e., the state, civil society and culture) that with their organizations and actors interchange and often conflict with interdependent market ones. Particularly since the publication of The Great Transformation (Polanyi, 1944), the concepts of “non-economic,” “social” and “nonmarket” have successively emerged to refer to the internal and external factors that assist markets, firms and other types of institutions and organizations to function efficiently and effectively as well as repair their failures.

Boddewyn (2003) interpreted them as “four perspectives on nonmarket” which the following sections analyze in terms of:

 their level of analysis (macro or micro)
 the contested subordination of market institutions to nonmarket ones
 the degree to which nonmarket factors are endogenized or exogenized in market models
 the enactibility of the nonmarket environment.

Four conceptual perspectives on nonmarket

Nonmarket at the societal level
For political economists (e.g., Baron, 1995; Kindleberger, 1969), social-systems theorists (e.g., Parsons & Smelser, 1956) and some political scientists (e.g., Hirschman, 1970), society is made up of subsystems – economic, political, social and cultural – each one with its own institutions and organizations. In modern capitalist societies, the economic subsystem is mainly enacted through market institutions and organizations (firms). In this context, nonmarket refers to exogenous non-economic subsystems, institutions and organizations – political, social and cultural – and to their distinct functioning and interacting with market ones – including the issue of which one predominates over the others through both market and nonmarket media and modes of exchange (money, power, inclusion/exclusion,legitimization, validation, reciprocity, trust, zeal, moral commitment, etc.). At both extremes of this relationship, one has either an overly constrained market system dominated by other societal institutions or a “market society” ruled by market actors, values and processes. Both extremes represent failures of effective integration between market and nonmarket societal subsystems.

Nonmarket at the firm level
Micro-economists (e.g., Milgrom & Roberts, 1992) interpret nonmarket to refer to institutions that are “not market in nature” – that is, not related to the pursuit of efficiency through complete information, unbounded rationality in relating ends and means, cost-benefit tradeoffs in choosing solutions, material incentives (e.g., prices reflecting supply and demand) used to reconcile divergent personal interests, and competition among actors pursuing such interests. This pursuit of efficiency depends on the existence of such institutions as private property and free contracting but, once the market system is set in motion by society, it operates autonomously in isolation from other societal subsystems. In micro-economic analyses, nonmarket factors either amount to “givens” (e.g., property laws), are treated as “allocationally neutral” because applying to all firms in a particular industry (e.g., corporate tax rates) or are ignored because “nontradeable” (e.g., reputation). Failure results from the lack of perfect competition in markets.

Nonmarket at the organizational level
In reaction to such “economic-science imperialism” (Buckley & Casson, 1993), other social sciences have identified and promoted political, social and cultural (including moral and ethical) factors as necessary complements to economic ones. Their inclusion helps achieve individual and organizational effectiveness in exchanges through personalized relations, internalized rules, norms and customs.  For sociologists (e.g., Granovetter, 1985, 1992), nonmarket refers to endogenized social, political and cultural factors that permeate economic exchanges and are often necessary to achieve individual, organizational and interorganizational effectiveness which is not possible when economic action is “under-socialized.” Such factors allow many exchanges to take place even when pricing is difficult, money is inappropriate, markets are not available, property rights are unclear and insecure, and the pursuit of self-interest is insufficient to guarantee orderly transactions free of malfeasance and opportunism. In other words, many micro-economic exchanges are not purely dyadic, rational, self-interested and impersonal since cooperation is common among exchanging parties who frequently conform to rules, norms and customs, thereby developing a “socialized rationality” on account of “the social embeddedness of economic action.” Besides, firm actors have the moral obligation to consider the “appropriateness” of their actions. Failure is related to "under-socialized" behavior (e.g., "free-riding") but also to the use of “over-socialized” behaviors such as collusion and fraud (e.g., the Mafia).

Nonmarket as corrective mechanisms
For political scientists (e.g., Hirschman, 1970), nonmarket refers to the power-based correctives used to improve all organizations – economic, political, social and cultural – when competition among them fails to repair their decline or decay. That is, under any economic, political, social or cultural system, all individuals and organizations are permanently subject to lapses from efficient, rational, law-abiding, virtuous or otherwise functional behavior. Society’s welfare is optimized only when all organizations – those of the market, state, civil society and culture – compete among themselves although inefficient or ineffective organizations may remain insensitive to competition because they can tap other resources (organizational slack, public funding, reciprocity, nationalistic preferences, etc.) to survive even in the face of decline. If competition does not lead to the “exit” of inefficient or ineffective organizations, then political “voice” (petitioning, mobilizing opinion, protesting, resisting, etc.) is needed to change objectionable states of affairs. As such, nonmarket is related to the use of power (including force), with actors using their property and sovereignty rights to exert influence over others who deploy the same rights to resist such attempts. Market “exit” as well as nonmarket “voice” and "loyalty" are used by all organizations, and repair is enactable through these mechanisms even though institutional failure remains a constant occurrence through time and place.

General definition
Based on these four partial definitions, Boddewyn (2003) proposed the following general one:

Nonmarket refers to internal and external organizing and correcting factors that provide order to market and other types of societal institutions and organizations – economic, political, social and cultural – so that they may function efficiently and effectively as well as repair their failures.

Notes

See also
 The Great Transformation
 Market
 Market failure
 Planned economy
 Porter's five forces analysis

References
 Baron, D.P. (1995). “Integrated Strategy: Market and Non-market Components,” California Management Review, 37(2): 47-65.
 Bell, D. (1995). “The Structure of Rights in the Context of Private Property,” Journal of Socio-Economics, 24(4): 607-622.
 Boddewyn, J.J. (2003). “Understanding and Advancing the Concept of ‘Nonmarket’,” Business & Society, 42(3): 297-327.
 Boyer, R. (1997). “The Variety and Unequal Performance of Really Existing Markets: Farewell to Doctor Pangloss?” In J.R. Hollingsworth and R. Boyer (eds.), Contemporary Capitalism: The Embeddedness of Institutions, New York: Cambridge University Press: 59-93.
 Buckley, P.J. & Casson M. (1993). “Economics as an Imperialist Social Science,” Human Relations, 46(9): 1035-1052.
 Daniels, J.D., Radebaugh, L.H. and D.P. Sullivan (2007). International Business: Environments and Operations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice-Hall.
 Granovetter, M. (1985). “Economic Action and Social Structure: The Problem of Embeddedness,” American Journal of Sociology, 91(3): 481-510.
 Granovetter, M. (1992). “Economic Institutions as Social Constructions: A Framework for Analysis,” Acta Sociologica, 35(1): 3-11.
 Hayes, M.T. (1981). Lobbyists and Legislators: A Theory of Political Markets. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
 Hirschman, A.O. (1958). The Strategy of Economic Development. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
 Hirschman, A.O. (1970). Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations and States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
 Hollingsworth, J.R., Schmitter, P.C. and W. Streeck (eds.) (1994). Governing Capitalist Economies. New York: Oxford University Press.
 Jones, M. L. "Start with Geostrategy, or Call it Tactics"; (2011) available at http://silberzahnjones.com/2011/12/10/start-with-geostrategy-or-call-it-tactics/
 Kindleberger, Ch. P. (1970). American Business Abroad. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
 Kuttner, R. (1998). Everything for Sale: The Virtues and Limits of Markets. New York: Knopf.
 Lohmann, R.A. (1989). “And Lettuce is Nonanimal: Toward a Positive Economics of Voluntary Action,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 18(4): 367-383.
 Milgrom, P. and J. Roberts (1992). Economics, Organization and Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
 Parsons, T. and N.J. Smelser (1956). Economy and Society: A Study of the Integration of Economic and Social Theory. New York: Free Press.
 Pfeffer, Jeffrey, and Gerald R. Salancik (1978). The External Control of Organizations. New York: Harper & Row.
 Polanyi, K. (1944). The Great Transformation: The Political Economic Origins of our Time. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
 Scott, W.R. (1995). Institutions and Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
 Smelser, N.J. (1963). The Sociology of Economic Life. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
 Tollison, R.D. (1982). “Rent Seeking: A Survey,” Kylos, 35(3): 575-602.
 Williamson, O.E. (1991). “Comparative Economic Organizations: The Analysis of Discrete Structural Alternatives,” Administrative Science Quarterly, 36(2): 269-296.
 Williamson, O.E. (1999). “Public and Private Bureaucracies: A Transaction Cost Economics Perspective,” Journal of Law, Economics and Organization, 15(4): 306-342.

Market (economics)


Jørgen Holmboe (November 8, 1902 – October 29, 1979) was a Norwegian-American meteorologist.

Life and career
Jørgen Holmboe was born near Hammerfest, Norway, on an island a short distance from the northernmost point in Norway. He was the son of priest Leonhard Christian Borchgrevink Holmboe, Jr. and his wife Thea Louise Schetelig. He had several brothers and sisters. His great-grandfather Leonhard Christian Borchgrevink Holmboe was a priest and national politician.

He received his early education from his father, who was a minister, attended secondary school in Tromsø, and took his university entrance examinations in Bodø. He entered the University of Oslo in 1922. In 1925, he was appointed research assistant to Professor Vilhelm Bjerknes, who had moved from Bergen where as founding director of the Geophysical Institute he had led development of the Bergen School of Meteorology. In 1930, he passed his Candidate Real examinations and took a position as meteorologist in the Norwegian Weather Service in Tromsø. In 1932, he was transferred to Bergen, and, from 1933 to 1935, he served as meteorologist with the Lincoln Ellsworth Antarctic Expedition.

In 1936, he was invited to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he served as assistant professor. In 1940, he was asked  to join in establishing a meteorology program at University of California, Los Angeles. The program was initially part of the physics department; it became a separate department in 1946. Holmboe was chairman for the first year after the Department of Meteorology was established and served as chairman again for the period from 1949 through 1958. In 1944, Holmboe became a naturalized American citizen. Holmboe was elected fellow of the American Meteorological Society and the American Geophysical Union and foreign member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.

Selected works
On the Theory of Cyclones (paper jointly with J. Bjerknes. 1944)
Dynamic Meteorology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1952)
On the instability of stratified shear flow (Universitetsforlaget. 1966)
Instability of baroclinic three-layer models of the atmosphere (Universitetsforlaget. 1968)

References

Sources
 A Biography of Jorgen Holmboe, 1902-1979 (by Jason Zarate)

External links
 Jorgen Holmboe Papers MSS-S 101. Special Collections & Archives, UC San Diego Library.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Norwegian meteorologists
People from Hammerfest
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Norwegian emigrants to the United States
University of Oslo alumni
1902 births
1979 deaths
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union
Fellows of the American Meteorological Society


El Fenómeno () is the first compilation album by singer-songwriter Arcángel, released on December 9, 2008, by Machete Music.

Album details
El Fenómeno is the first commercially released album by Arcángel, due to the unsuccessful attempt to release his previous album, La Maravilla. Originally intended to be released on November 25, 2008, it was suddenly pushed back to December 9, 2008. Guests featured on the album are J-King, Don Omar and Tempo. The album contains six tracks from his previous unreleased album La Maravilla, and also includes his first commercially successful single "Chica Virtual", previously released on the DJ Nelson compilation album Flow La Discoteka 2. The lead single from the album, "Por Amar a Ciegas", was released on December 3, 2008.

Track listing

Chart performance

References

2008 debut albums
Arcángel (singer) albums
Machete Music albums
Albums produced by Luny Tunes
Albums produced by Noriega
Albums produced by Nely


A tectonic phase or deformation phase is in structural geology and petrology a phase in which tectonic movement or metamorphism took place. Tectonic phases can be extensional or compressional in nature.

When numerous subsequent compressional tectonic phases share the same geodynamic cause (usually some plate tectonic mechanism) this is called an orogeny. During an orogeny tectonic phases lead to mountain building, which causes deformation and metamorphism of rocks. In most Phanerozoic orogenies many tectonic phases are distinguished.

Tectonic phases in basin geology and sedimentary rocks
According to Steno's principle of original horizontality, sedimentary rocks are normally deposited as horizontal layers. When tectonic movement occurs sedimentary layers can be tilted. under such circumstances, the sedimentary planes will have a dip (an angle with a horizontal reference plane). When new sedimentary layers are deposited on top of tilted ones, they will have an angle with the older ones, a structure which is called an angular unconformity. Any angular unconformity is proof that a tectonic phase took place between the deposition of the layers below and on top of it.

It is important to know if the tectonic phase was a longer event or if it was local or regional. Tectonic phases can be important events that affected large areas. The Alleghenian orogeny in North America (during the Carboniferous period) for example can be found as an angular unconformity between rock layers in large parts of that continent.

When a tectonic phase occurred while sedimentation of new sediments continued, every new layer will have a slightly different dip from the one below. The result is a sequence of sediments that wedges out in one direction. This is usually the case on the margins of geologic basins.

Tectonic phases in metamorphic rocks
In petrology, metamorphic phases can be distinguished by analysis of minerals and microstructures (petrography) in metamorphic rocks. By analysing the sequence in which the minerals and structures were formed, more than one phase can be found in most metamorphic rocks (this is called polymetamorphism). By radiometric dating the absolute age of the different phases of mineral growth can be determined, showing when the rock was under certain pressure-temperature conditions. The obtained age is not necessarily the age of a tectonic phase, but can show when the tectonic phase ended and crystallisation of new minerals occurred.

See also
Structural geology
Tectonics

Tectonics
Structural geology
Petrology


The Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists (AOJS) is an organization of scientists committed to the views and beliefs of Orthodox Judaism and promote the integration of scientific and Orthodox Jewish worldviews. The purpose of the orgnization was to provide a social milieu that supported the Orthodox theological stance of “Torah im Derekh Eretz" in Jewish communal life. The AOJS organized annual conventions and publications to support this aim, allowing for extensive interaction between religious and scientific worldviews.

Background
Founded in 1947 by a small group of religiously committed scientists, the AOJS is an organization devoted to the orientation of science within the framework of Orthodox Jewish tradition. The organization aims to assist those endeavors which will help improve the Torah way of life for Jews throughout the modern world, both intellectually and practically. The AOJS provides an intellectual meeting ground for people who can contribute to the constructive incorporation of scientific knowledge and thinking into the Torah way of life through their professional qualifications, interests and activities. Concern is paid to ideological problems relating to the apparent points of conflict between scientific theory and Orthodox Judaism. At the time of its founding, the association formulated five purposes:
 clarifying the connection between science and Torah;
 considering the application of the principles of halakha in particular issues;
 providing an opportunity for education and interaction with professionals sharing a common interest;
 providing guidance to Orthodox Jewish students considering a career in science;
 providing study and training in areas of science needed in Israel.

By the early 1960s, the organization reached nearly 2,000 dues-paying members. Time magazine reported that the organization had over 1,000 members by the late 1960s.

Activities
In terms of education and guidance, Assistance to individuals and institutions in the solution of practical problems encountered by Orthodox Jews and their children in the study or practice of scientific pursuits; support for the educational ideal of a true synthesis of Jewish and secular studies. For example, the AOJS Medical-Dental section maintains a list of shomer Shabbos medical residency positions available around the U.S.

In terms of the intersection between science and Jewish law, association members provide consulting services to rabbinical authorities concerned with the implications of technological developments for the Jewish rituals and religious practices.

AOJS convention themes often center on Jewish religious perspectives on Darwin's theory of evolution.

History
Previously, the idea of an Orthodox Jewish scientist was considered abnormal on the Jewish scene. In the 1940s, despite general shock over the Holocaust, some of the most prestigious universities still had formal or informal quotas limiting the number of Jews and exams were often held on Shabbat and Jewish holidays. As a result, for every 1 Orthodox Jewish science student there were 1,000 other Jewish students. In the U.S. today, religiously observant Jewish university students are common from the observant doctor, physicist, computer programmer to the engineer and psychologist.

Often called upon by the rabbi to explain the scientific principles that will guide him in his halachic decision making, the Orthodox Jewish scientist has become an integral part of Orthodox Jewish observance in the ever-changing modern world. Rabbis faced with the need to apply the halacha to a rapidly changing technological world find it easier to communicate their needs to Torah scholars who are equally well versed in the sciences. The Orthodox Jewish scientist has indeed come a long way in the synthesis of Torah and science.

On December 28, 1947, a group of scientists, most of them graduate students in the natural sciences, sat down at the first meeting of AOJS. The founding group set down five goals: to clarify the bond between science and the Torah; to apply Torah principles in solving specific problems; to further themselves professionally and socially by associating with others who had common interests; to advise religious students interested in science; and to train in areas of science needed in Israel. The organization reached its peak in the early 1960s when they had nearly 2,000 dues-paying members.

Since its inception in 1947, the AOJS has been at the forefront of addressing the interface of science and halacha. Initially, AOJS served as a safe haven and social outlet for a few religious physicists and chemists to share their ideas, and as an agency to resolve apparent conflicts between scientific findings and Torah beliefs. It also became the address for those seeking halachic guidance in areas where halacha and science interfaced.

In the 1960s, AOJS expanded its domain to service those in the medical, nursing, computer psychological and social sciences. It was also during this period that AOJS became involved in social activism. It would decry, raise public awareness, and create and/or assist agencies working in the areas of spousal, child and drug abuse in the Orthodox community. It was also active in seeking the release of Jewish scientists from the USSR.

The AOJS is divided into three major sections: physical & computer sciences, medical & life sciences, and behavioral sciences. The Orthodox Jewish scientist working through the AOJS, has become a major source of reliable scientific information for the Torah community all over the world, and is recognized as having made important contributions in very practical ways to the development of the halacha.

From the perspective of Jewish law and theology, AOJS provides a forum for research, innovation and discussion of these increasingly difficult areas. AOJS, as well, has created an open forum in which scientists can consult, network and concur with fellow professionals in their discipline. There are, to date, over 2000 members and friends of the AOJS, worldwide - including professionals (doctors, psychologists, research scientists, etc.), academicians, rabbis, students and informed people.

AOJS has hosted hundreds of conventions, conferences, symposiums and lecture series' that have broadly focused on these subjects. Thousands of articles have been published and circulated to the Orthodox Jewish public pertaining to the science/halacha interface. Books have been published, scientific advances have been made, difficult areas in halacha have been clarified.

Publications
 Intercom Quarterly: a quarterly newsletter including articles written by AOJS members and non-members on any topic of their choice in the halacha/science interface (approximately 4 articles per issue). Articles are submitted on a volunteer basis. A call for articles is publicized prior to each issue. Comments on previous articles are also included in subsequent issues. Special Editions are as well circulated, corresponding to and summarizing different annual AOJS events. The Intercom Quarterly editors are Yossi Bennett and Chaya Wajngurt-Levy, Ph.D.
 Proceedings: a compilation of essays written by experts in the different fields of science and halacha published (by Feldheim Publishers) between the years of 1966 and 1975. Eleven volumes of Proceedings were published. Volumes of Proceedings are no longer being published. However, AOJS is working on transcribing the Proceedings of old and making them available to the public over the AOJS website.
 Halacha Bulletin (renamed Practical Medical Halacha): originally, a monthly, formal responsum to a halachic question of interest to our members edited and circulated by Dr. Fred Rosner and Rabbi Dr. Moshe D. Tendler Initiated by the Rephael Society- Mental-Dental Section of AOJS, presently, Halacha Bulletin is being circulated on a quarterly basis and is based on teachings from the Nishmat Avraham by Dr. Abraham S. Abraham. The Practical Medical Halacha director is Robert Schulman, M.D.
Rephael Society Newsletter: a newsletter devoted to one topic in Jewish medical ethics each issue. Aside from a medical overview of the topic, the Newsletter includes the comments and opinions of the leading authorities in Jewish medical ethics today. The Rephael Society Newsletter director is Daniel Eisenberg, M.D.
 Directory(s): a directory listing all orthodox physicians and dentists and their contact information in the United States, regardless of membership in AOJS; a directory listing all members of AOJS members and their contact information; a Shomer Shabbat Residency Directory listing all Shomer Shabbat Residencies in the U.S.

Past-presidents

1948-1959	Eli Levine, Ph.D.
1960-1962	Elmer L. Offenbacher, Ph.D.
1963	        Herbert Goldstein, Ph.D.
1964-1965	Azriel Rosenfeld, Ph.D.
1966-1967	Seymour Glick, M.D.
1968-1969	Yehuda (Leo) Levi, Ph.D.
1970	        Theodore Fink, M.D.
1971-1972	Rabbi Moshe David Tendler, Ph.D.
1973-1974	Rabbi Paul Kahn, Ph.D.
1975-1976	Nora Smith, M.D.
1977-1978	Herbert Goldstein, Ph.D.
1979-1980	Rueben Rudman, Ph.D.
1981-1982	Lester Kaufman, A.C.S.W.
1983-1984	Erwin Friedman, Ph.D.
1985-1986	Sheldon Kornbluth, P.E.
1987-1988	Allen J. Bennett, M.D., F.A.C.P.
1989-1990	Seymour Applebaum, M.D.
1990-1993	Neil Maron, Ph.D.
1993-    	    Allen J. Bennett, M.D., F.A.C.P.

Chairman of the board of governors

 1960 - Aaron D. Krumbein Ph.D in physics
 1962 - Walter Feder M.D. from the University of Chicago
 1964-1998 the outgoing President became the Chairman of the Board (the constitution limited the term of the President to two years).

References

External links

Scientific organizations established in 1947
Orthodox Judaism
Judaism and science