The Confederate privateers were privately owned ships that were authorized by the government of the Confederate States of America to attack the shipping of the United States. Although the appeal was to profit by capturing merchant vessels and seizing their cargoes, the government was most interested in diverting the efforts of the Union Navy away from the blockade of Southern ports, and perhaps to encourage European intervention in the conflict.

At the beginning of the American Civil War, the Confederate government sought to counter the United States Navy in part by appealing to private enterprise worldwide to engage in privateering against United States shipping. Privateering was the practice of fitting ordinary private merchant vessels with modest armament, then sending them to sea to capture other merchant vessels in return for monetary reward. The captured vessels and cargo fell under customary prize rules at sea.  Prizes would be taken to the jurisdiction of a competent court, which could be in the sponsoring country or theoretically in any neutral port. If the court found that the capture was legal, the ship and cargo would be forfeited and sold at a prize auction. The proceeds would be distributed among owners and crew according to a contractual arrangement. Privateers were also authorized to attack an enemy's navy warships and then apply to the sponsoring government for direct monetary reward, usually gold or gold specie (coins).

In the early days of the war, enthusiasm for The Confederacy was high, and many ship owners responded to the appeal by applying for letters of marque. Not all of those who gained authorization actually went to sea, but the numbers of privateers were high enough to be a major concern for US Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles. Many ships of the Union Navy were diverted from blockade duty in efforts to capture privateers. Most of the privateers managed to remain free, but enough were caught that the owners and crew had to consider the risk seriously. The capture of the privateers Savannah and Jefferson Davis resulted in important court cases that did much to define the nature of the Civil War itself.

Initial enthusiasm could not be sustained. Privateers found it difficult to deliver their captures to Confederate courts, and as a result the expected profits were never realized. By the end of the first year of the war, the risks far exceeded the benefits in the minds of most owners and crews. The practice continued only sporadically through the rest of the war as the Confederate government turned its efforts against Northern commerce over to commissioned Confederate Navy commerce raiders such as the CSS Alabama and CSS Florida.

The Civil War was the last time a belligerent power seriously resorted to privateering. The practice had already been outlawed among European countries by the Declaration of Paris (1856). Following the Civil War, the United States agreed to abide by the Declaration of Paris. More important than any international agreements, however, was the recognition by ship owners that the increased cost and sophistication of maritime vessels and naval weaponry had effectively eliminated any reasonable prospects for profit for private enterprise naval warfare.

Call for privateers
Following the 12 April 1861 bombardment of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, President Abraham Lincoln called for raising 75,000 volunteers from state militia to put down the "rebellion". In response, on the 17th of April, Confederate President Jefferson Davis called both for raising troops and for the issuance of letters of marque.

Although the Federal government had only 42 warships in commission, and many of the best were laid up as unserviceable or distributed widely around the world, the Confederate States had almost nothing to offer in opposition. With no navy yet established, they turned to the alternative of privateering. The word "privateer" applies to any private citizen in the world who raises a ship and crew to engage in the destruction of enemy shipping for profit. Although specifically allowing attacks upon enemy warships, privateers are typically amateurs employed against commercial shipping because armed navy ships are more likely to fight back effectively. Privateering is authorized by the issuance of "letters of marque and reprisal" by a sponsoring government. It was explicitly allowed by the Confederate Constitution the words of which were copied almost directly from the American Constitution. With a mission to prey upon commercial vessels of the enemy, their pay would consist of the value of seized ships and cargoes, also known as prizes, less legal costs. Two benefits would accrue to the Confederate government; the disruption of commerce might persuade the European nations to pressure the North to end the conflict, and it would also force the North on its own to ease the expected blockade in order to chase down the privateers. When the war began, "legitimate" privateers could legally clear prizes in neutral ports, which were literally worldwide. Therefore, privateers were a credible threat to the national security of the United States, whereas if the Confederate States could tie up the Union Navy in the protection of Northern shipping, any blockade, which was expected but not yet declared, would be at least mitigated and the Southern Confederacy would be seen as a new world power to be respected.

Prior to the hostilities between the North and South, the majority of European maritime powers had declared the practice of privateering to be illegal by the Declaration of Paris (1856). According to the treaty, privateers of signatory nations were strictly illegal and if caught they could be seized by the ships of any other signatory nation and tried in that nation's courts. However, they were not exactly the same as pirates. Privateers enjoyed limited legal status if they did not murder and if they behaved generally according to the laws of their sponsoring non-signatory government. Thus acting, they were not subject to the death penalty as if they were rogue buccaneers. True piracy was a crime everywhere and the death penalty for piracy was accepted worldwide. In 1856, the United States had declined to ratify the Declaration, or Treaty, of Paris in order to preserve the rights of a smaller fledgling nation against the larger maritime powers of the day. Now Lincoln wanted exactly the same protection against privateers as the European powers did in 1856, which the United States had denied. As a non-signatory of the Treaty, Lincoln could have legally raised a call for privateers himself, but he had much to lose by engaging in the practice because it could have stirred the wrath of the greatest maritime powers on earth, Great Britain, France and Spain, whom he wished instead would join in condemnation of the Confederacy as an illegal government. The Confederate States had little to lose and much to gain if they could neutralize the United States Navy and force the world to see them as a respectable world power. Surely, they believed, recognition of Southern sovereignty would follow.

When the Civil War broke out it was clearly in the interest of the Lincoln government to suppress privateering and Lincoln tried belatedly to make the United States a signatory of the Treaty which was denied by the Europeans. However, if Lincoln wanted any respect or cooperation by the British (other nations would generally follow British policy) he would have to observe all the rules of the Treaty and not resort to privateering himself. The British government, which was the primary sponsor of the Treaty of Paris, made clear that it would not tolerate the death penalty for privateering. This was especially because at the time it was common practice for citizens of neutral nations to serve both on privateers and in national navies. London therefore had reason to fear the prospect of British subjects aboard Southern privateers facing prosecution in American courts on trumped-up charges of piracy.

If the previous signatories had accepted American entry into the scope of the treaty, it would have meant that they were taking sides in the rebellion. Rather than do so, they insisted that the United States should get its own house in order first. The governments of the treaty participants, perhaps in following Britain's lead, proclaimed their neutrality and accepted the blockade without recognizing the sovereignty of the Davis government except as a de facto belligerent, the same as the United States, while continuing to recognize the Lincoln government as the legal American government. Nevertheless, the status of "belligerent" gave the seceding states invaluable practical rights almost equal to being recognized as a nation. Recognized belligerents had certain rights such as securing foreign loans, purchasing foreign arms and the use of neutral ports as harbors of refuge and repair for warships. By an odd twist in the 1856 treaty, the privateers of a belligerent power who had not signed the treaty also had the right to clear their prizes in neutral ports. Great Britain, followed by other signatory nations, quickly revoked that right on May 13, 1861, with a Proclamation by Queen Victoria declaring neutral ports across the Empire to be off limits to prize clearing. British neutrality was taken initially by Lincoln to be openly hostile to the United States because of the implied recognition, however, Lincoln was actually handed a triumph to his own foreign policy. The modified British policy actually worked to the advantage of the Federal government because it meant that British, French, and Spanish prize courts, including those in colonies in the Caribbean, were closed to privateers. They would therefore, in order to make good their prizes, have to take them into Confederate seaports for adjudication. Lincoln was suddenly spared of having to spread his Navy beyond impossible limits and he could concentrate on the blockade.

Of course it also meant that if he were to accept the British ruling, Abraham Lincoln had to acknowledge that a war existed and the Southern Confederacy was more than a few states in insurrection. Shipowners throughout the South, and perhaps some from the North as well, responded with enthusiasm to the call.  The largest privateer, Phenix, was from Wilmington, Delaware.<ref>Robinson, Confederate privateers, p. 30</ref>  The initial burst of ardor was great enough that the Confederate government could lay down some rather stringent conditions, such as requiring the deposit of large bonds, to insure that the practice did not degenerate into outright piracy. The holders of letters of marque were also required to be the actual owners of the ships; this was to discourage speculation in the letters.

An anomalous feature of the legislation governing Confederate privateering was that it allowed attacking enemy warships. To give an incentive in the absence of valuable cargoes of merchant vessels that could be sold for profit, the law provided for fixed monetary awards for capturing or destroying ships of the US Navy, with the size of the awards to be based on the numbers in the crews and the value of the ships taken or destroyed. This provision was never applied, as no Union warships were destroyed by privateers. A near exception was provided by the armored ram CSS Manassas, which started as a privateer at New Orleans by riverboat Captain John A. Stevenson. Before he could take his ship into battle, however, she was seized by the Confederate Navy and put under the command of Lieutenant Alexander Warley. Manassas performed creditably at the Battle of the Head of Passes and Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, but Stevenson and his backers got no reward.

Privateering activity was strongest at the major ports of Charleston, Savannah, and New Orleans, and off the North Carolina coast where the trade of Northern cities with Caribbean and South American countries made use of the Gulf Stream to speed their northward voyages. The first capture of the war was made on 16 May 1861, when the bark Ocean Eagle was taken by privateer J. C. Calhoun at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Ocean Eagle was registered in New England, so the capture was legal, but it is not clear that it aided the South, as she was carrying her cargo of lime to New Orleans. By disrupting the New Orleans trade, the privateers there actually  aided the blockade. Privateering activity near Cape Hatteras, on the coast of North Carolina, was particularly irksome to the Union.

Because of privateers, many Northern shipowners either dropped out of the Caribbean trade or transferred their registry to Great Britain to sail under the protection of the British flag. Insurers pressured the Federal government to defend their interests. In response, the Union sent a combined Army-Navy expedition to take possession of two Confederate forts at the Hatteras Inlet. This was the first reclamation of seceded territory by the Union, and was also the first notable Union success of the war.

Confederate Privateering was not as minor as many retrospective analyses have claimed. It posed the first threat to national security because it had the potential to have instantly put more hostile ships at sea than the U.S. Navy could effectively suppress while also striving to enforce a blockade. Furthermore, it resulted in Lincoln's first proclamation of a blockade, the first internationally recognized act of belligerence on his part, which helped to nudge the war into international waters; and it produced the first Union strategy for the conduct of war. President Lincoln's Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, ordered the Blockading Squadron to secure the primary privateering ports of the South, which was accomplished quickly by joint Army/Navy actions against Forts Hattaras and Clark at the inlet to the NC Sounds, Forts Beauregard and Walker at Port Royal Sound, and Ship Island near New Orleans—all by the end of 1861, while other military efforts, that is, purely Army efforts, stalled.

Union suppression of privateers: three Charleston vessels
Charleston provided a large fraction of privateering activity, and it is fitting that the fates of three of them were particularly important in its early demise. The three vessels were Petrel, Jefferson Davis, and Savannah.Privateer Savannah

First to leave Charleston Harbor, on 2 June 1861, was the privateer Savannah. Her second day at sea, she captured brig Joseph, and thereby became the first Charleston privateer to take a prize in the war. Later the same day, she chased another sail, but discovered too late that it was , an armed brig. After a brief running gun battle, Captain T. Harrison Baker of Savannah surrendered his lightly armed ship. He and his men were put in irons and were taken to New York, where they were imprisoned and tried for piracy (see below).

Privateer Jefferson DavisJefferson Davis was a 187-ton brig, originally named Putnam at her launching in about 1845. Sometime later she was renamed Echo, and under that name was used in the illegal African slave trade. On 21 August 1858 she was captured by the brig  off the coast of Cuba with 270 Africans aboard; the Africans were transported to Liberia, where they were set free. Echo was taken to Key West, where a court held that her seizure was valid, and she was confiscated and sold at auction. Her new owners restored her original name and applied for a letter of marque at the start of the Civil War. A week later, they amended their application to rename their ship the Jefferson Davis in honor of the Confederate president. Despite the name changes, Northern newspapers consistently referred to her as "the former slaver Echo."ORN II, v. 1, pp. 362, 363.

On 28 June 1861, Jefferson Davis slipped out of Charleston Harbor and easily evaded the rudimentary blockade that was then in place. She remained at sea for nearly two months, making nine captures: the schooner Enchantress, brig John Welsh, schooner S. J. Waring, brig Mary E. Thompson, ship Mary Goodell, ship John Carver, bark Alvarado, schooner Windward, and brig Santa Clara.Scharf, History of the Confederate States Navy, pp. 79–82. No mention of Windward is made in the Official Records. Of these, Enchantress was recaptured, Alvarado was chased ashore and destroyed by a blockader, Windward, Mary E. Thompson, and Mary Goodell were released with prisoners, John Carver was burned at sea, and the black cook of S. J. Waring killed three sleeping members of the prize crew and sailed her to New York City, where he was received as a hero. Only John Welsh and Santa Clara were taken into Southern ports for adjudication.Jefferson Davis attempted to enter St. Augustine, Florida, but arrived off the coast during a gale. Unwilling to risk capture by nearby blockaders, her captain chose not to ride out the storm. Jefferson Davis ran aground on 18 August 1861 and could not get free. Her crew were saved, but the ship was a total loss.Soodalter, Ron, "," nytimes.com, August 17, 2011, 9:30 p.m. EDT.

Privateer PetrelPetrel had been Revenue Cutter Aiken before the war. Seized by the state of South Carolina, she was offered to the Confederate States Navy, but was rejected as unsuitable. Renamed Petrel, she was sold to private interests who outfitted her as a privateer. On 28 July 1861, she left Charleston and the same day encountered the frigate . Unable to escape, Captain William Perry decided to fight. In a twenty-minute gun battle, Petrel's hull was holed and she began sinking. Perry then hauled down his flag. Four members of the crew were lost with the ship. The rest, including Perry, were put in irons and taken to Philadelphia, where they, like the crew of Savannah, were to be tried for piracy.

Trial of the officers and crew of the privateer Savannah
Through much of the first year of the war, the government in Washington continued to regard the conflict as merely an insurrection, and that the Confederate government had no legal standing. According to the view of the Lincoln administration, the letters of marque issued by Jefferson Davis or the seceded states had no legal force, and the privateersmen who relied upon them did not represent a legitimate authority. Taking merchant vessels on the high seas therefore was piracy, with the penalty of death upon conviction.

The first trial for piracy was of the 13 men, including Captain Thomas H. Baker, captured on privateer Savannah. The trial was held in the United States Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York. It began on 23 October 1861, and from the start attracted wide public notice. The mere fact of the trial drew outrage in the Confederacy, where the government threatened retaliation, life for life. To increase pressure on Washington, the prisoners of war who would have been executed in retaliation were selected and their names made known. The trial went to the jury on the seventh day, but the next day the jury announced that it was deadlocked. The prisoners were sent back to prison to await a second trial. The United States government, however, had decided that it would no longer press the charges. The thirteen men would not be regarded as pirates, but as prisoners of war. They later were exchanged. The decision in effect meant that Washington was conceding the rights of belligerency to those who took up arms against it at sea.

The end of privateering
With the examples of Petrel, Jefferson Davis, and Savannah before them, shipowners realized that privateering was no longer profitable, and the practice soon died out. Some privateers sailed during the remainder of the war, but none had even the qualified success of Jefferson Davis.The reason for the demise was not purely economic. Privateering represented a decentralization of power that was inconsistent with both technology and the evolution of the modern state. It fell victim to changes: steam power and gunnery in ships, more rapid communications that enabled greater central control, and the increasing reluctance of governments everywhere to relinquish power. It was this last that doomed privateering, according to Robinson, the primary modern historian of the Confederate privateers; his opinion is echoed by Luraghi. The effort of the Confederate government turned from privateers to their regularly commissioned raiders, which had spectacularly more success in attacking the northern mercantile fleet.

Long before the war was over, privateering could be evaluated, and clearly it was of minor importance. Only a handful of vessels fell victim, and these were balanced by losses of the privateers themselves. Two attempts at privateering on the west coast, the J. M. Chapman Plot and that of the Salvador Pirates resulted in capture and trials for piracy.

See also
Privateer
Blockade runners of the American Civil War
U.S. Supreme Court
Prize (law)
Letter of marque
Colonel Michael Corcoran and the Privateer Enchantress Affair

References
Abbreviations used in these notes:
ORN: Official Records, Navies. Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion.Bibliography
Luraghi, Raimondo, A history of the Confederate Navy  (tr. Paolo E. Coletta). Naval Institute Press, 1996.
Robinson, William Morrison, Jr. The Confederate privateers. Yale University, 1928. Reprint, Univ. of South Carolina, 1990.
Soley, James Russell, The blockade and the cruisers. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1883. Reprint, Blue and Gray Press, n.d.
Tucker, Spencer C., Blue and Gray Navies: the Civil War Afloat. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2006.
Warburton, A. F., Trial of the officers and crew of the privateer Savannah, on the charge of piracy, in the United States Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, Hon. Judges Nelson and Shipman, presiding. Reported by A. F. Warburton, stenographer, and corrected by the counsel. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1862. Reprint, Kessinger, 2006. , Official records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. Series I, 27 volumes; Series II, 3 volumes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894–1922.

Further information
Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, p. 584, Appendix II. Annex I, Privateers Commissioned by the Confederate States governmentCivil War naval chronology, 1861–1865,'' (Government Printing Office, 1971), Appendix A.
List of privateers and their captures.
Illustration of encounter between USS St. Lawrence and privateer Petrel.
Illustrated account of recapture of S. J. Waring by William Tillman.
Illustration of privateer Savannah after capture.

Privateering
Irregular forces of the American Civil War
Military history of the Confederate States of America


Rolli: Amazing Tales () is a 1991 children's fantasy film. It stars Allu Tuppurainen, Sari Mällinen, Jussi Lampi, Rolf Labbart, Risto Kaskilahti and Harri Hyttinen. The film was nominated for and won 3 Jussi Awards in 1992 including for Best Costume Design and Best Make-Up. Sari Mällinen also won Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of Maahiskeiju.

It is the first feature-length film based on Rölli created by musician and actor Allu Tuppurainen, which first appeared as a children's show on YLE TV2. The film and TV show do not share similarities except for Rölli's attire and the film being set in the Rölli Forest. Suuri Rölli, a character featured in the Rölli audio-plays, appears portrayed by actor Jussi Lampi.

The songs for the film were composed by Allu Tuppurainen, as in the TV series.

Plot
The film begins with Rölli going to look for some firewood. As he is about to chop an old tree, the tree begins to speak to him begging to instead collect the dead branches from the ground, promising that he'll repay the favour if he ever has the chance. All the while, Rölli is stalked by Big Rölli. He encounters a Forest Fairy (Maahiskeiju) and tries to scare her, but gets captured by Big Rölli instead. The Forest Fairy uses a log which the Big Rölli dragged with him to hit him on his foot to release Rölli. The two escape from Big Rölli and become friends.

Meanwhile, the owner of a toy company, Seesteinen (Risto Kaskilahti), and his butler Lerkkanen come to Rölli Forest to inspect it for the building of a new toy-factory. Rölli and the Forest Fairy try to scare them off by pretending to be a giant, but their plan fails and the humans give chance. They, however, run into Big Rölli and flee the forest in their jeep. However, the High Priest of the Kingdom of Evil (Rolf Labbart), has plans for the two humans. He causes the car to veer off the road and both Seesteinen and Lerkkanen are taken by the Priests lackeys, The Trashers, to their secret lair where they're brought before the Great Trash, a monstrous creature with the vague resemblance of a human head, which the Trashers worship. They are converted into Trashers and begin to plot the destruction of the Rölli Forest.

Seesteinen, pretending to be a good fairy god spirit, convinces Rölli that the sudden amounts of trash that have appeared all over the forest, confusing the residents and turning them on one another, are a good thing. He also leaves him a bottle of whisky telling it is a magic potion. Rölli becomes violently drunk and chases the Forest Fairy away. Disappointed at her own inability to stop the pollution in the forest she decides to leave but is captured by the Trashers.

Rölli regains his composure and realises that the other inhabitants of the forest are being fooled with an elaborate shopping mall like structure, where they dance to peppy music before being sucked down into the Trashers' lair and converted. Rölli tries to sneak in but is caught. At the lair he is reunited with Forest Fairy. At the same time Big Rölli stumbles upon the fake shopping mall and is also sucked down, but the Trashers are easily over-powered by him. He constantly grooms himself with a piece of a broom he got when the Forest Fairy hit him over the head with it earlier in the film. Brooms and brushes are the Trasher's and the Great Trash's only weakness and thus the Trashers try to get it. The agitated Big Rölli throws the brush at the Trashers and it bounces off their helmets into the mouth of the Great Trash. He begins to deflate and this causes the cave to collapse. The Trashers flee in horror and seem to regain their prior personalities.

Rölli and the Forest Fairy escape also, arriving at the very same tree that Rölli spared earlier in the film. The High Priest ambushes them and reveals his face which has begun to deteriorate due to his defeat. In a final effort he tries to kill Rölli and the Forest Fairy but the tree begins to scream, bewildering him. As his cape is stuck in a nook the tree falls on him killing him. Rolli and the Forest Fairy mourn for the tree for a while before sanguinely walking away.

Name changes
Though the film doesn't have an official English release, the official DVD includes English subtitles with the following name changes.
 hirmuisia kertomuksia - Amazing Tales - The film's title originally translates as terrible/terrifying stories and is officially spelled without capital letters.
 Rölli - Rolli - The official name used for Rölli in the English language releases of the later films.
 Suuri Rölli - Big Rölli - A larger and dumber troll who is initially an antagonist and later a comic-relief character. He also reappears in the two later films. In his live action performances he is played by actor Jussi Lampi.
 Maahiskeiju - The Forest Fairy - While original name also contains the word Fairy (Keiju) the Maahis part comes from the word Maahinen (Brownie) and would be difficult to include in to the character's name.
 Yrjö Lerkkanen - George Larky - The name of the butler is changed to a more pronounceable form for English speakers. The name George is most often localized in Finnish media as Yrjö.
 Reino Seesteinen - Raymond Serene - The surname retains the original meaning of the Finnish name.
 Roskanheittäjät - Trashers - The original name of roskanheittäjät (literally "trash throwers") means litterbugs. In the television show they are referred to but intentionally never shown, obviously indicating that they are just people who litter.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack was released the same year. Allan Tuppurainen was the voice for the Trasher's during the song Roskanheittäjien messu and his voice was also used for the Great Trash, albeit heavily altered to make him sound more menacing. The soundtrack features commentary with sound-effects by Rölli in a similar fashion to other Rölli audio tapes and CDs released around the time.

Timo Tervo performed Edullisesti itse kullekin which plays during the mall-dance sequence in the film. The songs were recorded at ML-studio and the soundtrack is distributed through VL-Musiikki OY.

Track listing
Olipa kerran
Mielikuvitusta vaan?
Röllin tavaralaulu
Maahiskeijun lähtölaulu
Ystäväni menettänyt oon
Edullisesti itse kullekin
Roskanheittäjien messu
Suuren roskan tuho
Me ollaan hänen lapsiaan

Other movies
Ten years later Rölli would return in another live action movie, Rölli ja Metsänhenki, which is however unrelated to first film aside Tuppurainen and Jussi Lampi reprising their roles. A third movie, a feature-length animation, Röllin sydän (Quest for a Heart) was released in 2007 in which Tuppurainen voiced the animated Rölli.

External links

Finnish children's films
Finnish fantasy films
1991 films
Films about trolls


Joseph James Wilson (8 January 1861 – 20 October 1952) was an English footballer who played at outside left. During his 15-year playing career he represented several teams from the West Midlands region, both as an amateur and a professional. He gained an FA Cup winners medal with West Bromwich Albion and was the scorer of the club's first ever goal in The Football League.

Biography
Wilson was born in Handsworth, Birmingham and attended St Mary's Council School and Handsworth Grammar School. He began his football career during the amateur era, joining Hamstead Swifts in 1877 before transferring to Aston Unity three years later. In September 1885 he moved to Stoke, but did not remain at the club for long as later that year he began playing for Walsall Town, the club that later merged with Walsall Swifts to form Walsall F.C. Wilson signed for Aston Villa in August 1886 before re-joining Walsall Town twelve months later. He remained at the latter club for just one month, then turned professional with West Bromwich Albion in September 1887.

He scored twice on his Albion debut against Wednesbury Old Athletic in October 1887, helping his club to a 7–1 victory in the FA Cup first round, and was a member of the team that beat Preston North End 2–1 in the 1888 FA Cup Final. 1888–89 was the first season of the newly formed Football League; Albion were one of the twelve founder members and travelled to Wilson's former club Stoke on 8 September 1888 for their first league fixture. In the final five minutes of the match, Wilson scored Albion's first ever league goal, which helped his team to achieve a 2–0 victory. Joe Wilson missed two of the "Throstles" 22 Football League matches and scored four goals in season 1888-89 and was part of a midfield that achieved a big (three goals or more) League win on two separate occasions.

In August 1890, Wilson was transferred to Kidderminster Harriers, where he played for twelve months before a move to Birmingham St George's. He retired from playing football in April 1892 and from 1894 to 1910 was a Football League referee and linesman, officiating in First Division, Second Division and FA Cup matches, as well as at Non-League level. Wilson later worked as a goldsmith in Birmingham's Jewellery Quarter for 25 years prior to the Second World War. He died in Acocks Green, Birmingham on 20 October 1952.

Described by one source as a smart, unobtrusive left-winger of dashing style and all-out aggression, Wilson kept defences on the alert with his cunning wing play.

Career statistics

Source:

References

1861 births
1952 deaths
Footballers from Birmingham, West Midlands
English men's footballers
Men's association football outside forwards
Aston Unity F.C. players
Stoke City F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Aston Villa F.C. players
West Bromwich Albion F.C. players
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
Birmingham St George's F.C. players
English Football League players
People educated at Handsworth Grammar School
Footballers from Handsworth, West Midlands


An ambulance station is a structure or other area set aside for storage of ambulance vehicles and their medical equipment, as well as working and living space for their staff.

Ambulance stations have facilities for maintaining ambulance vehicles, such as a charger for the vehicles' batteries. They have space for storing and maintaining medical equipment, and sometimes a fuel pump. There will also be facilities for the crews, including a kitchen and showers. It varies as to whether crews routinely wait at the station itself for call-outs (as full-time firefighters do). If they do, then the station usually have an alerting system. Larger stations may have a manager's office or training rooms.

In some instances, ambulance stations may be co-located with, or integral to, other emergency service facilities, such as fire stations or police stations, especially where the ambulance service is run  by the fire department.

In fire departments that run the emergency medical services, it is common for ambulances to be based at separate stations, which are usually shared with a fire apparatus. Examples of this include the Chicago Fire Department, Phoenix Fire Department and Los Angeles County Fire Department (as depicted in Emergency!). In other emergency medical services, ambulance stations are centralized hubs where crews start and end their shifts, but they usually drive to "standby points" to await call-outs. This arrangement is common in independent ambulance services and is also used in the New York City Fire Department. Since the 1990s, there has been a trend in the United Kingdom to reduce the number of ambulance stations and rely on standby points to keep all areas covered.

References

Ambulance services
Ambulances


The Schwarzhorn is a mountain on the border of Switzerland and Liechtenstein in the Rätikon range of the Eastern Alps. With a height of  or  above sea level, it is the second highest summit in Liechtenstein.

Sometimes the mountain is listed as Hinter-Grauspitz, but according to reference book "Die Orts- und Flurnamen des Fürstentums Liechtenstein", these are two different mountain peaks.

References

Maps

External links
 The Tallest Mountains In Liechtenstein
 Schwarzhorn on Peakbagger
Mountains of Liechtenstein
Mountains of Switzerland
Liechtenstein–Switzerland border
International mountains of Europe
Mountains of Graubünden
Mountains of the Alps
Two-thousanders of Switzerland


European route E23 is a series of roads in Europe, part of the United Nations International E-road network.

Route

Links with other European routes
 At Metz, it links with the E21, the E25, the E50, and the E411.
 It links with the E21 at Nancy.
 Further along at Remiremont it joins with the E512.
 At Vesoul it connects to the E54.
 Just before the Swiss border at Besançon, it makes a connection to the E60.
 At its final destination of Lausanne it connects with the E25 and the E62.

External links
 UN Economic Commission for Europe: Overall Map of E-road Network (2007)

23
E023
E023


The Council of Europe have been organising Conferences of Ministers of Justice (MJU) on a regular basis since 1961. They constitute an important forum of exchange and coordination of legal policy at the pan-European level. They are one of the best known of the Council of Europe's Conferences of Specialised Ministers.

Preparation of these conferences is the joint responsibility of the European Committee on legal co-operation (CDCJ) and the European Committee on Crime Problems (CDPC)

The Ministers of Justice usually meet each year. On a year when there is not a formal (numbered) conference, an informal ministerial conference is usually organised. Each conference is devoted to one or more themes.

Past conferences and themes

1st conference, Paris (France), 1961

Draft convention on road traffic offences

Draft recommendation on rights of prisoners

Juvenile delinquency

Council of Europe activities in the field of criminological research

2nd conference, Rome (Italy), 1962

Draft convention on supervision on conditionally released offenders

Exchange of information on bills relating to penal and prison matters

Juvenile delinquency

Harmonisation of penal provisions of concern of the Rome treaty

Studies on the international validity of penal sentences

European Convention on Human Rights

Draft uniform law on arbitration

3rd conference, Dublin (Ireland), 1964

Measures to promote the comparative study of laws

Information on foreign law

The uniform interpretation of European treaties

State immunity

After care for conditionally sentenced or conditionally released offenders

4th conference, Berlin (Germany), 1966

Law reform

Exchange of young lawyers

Prevention of new divergencies between the laws of member States

Standardisation of judicial documents

Short term treatment of offenders

Improving the efficacy of legal instruments for crime control at international level

5th conference, London (United Kingdom), 1968

6th conference, The Hague (Netherlands), 1970

7th conference, Basel (Switzerland), 1972

8th conference, Lidingö, (Sweden), 1973

9th conference, Vienna (Austria), 1974

1975, informal conference, Obernai (France)

10th conference, Brussels (Belgium), 1976

Current and future developments in family law

Alternative measures to imprisonment

Mass media legislation in member States

Measures to combat new forms of concerted acts of violence

11th conference, Copenhagen (Denmark), 1978

Problems posed by prisoners of foreign nationality

Access to justice

How can modern administration meet the needs of the citizen

The death penalty

Forfeiture of rights in penal law

1979, informal conference, Aix-la-Chapelle (France)

12th conference, Luxembourg, 1980

1981, informal conference, Montreux (Switzerland)

13th conference, Athens (Greece), 1982

1983, informal conference Rome (Italy)

14th conference, Madrid (Spain), 1984

1985, informal conference, Edinburgh (United Kingdom)

15th Conference : Oslo (Norway), 1986

1987, informal conference, Helsinki (Finland)

16th Conference : Lisbon (Portugal), 1988

Criminal law and criminological questions raised by the propagation of infectious diseases, including AIDS

The supremacy of the interests of the child in the field of private law

Sexual exploitation, pornography and prostitution of and trafficking in children and young women

Elaboration of a draft convention on interstate cooperation in the penal field

Improving the implementation of Council of Europe conventions in the field of private law

1989, informal conference, The Hague (Netherlands)

Legal problems in connection with modern payment systems

17th conference : Istanbul (Turkey), 1990

Protection of the environment through criminal law

The legal heritage of the Council of Europe : its role in reinforcing links with the countries of Eastern Europe

1991, informal conference, Ottawa (Canada)

Sentencing

18th Conference : Nicosia (Cyprus), 1992

Rule of law

Criminal aspects of the market economy

The draft Convention on civil liability for damage resulting from activities dangerous to the environment

1993, informal conference, Lugano (Switzerland)

Protection of minorities

19th Conference, 14–15 June 1994, Valletta (Malta)

Corruption

1995, informal conference, Bucharest (Romania)

20th Conference, 11–12 June 1996, Budapest (Hungary)

Efficiency and fairness of civil, criminal and administrative justice

21st Conference, 10–11 June 1997, Prague (Czech Republic)

22nd Conference, 17–18 June 1999, Chişinău (Moldova)

23rd Conference, 8–9 June 2000, London (United Kingdom)

24th Conference, 4–5 October 2001, Moscow (Russian Federation)

25th Conference, 9–10 October 2003, Sofia (Bulgaria)

26th Conference, 7–8 April 2005, Helsinki (Finland)

27th Conference, 12–13 October 2006, Yerevan (Armenia)

Victims: place, rights and assistance

28th Conference, 25–26 October 2007, Lanzarote (Spain)

Emerging issues of access to justice for vulnerable groups, in particular:

- migrants and asylum seekers;

- and children, including children as perpetrators of crime"

29th Conference, 17–19 June 2009, Tromsø (Norway)

Breaking the silence – united against domestic violence

30th Conference, 24–26 November 2010, Istanbul (Turkey)
 Resolution no.1 on a modern, transparent and efficient justice

Documentation

The report for 1 was published as CEPC(61)16.

The report for 2 was published without reference.

Reports for 3 to 11 and the Obernai conference were published in the "CMJ" series of documents.

Reports from the 12 onwards and reports for informal conferences since 1981 have been published in the "MJU" series of documents.

No report was published for the 1979 conference.

The report of the 19th conference has also been published as a paying publication.

References

International political organizations
Council of Europe


USS Oregon was a brig that served in the United States Navy from 1841 to 1845.

Lieutenant Charles Wilkes purchased the American brig Thomas H. Perkins for U.S. Navy service in August 1841 at Astoria, Oregon. Wilkes, commanding the U.S. Exploring Expedition, purchased her to accommodate the officers and crew of , which had been wrecked on 18 July 1841. Renamed Oregon, the acquisition was taken to Fort Vancouver for alterations and fitting out for service with the expedition.

Oregon sailed on 1 October 1841 for San Francisco in the company of the , the  and the tender . Oregon arrived in Honolulu, Hawaii on 17 November 1841. On 27 November 1841, Oregon and Porpoise were detached to explore the shoals and reefs extending west-northwest of the Hawaiian Islands, intending to rejoin the rest of the ships in Singapore. In need of general repairs, the two arrived there on 19 January 1842, almost a month before the others. On the 26 January 1842, Oregon and Porpoise left with the squadron for Cape Town, South Africa, and St. Helena, then departed on their own again for Rio de Janeiro, Brazil before arriving off Sandy Hook, New Jersey, on 30 June 1842.

USS Oregon along with the USS Porpoise visited the French Frigate Shoals in 1841 for the United States Exploring Expedition.

Oregon was overhauled and repaired at New York City, and fitted for surveying service in the Gulf of Mexico. She sailed 6 December 1842 via Charleston, South Carolina, and Tampa, Florida, and conducted surveys in the Gulf of Mexico until midsummer 1843, returning to Norfolk, Virginia, on 24 July 1843. Used as a school ship there through October 1843, she then carried condemned ordnance from Pensacola, Florida, to New York until August 1844.

On 21 September 1844, Oregon sailed from Norfolk to the Republic of New Granada with dispatches, returning 11 January 1845. Laid up in the Norfolk Navy Yard on 10 April 1845, she was sold soon thereafter.

References

Brigs of the United States Navy
Age of Sail naval ships of the United States
1840s ships
Survey ships of the United States Navy


Rrasa e Zogut is a mountain in Junik in Kosovo,  from the border with Albania. It is  high and located  south-east of Gjeravica (), the highest mountain in Kosovo.

References

Mountains of Kosovo
Two-thousanders of Kosovo


Dick Damron (born Joseph Glenn Damron, March 22, 1934 in Bentley, Alberta) is a Canadian country music singer, songwriter. Damron experimented with many musical styles in the country genre including: ‘Outlaw’, Rockabilly, Honkey Tonk, and Gospel.  Over a recording career spanning 60 years he has recorded more than 25 albums, received numerous country music awards, and been inducted into the International Country Music Hall Of Fame, in Beaumont, Texas.

Early career
Damron started his career performing in both rock and country bands, including the Musical Round-Up Gang (on CKRD radio, Red Deer) and the Nightriders.  His recording career began in 1957 with his original '45 Havin' A Party/ Rockin' Baby. Then, in '60 he recorded two LP's for his own label, Holiday. In '61, he issued his first Nashville studio album on Quality Records, then had a Canadian #1 hit with "Hitchhiking" in '63. He continued recording and touring throughout the 60's, building up a growing fan base.

Damron had a breakthrough hit in 1970 with ‘Countryfied’ for Apex records.  He found further success throughout the 1970s with singles such as: ‘Rise ‘n’ Shine,’ ‘The Long Green Line,’ ‘Mother, Love and Country’, and ‘Susan Flowers’.

In 1978 Damron signed his first major label contract and began recording for RCA.  By this point he had become an established performer in the ‘outlaw’ style and a well known songwriter.  His most popular singles for RCA included ‘Silver and Shine,’ ‘Whisky Jack,’ ‘Honky Tonk Angels and Good Ol’ Boys’, and ‘Good Ol’ Time Country Rock ‘n’ Roll’.

Throughout the years Damron has performed at many notable shows and venues, including the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville (1972).  He also toured Europe many times throughout the 70's and 80's, the highlight being a performance at the Wembley International Country Music Festival in London, England.  He spent 6 seasons as the resident band at Howard Hughes' Desert Inn in Las Vegas from '85 to '91. Canadian performances include appearances on Canadian television networks CBC and CTV, a concert at the Calgary Stampede, as well as numerous other performances in clubs, concerts, festivals, and fairs. The last few decades, DD has been spent his winters in Mazatlan, Mexico where he continues to perform shows for sold-out crowds.

Musical Contacts
As a solo artist,  Damron has been known to play with a wide circle of top notch musicians, including Jerry Reed and Buddy Emmons in Nashville sessions, and James Burton sitting in at a Las Vegas jam. He has rubbed elbows and shared stages with Marty Robbins, Waylon Jennings, Ronnie Hawkins and many others. The Stoney Creek Band, featuring Brian Richard, Sam Taylor and Myron Szott, was his main backup group over the years. His gregarious nature has earned him many friends along the way. His songs have been covered by numerous artists, including Charlie Pride, George Hamilton IV, Wilf Carter, Carroll Baker, Gary Buck, Terry Carisse, Jimmy Arthur Ordge, Orval Prophet, and Rhythm Pals.

Awards
Damron has won too many awards to list completely, but here is a sample:
The Big Country award as top country music composer in 1976 and '84, best male country singer award in the years 1976–1978, and '83.  ‘Susan Flowers’ was declared the Big Country best country single in 1997.  He has won CCMA awards as best male vocalist (1983), instrumentalist (1985), entertainer (1989), and for best single in 1984 (‘Jesus, it’s me again’).  Texas Proud Award '80-'83. He was also inducted into the International Country Music Hall of Fame, in Beaumont Texas on October 14, 2001. Seven time BMI Songwriter Award winner.

Author
DD has also written three published books, two fictional thrillers (Rockabye Baby Blues and Pacific Coast Radio) and an autobiography (The Legend and the Legacy).

Discography
Note: Bear Family Records, a company dedicated to preserving music of historical value, has acquired the rights to much of Damron's portfolio and released a multi-CD collection of his works, from the early days to his most recent output.

Albums

Singles

Singles with Ginny Mitchell

References

External links
 Dick Damron's homepage.
 Dick Damron's entry in the Canadian encyclopedia
 Damron rated at Rateyourmusic.com
 Damron at Rocky-52.net
 Damron at Spiritriver.com
 Damron at Seniorchoice.com
 Damron article at Countrymusicnews.ca

1934 births
Canadian country singer-songwriters
Canadian male singers
RCA Victor artists
Living people
Musicians from Alberta
Canadian Country Music Association Entertainer(s) of the Year winners
Canadian Country Music Association Fans' Choice Award winners
Canadian Country Music Association Male Artist of the Year winners
Canadian male singer-songwriters


Hunter's Moon is a shoot 'em up programmed by Martin Walker for the Commodore 64 and published by Thalamus in 1987. The music was composed by Matt Gray.

Summary
Despite the game being a single ~64kb binary, the game world is large: there are 128 levels divided to 32 star systems. It is an example of procedural content generation in early computer games.

Each level takes place in a void with two dimensional cities appearing as they are being built by "worker cells". The worker cells are indestructible but the bricks dropped by them can be temporarily destroyed using the ship's weapon. The goal of the game is to collect enough star cells contained inside the cities to get to the next level. By collecting enough star cells within a strict time limit (displayed in the lower score table) it is possible to skip the remaining levels in current star system and pass on to the next, allowing skilled players to advance the game quicker.

According to the game's creator Martin Walker, Hunter's Moon was inspired by the children's toy Spirograph.

Reception
Hunter's Moon received a score of 92% in computer games magazine Zzap!64, earning its Sizzler accolade for games rated 90-95% overall. The magazine also went on to chronicle the production of Martin Walker's next game, Citadel, in a diary column named Walker's Way.

References

External links
Interview with the creator

1987 video games
Commodore 64 games
Commodore 64-only games
Shoot 'em ups
Video games developed in the United Kingdom


Northern France may refer to:

the north of France, especially:
the region of Hauts-de-France
the former region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais
Nord (French department)
the area in which the northern French dialects, the langues d'oïl, were spoken during the Middle Ages

See also
Southern France


Alan Ferguson (born August 5, 1963) is an American music video director. He is the son of the late Winifred Hocker Ferguson and the late William Alfred Ferguson Sr. His father was a U.S. Army veteran and a postal worker.

Ferguson is sometimes credited under the pseudonym Sky Dalton. He won his first Grammy Award for Best Music Video, for Jon Batiste's "Freedom", at the 64th Annual Grammy Awards in 2022.

Selected music video credits

 The Academy Is... – "We've Got a Big Mess on Our Hands" (2007)
 The Isley Brothers featuring Angela Winbush – "Floatin' on Your Love" (1996)
 Armor for Sleep – "The Truth About Heaven" (2005)
 Ashlee Simpson – "Outta My Head (Ay Ya Ya)" (2007)
 Natasha Bedingfield – "Pocketful of Sunshine" (2008)
 Nelly Furtado – "Night Is Young" (2010)
 Beyoncé – "Dance for You" (2011)
 Beyoncé featuring J. Cole – "Party" (2011)
 Boys Like Girls – "The Great Escape" (2007)
 Camila Cabello - "Living Proof" (2019)
 Cobra Starship – "The Church of Hot Addiction" (2006)
 Chris Cornell – "Scream" (2008)
 Chris Cornell – "Part of Me" (2009)
 Chiddy Bang – "Ray Charles" (2012)
 Logic and Marshmello – "Everyday" (2018)
 Miranda Cosgrove – "Kissin U" (2010)
 Mobb Deep – "Front Lines (Hell on Earth)" (1996)
 Fefe Dobson – "Stuttering" (2010)
 Fall Out Boy – "Dance, Dance" (2005)
 Fall Out Boy – "A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More "Touch Me"" (2005)
 Fall Out Boy – "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" (2007)
 Fall Out Boy – "The Take Over, the Breaks Over" (2007)
 Fall Out Boy – "Thnks fr th Mmrs" (2007)
 Fall Out Boy – "I'm Like a Lawyer with the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You Off (Me & You)" (2007)
 Fall Out Boy – "I Don't Care" (2008)
 Fall Out Boy – "America's Suitehearts" (2008)
 Fall Out Boy – "What a Catch, Donnie" (2008)
Gym Class Heroes – "Papercuts" (2005)
 Gym Class Heroes – "Cupid's Chokehold" (2006)
 Gym Class Heroes – "Shoot Down the Stars" (2007)
 Gym Class Heroes – "Clothes Off!!" (2007)
Jay-Z – "Feelin' It" (1997)
Jay-Z – "Who You Wit" (1997)
 Jewel – "Good Day" (2006)
 John Legend featuring André 3000 – "Green Light" (2008)
 Jidenna featuring Roman GianArthur – "Classic Man" (2015)
 Jill Scott – "Back Together" (2015)
 Janelle Monáe – "Many Moons" (2008)
 Janelle Monáe featuring Erykah Badu – "Q.U.E.E.N." (2013)
 Janelle Monáe featuring Miguel – "PrimeTime" (2013)
 Janelle Monáe – "Electric Lady" (2014)
 Janelle Monáe – "Make Me Feel" (2018)
 Janelle Monáe – "Crazy, Classic, Life" (2018)
 Janelle Monáe – "Lipstick Lover" (2023)
 Panic! at the Disco – "That Green Gentleman (Things Have Changed)" (2008)
 Katy Perry – "Hot n Cold" (2008)
 Lizzo - "Good As Hell" (2019)
 Lizzo - "Truth Hurts" (2019)
 Rise Against – "Help Is on the Way" (2011)
 Rakim – "Guess Who's Back" (1997)
 Solo – "Heaven" (1995)
 Solo – "Touch Me" (1998)
 Solange Knowles - "Cranes in the Sky" (2016)
 Solange Knowles - "Don't Touch My Hair" (2016)
 Tiësto featuring Nelly Furtado – "Who Wants to Be Alone" (2010)
 Tiësto featuring Busta Rhymes – "C'mon (Catch 'Em by Surprise)" (2011)
 Train – "Drive By" (2012)
 Train – "Mermaid" (2013)
 We the Kings – "Check Yes Juliet" (2007)
 Wizkid featuring Drake – "Come Closer" (2017) (Alternative Music Video)
112 featuring The Notorious B.I.G. and Mase – "Only You (Bad Boy Remix)" (1996)
 Jon Batiste - "Freedom" (2021)

Personal life
Ferguson married his longtime girlfriend, Solange Knowles, whom he had been dating since 2008, on November 16, 2014. Ferguson is credited as co-director on Solange's  "Cranes in the Sky" and "Don't Touch My Hair" videos.

In 2019, Knowles announced via Instagram post that she and Ferguson had "separated, and parted ways".

References

External links

American music video directors
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
1963 births
Grammy Award winners


The 18th SS Volunteer Panzer Grenadier Division "Horst Wessel" ( was formed in 1944 around a cadre from the 1st SS Infantry Brigade and included mainly ethnic Germans (Volksdeutsche) from Hungary. The 1st battalion of about 1000 men was attached to SS Division Horst Wessel and sent to Galicia.

It was used for "rear-security" duties until it was sent to the Eastern front, with the exception of one regiment that fought the Slovak National Uprising in August 1944. It later fought as a single unit in Hungary and in Czechoslovakia where it was destroyed.

The Division was named after SA member Horst Wessel, known for being the author of the lyrics to the Nazi Party anthem, the Horst-Wessel-Lied, and glorified by the Nazi regime as a martyr of the party's early years.

Commanders
Brigadeführer Wilhelm Trabandt (25 January 1944 – 3 January 1945)
Gruppenführer Josef Fitzthum (3 January 1945 – 10 January 1945)
Standartenführer Georg Bochmann (10 January 1945 –  March 1945)
Standartenführer Heinrich Petersen (March 1945 – 8 May 1945)

Battles
Hungary (January 1944 – July 1944)
Eastern front, central sector (July 1944 – October 1944)
Poland & Czechoslovakia (October 1944 – May 1945)

See also
 List of Waffen-SS units

References

Notes

Bibliography

Horst Wessel
Panzergrenadier divisions of the Waffen-SS
Military units and formations established in 1944
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945


Pierre-Damien Boussoukou-Boumba (born 1945) is a Congolese politician. During the single-party rule of the Congolese Labour Party (PCT), he served in the government of Congo-Brazzaville as Minister of Health from 1979 to 1984, as Minister of Scientific Research from 1984 to 1989, and as Minister of Basic Education from 1989 to 1991. He was Ambassador to the United States in the 1990s and Minister of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises from 1997 to 2002; subsequently he was a Deputy in the National Assembly of Congo-Brazzaville from 2002 to 2007. Boussoukou-Boumba was also President of the Union for the Defence of Democracy (UDD), a political party, from 1996 to 2011.

Political career
Boussoukou-Boumba, a member of the Bakongo ethnic group, was born in Kibangou, part of Niari Region and located in the south of Congo-Brazzaville. Under President Denis Sassou Nguesso, he was Minister of Health and Social Affairs from 1979 to 1984 and Minister of Scientific Research from 1984 to 1989. He was then appointed as Minister of Basic Education and Literacy on 13 August 1989 and served in that position until 1991. He also joined the Central Committee of the Congolese Labour Party (PCT) in 1989. Boussoukou-Boumba was subsequently appointed as Ambassador to the United States on 12 October 1993 and presented his credentials on 9 December 1993, serving in that post until April 1996.

In 1996, Boussoukou-Boumba became President of the UDD. After Sassou Nguesso returned to power in October 1997, he appointed Boussoukou-Boumba to the government as Minister of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and the Craft Industry on 2 November 1997; later, in the government named on 12 January 1999, Boussoukou-Boumba's portfolio was expanded and he was appointed as Minister of Trade, Supplies, Small and Medium Enterprises, and the Craft Industry. In the May–June 2002 parliamentary election, he was elected to the National Assembly as the UDD candidate in Kibangou constituency, winning the seat in a second round of voting. Following the election, he was not retained in the government and was succeeded in his ministry on 21 August 2002. In the National Assembly, he was elected as President of the Legal and Administrative Affairs Commission on 24 August 2002.

Boussoukou-Boumba was again the UDD candidate in Kibangou constituency in the June–August 2007 parliamentary election, facing 15 challengers for the seat. He was initially defeated by an independent candidate, Serge Victor Ignoumba, but on 26 October 2007 the Constitutional Court annulled the election in Kibangou (along with three other constituencies). When the second round of the vote was held over again on 26 December 2007 (it was the last seat to be decided), Boussoukou-Boumba was again defeated by Ignoumba; he received 42.76% of the vote against 57.24% for Ignoumba.

In the August 2008 Senate election, Boussoukou-Boumba stood as a candidate of the Rally of the Presidential Majority (RMP) coalition in Niari Region, but failed to win a seat. There were six available seats in Niari, and he placed eighth, receiving 47 votes from the 130 electors.

Boussoukou-Boumba headed the African Union's observer mission for the January 2011 Central African general election. After the election was held, he gave a positive assessment, describing the vote as "free, democratic, and inclusive". He acknowledged some flaws but said that they were "not likely to jeopardize the credibility of the electoral process".

On 25 June 2011, the UDD merged itself into the PCT in response to the latter party's opening to other parties, a gesture which the PCT made in advance of its Sixth Extraordinary Congress in July 2011. According to Boussoukou-Boumba, a long-time ally of Sassou Nguesso, the decision was intended to assist Sassou Nguesso by bolstering his party; Boussoukou-Boumba also spoke of the need to help in developing and revitalizing the PCT, and he urged UDD members to "remain faithful to our new political party". At the Sixth Extraordinary Congress, held a month later, Boussoukou-Boumba was elected to the PCT's 471-member Central Committee.

Boussoukou-Boumba stood again as a candidate in Kibangou in the July–August 2012 parliamentary election, but was defeated. Standing as a PCT candidate, Boussoukou-Boumba was elected as a local councillor in Kibangou in the September 2014 local elections. In October 2014, he was elected to the Senate as a PCT candidate in Niari, receiving the votes of 60 of the 131 electors.

References

External links
"Pierre Damien Boussoukou Boumba souligne le bien-fondé de la nouvelle organisation territoriale du Congo" (interview), Les Dépêches de Brazzaville, 10 November 2003 .

Members of the National Assembly (Republic of the Congo)
Ambassadors of the Republic of the Congo to the United States
Congolese Party of Labour politicians
Government ministers of the Republic of the Congo
Living people
1945 births
20th-century Republic of the Congo politicians
21st-century Republic of the Congo politicians


Nuo opera or Nuo drama () is one of China's most popular folk operas. Characterized by its special features such as ferocious masks, unique dresses and adornments, the strange language used in performance, and mysterious scenes, Nuo opera has been selected as one of the non-material cultural legacies of China. The opera is a religious performance intrinsic to the culture of Nuoism, a type of Chinese folk religion. The purpose of Nuo opera is to drive away devils, disease and evil influences, and also to petition for blessings from the gods. Singing and dancing are included in Nuo opera and performers wear costumes and masks.

Nuo opera is a direct and important expressive medium of Nuo culture. Other forms of representation of the Nuo culture include Nuo dance (), Nuo song (), Nuo sacrifice () and Nuo ceremony () and others. The unique symbol of Nuo opera, the masks, are considered a treasure of Chinese folk art.

There is a considerable repertoire in Nuo opera and this varies from area to area. Nuo operas are usually based on well-known Chinese historical events or folk stories such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Water Margin and the story of the Dragon Kings. Some famous repertoires of Nuo opera include Lady Mengjiang, Seizing the Yellow Devil, and Story of Mount Liang.

During the Zhou dynasty (11th century-256 BC), this art form was very popular in the Yangtze River, Yellow River and Nenjiang River valleys. However, the opera's popularity waned in those river valley areas. Nowadays, it still remains popular among rural areas in China, such as Guizhou, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan provinces and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. It is also popular in the regions inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Tujia, the Miao, the Dong and Yao.

Etymology
Nuo means an oath, binding utterance, or exorcism in Chinese religious culture. The Chinese character for "nuo" is "傩" in simplified Chinese or "儺" in traditional Chinese. This is a very uncommon character in modern Chinese. The meaning of the character "Nuo" is a patterned step to drive away the devil during the last month of the Chinese lunar new year. The Chinese character for "opera" is "戏" in simplified Chinese or "戲" in traditional Chinese.

History
The Nuo opera is a kind of folk dramatic art that originated from folk religion. In the Analects of Confucius, "villager Nuo" (or village Nuo) was mentioned. The Lüshi Chunqiu mentions that there was also a custom that whenever there was a celebration, grand Nuo (or royal Nuo) would be a necessity.

Origin
The primitive form, dating back to antiquity, of Nuo opera is Nuoji (simplified: 傩祭; traditional: 儺祭), which is a special sacrificial ceremony. "Ji" means sacrifice or sacrificial activities and events. While performing religious rites, people pray to ward off disasters and receive good luck. So, Nuoji was formed as a sacrificial activity or ceremony to worship gods and ancestors. The exact date when Nuoji was formed is unknown, but the Nuo ceremony was first recorded on oracle bones during the Shang dynasty (17th-11th century BC), and flourished in the Zhou dynasty (11th century-256BC).

In the Zhou dynasty, Nuoji was already very popular within the central parts of its territory. Nuoji was performed during festivals and holidays at that time with the purpose of driving away devils and plague. Nuoji was a very important social, political, and religious event and a specific government department was established to be in charge of Nuoji. At the time, besides the grand Nuo ceremony held by the royal court, the folk Nuo ceremony also appeared in the countryside.

Development
During and after the Tang dynasty (618-907), Nuoji gradually developed into a dance drama and became more of a recreation than a ritual.  It became a masked drama enacted by a priest performing an exorcism, and has been described as "theater with a presentational aspect, a festival, and the idea of gatherings to establish ties and norms." The rituals have been incorporated into people's lives and are seen as commentaries on Chinese life.

Around the Song dynasty (960–1279), people started to perform with masks during Nuoji; thus Nuo opera was basically formed. During the Qing dynasty (1644-1911), Nuo opera, which had separated from Nuoji, had become a unique performing art. During the 1930s and 1940s, Nuo opera began to be performed in busy cities and towns.

Today, the popularity of Nuo opera has declined and it can normally only be seen during the Spring Festival and other important traditional Chinese holidays, in remote mountainous areas, such as Guizhou, Hunan, Jiangxi, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Anhui provinces.

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China
After the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, the influence and popularity of Nuo opera was suppressed by the Chinese government, because the superstitious elements in Nuo opera were contrary to the Constitution of the Communist Party of China which advocated atheism.

Recently (probably after the year 2000), scholars from both China and abroad started becoming interested in nuo opera again because of its precious historical value.  Nuoism has been promoted by the Chinese government as a matrix of ethnic identity, such as those of the Tujia people.

Varieties
Nuo opera varies greatly from place to place because local culture and customs have a great influence on the form, masks, costumes and conventions of Nuo opera. Generally, Nuo opera can be categorized as follows: Guizhou, Jiangxi, Anhui, and Yunnan .

Guizhou Nuo
Guizhou is the center of Nuo drama in southwestern China due to its long Nuo opera history and abundant repertoire. In Anshun, a city in Guizhou, nuo opera is the primary entertainment activity . Musical instruments include one gong and one drum. The drummer has a very important role during a performance. A patch of land serves as a stage. As a result, Guizhou Nuo is also called Dixi (ground opera).

The only two occasions for the performance of Nuo opera are at the Spring Festival (Chinese New Year) and at the middle of the 7th lunar month, the time of the rice harvest. People hope the Nuo opera can drive away bad luck and bring a good harvest.  Year after year, numerous locals are attracted to this performance. Sometimes a drama can last a dozen days. As is true in most other areas, Nuo Drama in Tunbu is the performed by the men. The moment a dancer puts on his mask, he will not speak or act casually since putting on a mask means the spirit is on him already.

Jiangxi Nuo
Jiangxi () Nuo is usually called Gan Nuo as Gan () is the abbreviation of Jiangxi Province. Nuo opera is most popular in the counties of Nanfeng and Shangli in Jiangxi.  From late Qing Dynasty to now, there were about 150 Nuo opera performing groups. A temple for the Nuo god, which was built in the Ming Dynasty and still functions well today for people to worship the Nuo god.  About 80 Nuo opera programs from the past still exist today. The number of Nuo opera masks in Jiangxi is over 2000, and there are approximately 2000 professional Nuo opera performing folk artists . In Shangli county, a popular saying says that, in ancient times, there was a Nuo god every five kilometers. Therefore, Shangli county preserves over 20 Nuo god temples.

Nuo dancing, one of the most ancient arts and a necessary element in Nuo opera, has existed in Nanfeng, Jiangxi for over 2000 years. The movements of Nanfeng Nuo dancing are simple but powerful, retaining their ancient characters. Nanfeng Nuo dancing was even regarded as "The Active fossil of Chinese dancing Art". In 1996, Nanfeng county was called "The village of Chinese folk Art-Nuo Art" by National Culture Department of China.

Anhui Nuo
Anhui () Nuo is special because it is performed on a clan basis and not by a troupe as in other places. Chizhou Nuo is the best known Nuo opera of Anhui Nuo. The origins of Nuo culture in Chizhou areas is one of the most ancient and can be traced back over thousands of years to the neolithic period.  It has been recently included in the Nation's First Catalogue of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Chizhou Nuo Opera is divided into three performing formats: Nuo Ritual. Nuo Dancing and Nuo Drama. The complete stage performance must be mixed with dramatic plot, role-playing, type of role, and qiemo (settings, scene and props). The performing skill can only be learned through oral instruction and the personal teachings passed on to disciples in person from generation to generation. Therefore, the performing art of Nuo opera is normally passed on within a clan from generation to generation. There may be two sacrificial ceremonies (in which the Nuo opera are performed as a must) a year: the "spring sacrificial ceremony" that is held sometime between the seventh day to the fifteenth day of the first lunar month and the "autumn sacrificial ceremony" that is held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month. Apart from these two ceremonies, there is no performance at all throughout the year.

The dance, which has a strong local flavor, continues in many villages in Guichi County of Chizhou today. Surrounded in the mist of incense and smoke, Nuo dancers, colorfully dressed, walk on stilts and wear masks while performing, expressing their wishes of sacrifice to their ancestors, praying for blessing and dispelling evil. While performing in  mountainous villages, dancers have to put masks on their foreheads, letting the audiences who are standing on the surrounding slopes to see them clearly. To accompany the dancing, the music instruments range from drum, bell, earthen bowl,  bamboo flute and Suona.  There is a popular saying among Chizhou area that a village would not be considered a village without Nuo opera.

When Chizhou Nuo Opera is performed, it normally has three integrated components: Nuo dancing, main performance, and salutatory &and complimentary remarks. Some of the well-known repertoire of Chizhou Nuo are "Liu Wenlong", "Meng Jiangnü", "Fan Silking" and "Zhang Wenxian" etc.

Yunnan Nuo
Leopard Nuo opera in Chuxiong City, Yunnan, differentiates itself by the fact that all dancers are painted with a leopard pattern on their nude bodies. The ferocious and agile leopard is regarded as the most qualified to drive away devils. Leopards are played by twelve Yi boys about 10 years old. On the morning of the performance, young dancers will have the leopard pattern painted on their backs, hands, feet, and belly in black, white, red, and yellow colors. A yue-kin, a four-stringed plucked instrument with a full-moon-shaped sound box, is painted on their chests. Their faces are covered with palm leaves, and their heads are decorated with two pheasant tails. When the make-up is finished, dancers enter the role of leopards, prohibiting further talking.

Village rooftops connected by ladders or wood panels form the stage for the "leopards." At the climax of the dance, leopards run after young girls watching the show until the girls take them home, where snacks have been prepared. Leopards eat some snacks as well as throwing some away, while continuing to dance. This devil-dispelling activity is performed in the rooms, kitchens and stalls of one family after another; the leopards dispel devils for all the villagers.

In the film Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles directed by Zhang Yimou, Yunnan Nuo is prominently depicted and featured.

Masks

The most distinctive feature of Nuo opera is that the performers wear masks. Different roles require different masks to reveal the characters, through their changing facial features and decorations. The masks are highly aesthetic. The art, selected materials, colors and applications of Nuo opera masks vary among the regions, ethnic groups, culture and aesthetic interests. That distinctiveness adds the masks' beauty. The masks are mainly made of poplar and willow since poplar is light and less prone to cracks, while willow is widely regarded as having the power to ward off evil. Nuo opera involves many acrobatic performances, such as getting into a hot pot, holding burned stones, crossing a fiery pit, swallowing and blowing fire, and stepping on a mountain of swords. As most of the performers are specially trained, they are good at giving exciting performances.

The number of masks used in one drama ranges from several dozen to two hundred.  There are five kinds of masks used in Nuo Drama, namely: civilian general, military general, old general, young general and woman general with other minor roles such as soldiers and Taoist monks. Each nuo mask has a fixed name, represents a certain role and has legendary stories to tell of its origins. In Guizhou, a province with the largest nuo drama repertoire, at least 24 masks are required to perform an entire nuo drama piece.  The masks can appear valiant and martial, stern and tough, or gentle and kind, and they come in various styles to represent different figures. For instance, since the responsibility of valiant gods is to emit awe and dispel ghosts and devils, their masks usually have horns and buckteeth, with a very ferocious countenance.

The masks are endowed with mysterious religious and cultural meanings, both in Nuoji and Nuo opera performances. People in Nuo culture circles, who regard the masks as symbols and carriers of gods, observe various rules and conventions. For instance, the ceremony of enshrining a Buddha statue is held before making the masks; before using them, the ceremony of opening the case; and storing them, the ceremony of sealing the case. According to the rules, women are not allowed to touch or wear the masks, and only men can produce, use and store masks. Once a man wears a mask, he is supposed to be possessed by a god or spirit. And therefore, he must not speak.

Studies also show that the face painting of Beijing opera and face changing of Sichuan opera were influenced by Nuo opera masks.

See also
Fangxiangshi
 Nuoism
 Noh
 Cham dance

References

Min Tian, "Chinese Nuo and Japanese Noh: Nuo's Role in the Origination and Formation of Noh," Comparative Drama, Vol. 37, No. 3/4 (Fall/Winter 2003–04), pp. 343–360.

External links
中国傩文化网
中国傩文化-中国网
"NUO, the Devils Hunters"  Documentary 18' by Eric Boudot

Chinese opera
Chinese culture
Masked dances
Masquerade ceremonies in Asia
Culture in Jiangxi
Folk opera


Jason, Mark and Richard Quinn were three brothers killed by the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) in a firebomb attack on their home in Ballymoney, County Antrim, Northern Ireland on 12 July 1998. The crime was committed towards the end of the three-decade period known as "The Troubles".

One man, Garfield Gilmour, was found guilty of murdering the three brothers 15 months later and sentenced to life imprisonment after admitting that he had driven three other men to the house to commit the fatal petrol-bombing. Although Gilmour named the three alleged killers, they were never charged due to a lack of concrete evidence.

Background

The Quinn family, consisting of mother Chrissie and sons Jason, Mark and Richard lived in the Carnany estate in the predominantly Protestant town of Ballymoney. The family was of a mixed religious background. Mother Chrissie was Roman Catholic from a mixed background and the boys' father Jim Dillon was Catholic. After separating from her husband, Chrissie raised the boys as Protestant "to avoid the hassle". Chrissie lived with her Protestant partner Raymond Craig in Carnany which had only a few Catholic residents and was mostly Protestant, reflecting the religious make-up of Ballymoney itself. The boys, aged 9, 10 and 11, attended a local state school and on the evening before their deaths had been helping to build the estate's Eleventh Night loyalist bonfire. A fourth brother, Lee, was staying with his grandmother in Rasharkin at the time of the attack.

The killings took place at the height of the stand-off over the Orange Order march at Drumcree, which created a tense atmosphere in various towns across Northern Ireland. In Ballymoney, the previous year, an off-duty Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) officer, Gregory Taylor, was beaten to death by a group of loyalist bandsmen. The killing followed a row about the RUC's position after loyal order marches had been banned from the nearby nationalist village of Dunloy. In the weeks before the fatal attack, the children's mother Chrissie had expressed fear that she was not welcome in the area and that there was a possibility the family home might be attacked by loyalists. The Ballymoney Times reported a story the week of the deaths, stating that a resident of the Carnany estate called in and was concerned about tension in the area adding something serious might happen "unless Catholic residents were left alone". Shortly before the attack, five Catholic families living on the predominantly loyalist estate had received UVF Christmas cards with the warning 'get out now' and a letter containing a 9mm bullet. Earlier that week loyalists had established an illegal roadblock at the entrance of the estate in support of the Orange Order protest at Drumcree and police officers had been attacked with petrol bombs. Various members of Chrissie's family had lived in Carnany but due to several incidents only Chrissie and her sons remained. The family had only been living in the home, which was previously occupied by the boys' aunt, for six days before the attack.

The attack
The attack occurred at around 4:30 in the morning as the inhabitants of the house slept. A car containing members of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), a loyalist paramilitary organisation, arrived at the house and threw a petrol bomb through a window at the rear of the house. The petrol bomb was made from a whiskey bottle. The sounds of the boys' shouting had woken their mother, who found her bedroom full of smoke. Chrissie Quinn, Raymond Craig and a family friend Christina Archibald escaped the resulting fire with minor injuries. Chrissie had thought the boys had escaped the fire as she could not locate them in the dense smoke before she jumped to safety from a first floor window. Two of the brothers’ bodies were found in their mother's bedroom and the other in another bedroom.
Chrissie was taken to hospital and released the next day after receiving minor injuries and shock in the attack.

Reaction

The MP for the area, Ian Paisley, visited the site of the attack and described the killings as "diabolical", "repugnant" and it "stained Protestantism". However, in an interview with ITN he stated that "The IRA have carried out worse murders than we had in Ballymoney over and over again".

British Prime Minister Tony Blair denounced the attack as "an act of barbarism".

U.S. President Bill Clinton extended the condolences of the American people to the Quinn family, New York City mayor Rudy Giuliani extended sympathy to the family from the city of New York. and Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy condemned the killings, stating "the Orange Order must recognize that its refusal to abide by the decision of the Parades Commission led to the murder of the Quinn boys".

Representatives of other groups from all sides of the constitutional issue in Northern Ireland also condemned the killings. The then Chelsea F.C. chairman, Ken Bates, offered a £100,000 reward for information leading to a conviction for the attackers. Irish Taoiseach Bertie Ahern attended a memorial mass in Dublin for the children.

At the brothers' Requiem Mass, the bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Down and Connor, Dr. Walsh observed that

The Progressive Unionist Party, which has political links to the UVF, made no comment that the UVF was implicated in the attack.

Conviction of Garfield Gilmour
Garfield Gilmour, a local loyalist, was arrested soon after the killings and charged with three counts of murder. He was found guilty of murder for his part in the attack and sentenced to life imprisonment in October 1999. He admitted to driving the car which had contained three members of the UVF unit to the Quinn home. He named the three men as Johnny McKay and brothers Raymond and Ivan Parke. However, the three men were not charged with the murders due to a lack of concrete evidence.
Gilmour was described at his trial as a hard working, farm machinery salesman who came from a middle-class background who was unwillingly part of the attack which killed the Quinn brothers.
The judge described Gilmour as an "accomplished liar".
Gilmour and his girlfriend Christina Lofthouse alleged that an uncle of the Quinn boys, Colm Quinn, had approached their daughter offering her a sweet, knowing it was a small piece of cannabis. Colm Quinn confirmed that the couple had made allegations against him previously that he was a drug dealer. He then had to flee the Carnany estate. However, returning to his old house three months before the fatal attack on his nephews, Quinn claimed he was confronted by Gilmour again and was warned he was "going to be sorted out".

The Orange Order released a press statement a year after the attack, stating, "According to today's judgment the murders were a combination of a sectarian attack by the UVF and a personal grudge between Gilmour and the uncle of the three boys," and voiced the "Order's absolute commitment to ensuring that justice is done for their family".

Gilmour's conviction for murder was reduced to manslaughter on appeal on 5 June 2000 and he was released six years later. Nine days later, his life sentence was replaced by a fixed prison sentence of 14 years.

Aftermath
After being released from hospital Chrissie Quinn returned to her mother's native Rasharkin to live. The boys were buried two days later in St Mary's cemetery in Rasharkin after requiem Mass. Thousands of both Catholics and Protestants attended the funeral.

A number of loyalist bands defied RUC requests not to play music while marching past the boys' grandmother's house in the days after the killings.

In April 1999 the former home of the boys in Carnany Park was demolished and replaced with a children's play park as a memorial.

An uncle of the boys, Frankie Quinn, appeared in court in 2007 accused of stabbing Garfield Gilmour in Ballymoney. Quinn was successful in an application for bail.

References

Sources
 Lost Lives:The stories of the men, women and children who died as a result of the Northern Ireland troubles, David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney and Christ Thornton, pp. 1434–1436. ISBN 9 781840 182279.

1990s in County Antrim
1990s murders in Northern Ireland
1998 crimes in Ireland
1998 in Northern Ireland
Ballymoney
Deaths by improvised explosive device in Northern Ireland
Explosions in 1998
July 1998 events in the United Kingdom
July 1998 crimes
Child murder in Ireland
Terrorist incidents in County Antrim
Terrorist incidents in the United Kingdom in 1998
The Troubles in County Antrim
Ulster Volunteer Force actions
Murder in County Antrim
Murder victims from County Antrim


Cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD) also known as cytomegalic inclusion disease (CID) is a series of signs and symptoms caused by cytomegalovirus infection, toxoplasmosis or other rare infections such as herpes or rubella viruses. It can produce massive calcification of the central nervous system, and often the kidneys.

Cytomegalic inclusion body disease is the most common cause of congenital abnormalities in the United States. It can also cause pneumonia and other diseases in immunocompromised patients, such as those with HIV/AIDS or recipients of organ transplants.

Presentation
Various systems are affected:
 CNS abnormalities – microcephaly, intellectual disability, spasticity, epilepsy, periventricular calcification
 Eyes – choroidoretinitis and optic atrophy
 Ear – sensorineural deafness
 Liver – hepatosplenomegaly and jaundice due to hepatitis
 Lung – pneumonitis (interstitial pneumonitis)
 Heart – myocarditis
 Thrombocytopenic purpura, haemolytic anaemia
 GI diseases in AIDS patients
 Late sequelae in individuals asymptomatic at birth – hearing defects and reduced intelligence

The cells of the infected organ show intranuclear inclusion giving the nucleus classical owls eye appearance.
Further tests like ELISA can be used to detect the antigen. Virus can be grown in cell culture also.

References

Viral infections of the central nervous system
Cytomegalovirus-associated diseases


Mindrum railway station was a stone built railway station serving the hamlet of Mindrum and the surrounding villages in Northumberland. It was on the Alnwick to Cornhill Branch which ran from Alnwick to Cornhill Junction on the Kelso line near Coldstream.

History

Authorised in 1882 the Cornhill Branch was built to link the farming communities of north Northumberland with the market town of Alnwick and link the North Eastern Railway's Kelso line to its Alnwick Branch. Construction started by the North Eastern Railway in 1884, and the line opened to freight between Cornhill and  on 2 May 1887, and the whole line for both freight and passengers on 5 September of the same year. The line had difficulty attracting passengers as many of the stations were some distance from the communities they served. Increased bus competition in the 1920s led to passenger trains being withdrawn on 22 September 1930 although the service resumed briefly during the Second World War to serve RAF Milfield near .

After a severe storm in 1949 washed away a bridge north of Ilderton station British Railways who had recently taken over the line decided that the volume of traffic along the line did not warrant replacing it. The line was thus split into two,  to , and  to  which included Akeld. This coupled with an infrequent service caused the line to go further into decline and the section from Alnwick to Ilderton closed on 2 March 1953 with the other section and Mindrum station following suit on 29 March 1965.

Services

Present day

The station building is a private residence.

References

External links
 Mindrum station on northumbrian-railways.co.uk
 Mindrum station on Disused Stations
 Mindrum station on navigable 1947 O. S. map

Disused railway stations in Northumberland
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1887
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1965
Former North Eastern Railway (UK) stations
1887 establishments in England
1965 disestablishments in England


Nai Talim, or Basic Education, is a principle which states that knowledge and work are not separate. Mahatma Gandhi promoted an educational curriculum with the same name based on this pedagogical principle.

It can be translated with the phrase 'Basic Education for all'. However, the concept has several layers of meaning. It developed out of Gandhi's experience with the English educational system and with colonialism in general. In that system, he saw that Indian children would be alienated and 'career-based thinking' would become dominant. In addition, it embodied a series of negative outcomes: the disdain for manual work, the development of a new elite class, and the increasing problems of industrialization and urbanization.

The three pillars of Gandhi's pedagogy were its focus on the lifelong character of education, its social character and its form as a holistic process. For Gandhi, education is 'the moral development of the person', a process that is by definition 'lifelong'.

Education

Gandhi's model of education was directed toward his alternative vision of the social order: "Gandhi’s basic education was, therefore, an embodiment of his perception of an ideal society consisting of small, self-reliant communities with his ideal citizen being an industrious, self-respecting and generous individual living in a small cooperative community.
Nai Talim also envisaged a different role for the new teacher, not simply as a professional constrained by curricula and abstract standards, but rather as a person relating directly to the student in the form of a dialogue:
"A teacher who establishes rapport with the taught, becomes one with them, learns more from them than he teaches them. He who learns nothing from his disciples is, in my opinion, worthless. Whenever I talk with someone I learn from him. I take from him more than I give him. In this way, a true teacher regards himself as a student of his students. If you will teach your pupils with this attitude, you will benefit much from them."

Gandhi's disciple, Vinobha Bhave, developed the idea further as a means of social transformation: "The crux of Nai Talim lay in overcoming distinctions between learning and teaching, and knowledge and work. Vinoba discusses the need to redefine the relationship between teacher and student, "they must each regard the other as a fellow worker..."  Instead, the ‘teacher’ was to be skilled in a kala/hunar (and to derive sustenance from this and not a teaching salary). The student was to live, work and grow with the teacher and his/her family. In this process s/he would learn the kala/hunar — the skill as part of a way of life, code of ethics, web of relationships, etc.".
Finally, Buniyadi shiksha was conceived as a response to one of the main dialectics of modernity as Gandhi saw it--the dialectic between human being and 'machine' or 'technology': "In this dialectic, man represented the whole of mankind, not just India, and the machine represented the industrialized West." It is for this reason, among others, that Gandhi placed such central emphasis in his pedagogy on the role of handcrafts such as weaving, metal work, pottery, spinning; they symbolized the values of self-sufficiency or Swaraj and independence or Swadeshi.

Handicrafts
Traditional and colonial forms of education had emphasized literacy and abstract, text-based knowledge which had been the domain of the upper castes. Gandhi's proposal to make handicrafts the centre of his pedagogy had as its aim to bring about a "radical restructuring of the sociology of school knowledge in India" in which the 'literacies' of the lower castes--"such as spinning, weaving, leatherwork, pottery, metal-work, basket-making and book-binding"—would be made central. The other aim of this use of handicrafts was to make schools financially and socially independent of the state—an even more radical concept. Thus in his influential article on education in Harijan in 1937 he argued: "By education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man-body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education nor even the beginning. It is only one of the means by which man and woman can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education. I would therefore begin the child's education by teaching it a useful handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus every school can be made self-supporting."<ref>http://home.iitk.ac.in/~amman/soc748/sykes_story_of_nai_talim.html</ </ref>

History
Gandhi's first experiments in education began at the Tolstoy Farm ashram in South Africa. It was much later, while living at Sevagram and in the heat of the Independence struggle, that Gandhi wrote his influential article in Harijan about education. In it, he mapped out the basic pedagogy:

A national education conference was held at Wardha on 22–23 October 1937. Afterwards two model schools were opened at Wardha and nearby Segaon. Post-basic education and pre-basic education schools were developed after Gandhi's death.

The National Planning Commission set up by the central government expressed its opposition to Gandhi's vision of Basic Education on several grounds. The Nehru government's vision of an industrialized, centrally planned economy had no place for 'basic education' or self-supported schools, rather it reflected the "vision of a powerful and growing class of industrialists, their supporters in politics and intellectuals with high qualifications in different areas, including science and technology."
A further detailed history of the attempts to implement basic education in India is given by Marjorie Sykes, The History of Nai Talim.
Finally, as has been noted by Krishna Kumar, "the implementation of Gandhi’s plan could not survive the ‘development decade’ of the 1960s when the Indian economy and its politics entered into a new phase featuring the penetration of Indian agriculture by the advanced economies of the West and the centralization of power."

Quotations

See also
Basic Education
Gandhigram Rural Institute
Mahatma Gandhi

References

External links
 THE STORY OF NAI TALIM

1937 introductions
Gandhism
History of education in India


Heitor TP is the first long play studio solo album by the Brazilian musician Heitor Pereira, released in 1987.

Track listing
 Descaso
 Assim Vejo Muito Mais
 Sonho Blues...
 Futuro?
 Ballet
 Sua História
 Panô
 Cidade Nua
 Loura
 CTI

References

External links

1987 debut albums
Heitor Pereira albums


Altgeld Hall, located at 1409 West Green Street in Urbana, Illinois on the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) campus, was built in 1896–97 and was designed by Nathan Ricker and James M. White of the university's architecture department in the Richardsonian Romanesque style. Planning for the building began during the Illinois governorship of John Peter Altgeld. The building was originally the University Library, and received major additions in 1914, 1919, 1926, and 1956. From 1927 to 1955 it was used by the College of Law, and from 1955 on by the Department of Mathematics and the Mathematics Library. The University Chime in the bell tower – which marks the hours, half hours, and quarter hours and plays a ten-minute concert every school day from 12:50–1:00 p.m. – was installed in 1920. The building was officially named "Altgeld Hall" in 1941. Altgeld Hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 17, 1970.

History

Design
Planning for the building started in 1892, with Governor John Peter Altgeld and University President Andrew Sloan Draper involved in the design of the building. Initially, the trustees announced a design contest that would award $1200 to the best design. The trustees awarded the prize to Edward G. Bolles, a young man with no experience in building design, but after the building committee met with the young man, they decided to reject the Bolles entry and all the other entries submitted.

Based on a suggestion made by Governor Altgeld, the building committee offered the commission to Daniel Burnham, fresh from his success as the organizing architect of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.  Artistic conflicts between Burnham and the Governor soon became clear, and the relationship was severed.  After two years of looking for an acceptable design, the building committee called upon the university's own architecture department.  On February 4, 1896, Professors Nathan Ricker and James McLaren White completed the design plans that included construction costs in less than a month.

Altgeld Hall was one of five Illinois university buildings, the so-called "Altgeld's castles", in whose designs the governor took a personal interest.

Construction
Construction started on June 10, 1896, only four months after the initial building design was submitted by Ricker and White. The cornerstone, which included a time capsule, was set on September 11, 1896. Ricker and White supervised the construction of the building which was completed on December 1, 1897.

Decoration
The exterior features the only gargoyle on campus, while the interior features four murals painted around the domed ceiling of what is now the Mathematics Library. Newton Alonzo Wells painted the murals at the recommendation of the architects. The four murals were dedicated to the four colleges at the university in 1897. The south mural is "The Sacred Wood of the Muses" dedicated to the College of Literature and Arts. The north mural is "Arcadia" dedicated to the College of Agriculture. The west mural is "The Laboratory of Minerva" dedicated to the College of Science. The east mural is "The Forge of Vulcan" dedicated to the College of Engineering.

Use
At dedication on June 8, 1897, the building was designed as the University Library. In 1927, the School of Law moved in and occupied the building until 1955; an inscription at the north entrance of the building still says Law Building. Since 1955 the Department of Mathematics and the Mathematics Library have occupied the building . In 1941, the building was officially named Altgeld Hall after Governor Altgeld. The building made a brief appearance in the 1945 film The House on 92nd Street, posing as Ohio State University.

The Altgeld Chimes

The Altgeld Chimes were installed and dedicated on October 30, 1920. Atop the 132-foot tower are fifteen bells, weighing a total of seven and a half tons, cast by McShane Bell Foundry. The university's chime was a gift from the graduating classes of 1914—1921 and the United States School of Military Aeronautics. The senior class of 1922 purchased a Seth Thomas clock mechanism that allows the chime to play the Westminster chime to mark the hours and the quarters. The mechanism does not currently operate.

A small playing chamber is inside the tower containing a wooden chimestand with fifteen pump handles that control the clappers inside the bells via steel wires. Each lever is marked with a musical note, which form an almost complete chromatic scale, ranging from low D to high G while missing low D-sharp and both F-naturals. This configuration of bells were cast such that it can play the university fight song “Illinois Loyalty” in the key of D-major. For this reason, songs must often be transposed to keys where F-naturals are not present.

Official concerts are performed every weekday classes are in session from 12:50 to 1:00 PM. Concerts are performed during special occasions, such as Homecoming Weekend, the University of Illinois Founders Day, and Commencement evening. In addition, informal concerts are held randomly throughout the day during the last ten minutes of the hour. It is tradition to play the university's alma mater, "Hail to the Orange," during every concert. The concerts have been a tradition since 1920 when the university chime was installed.

See also
Altgeld's castles

References
Notes

External links

 Photographs on the UIUC website

Buildings and structures of the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign
School buildings completed in 1897
Towers completed in 1897
National Register of Historic Places in Champaign County, Illinois
Bell towers in the United States
Richardsonian Romanesque architecture in Illinois
University and college buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Buildings and structures in Urbana, Illinois