The Atheist Bus Campaign was an advertising campaign in 2008 and 2009 that aimed to place "peaceful and upbeat" messages about atheism on transport media in Britain, in response to evangelical Christian advertising.

It was created by comedy writer Ariane Sherine and launched on 21 October 2008, with official support from the British Humanist Association and Richard Dawkins. The campaign's original goal was to raise £5,500 to run 30 buses across London for four weeks early in 2009 with the slogan: "There's probably no God. Now stop worrying and enjoy your life."

Richard Dawkins, author of The God Delusion, agreed to match all donations up to a maximum of £5,500, providing a total of £11,000 if the full amount were to be raised. The campaign reached that target by 10:06am on 21 October and had raised £100,000 by the evening of 24 October. The campaign closed on 11 April 2009, having raised a total of £153,523.51.

The first buses started running on 6 January 2009 – 800 ran around the UK and it was also planned to place 1,000 adverts on the London Underground featuring quotations from famous atheists. There were also two large LCD screens placed on Oxford Street, central London. The campaign received a number of complaints, but was cleared of any unethical advertising by the ASA.

Initial proposal
Sherine first proposed the campaign in June 2008 in a guardian.co.uk Comment is Free blog post, Atheists – gimme five in the Guardian. She expressed her frustration that the Christian organisation JesusSaid.org was allowed to use bus advertising to promote the web address of a website that said that all non-Christians would burn in hell for all eternity. Sherine called on atheists to counter this kind of evangelical advertising by donating five pounds towards a positive philosophical advert. Her idea was taken up by political blogger Jon Worth, who went on to set up a PledgeBank page. The PledgeBank page closed on 31 July 2008, having received 877 of the 4,679 pledges necessary for the original target of £23,400. This event attracted some limited comment in the mainstream media early in August. Sherine then wrote a follow-up Comment is free article, Dawkin 'bout a Revolution, detailing events since the original piece. In response, the British Humanist Association offered to lend the campaign its official support and undertook to administer all donations. Sherine then asked Richard Dawkins for a quote for the campaign, at which point he offered to match the first £5,500 raised.

History of the campaign

The Atheist Bus Campaign's donation phase launched on Tuesday 21 October 2008 with another article by Sherine, All aboard the atheist bus campaign, on Comment is free. To the surprise of the organisers the fundraising target was broken within hours of the launch, raising almost £48,000 by the end of day one.

After four days the campaign had raised more than £100,000. There have been donations to the Justgiving page every day since the campaign's launch, and by 9 January 2009 the total had surpassed £140,000. The BHA has reported a flood of interest in its activities and the Atheist Bus Campaign Facebook group has been growing rapidly since the launch. Many atheists feel the campaign has given them a voice and represented them in a way they have long hoped for.

The story attracted widespread media attention around the world. Writing in The Times, Joan Bakewell observed that "Not since Going to Work on an Egg has an advertising initiative made such an impact, and for so little cost."

There has been some opposition to the adverts. By 21 January 2009 the ASA had received 326 complaints about the bus adverts, including a complaint from Stephen Green of Christian Voice (UK) who said "It is given as a statement of fact and that means it must be capable of substantiation if it is not to break the rules." Hanne Stinson of the BHA has suggested that if the ASA rule on this complaint, then the ASA will be ruling on whether God exists. On 21 January the ASA ruled that the adverts were not in breach of its rules as the advert "was an expression of the advertiser's opinion" and was incapable of substantiation. They also claimed that although the advert was contrary to many people's beliefs, it would not generate "serious or widespread offence". By the end of the year, the ASA had received 392 complaints about the adverts.

The campaign has also received criticism from leading clergy including George Carey, the former Archbishop of Canterbury, and Peter Price, the former Bishop of Bath and Wells, who said "the campaign lacked both judgement and a sense of reality."

In Southampton, a bus driver refused to drive a bus displaying the advert. His employers, First Bus, undertook to find him another bus to drive.

Canadian author, Margaret Atwood, has said of the campaign: "That's religion! Once you're paying money to put slogans on things, well it's either a product you're selling, a political party or religion".

Notable donors

Television critic Charlie Brooker was the fourth person to donate to the campaign, giving £100 with the comment "I hope to God this helps".The poet and musician Labi Siffre donated £1000 on 22 October 2008 with the verse, "As God knew / What  Judas would do / In the final accounting / Who betrayed who?" Philosopher AC Grayling donated £500, while writer Zoe Margolis donated with the comment "About time the rational voices were heard too". Richard Dawkins donated the most of any celebrity with £5,500, but even his donation has been eclipsed by that of an unknown donor called Simon Bishop, who has given £20,000 to the campaign. The campaign is also supported by Matthew Parris. Additionally, Paul Woolley, the director of Christian think tank Theos, and a close associate of the Archbishop of Canterbury, has donated £50 as he thinks the campaign is a "great way to get people thinking about God. The posters will encourage people to consider the most important question we will ever face in our lives." The Gay and Lesbian Humanist Association is a supporter of the Campaign.

"Probably"

The wording of the proposed advert caused considerable debate among atheists and Christians alike and Sherine discussed it in a post-launch article, "Probably the best atheist bus campaign ever", on the Guardian's "Comment Is Free" section. Dawkins stated that he preferred the wording "There is almost certainly no God". Ariane Sherine claims it is necessary to be factually accurate, and that as it is impossible to disprove the existence of God it is only possible to say one 'probably' does not exist. Critic D. J. Taylor felt that this qualification let the campaign down, but admired it for introducing some tentativeness into an often polarised debate, while atheists including A. C. Grayling think that they can be certain there is no God and therefore the word 'probably' should not be used. It was also suggested that inserting the word would avoid a breach of the Advertising Standards Authority's rules.

Don't Label Me campaign
The final phase of the campaign challenged the idea that children should be labelled with their parents' religion. In November 2009, an ad appeared on billboards, not buses, in London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, displaying a young girl's picture with the caption "Please don't label me" followed by "Let me grow up and choose for myself". The background displays phrases ascribing various labels to the child—"Libertarian child", "Catholic child", "Sikh child", "Capitalist child", "Atheist child", "Protestant child", and so forth.

On 21 November 2009 it was reported in The Times and the Daily Telegraph that the children featured in the 'Don't Label Me' campaign were from an Evangelical Christian family. The British Humanist Association stated that the photographs had been sourced from a photographic agency website, and that it was unaware of the religious background of the models.

Follow up works
In addition, Atheist Bus Campaign donors have raised over £23,000 for the British Humanist Association's Inclusive Schools campaign.

Following publicity from the campaign, the BBC has agreed to allow a special version of Thought for the Day. It will be presented as Thought for the Afternoon, and will be the first programme of the series not presented by a figure from an established faith.

Partly in response to the campaign three different Christian groups have launched advertising campaigns. Slogans include, "There definitely is a God; so join the Christian Party and enjoy your life."; "The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God.", a quote from Psalm 14; and "There IS a God, BELIEVE. Don't worry and enjoy your life." The Christian Party's adverts were the most-complained about of 2009, with the ASA receiving 1,204 complaints regarding them.

When Richard Dawkins turned down a debate with Christian apologist William Lane Craig in 2011, adverts were placed in Oxford with a parody slogan "There's probably no Dawkins. Now stop worrying and enjoy Oct 25th at the Sheldonian Theatre."

Bus adverts in other countries

United States
Influenced by the Atheist Bus Campaign, the American Humanist Association launched a bus campaign in Washington, D.C., in November 2008 with the slogan "Why believe in a God? Just be good for goodness' sake." The Freedom From Religion Foundation had also launched a bus campaign in the United States, featuring buses with various quotations appearing during February and March 2009.

In February, a campaign formed in Bloomington, Indiana, in the United States, to run ads saying "You Can Be Good Without God" in various cities in the state of Indiana.

Significant attention and media coverage has been devoted to atheist roadside billboard campaigns, funded by various groups at the local level between 2008 and 2010.

Canada
In February 2009, a nationwide campaign was launched by the Freethought Association of Canada with Justin Trottier and Chris Hammond serving as spokespersons. The Toronto Transit Commission in Canada approved the advertisements on the commission's buses, trams, and metro and rapid transit trains, with the same message as the British adverts, and debuted in mid-February.

Following a request by the Association humaniste du Québec, the Société des transports de Montréal, Canada, accepted the proposed message "Dieu n'existe probablement pas, alors cessez de vous inquiéter et profitez de la vie", a translation of the original UK advert, and ten bus took to the road during March 2009. Secular Humanists and Free Thinkers in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and London have had their adverts refused. In Canada's capital city, Ottawa, the ads were initially refused, but the decision was ultimately overturned by Ottawa City Council and the ads will be permitted. In British Columbia, Vancouver, Victoria and Kelowna adverts were barred on the ground that no religious advertisement is allowed on buses.

The ads also ran in Calgary and eventually Halifax and Ottawa.  The ads were initially rejected in both Halifax and Ottawa, but court cases overturned the bans.

In 2010, CFI Canada announced plans to put ads on Canadian buses with the phrase "Extraordinary Claims require Extraordinary Evidence". Below that phrase it lists Allah, bigfoot, UFOs, homeopathy, Zeus, Psychics and Christ.  As of 2014, the bus campaign has not gone into action and it is unclear if it was cancelled.

In 2014, a series of ads were designed and planned to be placed on buses in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The campaign was intended to coincide with the launch of the Canadian Museum of Human Rights and featured opposition to the public funding of religious school boards in Ontario. The ads highlighted public funding of religious schools as a human rights violation. The ads were blocked by Pattison Outdoor Advertising who cited the Canadian Advertising Foundation's Code of Standards. The advertising campaign was privately funded by Dr. Richard Thain, a dentist and humanist from Eastern Ontario. Thain launched a law-suit against the City of Winnipeg and Pattison Outdoor Advertising in 2017 with a claim that his charter right to freedom of expression had been denied by the refusal to carry the ads. The parties in the suit are expected to have an examination for discovery early in 2020. Several of the ads were carried in a modified form on bus shelters in the City of Winnipeg.

Brazil
On 11 December 2010 the Brazilian Association of Atheists and Agnostics (ATEA) attempted to run a bus campaign with the slogan "Ateísmo – celebre a razão" ("Atheism – Celebrate reason"), but were prevented from doing so on buses in Salvador, Bahia and Porto Alegre. The agency responsible for bus ads in Salvador informed that they would not sign the ad contract for fear of lawsuits, while in Porto Alegre, the passengers' association barred the campaign as the city ordinance prevents that bus ads bear messages related to religion. Instead, billboards were placed outdoors. The messages were "Religião não define caráter" ("Religion does not define character") and "Se deus existe, tudo é permitido" ("If God exists, everything is permitted").

Australia
The Atheist Foundation of Australia also attempted to run a bus campaign with the slogan "Atheism – celebrate reason", but were prevented from doing so by advertising company APN Outdoor, Australia's largest outdoor advertiser, which refused to run the adverts.

In the state of Tasmania the government-owned bus company, Metro Tasmania, also rejected the ads, citing their precedent of blocking any controversial material. However, after conciliation before the office of the Anti-Discrimination Commissioner the ads were scheduled to appear in 2010.

New Zealand
In New Zealand, fund-raising was started in December 2009 for the NZ Atheist Bus Campaign, administered by the Humanist Society of New Zealand.
In just a couple of days, the original target of NZ$ 10000 was reached. A new doubled target of NZ$20,000 was reached in under a week.
The organisers said this will provide signs for 12 buses in Auckland, eight in Wellington and four in Christchurch. However the advertisements were later rejected by several bus companies, notably NZ Bus, leading the organisers to bring a claim of discrimination to the Human Rights Review Tribunal. The organisers later ran a billboard campaign in the three cities with some of the money raised for the bus campaign using three different slogans combined with the slogan used in the original United Kingdom campaign.

Finland
In Finland a similar campaign was announced on 16 March 2009 to run on buses in Finland in three of the country's largest cities, Helsinki, Tampere and Turku. The campaign was run by Vapaa-ajattelijain liitto. In Helsinki, the text said "Jumalaa tuskin on olemassa. Lopeta siis murehtiminen ja nauti elämästä", a direct translation of the English campaign. In Tampere and Turku the text was changed to "Iloitse elämästäsi kuin se olisi ainoasi, koska se on" ("Enjoy your life as if it was your only one, because it is") due to opposition of local transportation providers.

Germany

The German Atheist Bus Campaign had problems finding a bus company that would run their ads and the official website states that they were rejected by 17 companies from all over Germany. Instead they decided to drive the bus themselves on a tour that covered 20 major German cities. On each stop the bus took people from the city on a sightseeing roundtrip with an emphasis on what they saw as scientific and religious historical developments in respect to secularisation and atheism. This decision was met with mixed reactions from the supporters of the campaign who had originally hoped for a conventional advertising campaign, which had succeeded in other countries.

Among the general populace, the Atheist Bus Campaign was not well received, with some passerby viewing it as being reminiscent of the era of state atheism during the German Democratic Republic.

Campus Crusade for Christ decided to accompany the atheist bus tour with their own bus, bearing the slogan "Knowing God" ("Gott kennen"). Events arranged at the bus stops drew support from local Christian churches. This was praised by the Evangelical Church in Germany.

Austria
In Austria the Atheist Bus Campaign (Atheistische Buskampagne) was launched in July 2009 and had a follow-up campaign in the fall of 2010. Like in Germany advertising on buses for religious (but also political) purposes was not allowed by the bus services that are usually operated by the cities and not private companies.
The first leg of the campaign was running three slogans: "There is probably no god.", "Es gibt keinen Gott" and "Gott ist ein tschechischer Schlagersänger." The third is a humorous reference to the Czech singer Karel Gott.

Ireland
The Humanist Association of Ireland ran a series of advertisements on Dublin commuter trains which they called the Unbelievable Campaign. The campaign was to highlight that judges and the president have to take a religious oath, which effectively stops 250,000 people from taking these posts.

Italy

An atheist bus campaign promoted by the Italian Union of Rationalist Atheists and Agnostics (UAAR) was due to start on 4 February 2009 in Genoa. The city was chosen on the occasion of the nomination of its archbishop, Cardinal Angelo Bagnasco, as president of the Italian Episcopal Conference (CEI). The slogan of the Italian campaign reads "La cattiva notizia è che Dio non esiste. Quella buona è che non ne hai bisogno", meaning "The bad news is that God does not exist. The good news is that you do not need him".

On 16 January 2009 IGPDecaux, the company holding licenses for ads on public transport in Genoa, refused to give authorization to the atheist bus campaign on the grounds that it may "offend the moral, civic and religious convictions of the public". Antonio Catricalà, the then head of the Italian National Authority for Fair Trading and Competition, announced that the Authority filed a case against the Atheist Bus initiative because of the potentially "dangerous and mendacious nature" of the ads. As a reaction, the UAAR launched a new campaign in Genoa with a different slogan to comply with the advertising authority's rules: "The good news is there are millions of atheists in Italy. The excellent news is they believe in freedom of expression".

Netherlands
On 12 January 2009, Dutch philosopher, atheist activist and director of the Center for Inquiry Low Countries, Floris van den Berg, announced the intention to launch a similar campaign in the Netherlands. Kees van der Staaij of the conservative Protestant Reformed Political Party (SGP) asked parliamentary questions about the matter to Secretary of State of Transport Tineke Huizinga, and discussed the topic with Van den Berg on 28 January in Nova. However, the bus campaign was abandoned, because the major bus companies Connexxion, Arriva and Veolia do not allow messages of a political or religious nature.

On 11 March 2009, Van den Berg was interviewed by the NOS when he took a new initiative to place a billboard along the A4 motorway near Schiphol, that for the first time in the Netherlands promoted an atheist message: "There is probably no god. Dare to think for yourself and enjoy this life!"

Spain
In Spain an advertising campaign has been launched with the slogan "Probablemente Dios no existe. Deja de preocuparte y goza de la vida", a direct translation of the British advert, on buses in Barcelona which started on 12 January. Madrid and Valencia will follow up at the end of January. This campaign has received criticism from Catholics.

Sweden
In Sweden, the Swedish Humanist Association ran ads in the Stockholm Metro during the summer of 2009 with the slogan "Gud finns nog inte", meaning "God probably does not exist" that were influenced by the British ads.

Russia
In Russia in September 2010 activists of "Общественное объединение по  продвижению секуляризма в России" decided to make the same campaign in Moscow. It proposed the slogan "По всей видимости Бога нет" (It seems that there's no God). But clericals in the authorities prohibited it. After the activists were trying to get success via change the Campaign slogan on quotation from art.14 of Constitution of Russia "Russian Federation is a secular state", but clerical lobby prohibited this quotation also. Atheists were refused by Advertising Committee of Moscow,  large advertising company News Outdoor (division of News Corporation of Rupert Murdoch) and small advertising agencies, city bus operator Mosgortrans, etc.". Now activists are collecting donations for "Atheistmobile" to ride in Moscow with Campaign slogan.

Switzerland

The Swiss Freethinkers' Association planned to put the statement "Wahrscheinlich gibt es keinen Gott. Kein Grund zur Sorge, geniess das Leben!" onto one public bus in ten cities of Switzerland. The campaign is a reaction to billboards with Bible quotes such as "I believe that Jesus Christ is God's son" or "Jesus is the light of life". The stated goal of the campaign was to give people a voice who feel harried by missionary messages.

Unknown parties have threatened the Luzern public transport operator VBL to set their buses on fire if they carry such messages; VBL employees were also verbally harassed. The Freethinkers' Association received hate email from radical Christians. The political party Evangelische Volkspartei was thinking about creating a counter-campaign.

In Bern, the metropolitan public transport operator SVB refused to carry the campaign, saying that they "do not want to take part in this provocation". Zürich and Geneva showed similar reactions: The cities did not want to risk offending religious feelings.

References

External links

 German Atheist Bus Campaign
 New Zealand Atheist Bus Campaign

2008 in the United Kingdom
2009 in the United Kingdom
Atheism in the United Kingdom
Advertising campaigns
Bus transport in the United Kingdom
Atheism in popular culture
Atheism in Canada


On 19 October 2008, Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) activists attacked North Indian candidates appearing for the All India Railway Recruitment Board entrance exam for the Western region in Mumbai, India. The attacks invoked a quick reaction from Bihar members of the Union Government in Delhi, notably the Union Railways Minister Lalu Prasad Yadav and his cabinet colleague, Ram Vilas Paswan. The Chief Minister of Bihar, Nitish Kumar spoke to his Maharashtra counterpart Vilasrao Deshmukh and urged him to provide protection to the migrants from Bihar. Lalu called for the MNS to be shut down and called Raj Thackeray, its leader, a "mental case."

Pawan Mahto, a resident of Bara-Khurd village in Nalanda district, Bihar died after being assaulted by MNS activists. However, railway police claimed, based on the CCTV footage, that Pawan had died due to an accident at Andheri station after slipping at a platform.

On 20 October 2008, Thackeray was arrested in Ratnagiri after Mumbai police had received a non-bailable warrant issued by a Jamshedpur court against the MNS chief.

Incident

MNS (Maharashtra Navnirman Sena) and Shiv Sena activists attacked 13 railway board examination centres in suburban Mumbai to protest against "inadequate representation" of locals of Maharashtra in the above said exams. As per MNS, locals i.e. Maharashtrians should be given priority over others as the railway posts were vacant in Maharashtra. The applications received from most of the locals of Maharashtra were rejected and if the same were accepted they were not provided with hall tickets. Moreover, the applications received from locals residing in Bihar were accepted and issued Hall Tickets to sit in the exam hall. Irked by such irresponsible behaviour of Railways, MNS workers entered the examination halls and vacated all the people of bihar and stopped them from giving the exams.

Violence
Raj's arrest ignited violence by his supporters in large parts of the city forcing it to shut down. Irate supporters went on the rampage torching public transport and telling office goers to return home. Many shops and commercial establishments, especially those run or managed by non-Maharashtrians, chose not to open at all to avoid trouble. Raj, whose MNS workers Sunday attacked non-Maharashtrians appearing for the railway board examination, was brought from Ratnagiri, about 250 km from here, to be produced at the Bandra court, where he was summoned for.

There was mayhem outside the court premises with large crowds gathering around restively and camera crews waiting to capture the trouble.[ In some places, buses, taxis and autorickshaws were set on fire, in others areas public transport just stayed off the roads. The office of the state Congress spokesperson Sanjay Nirupam was also vandalised.]

A North Indian shopkeeper was killed in Bhandup, Mumbai after he refused to shut down his shop when MNS activists protesting Raj's arrest forced him to do so. Four persons were killed and another seriously injured in a village near Kalyan. Deputy commissioner of police (rural) Sanjay Shintre said two North Indians, a member of the Agri community and an MNS worker were killed in a clash between the two communities in Pisavali, 10 km from Kalyan. Earlier, curfew had been imposed in the entire Kalyan area. The situation in Kalyan worsened in the evening as Raj was driven there to a police station lock-up where he was to spend the night before being presented in a court on 22 October. Five outdoor broadcast vans belonging to media houses were damaged by MNS supporters. A cameraman from ETV was injured and had to be admitted to a private hospital. One Kalyan-Dombivli municipal transport bus was set on fire while five bikes were reduced to ashes. Transport services across Kalyan were paralysed. A jewellery shop was also ransacked by MNS supporters. In all one hundred and twenty-five cases of arson, rioting and stonepelting were registered across the state, including in Pune and Marathwada, by early evening, and 2,085 people were arrested, state director general of police A N Roy said.

As news about the arrest spread, there was violence in other parts of Maharashtra too. Sporadic incidents of stone pelting at municipal and private buses were reported in the reat of Maharashtra following the arrest of MNS chief Raj Thackeray in Ratnagiri. In Kothrud area, some alleged MNS activists damaged a company's bus that was taking its employees to workplace. Few Pune Municipal Transport (PMT) buses were stoned by MNS activists, police said. Meanwhile, police have picked up around 100 MNS activists, including some corporators as a preventive measure. In Nashik, MNS activists set ablaze a truck near PWD minister Chhagan Bhujbal's farm and also damaged another truck at Vilholi-Phata area, police said. Incidents of stone pelting on MSRTC buses and other vehicles were reported in some areas, they said, adding vehicular traffic on the busy Mumbai-Agra-national highway was disrupted following the protest. Police rounded up 70 MNS activists in Nashik incidents and security was tightened in the city. In Solapur, incidents of stone pelting on state transport buses were also reported. In Nagpur MNS party leaders claimed to have damaged several MSRTC buses.

Protests

Shivananda Tiwari, Rajya Sabha MP and JD-U national general secretary, blaming the Bihar state government for the reactionary violence in Bihar by the agitated youths and said,"This reaction is out of frustration and is totally spontaneous. People are very angry at the treatment meted out to the state youths in Maharashtra.". Various cases were filed in Bihar and Jharkhand against Raj Thackeray for assaulting the students. A murder case was also filed by Jagdish Prasad, father of Pawan Kumar, who was allegedly killed by MNS activists in Mumbai. Mumbai police, however, claimed it to be a case of accident. Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar announced a compensation of Rs  to Pawan's family. Bihar state Congress chief, Anil Kumar Sharma, has demanded enactment of an Act by Parliament for closing opportunities to any political party or organisation that indulge in obscurantism and raise such narrow, chauvinistic issues based on caste, religion and regionalism to capture power.

Bihar

Angry students in various parts of Bihar damaged railway property and disrupted train traffic, as protests continued against assaults on north Indians by MNS activists in Mumbai. The police said the protesters targeted Patna, Jehanabad, Barh, Khusrupur, Sasaram and Purnia railway stations in the morning. The protesting students reportedly set afire two AC bogies of an express train at Barh railway station. They ransacked Jehanabad, Barh, Purnia and Sasaram railway stations. According to the railway police, at least 10 students were detained in the morning and extra security was deployed to control the situation.

Noted Physician Dr Diwakar Tejaswi observed a day-long fast in Patna to protest against repeated violence by the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) leader Raj Thackeray and his goons against the north Indians.

Various student organisations gave a call for Bihar shutdown on 25 Oct 2008 to protest attacks on north Indian candidates by Maharashtra Navnirnam Sena activists during a Railway recruitment examination in Mumbai.
During the anti-MNS agitation a group of 63 tourists, of which many were Marathis, were on a tour of sacred Buddhist sites. The tourists found themselves stranded on the outskirts of Patna as riots broke out. The Marathis in the group were forced to hide their identity for fear of attacks. The group avoided speaking in Marathi, and woman wore saris in the north Indian rather than the Marathi style. For security, the group had to escorted by 25 policeman to the station. The tourists reached Nagpur safely.

Uttar Pradesh

A group of 25 people pelted stones on the Maharashtra Bhawan in Khalasi Line, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Constructed in 1928, the building is owned by the lone trust run by Marathis in Kanpur. Over the years, it has served as an important venue for prominent festivals, including Ganesh Utsav and Krishna Janmastami.

Delhi

A group of 20 youths, from Bihar, attacked Maharashtra Sadan in the capital on 3 November. The Rashtrawadi Sena has claimed responsibility for the attack. They ransacked the reception of the building and raised slogans against Raj Thackeray.

Jharkhand

After the October 2008 anti-Bihari attacks in Maharashtra, members of the Bharatiya Bhojpuri Sangh (BBS) vandalised the official residence of Tata Motors, Jamshedpur plant head S.B. Borwankar, a Maharashtrian. Armed with lathis and hockey sticks, more than 100 BBS members trooped to Borwankar's Nildih Road bungalow around 3.30pm. Shouting anti-MNS slogans, they smashed windowpanes and broke flowerpots. BBS president Anand Bihari Dubey called the attack on Borwankar's residence unfortunate, and said that he knew BBS members were angry after the attack in Maharashtra on Biharis, but did not expect a reaction. Fear of further violence gripped the 4,000-odd Maharashtrian settlers living in and around the city.

Political reactions
Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh admitted that his government was responsible for failure in preventing the attacks by MNS on north Indian candidates at Railways examination centres and ordered a probe into the incident, which will also enquire into why the job advertisements where not given in Marathi newspapers. "What has happened is not good. Such incidents take place because of loopholes in the law. One can't hold only the Home Ministry responsible for it, it is (entire) government's responsibility. Such incidents are affecting the image of the state and I have instructed the DGP to take stern action," Deshmukh said. However, powerful Congress leader Narayan Rane, wrote a piece in the 23 October 2008 issue of 'Prahar', in a city newspaper he owns, pleading that Marathis should get their legitimate share in the central government sector. The Times of India noted, the essay indicates that Rane continues to have a soft spot for MNS chief Raj Thackeray – the two were close friends when Rane was in the Sena. Stating that the Marathis were getting a raw deal in central government jobs such as income tax and the railways, Rane said it was perplexing that of 54,000, only 54 Marathis were summoned for the railway recruitment exams. The railways must give Marathis their legitimate share in employment, Rane said.
Political parties condemned the attack by MNS activists on north Indian candidates who had come to appear in railway board exam in the city. "Strict action should be taken on MNS activists for the attack," said Bihari origin Congress leader Sanjay Nirupam. Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh said his government will not tolerate Raj Thackeray's party. NCP spokesperson Gurunath Kulkarni also demanded harsh action against the activists. "I condemned the attack by MNS activists. They are not doing any good for Marathi people but spoiling the name of Maharashtra," Kulkarni said.

Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar demanded action against the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena activists and full security to students. Nitish Kumar requested Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh intervention. Kumar directed the additional director general of police to contact senior police officials in Maharashtra and compile a report on Sunday's incident and asked the home commissioner to hold talks with the Maharashtra home secretary to seek protection for people from Bihar.

Bihar Chief Minister Nitish Kumar demanded action against the Maharashtra Navnirman Sena activists and full security to students. Nitish Kumar requested Maharashtra Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh intervention. Kumar directed the additional director general of police to contact senior police officials in Maharashtra and compile a report on Sunday's incident and asked the home commissioner to hold talks with the Maharashtra home secretary to seek protection for people from Bihar. He said: "I expect the Maharashtra government to act tough and protect our students."

Others have also chimed in saying:
 The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) was responsible for the entrenchment of Shiv Sena and its chief Bal Thackeray as well as Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) and its chief Raj Thackeray in the affairs of Maharashtra, even as they believed in and practised narrow politics based on caste, religion, regionalism and chauvinistic ambitions. BJP entered into an opportunistic alliance with Shiv Sena chief Bal Thackeray and also helped in paving the way for the rule of this party on Maharashtra." Anil Kumar Sharma, Bihar state Congress chief
 "The Congress party has a mastery in creating 'bhasmasurs' (self destructing demons). Earlier they created Bhindranwale in Punjab, which killed a Congress Prime Minister. Even this Raj Thackeray is ultimately going to damage Congress" Shivananda Tiwari, Rajya Sabha MP and JD-U national general secretary
 "The Congress is Raj Thackeray's event management company and it is trying to project Raj's arrest as an event instead of making any serious effort to check the violent campaign of MNS against north Indians. There is match-fixing between Raj and the Maharashtra government. The state government deliberately books him under small sections and he gets bail." Shahnawaz Hussain, BJP MP

Similar attack
In 2003, the Shiv Sena alleged that of the 500 Maharashtrian candidates, only ten of them successful in the Railways exams. 90 per cent of the successful candidates were alleged to be from Bihar. Activists from the Shiv Sena ransacked a railway recruitment office in protest against non-Marathi's being among the 650,000 candidates set to compete for 2,200 railway jobs in the state. Eventually, after attacks on Biharis heading towards Mumbai for exams, the central government delayed the exams.

See also
2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra
Anti-Bihari sentiment
Rahul Raj encounter

References

Further reading

2008 in India
History of Mumbai (1947–present)
Violence in India
Racism in India
Regionalism in India
2000s in Mumbai
Anti-Bihari sentiment
2008 crimes in India
October 2008 events in India


Dinesh C. Paliwal (born December 17, 1957) is an Indian American business executive. He is a Partner at Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) and also serves as Executive Chairman of Marelli. He was the Chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of Harman International, a provider of audio and infotainment systems for the automotive, consumer, and professional markets, from 2007 to 2020.

Paliwal currently serves as a member of the boards of Nestlé, the Fortune Global 100 food and beverage company, and the board of Raytheon Technologies (NYSE:RTX). He also serves on the board of trustees of Miami University of Ohio.

He has served on the boards of Harman International, ABB, ADT, Bristol Myers, TYCO International, and Embarq Corporation. He was also a member of the CEO Business Roundtable 2003-2020. He had previously served as Chairman of the National Foreign Trade Council, ABB India Ltd., Lummus Global (an oil and gas technology company) and as a Director for the US China Business Council, US India Business Council and International Swimming Hall of Fame. He also served for three years as Economic Advisor to the Governor of Guangdong Province, China.

Education and career
Paliwal, a US citizen born, raised and educated in India, has lived and worked in Australia, China, India, Singapore, Switzerland, and the United States. He earned an MS degree in Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (Roorkee, India); MS in Applied Science and Engineering and MBA in Finance from Miami University (Oxford, Ohio). In 2019, the board of trustees of Miami University also conferred an honorary Doctor of Laws degree to Dinesh for his ongoing efforts and contributions toward advancing the University's leadership in business, technology, innovation and entrepreneurial endeavors. Before joining Harman he worked at the ABB Group as President Global Markets and Technology. During his 22 years with ABB, he held management positions in five countries and was instrumental in the company's turnaround during the period 2002–2007.

In 2010, Paliwal was named Metro New York Entrepreneur of the Year by Ernst and Young, and received the Indian American Achiever Award by the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO). He received the Pinnacle Award as one of the Outstanding 50 Asian Americans in Business 2012 by Asian American Business Development Center. In 2014, Fortune Magazine named Paliwal in their "Businessperson of the Year" list. He was honored by the T. J. Martell Foundation in 2015 and also by Breakthrough, a global nonprofit, for his contributions in advancing women's causes in 2016. In 2017, Paliwal was named to the inaugural Recode 100, recognizing the year's most influential people in tech, business and media, and B'nai B'rith International honored him with its Distinguished Achievement Award. In the same year, Paliwal also received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor and made a donation to Miami University's Farmer School of Business along with his wife to create the Dinesh and Ila Paliwal Innovation Chair and the Dinesh and Ila Paliwal Scholarship.

Samsung announced its intent to acquire HARMAN for approximately $8 billion in November 2016, with Paliwal continuing to lead the company post-acquisition. The transaction was completed in March 2017.

Paliwal stepped down on April 1, 2020 after nearly 14 years with the company as President and CEO of Harman and served as a Senior Advisor to the board of directors and to the new CEO, Michael Mauser, until December 2020. The last ten years Paliwal tripled Harman's revenue.

Early life

Paliwal was born on December 17, 1957 in Agra, India as one of seven children in a family of modest means. He married Ila Sharma after attending University of Roorkee. Paliwal's father, Ram Chandra Paliwal, was a nationally renowned social leader who worked closely with Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders in India's freedom movement. He obtained an engineering degree with merit from the University of Roorkee (now renamed as the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee), India. He was later awarded a full scholarship to pursue advanced degrees in Engineering and Management at Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA.

Paliwal left India in 1981, but still visits frequently with his family and for business activities. His wife, son and daughter are all accomplished musicians.

References

External links
 Harman profile

1957 births
Living people
Indian emigrants to the United States
Miami University alumni
IIT Roorkee alumni
People from Agra
American chief executives
People from Stamford, Connecticut
Harman International
20th-century American businesspeople
21st-century American businesspeople
American people of Indian descent
Chief executives in the technology industry
American technology chief executives


Daryl Veltman (born September 25, 1985) is a Canadian professional lacrosse player. He is currently a member of the New England Black Wolves in the National Lacrosse League.

High School/College career
Veltman attended the Connecticut college-preparatory Salisbury School, before enrolling at Hobart and William Smith Colleges. Veltman played collegiate lacrosse for the Hobart College Statesmen. As a freshman in 2005, he was honored by the ECAC Lacrosse League as "Rookie of the Year."  During his freshman season, Veltman led his team in scoring.  In all three subsequent seasons, he would continue his team's leading scorer. Veltman was recognized by the conference with ALL-ECAC team honors three times, including first-team recognition as a senior.

Canadian Box career

Junior
Veltman played junior box lacrosse in the Ontario Lacrosse Association.  From 2000 to 2002, Veltman was a member of the Halton Hills Bulldogs in the OLA Junior B Lacrosse League. In 2002, he was named his conference's Most Valuable Player.  From 2003 to 2006 he played Junior A lacrosse with the Orangeville Northmen. In 2005, he led the OLA Junior A Lacrosse League in scoring with a career high 102 points.

Senior
After some controversy about transferring provinces within the Canadian Lacrosse Association, Veltman moved west to British Columbia and joined the Coquitlam Adanacs of the Western Lacrosse Association in 2007. During his rookie season, Veltmen helped the Adanacs to a league championship and their first Mann Cup appearance since 2001.

Professional career
Veltman was selected with the first overall pick by the expansion Boston Blazers of the National Lacrosse League in the 2008 NLL Entry Draft.  In his rookie season, Veltman was named Rookie of the Week twice, and was also named Rookie of the Month for both January and February.

Veltman is the nephew of Jim Veltman, former Toronto Rock captain and current Rock advisor and National Lacrosse League all-time loose-ball leader.

On August 8, 2015, Veltman signed a two-year contract with the Buffalo Bandits

International career
In 2003, he represented Team Canada at the Under-19 World Lacrosse Championships, helping his team win the silver medal.

Statistics

Hobart College

National Lacrosse League

Canadian Lacrosse Association

References

1985 births
Living people
Boston Blazers players
Canadian lacrosse players
Hobart Statesmen lacrosse players
Hobart and William Smith Colleges alumni
Sportspeople from Brampton


Simultaneous action selection, or SAS, is a game mechanic that occurs when players of a game take action (such as moving their pieces) at the same time. Examples of games that use this type of movement include rock–paper–scissors and Diplomacy. Typically, a "secret yet binding" method of committing to one's move is necessary, so that as players' moves are revealed and implemented, others do not change their moves in light of the new information. Thus, in Diplomacy, players write down their moves and then reveal them simultaneously. Because no player gets the first move, this potentially arbitrary source of advantage is not present. It is also possible for simultaneous movement games to proceed relatively quickly, because players are acting at the same time, rather than waiting for their turn. Simultaneous action selection is easily implemented in card games such as Apples to Apples in which players simply select cards and throw them face-down into the center.

Limitations
Some games do not lend themselves to simultaneous movement, because one player's move may be prevented by the other player's. For instance, in chess, a move of a bishop takes queen would be incompatible with a simultaneous opposing move of queen takes bishop. By contrast, the simultaneous movement is possible in Junta because each coup phase has a movement stage and a separate combat stage; no units are removed until all have had a chance to move. It has been noted that "a certain amount of reverse psychology and reverse-reverse psychology ensues" as players attempt to calculate the implications of others' potential actions. Junta also has simultaneous action selection in that players secretly choose their locations at the same time. This is important in that, for instance, a player plotting an assassination may choose the bank for his or her own location (hoping to quickly deposit the ill-gotten gains) before finding out whether the location of his or her assassination was on the mark.

Real world applications
Simultaneous action selection is used in many real-world applications such as first-price sealed-bid auctions. The fact that no bidder knows what others are planning to bid may provide an incentive to bid high if there is a strong desire to win the auction, which can result in much higher winning bids than if better information were available. The prisoner's dilemma is another classic example of simultaneous action selection. SAS can also be used to introduce an element of chance, as when rock-paper-scissors is used to decide a matter.

See also
First-move advantage in chess
Simultaneous game

References

External links
 BoardGameGeek: Games using simultaneous action selection
 BoardGameGeek wiki: Simultaneous Action Selection

Game design
Game theory


This is a list of notable libertarian organizations.

Caucuses
 LPRadicals
 Republican Liberty Caucus
 Mises Caucus

Think tanks and non-profit institutions

 Americans for Limited Government
 Atlas Network
 Cascade Policy Institute
 Cato Institute – Washington, DC
 Centre for Civil Society
 Center for Individual Freedom
 Center for Libertarian Studies (CLS; defunct) – New Delhi, India
 Centre for Independent Studies (CIS)
 Competitive Enterprise Institute
 Families Against Mandatory Minimums (FAMM)
 Foundation for Economic Education (FEE)
 Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE)
 Fraser Institute
 The Independent Institute
 Institute for Humane Studies (IHS)
 Institute for Justice (IJ)
 Institute of Public Affairs (IPA)
 Jerusalem Institute for Market Studies
 James G. Martin Center for Academic Renewal
 Ladies of Liberty Alliance (LOLA)
 Libertas Institute (LI)– Utah, US
 Ludwig von Mises Institute – Alabama, US
 Pacific Research Institute (PRI)
 Reason Foundation – Publisher of Reason

Issue and activist

 Young ACT
 Alliance of Libertarian Activists (ALA; defunct)
 Bureaucrash
 Campaign for Liberty
 Center for a Stateless Society (C4SS)
 Cop Block
 Downsize DC Foundation
 The Future of Freedom Conference (FOF; defunct)
 Free State Project
 FreedomWorks
 Freedom School
 Liberty International
 Libertarian Alliance
 Libertarian League
 Libertarian Party (United States)
 Libertair, Direct, Democratisch (defunct)
 Rampart College (defunct)
 Society for Libertarian Life (SLL; defunct)
 Students for a Libertarian Society (SLS; defunct)
 Students for Liberty (SFL)
 World Libertarian Order (WLO)
 Young Americans for Liberty (YAL)

Publishers and publications
 Heroic Destiny Productions
 Fimbul Winter Books
 Laissez Faire Books
 Liberty (magazine)
 Reason (magazine)
 The Voluntaryist

Other
 The Atlas Society
 Free State Project
 Libertarians for Life
 Liberty Fund
 Prometheus Award – presented by the Libertarian Futurist Society

See also

 List of libertarian political parties
 Outline of libertarianism

Lists of organizations


Ravin v. State, 537 P.2d 494 (Ak. 1975), was a unanimous decision by the Alaska Supreme Court. Decided on May 27, 1975, the Court held that the Alaska Constitution's right to privacy protects an adult's ability to use and possess a small amount of marijuana in the home for personal use. The Alaska Supreme Court thereby became the first—and only—state or federal court to announce a constitutional privacy right that protects some level of marijuana use and possession.

History
It was brought about by Irwin Ravin, an attorney who deliberately got arrested in Anchorage for refusing to sign a traffic ticket while in possession of marijuana in order to challenge the existing law. Ravin felt that the case was more about privacy, saying

{{blockquote|Marijuana has never been an issue for me. The fight was always for privacy, our territory and now state has traditionally been the home of people who prize their individuality and who have chosen to achieve a measure of control over their own lifestyles which is now virtually unattainable in many of our sister states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.homernews.com/stories/041410/news_1_003.shtml |title=Friends, family pay tribute to man who fought for individual's right to privacy Michael Armstrong, Homer News, 4-14-10 |publisher=Homernews.com |access-date=2011-04-20}}</ref>}}

The court ruled:

Subsequent law
Alaskan voters approved a ballot initiative recriminalizing marijuana possession in 1990, but in Noy v. State'', the Alaska Court of Appeals held that ballot initiatives are subject to the same constitutional limitations as legislative enactments, and thus the portion of the amended statutes criminalizing possession of less than four ounces of marijuana in the home was unconstitutional.  In June 2006, the Alaska Legislature amended the law to prohibit the possession of more than one ounce of marijuana and to make possession of more than one ounce of marijuana a class A misdemeanor. In July 2006, Juneau Superior Court Judge Patricia Collins struck down the law, ruling it unconstitutional. In April 2009, in a 3-2 ruling, the Supreme Court of Alaska vacated the lower court's ruling, finding that the plaintiffs lacked standing to sue in the first place.

In November 2014, Alaskan voters approved a ballot measure to legalize the possession and sale of marijuana, regulating it in a manner similar to alcohol sales.

Notes

References

External links

1975 in Alaska
1975 in United States case law
1975 in cannabis
Alaska state case law
Legal history of Alaska
United States controlled substances case law
Cannabis law in Alaska
Drug control case law


Marijuana, or marihuana, is a name for the cannabis plant and more specifically a drug preparation from it. "Marijuana" as a term varies in usage, definition and legal application around the world. Some jurisdictions define "marijuana" as the whole cannabis plant or any part of it, while others refer to "marijuana" as a portion of the cannabis plant that contains high levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).  Some jurisdictions recognize "marijuana"  as a distinctive strain of cannabis, the other being hemp. For legal, research and statistical reference, "marijuana" generally refers to only the dried leaves and flowering tops (herbal cannabis), with by-products such as hashish or hash oil being uniquely defined and regulated. The form "marihuana" is first attested in Mexican Spanish; it then spread to other varieties of Spanish and to English, French, and other languages.

Etymology
The term, originally spelled variously as "marihuana" or "mariguana", originated in Mexican Spanish.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term may come from the Nahuatl mallihuan, meaning "prisoner". Author Martin Booth notes that this etymology was popularized by Harry J. Anslinger in the 1930s, during his campaigns against the drug. However, linguist Jason D. Haugen finds no semantic basis for a connection to mallihuan, suggesting that the phonetic similarity may be "a case of accidental homophony". Cannabis is not known to have been present in the Americas before Spanish contact, making an indigenous word an unlikely source.

Other suggestions trace the possible origins of the word to Chinese ma ren hua (麻仁花, lit. 'hemp seed flower'), possibly itself originating as a loan from an earlier semitic root *mrj "hemp". The Semitic root is also found in the Spanish word mejorana and in English marjoram, which could be related to the word marihuana. This is also known in Mexico as "Chinese oregano".

Additionally, traditional association with the personal name María Juana ('Mary Jane') is probably a folk etymology. The original Mexican Spanish used forms with the letter  (marihuana), and is famously used in the Mexican Revolutionary era (1910-1920) version of the lyrics of La Cucaracha.  Forms using the letter  (marijuana) seem to be an innovation of English, and their later appearance in French and Spanish are probably due to English influence.

"The origin of the word “marijuana” foreshadowed its current use. Historically, the earliest and most numerous group of users in the Americas were slaves from western Central Africa (modern Gabon to Angola). Their words for cannabis are now used in nearly all the places they (involuntarily) ended up during the 1700s and 1800s, which includes West Africa, the Caribbean and South America. Most notably, in Central America, the Kimbundu (Angolan) word mariamba became the Spanish word marihuana." Hence, “mariamba” is where the word “marijuana” comes from. The word “marijuana” as we know it today did not appear until 1846 in Farmacopea Mexicana, though it was spelled “mariguana.” In most following instances, the word was spelled marihuana.  In Chilean Spanish, mariguanza is the dance of a shaman in an altered state of consciousness.

English use

Early use of the term marijuana

The word entered English usage in the late 19th century. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known appearance of a form of the word in English is in Hubert Howe Bancroft's 1873 The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America. Other early variants include "mariguan" (1894), "marihuma" first recorded in 1905, "marihuano" in 1912, and "marahuana" in 1914. According to the second edition of Webster's New International Dictionary, the word originally denoted a wild species of South American tobacco, Nicotiana glauca.

The use of "marihuana" in American English increased dramatically in the 1930s, when it was preferred as a "foreign-sounding name" to stigmatize it during debates on the drug's use.  According to Lizzie Post, the word "marijuana" is deprecated because "in the early 1900s, the term marijuana was purposely used to negatively associate it with the Latino community." The word was codified into law and became part of common American English with the passing of the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937.

Contemporary pop culture and counterculture use

From the portrayal in the media of marijuana use by the hippie subculture in the 1960s, the word became associated with revolutionary youth. By 1975, reggae artist Peter Tosh defended the use of marijuana in the song "Legalize It". Since then, the word has been associated with the stoner comedy genre, beginning in mainstream films in 1978 with Up In Smoke and other media including the New York Off-Broadway show The Marijuana-Logues.

Formal usage
Many legal references prefer the term "cannabis", for instance in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.  However, many laws and regulations often use the term "marihuana" or "marijuana",  for instance the Controlled Substances Act  in the United States. Some cannabis reform  organizations, such as the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws and Marijuana Policy Project,  alongside political organizations like Help End Marijuana Prohibition Party of Australia and the Marijuana Party of Canada, also use this term.

See also

Cannabis (etymology)
List of names for cannabis

References

External links

The Mysterious Origins of the Word 'Marijuana', Alan Piper, Sino-Platonic Papers 153, 2005.

Cannabis
Cannabis culture
Etymologies
English words


On Such a Night is a 1955 British short semi-documentary film directed by Anthony Asquith which offers a snap-shot of the Glyndebourne opera house in the 1950s, including extracts from Le nozze di Figaro, and a fictional first visit to the opera house by an American. The film was "very discreetly aimed at potential American audiences fascinated by British eccentricities".

Background
It was filmed at Pinewood Studios and Lewes railway station on 28 May to 12 June 1955, with the operatic excerpts on 6 June 1955. After a private viewing on 25 October that year, the first public showing was on 24 November 1955 at the Gaumont Haymarket cinema, London, on a bill with Simon and Laura.

Synopsis
An American tourist (David Knight) has been persuaded by to visit Alfriston but is bemused by what he witnesses at Victoria Station when people in evening dress join his train. After a confusing journey in a compartment with two men talking about a new countess, he alights at Lewes and is more baffled still when the formally dressed people get on a Southdown bus waiting there. He gets in a taxi and asks the driver to follow the bus. Arriving at the entrance of Glyndebourne, he explains to an upper-class lady (Marie Lohr) he had noticed at Victoria Station who is with her niece (Josephine Griffin) that he does not have a ticket, at which they ask John Christie who sees that he gets one.

During the performance he watches Sesto Bruscantini sing "Non più andrai" and Sena Jurinac (the "new Countess") sing "Porgi, amor". The end of the second-act finale is shown, with Franco Calabrese, Monica Sinclair, Hugues Cuénod and Ian Wallace, and the very end of the opera. There is also a scene of Carl Ebert rehearsing Jurinac and Rizzieri and of the conductor Vittorio Gui and the administrator Moran Caplat, and the orchestra playing croquet. The film ends with the lady giving the American her ticket for Don Giovanni the following week so that he can come with her niece.

Cast
 David Knight as David Cornell
 Marie Lohr as Lady Falconbridge
 Josephine Griffin as Virginia Ridley
 Allan Cuthbertson as 1st gentleman
 Peter Jones as 2nd gentleman

In the opera extracts:
 Sesto Bruscantini as Figaro
  as Susanna
 Ian Wallace as Dr Bartolo
 Monica Sinclair as Marcellina
 Frances Bible as Cherubino
 Franco Calabrese as Count Almaviva
 Hugues Cuénod as Don Basilio
 Sena Jurinac as Countess Almaviva
 Gwyn Griffiths as Antonio
 Jeannette Sinclair as Barbarina
 Daniel McCoshan as Don Curzio

The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra is conducted by Vittorio Gui, and the film was issued on DVD in 2010, using a print from the BFI National Archive.

References

External links

1955 films
British short films
Films directed by Anthony Asquith
Films with screenplays by Paul Dehn
Films about opera
Films shot in East Sussex


Symphyotrichum greatae (formerly Aster greatae) is a species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae endemic to California and known by the common name Greata's aster.

Description
Symphyotrichum greatae is a colonizing perennial herb growing from a long rhizome. It produces upright to erect stems usually  tall. The leaves are mostly oval in shape and pointed, the ones at the base up to  long. The leaves and parts of the stems are hairy.

The inflorescence is an open array of flower heads amidst leaflike bracts. The flower head contains many pale violet to nearly white ray florets and a center of yellow disc florets. The fruit is a hairy cypsela.

Distribution and habitat
Symphyotrichum greatae is endemic to the San Gabriel Mountains of Southern California, where it grows in damp areas in the canyons of the southern slopes above the Los Angeles Basin.

Conservation
NatureServe lists it as Imperiled (G2) worldwide.

Citations

References

External links

greatae
Endemic flora of California
Natural history of the Transverse Ranges
~
~
Natural history of Los Angeles County, California
Plants described in 1902
Taxa named by Samuel Bonsall Parish


On Such a Night may refer to either:

 On Such a Night (1937 film), an American drama film directed by Ewald André Dupont
 On Such a Night (1956 film), a British short comedy film directed by Anthony Asquith.


Płonna may refer to the following places in Poland:
Płonna, Podkarpackie Voivodeship (south-east Poland)
Płonna, Masovian Voivodeship (east-central Poland)


Papyrus 40 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering), designated by 𝔓40, is an early copy of the New Testament in Greek. The manuscript paleographically has been assigned to the 3rd century.

Description
It is a papyrus manuscript of the Epistle to the Romans, it contains Romans 1:24-27; 1:31-2:3; 3:21-4:8; 6:4-5.16; 9:16-17.27.

The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type, rather proto-Alexandrian, Aland named it as "Free text", and placed it in Category I because of its date.

This manuscript is closer to Codex Sinaiticus than to Codex Alexandrinus and Vaticanus.

It is currently housed at the Papyrussammlung der Universität in the University of Heidelberg (Inv. no. 45).

See also
 List of New Testament papyri

References

Further reading
 Friedrich Bilabel, Römerbrieffragmente, VBP IV, (Heidelberg 1924), pp. 28–31.

External links
 VBP IV 57
 P40 Heidelberg, Institut für Papyrologie Inv G 645, Digital MSI at CSNTM

New Testament papyri
3rd-century biblical manuscripts
Early Greek manuscripts of the New Testament
Epistle to the Romans papyri


James John Hamlyn Moses (14 August 1873 – 28 May 1946) was an English politician who served as mayor and later MP for Plymouth.

Personal life
Moses was born in Dartmouth, Devon, the son of James J. H. Moses, a shipwright, and Susannah L. Peek.
He was educated at the Board School, Dartmouth and started work part-time at the age of nine as a newspaper boy. He became a full-time errand boy at the age of thirteen. He took an apprenticeship in the trade of shipbuilding at fifteen. He entered HM Dockyard, Devonport in 1895. He married Agnes Ferris in 1897. He lived at 95 Alexandra Road, Devonport. He was a temperance worker and local preacher. He was Methodist from 1891.

Political career
Moses became a Member of the Devonport Borough Council in 1911, the Council of Greater Plymouth in 1914, and an Alderman in 1921. He then became Borough Magistrate in 1918, Mayor of Plymouth in 1926–27 and Devon County Magistrate in 1927. He was Member of the Executive Committee of the Ship Constructive and Shipwrights' Association.

Moses was originally a Liberal but joined the Labour Party in 1918 and became a local leader. He contested the Plymouth Drake constituency in the elections of 1923 and 1924, before defeating Arthur Shirley Benn and H. Pratt in the 1929 election. He was the first royal dockyard worker to be elected to Parliament, serving till 1931. After being elected a petition was presented against him alleging bribery and corruption on the part of his agent during the election. He was cleared of all charges and awarded £3,000 costs.

References

External links

1873 births
1946 deaths
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for Plymouth
Labour Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
Liberal Party (UK) councillors
Mayors of Plymouth
English shipbuilders
English Methodists
UK MPs 1929–1931


Fábio Henrique Lima (born 5 February 1981) is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Linense.

Biography
Born in Olímpia, São Paulo state, Lima left for CSKA Sofia in his early career. He then returned to São Paulo state for Juventus (SP), Barueri, Inter de Limeira, XV de Jaú, São Bento and América (SP).

In March 2008, he left for Campeonato Alagoano club CSA and in mid-2008 left for Romanian Liga I club Gloria Buzău.

In December 2008, he returned to CSA and signed a contract until the end of 2009 Campeonato Alagoano. In June, he extended his contract until the end of 2009 Campeonato Brasileiro Série D.

In December 2009 he left for Linense of 2010 Campeonato Paulista Série A2. After winning the champion and promoted back to São Paulo state first level, he extended his contract with club until the end of 2011 Campeonato Paulista.

On 27 December 2010 he signed a 1-year contract with CSA.

References

External links
Profile at football-lineups.com

 Linense Profile
 CBF
 Futpedia Profile

Brazilian men's footballers
Brazilian expatriate men's footballers
FC Gloria Buzău players
Liga I players
Expatriate men's footballers in Romania
Men's association football central defenders
Footballers from São Paulo (state)
1981 births
Living people


On Such a Night is a 1937 American crime film directed by Ewald André Dupont and starring Grant Richards, Karen Morley, and Roscoe Karns. It was made by Paramount Pictures and sold to MCA-Universal in 1958 for television syndication.

Plot

Cast

Grant Richards as Nicky Last
Karen Morley as Gail Stanley
Roscoe Karns as Joe Flynn
Eduardo Ciannelli as Ice Richmond
Milly as Mlle. Mimi Candle
Alan Mowbray as Professor Ricardo Montrose Candle
Robert McWade as Colonel Fentridge
Esther Dale as Miss Belinda Fentridge
John Wray as Guard Rumann
Frank Reicher as Horace Darwin
Paul Fix as Maxie Barnes

References

External links

1937 films
American crime drama films
1937 crime drama films
Films directed by E. A. Dupont
Films scored by Ernst Toch
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films


Volkstum (lit. folkdom or folklore, though the meaning is wider than the common usage of the term "folklore") is the entire utterances of a Volk or of an ethnic minority over its lifetime, expressing a "" which the people of such an ethnicity allegedly have in common.
It was the defining idea of the Völkisch movement.

German nationalists coined the term in the context of Germany's  "Freedom Wars" of 1813-1814, in marked and conscious opposition to ideals of the French Revolution such as universal human rights. This sense of the word is now criticised in academia, though it is still in use in the protection of ethnic minorities and is a legal standard in Austria.

History

Origins
In the Age of Enlightenment the adjective volkstümlich usually meant the cultural achievements of uneducated Germans as well as popular culture. The "Volksdichtung" (People's Poetry) was 'high' literature, the culture of distinction, and partly devalued the elite education and partly idealised it.  The concept was not yet tied to a certain nation, and attributed some of its characteristics to non-German culture.

Justus Möser (1720–1794), Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803), Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788) and other German Romantics gradually increased the concept by their actions into an unspoiled, organic, person liable closed and eternal "People's character" (Volkscharakter) and charged against the monarchies then dominating Germany. Möser already bordered on being the "Vater der Volkskunde" (Father of Ethnology) the Deutschtum against the cosmopolitanism of the Enlightenment and against the French Revolution.

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (Deutsches Volksthum 1810) is considered the inventor of the noun Volkstum. He translated the foreign word Nation and thus moved it into an "unerring something" in every Volk. For him and for Ernst Moritz Arndt (1769–1860) and Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762–1814), German Volkstum was a revolutionary source not only against the foreign domination of Napoleonic France, but also against dynasties and the church, with the word Enlightenment becoming less and less used.  For all three thinkers, the idea of a uniform anti-Enlightenment position with an opposed Volkstum was already linked with Antisemitism. Arndt wrote in Der Rhein, Deutschlands Strom, aber nicht Deutschlands Grenze 1813:

He strictly rejected Jewish emancipation, whilst seeing it as every man's natural right and goal, and in particular of the German people to the whole human race was living. He then summarised the concept as exclusive to those on the inside, not as being outside and expansive.

German Empire
The founding of the German Reich in 1871, as a "Kleindeutsche Lösung" under Prussian domination, only fulfilled part of the German nationalists' objectives, wishing and struggling as they did for the unification of all German speakers in a single nation state.

The more Volkstum concept was now part of a nationalist ideology and political propaganda. It  often served as a patriotic or visionary binding-agent to cover over or overcome the real contradictions inside and outside the German empire: for example, by providing a "Volkstumskampf", it summoned a corporate-agrarian Volksgemeinschaft or ideal community as the key features of Volkstum, though these did not actually exist. It was the term of choice for every figure wishing to turn to an irrational feeling and definition of unity, against both enemies inside and outside the Reich.

While the Brothers Grimm had not yet distinguished between Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft (society), Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936) noted in his 1887 work Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft that the two were mutually exclusive - he defined "community" as a form of mutual affirmation of the people in themselves as in their resources, their respective communities (such as their family) but as an understood purpose - as opposed to its mutual form as "society" in which the individual himself was a purpose, with a 'community' (e.g. a corporation) watching over his means. 'Community' would in his terms be felt by children as "the permanent and genuine" against the "temporary and apparent cohabitation" of 'society'. This was directed against the Marxism of social democracy, whose "scientific" reasoned ideal of the classless society was felt by Tönnies to be unworkable. He was very sceptical about a concept such as "Volksgemeinschaft"  - in the political sphere, he held that the ancient polis, or the medieval Hanseatic city as its most pronounced form, little more than which could be expected by modern people.

Underscored by the context of Wilhelmine militarism and imperialism on the eve of the First World War, however, Heinrich Claß (chairman of the Alldeutscher Verband) in contrast defined Volkstum as national assertiveness and "Menschlichkeit" (humanity):

He also took the "German disease" to be the German Jewish minority, who for him embodied all the moral values and ethnic roots of "corrosive" internationalism.

During the war the "Deutsche Volkstum" and "Deutschtum", particularly in universities, again became popular, in the sense of chauvinism. In "Deutschen Reden in schwerer Zeit" (German Speeches in a black time), 35 Berlin professors spoke out against much degeneration and foreigners, calling the World War a "Reinigungsbad" and the "fountain cellar of a new culture". Gustav Röthen, for example, saw it as the mass killings of the "sacred flame, faithful to the world-historical mission of the German people against barbarism and sub-culture".

Weimar Republic

Third Reich
Under National Socialism Volkstum was aggressively interpreted.  Adolf Hitler, in Mein Kampf, put Volkstum alongside race, "because the Volkstum, better than Race, lies not just in the speech, but in the blood."

After the "Machtergreifung", various university and non-university groups oriented towards völkisch and volkstum-politics were linked to cross-disciplinary "research communities", into which "Volk history" and "Ostforschung" were integrated, closely connected to the Nazi state and party.  Their specialist disciplines became programmes with more state backing and funding than ever before.  The concept of an "ethnic Volkstum" was divided into "Volksgenossen" (Volk comrades) and "Volksfeinde" (Volk enemies), so that the Volkstum concept was revised and became more strongly oriented towards racist and warlike solutions.

Above all, the Prussian archivist Albert Brackmann advocated and led the Gleichschaltung of the Nordostdeutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (Northeast German Research Foundation), which centrally directed research on East German history and controlled numerous projects on the issues of border demarcation and population policy. The young historians of Königsberg supported the "Ostpolitik" (Eastern Policy) of the NSDAP, for no academic elite had emerged within the party itself.  After 1937 the Norddeutsche and Ostdeutsche Forschungsgemeinschafts combined as a single large state-funded research organization. The impact of Volkstum historians was decisive in the use of their expertise in the Nazi ethnic policies in the conquered areas of eastern Europe from 1939 onwards.  They drafted numerous maps and statistics, serving Nazi planning as the basis of its settlement and population policy in Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine and Belarus.

The Nazis during the war made repeated efforts to propagate Volkstum ("racial consciousness"), pamphlets were issued that enjoined all German women to avoid sexual relations with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood.

The policy of "Eindeutschung" propagated and legitimated by the Volkstum historians, which made so-called German installations as ethnically and culturally, also favoured the Holocaust, even if they did not conceive it and were not directly involved in it.

Since 1945
After 1945 the concept was first used in its political sense in Germany as an expression of nationalist ideology and avoided by neutral words like "Bevölkerung" (population). Bertolt Brecht formulated it as: The Volk is not tümlich. In the DDR the term "Volk" – without "-tum" – expressed the supposed conformity of the population with the SED and the state in such word combinations as Volksdemokratie, Volkspolizei and Volksarmee. By contrast a later opposition slogan was "Wir sind das Volk".

In Austria the concept was equally needed, but in a multi-ethnic monarchy.  Thus in the 1976 National Minorities Act the term "Volksgruppe" served approximately as a synonym for national minority, according to the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities of the Council of Europe.  Section 6 in the German Federal Expellee Law also used the expression. The legislature of Switzerland explained Volkstum, at the time of ratification of the Framework Convention, as "inspired by the desire [...] to together preserve what relates to their common identity, including their culture, their traditions, their religion or their language". In accordance with this legislation Volkstum is primarily used to mean an expression of the self-perception of a population group.  In its popular sense (close to the usual English sense of folklore), the term appears occasionally in Germany as describing regional traditions (the Volkstum of the Danube Swabians, Sorbs, Frisians, etc.).

See also
 Volksgeist
 Volkstumspflege
 Volkstumspolitik
 RKFDV
 National identity

References

Germanic mysticism
Politics of Nazi Germany
Majority–minority relations
Nationalism in Germany
German words and phrases


Tarık Daşgün (born 26 August 1973 in Ankara) is a Turkish football manager and former player. In 2005 he was found guilty of doping.

Club career
He played for Gençlerbirliği S.K., Fenerbahçe S.K., Kocaelispor, Ankaragücü and Yimpaş Yozgatspor in the Turkish Süper Lig, appearing in more than 180 league matches and scoring 40 goals.

In 2005 he was found guilty of doping.

He also played for Tokatspor and retired from football at Belediye Bingölspor in 2007.

International career
Daşgün made two appearances for the full Turkey national football team, his debut coming in a friendly against Chile on 22 June 1995.

Personal

He graduated from Gazi University.

References

External links
 Manager profile at TFF

1973 births
Living people
Turkish men's footballers
Turkey men's international footballers
Gençlerbirliği S.K. footballers
Fenerbahçe S.K. footballers
Kocaelispor footballers
MKE Ankaragücü footballers
Sakaryaspor footballers
Kardemir Karabükspor footballers
Turkish football managers
Doping cases in association football
Turkish sportspeople in doping cases
Men's association football midfielders
Footballers from Ankara


Matthew Marsh (born 1 August 1982) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 2004 to 2010. He held the British super bantamweight title in 2008 and challenged once for the vacant Commonwealth super bantamweight title in 2010. As an amateur, he won two ABA championships, one at flyweight in 2001 and the other at bantamweight in 2004.

Professional career

Early career
Marsh begun his professional career in September 2004 with a win over Freddy James at the York Hall in Bethnal Green. By December 2006 he had compiled a winning ledger of 6–0 with wins over the likes of Welshman Dai Davies and French journeyman Frederic Gosset, and had earned a crack at the Southern Area featherweight championship. He challenged reigning champion Rocky Dean at the Excel Arena in the London Docklands and won a 10-round decision. The two fighters met again in July 2007 this time for the super bantamweight version of the same belt. Going into the second match up Dean was confident saying "I am faster and fitter, and I am twice the fighter I was when I last met Marsh...Last time we met, I gave him the first four rounds. That will not happen again". It was not to be however and Marsh won another 10-round decision which meant that he now held the southern area title at two different weights.

Defeat to Mathews
Following the back to back wins over Rocky Dean, Marsh once again stepped up to featherweight to box the current holder of the WBU title Derry Mathews. Mathews was himself a former ABA bantamweight champion, winning the title in 2002 two years before Marsh would pick up the same crown. The fight in October 2007 ended with a first defeat for Marsh with the step up in class proving a bit too much when the fight was stopped in the 11th round. It was the first time Marsh had been taken beyond 10 rounds and observers noted that the fatigue was beginning to show as he struggled into the later stages.

British champion
Marsh responded to his first career defeat in style, knocking out Tanzanian fighter Ajibu Salum in the first round of his next bout. The knockout was significant in that it was the first time in his fledgling career that Marsh has stopped an opponent. In June 2008 Marsh met the current British super bantamweight champion Esham Pickering and won a unanimous points decision over 12 rounds. Pickering, a former European champion at the weight, was confident going into the bout saying "I just think I will blow him away, I can beat him in every department." Marsh however was dominant from the first bell landing the most punches and being generally busier. Marsh made the first defence of his new title against the man he had already beaten twice, Rocky Dean, at the York Hall on 21 November 2008. The fight ended with a majority decision for the champion handing Marsh his third win over Dean. Marsh had been due to defend his title for the second time on 17 April 2009 against English champion Mark Moran however he struggled to make the super bantamweight weight limit and was forced to vacate the title. Jason Booth, the reigning Commonwealth bantamweight champion stepped in and defeated Moran with a win in the sixth round.

Route back to contention
Following a break from boxing Marsh returned to action on 18 September 2009 to fight Josh Wale for the vacant English super bantamweight crown. Despite winning the fight Marsh was unable to claim the belt as he once again failed to make the weight limit after weighing in six ounces over. On 18 December 2009 Marsh beat Marc Callaghan over six rounds at the York Hall and on 5 February 2010 challenged Jason Booth for the British and Commonwealth titles. The fight, at the Harvey Hadden Leisure Centre in Nottingham, resulted in a second career defeat for Marsh as he failed to reclaim his old title.  Booth was able to claim the Lonsdale belt outright after the fight when a cut above Marsh's right eye forced the fight to be stopped in the 11th round.

References

English male boxers
Bantamweight boxers
1982 births
Living people


Menon (, 525? BC - 472? BC) was a prominent Pharsalian who assisted Athens, led by Cimon, in their battle against Eion around 476 BC.  According to Demosthenes (XIII.23, XXIII.199) he himself contributed 12 talents of silver and equipped 300 cavalry from his own penestae for battle.  He was awarded by the Athenians for his service.  He may be the father or grandfather of Menon II of Pharsalus.

Bibliography
Demosthenes: "On Organization" (line 23) & "Against Aristocrates" (line 199)
Roland Grubb Kent, A History of Thessaly: From the Earliest Historical Times to the Ascension of Philip V. of Macedon, 1904, ch V, pp 20–21
A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Ed. William Smith, 1876, Vol 2 pp 1043–1044

External links
"On Organization" at Perseus Project
"Against Aristocrates" at Perseus Project

Ancient Thessalian statesmen
5th-century BC Greek people
People from Farsala


Priscilla Wakefield, nee Priscilla Bell (31 January 1751 – 12 September 1832) was an English Quaker philanthropist and prolific author. She promoted social projects for the benefit of women and children such as schools and maternity hospitals. Her writings were wide-ranging: she wrote about feminist economics, as well as scientific subjects, in particular the popular eighteenth-century discipline of botany. She was widely known for her moral and instructional writings for children.

Life
Priscilla Bell was born into a family in Tottenham, then a Middlesex village north of London. Her father was Daniel Bell of nearby Stamford Hill. His wife Catherine was the granddaughter of the Quaker theologian Robert Barclay. She was one of several sisters, one of whom, Catherine Bell, married John Gurney of Earlham Hall and had many notable children, the best-known being Elizabeth Fry.

In adult life, Wakefield remained a member of the Society of Friends, and conformed to their religious practices, but did not observe the restrictions on dress or abstinence from amusements.

She married Edward Wakefield (1750–1826), a London merchant, and had three children. Writing to support her family financially, she wrote 17 books in two decades. She was one of many female English writers at the end of the 18th century who began to demand a broader life for women. Charities which she founded included a maternity hospital, a Female Benefit Club, and a penny bank for children, which developed into England's first savings bank.

The Wakefields had five children, of whom three survived to adulthood. The two surviving sons were Edward Wakefield (1774–1854) and Daniel Wakefield. The surviving daughter, Isabella (3 March 1773 – 17 October 1841), married Joshua Head of Ipswich on 12 September 1794. Her grandchildren included Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Daniel Bell Wakefield, William Hayward Wakefield, Arthur Wakefield and Felix Wakefield.

Wakefield died at the house of her daughter, Isabella Head, on Albion Hill, Ipswich, on 12 September 1832, and was buried on 20 December in the Friends' burial ground at the town's New Meeting House.

A portrait of Wakefield, her husband Edward Wakefield and her sister, Catherine Bell Gurney, painted by Francis Wheatley, was exhibited in South Kensington in 1868. A portrait in lithograph appears in the London Friends' Institute.

Writing
Wakefield wrote books on a range of subjects, including natural science, feminism, and economics. She also wrote children's literature.

Wakefield published a book on feminism in 1798, Reflection on the Present Condition of the Female Sex; with Suggestions for its Improvement, which came out under the radical publisher Joseph Johnson. Although this is concerned with how women could become financially independent, it takes a traditional view of their role in society. Wakefield examined women's prospects for employment in the modern world in light of Adam Smith's writings, and supported broader education for women. However, she thought better education for women would make them better wives, rather than advocating education for its own sake.

Wakefield was widely known as a writer of moral guides for children. Her early publication, Juvenile Anecdotes, Founded on Facts, was successful, and she went on to publish other books of the same nature and of a more advanced character, dealing with science and travel. She was the first woman to write scientific books for children.

Wakefield had considerable knowledge of botany and natural history, and in 1796 published the popular An Introduction to Botany, in a Series of Familiar Letters, which was translated into French in 1801 and reached an eleventh edition in 1841. It was illustrated with a series of uncredited full-page illustrations showing plant parts in detail. It was followed by An Introduction to the Natural History and Classification of Insects, in a Series of Letters.

By the time she died, Wakefield had written two dozen books, many having appeared in several editions and been translated into foreign languages.

Philanthropy
Wakefield was an active philanthropist, promoting education, maternity provision and savings banks for the poor in Tottenham. She formed the Lying-in Charity for Women in 1791. It supplied poor pregnant women with midwifery care and an initial supply of linen and baby clothes as well as a small amount of money. It was supported by annual subscription and continued into the 19th century.

In 1792, Wakefield co-founded the School for Industry, which taught girls reading, writing, sewing, knitting and arithmetic. In 1798. she founded the first "frugality bank" in England, to help those on low incomes save money. Members paid according to age a monthly sum that would give them sick pay and a pension at 60. Women and children were encouraged to save what they could of their income. Similar savings banks were set up nationally, but they were effectively nationalised when the Post Office Savings Bank was founded in 1865.

Legacy
Priscilla Wakefield House, a nursing care home in Seven Sisters, London is named after her.

Selected works
Mental Improvement: Or, the Beauties and Wonders of Nature and Art, 1794
An Introduction to Botany, in a Series of Familiar Letters, London, 12mo 1796
Juvenile Anecdotes, Founded on Facts, 1795-8 (2 well received volumes that went to an eighth edition in 1825)
Reflections on the Present Condition of the Female Sex, With Suggestions for Its Improvement, 1798
The Juvenile Travellers: Containing the Remarks of A Family During a Tour Through the Principal States and Kingdoms of Europe, 1801 (her most popular work of imaginative fiction reaching the 19th edition in 1850)
Domestic Recreation: Or, Dialogues Illustrative of Natural and Scientific Subjects, 1805
Sketches of Human Manners, 1807
An Introduction to the Natural History and Classification of Insects, in a Series of Letters, London, 1816, 12mo.

References

Sources
This article incorporates material from

Bibliography

External links

The Journals of Priscilla Wakefield: 1798-1799 and associated blog
 "Wakefield, Priscilla." The Women's Print History Project, 2019, Person ID 529. Accessed 2023-01-02.

1751 births
1832 deaths
18th-century English women writers
18th-century English writers
English philanthropists
English Quakers
English educational theorists
English children's writers
Quaker writers
Women religious writers
People from Tottenham
19th-century English women writers
Priscilla
Bell family