The U-5 class was a class of three submarines or U-boats that were operated by the Austro-Hungarian Navy ( or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine) before and during World War I. The class was a part of the Austro-Hungarian Navy's efforts to competitively evaluate three foreign submarine designs.

The design of the boats was based upon John Philip Holland's submarine design and featured a single, teardrop hull, which resembled the design of modern nuclear submarines. The class members were just over  long and displaced  surfaced and  submerged. All were originally equipped with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry four torpedoes. The first two boats, U-5 and U-6, built specifically for the Austro-Hungarian Navy, to the same design as the United States C-class submarine were partially constructed in the United States and completed at Whitehead & Co. at Fiume. The third was completely constructed by Whitehead's at Fiume and purchased by Austria-Hungary to bolster their U-boat fleet after the outbreak of World War I.

All three boats had successes during World War I; between them they sank five ships with a combined tonnage of 22,391. In addition they captured seven ships as prizes and damaged , a French dreadnought of 22,189 tons displacement. All three boats were sunk during the war, though U-5, the lead boat of the class, was raised and recommissioned after her sinking. After the war's end, U-5, the only survivor of the class, was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and was broken up in 1920.

Design and construction
In 1904, after allowing the navies of other countries to pioneer submarine developments, the Austro-Hungarian Navy ordered the Austrian Naval Technical Committee (MTK) to produce a submarine design. The January 1905 design developed by the MTK and other designs submitted by the public as part of a design competition were all rejected by the Navy as impracticable. They instead opted to order two submarines each of designs by Simon Lake, Germaniawerft, and John Philip Holland for a competitive evaluation. The two Holland submarines comprised the U-5 class. The Navy authorized two boats, U-5 and U-6, from Whitehead & Co. of Fiume in 1906.

The U-5 class was built to the same design as the C class for the US Navy and was built by Robert Whitehead's firm of Whitehead & Co. under license from Holland and his company, Electric Boat. Components for the first two Austrian boats were manufactured by the Electric Boat Company and assembled at Fiume, while the third boat was a speculative private venture by Whitehead that failed to find a buyer and was purchased by Austria-Hungary upon the outbreak of World War I.

The U-5-class boats had a single-hulled design with a teardrop-shape that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines. The boats were just over  long and displaced  surfaced, and  submerged. The torpedo tubes featured unique, cloverleaf-shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis. The ships were powered by twin 6-cylinder gasoline engines while surfaced, but suffered from inadequate ventilation which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew. While submerged, they were propelled by twin electric motors.

The first two boats, U-5 and U-6, were ordered by the Austro-Hungarian Navy for evaluation and were partially assembled in the United States, shipped to Fiume, and riveted together by Whitehead & Co., which, author Edwin Sieche reports, "caused a lot of trouble". U-5 was launched in February 1909 and was followed in June by the launch of U-6. Both boats were commissioned by April 1910.

The third boat, originally named SS-3, was built on speculation entirely at Whitehead's in Fiume. The boat's design featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems. Gibson and Prendergast report that, when built, SS-3 was powered by electric motors for both surface and submerged running. When the surface performance of the electric motors proved disappointing in trials, SS-3s power-plant was rebuilt to match the gasoline/electric combination used in U-5 and U-6. SS-3 was launched in March 1911 and was offered to the Austro-Hungarian Navy, but because the evaluation of the first two U-5-class boats was still underway, they declined to purchase.

As built, the U-5-class boats were armed with two  bow torpedo tubes and could carry a supply of four torpedoes. By 1915, all had received a 3.7 cm/23 (1.5 in) deck gun.

Service career
U-5 and U-6 were both commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy by April 1910, and served as training boats through 1914, making as many as ten training cruises per month. During their early years, each boat was demonstrated to a foreign naval delegation; U-5 to a Peruvian detachment in 1911, U-6 to a Norwegian group in 1910. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914, U-5 and U-6 comprised half of the operational U-boat fleet of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.

In the three years after SS-3s March 1911 launch, Whitehead's attempted to sell the boat to the navies of Peru, Portugal, the Netherlands, Brazil, and Bulgaria, before the Austro-Hungarian Navy rejected an offer for the second time. With the outbreak of war, however, the Austro-Hungarian Navy purchased the unsold submarine to quickly bolster its fleet. Although provisionally commissioned as U-7, she was commissioned as U-12 in August 1914.

By late December 1914, all three of the U-5-class boats were based at the naval base at Cattaro and all took part in combat patrols. Between the three boats, they sank five ships with a combined tonnage of 22,391, captured seven ships, and damaged one dreadnought. U-6 was the least successful, sinking a single ship of 756 tons; U-5 was the most successful, sinking three ships with of a combined tonnage of 20,570, including the French armoured cruiser . U-12 damaged, but did not sink, the largest ship torpedoed by any of the U-5 class when she hit the French battleship  on 21 December 1914.

Of the three boats of the class, only U-5 survived the war intact. U-12 was sunk with the loss of all hands when she hit a mine near Venice in August 1915, while U-6 was scuttled by her crew in May 1916 after becoming trapped in an anti-submarine net that was a part of the Otranto Barrage. U-5 herself sank after hitting an Austro-Hungarian mine during a training exercise, but was raised, repaired and recommissioned before the war's end. U-5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation and scrapped in 1920.

Class members

SM U-5

SM U-5 was laid down in April 1907 and launched in February 1909. She was commissioned into the Austro-Hungarian Navy in April 1910, and served as a training boat—sometimes making as many as ten cruises a month—through the beginning of the First World War in 1914. The submarine scored most of her wartime successes during the first year of the war while under the command of Georg Ritter von Trapp. The French armoured cruiser , sunk in April 1915, was the largest ship sunk by U-5. In May 1917, U-5 hit a mine and sank with the loss of six men. She was raised, rebuilt, and recommissioned, but sank no more ships. At the end of the war, U-5 was ceded to Italy as a war reparation, and scrapped in 1920. In all, U-5 sank three ships totaling 20,570 combined tonnage.

SM U-6

SM U-6 was laid down in February 1908 and launched the following June. She served as a training boat after her July 1910 commissioning into the Austro-Hungarian Navy. She served in that capacity through the beginning of World War I in 1914, making as many as ten training cruises a month. U-6 scored only one wartime success, sinking a French destroyer in March 1916. In May that same year, she became entangled in anti-submarine netting deployed as part of the Otranto Barrage. Coming under fire from drifters running the nets, U-6 was abandoned and sunk. All of her crewmen were rescued and were held in captivity through the end of the war.

SM U-12

SM U-12 was built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume under the name SS-3. She was laid down in 1909 and launched in March 1911 and featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems from the Holland design of her older sister boats, U-5 and U-6. Whitehead's tried selling SS-3 to several different navies, but she was finally bought by the Austro-Hungarian Navy after the outbreak of World War I, despite having been rejected twice before. She was commissioned as U-12 in August 1914. She sank only one ship during the war, a Greek cargo ship in May 1915, but had earlier captured six Montenegrin sailing vessels as prizes in March. U-12 also damaged, but did not sink, the French battleship  in December 1914. While searching for targets in the vicinity of Venice in August 1915, U-12 struck a mine that blew her stern off, and sank with all hands, becoming the first Austro-Hungarian submarine sunk in the war. Her wreck was salvaged the next year by the Italians, who interred the bodies of U-12s crewmen in a Venetian cemetery.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Submarine classes


Public water supply and sanitation in England and Wales has been characterised by universal access and generally good service quality. In both England and Wales, water companies became privatised in 1989, although Dwr Cymru operates as a not-for-profit organisation. Whilst independent assessments place the cost of water provision in Wales and England as higher than most major countries in the EU between 1989 and 2005, the government body responsible for water regulation, together with the water companies, have claimed improvements in service quality during that period.

The economic regulator of water companies in England and Wales is the Water Services Regulation Authority, Ofwat. The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) provides independent reassurance to consumers that water supplies in England and Wales are safe and that drinking water is of acceptable quality.

Since Welsh devolution began, further powers over water have been devolved to the Senedd. The Government of Wales Act 2006 (GoWA) devolved multiple water policy powers including water supply, management of water resources including reservoirs, water quality, consumer representation, management of flood risk and coastal protection. The GoWA 2006 was changed by the Wales Act 2017 which includes devolution of water and sewerage powers, and in 2013 Natural Resources Wales became independently responsible for managing water resources in Wales. In 2018, secretary of state for Wales' intervention powers over cross-border water matters were repealed and replaced by the water protocol.

History of joint England and Wales operations (up to 2013)

Local government service provision (before 1973)
Before 1973 water and sanitation services were provided by water undertakings and sewerage and sewage disposal authorities respectively. Until the 1950s there existed over a thousand water undertakings, with administrative boundaries similar to those of local government boundaries. By the early 1970s their number had been reduced to 198 by a gradual consolidation process aimed at achieving economies of scale. Out of the 198 water undertakings 64 were run by individual local government authorities, 101 by joint boards comprising several local government authorities, and 33 were statutory privately owned water companies, some of which date back to the Victorian era. At the same time there were over 1,300 sewerage and sewage disposal authorities, most of them run by individual local government authorities. The sector thus was highly fragmented.

Water resources management was entrusted to 29 river authorities created in 1965. Their responsibilities included water conservation, land drainage, fisheries, control of river pollution and, in some cases, navigation.

Public regional companies (1973–1989)
Through the Water Act 1973 the government established ten regional water authorities in order to achieve even greater economies of scale, especially in sanitation, compared to the prior gradual consolidation of water undertakings. The reform was also aimed at putting in practice the principle of integrated river basin management, especially concerning the planning of investments in wastewater treatment. Given the small size of many river basins in England and Wales, in practice the area covered by each of the regional water authorities typically contained more than one river basin.

The regional water authorities were not only in charge of water supply and sanitation, but also of water resources management, thus opening the possibility of conflicts of interest since the same institution was in charge of abstracting water and discharging wastewater on the one hand, and controlling these same abstractions and discharges on the other hand. The Water Act left open the possibility to contract out water supply and sanitation services to local authorities. However, in practice this did not happen, and substantial assets were transferred from local governments to the new water authorities. Since the transfer was internal to the public sector, no compensation was paid to local authorities. Local authorities also initially held a majority of the board seats of the new organisations. The private statutory water companies, which provided water to 25% of the population, escaped reorganisation and were left to operate as before.

With the election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 the water and sanitation sector initially remained public, but the government attempted to make the enterprises operate more along commercial lines. As a result, the number of employees in the sector declined from 61,000 in 1976 to 52,000 in 1985, real operating costs declined, tariffs were increased above the inflation rate and the share of self-financing of investments increased. However, government regulators also cut back on investments. While the industry became profitable, the rate of return on assets based on replacement cost values remained low at less than 2%. As part of the attempt to commercialise the service providers, the Water Act 1983 reduced the number of board members of the water authorities. However, it also eliminated the local government representation on the Boards and made all Board members appointed by Ministers, thus further centralising the sector.

Privatisation (1989)

In 1989 the government privatised the ten public regional water authorities through divestiture (sale of assets). The authorities' functions related to water resources management were separated and retained by the public sector. At the same time the regulatory agency OFWAT was created, following the model of infrastructure regulatory agency set up in other sectors such as telecommunications and energy.

Water Industry Act 1999
The Water Industry Act 1999 made several important clarifications and amendments to legislation regarding the power and responsibilities of the privatised water and sewerage companies. These include:

 Removing the right of a water company to disconnect customers on the basis of outstanding unpaid bills.
 Clarifying that water companies can continue to charge customers using rateable value where no water meter has been installed at a property.
 Allowing consumers to request a water meter, and obliging the local water company to install a meter unless the installation is not reasonably practical or would incur an unreasonable expense.

Operations

Water resources and uses
The amount of water available in England and Wales to meet the needs of people and to sustain the water environment varies greatly between different places and seasons, and from one year to another. Parts of Wales and the English Lake District are well endowed with water, while water is scarce in parts of Eastern and Southeastern England. Parts of England were affected by severe drought in 1976, 1995 and 2005-2007.

Household water use in England and Wales stood at about 145 litres/capita/day in 2008/09. Total water supply for domestic and commercial customers in England and Wales was 14.5 million cubic metres per day in 2009.

Quality of service
In 2008, the quality of water and sanitation services in England and Wales was regularly and comprehensively monitored by the economic regulator, OFWAT. OFWAT statistics show that service quality has improved since the early 1990s, i.e. shortly after services were privatised. For example, the number of unplanned interruptions, properties at risk of low pressure, the share of complaints that were not answered within five days and combined sewer overflows have all declined, while sewage treatment works compliance has increased and river water quality has improved.

Drinking water quality is also universally high, although isolated incidents where quality falls have occurred. For example, in June 2008 about 250,000 people in Northamptonshire were being told to boil tap water for drinking after routine tests by Anglian Water found cryptosporidium

Infrastructure
In 2008, physical assets of private water and sanitation companies in England and Wales include 1,000 reservoirs, over 2,500 water treatment works and 9,000 sewage treatment works. More than 700,000 kilometres of mains and sewers are buried beneath the ground – that’s enough to stretch to the moon and back, or a distance 200 times greater than the UK’s entire motorway network.

Financial aspects
Tariff level. Water and sanitation tariffs in England and Wales increased by 44% in real terms between 1989 and 2008–09 and are among the highest in the world. The average household water and sewage bill in England and Wales was £330 in 2008-09. According to a 2006 survey by NUS Consulting Group, the average water tariff (price) without sewerage in the U.K. for large consumers was the equivalent of US$1.90 per cubic metre, the third-highest tariff among the 14 mostly OECD countries covered by the report. A study commissioned by the German industry association BGW in 2006 compared the average household water and sanitation bill (as opposed to the tariff per cubic metre that the NUS study used as a comparator) in four EU countries. This study showed that water bills in England and Wales were the highest among the four countries. Average water bills (excluding sanitation) were 295 euro per year in England and Wales, higher than in Germany, France (85 euro) or Italy (59 euro). From April 2023, household bills in England and Wales were to rise to an average of £448 a year, the largest increase in almost 20 years.

Comparison of annual water and sanitation bills in four EU countries, 2006:

Source: Metropolitan Consulting Group: VEWA - Vergleich europaeischer Wasser- und Abwasserpreise, 2006, p. 7 of the executive summary

Taking into account differences in subsidies and service quality, the cost of supplying water at an equalised service level would be 84 euros in Germany, 106 euro in both France and England/Wales, and 74 euro in Italy. Concerning sanitation, unequalised tariffs are the highest in Germany at 111 euro per year, 93 euro in England and Wales, €90 in France and only €40 in Italy. Equalised costs net of subsidies are, however, highest in England and Wales with €138, followed by France (€122), Germany (119 euro) and Italy (85 euro).

Tariff structure and cross subsidies. Metered connections are charged at a volumetric rate, while unmetered connections are charged at a flat rate based on the rateable value of the property. The rateable value system was intended as a cross subsidy from wealthier to poorer households. However, since rateable values are often outdated, the subsidy is poorly targeted. Since more and more highly rated households opt for metering, flat rates for the remaining unmetered customers are being increased to compensate for the lost revenue. As a result, the already imperfect cross-subsidy system is unwinding. An Independent Report on Charging for Household Water and Sewerage Services published in 2009 by Anna Walker recommended a package of help to ensure that "the transition to metering is not to cause real problems of affordability to those on low incomes".

Tariff review procedures. Water and sanitation tariffs are regulated by OFWAT, which sets caps for tariff changes over five-year asset management plan periods. In the 2000–2005 review period OFWAT mandated an average annual reduction of tariffs of 1.6%. However, in the 2006–2010 review period it has allowed an average annual increase of 4.2%.

Affordability. As a proportion of income, in England and Wales the cost of water and sewerage together works out at less than 1.5% of weekly earnings. More details on tariffs in England and Wales are provided in OFWAT's annual reports on water and sewerage charges.

Investment and financing
Average annual investments in water and sewerage in England and Wales were £3.3 billion in 2000–2005 and £3.6bn in 2005–2010, according to OFWAT, which corresponds to £61 per capita per year. According to the industry association Water UK, between 1980 and 2010 the water and wastewater industry in England and Wales will have invested over £88bn.

Investments are financed primarily through self-financing and borrowing in the capital market. In March 2006 overall borrowing stood at £23.5bn for England and Wales. Net returns on this borrowing in 2006 were 6.6%.

Efficiency (water losses)
According to OFWAT leakage in England and Wales has declined significantly from 228 litres/property/day in 1994-95 to 141 L/p/d in 2006–07, enough to supply the needs of 10 million people. According to the Environment Agency, many companies in the UK have reduced their water loss to the economic level of leakage. This is the level at which, in the long-term, the marginal cost of leakage control is equal to the marginal benefit of the water saved. The rate of reduction in leakage has slowed for many companies because the most obvious causes of leakage have been detected and addressed, leaving only less apparent leakage problems. Models have been developed and fine-tuned to assess the economic level of leakage. A summary of the debate on these models can be found in a recent report by OFWAT.

According to a 2006 comparative study commissioned by the German water industry association BGW average water losses in the distribution network in England and Wales have been estimated at 19 per cent.  They are lower than in France (26 per cent) or Italy (29 per cent), but higher than in Germany, where they are apparently only 7 per cent. The study states that its methodology allows for an accurate comparison, including water used to flush pipes and for firefighting. This is consistent with the International Water Association's definition of non-revenue water, which includes authorised non-metered consumption such as for flushing and firefighting.

Metering
A particularity of water tariffs in England and Wales is the low share of metering. Most users are not billed on a volumetric basis and have no financial incentive for water conservation. Since the 1990s efforts have been made to increase the share of household metering, which reached 33% in 2008 for the UK. The Environment Agency would like to see 75% of households metered by 2025. Studies show that water meters lead to a 5-15% reduction in household water use.

In 2006 the Environment Agency announced it favours compulsory metering in water-scarce southern England. The measure is controversial. Consumer groups fear it will penalise poorer families with many children, and the disabled, who use more water. In March 2006 the company Folkestone & Dover Water Services was granted the power to install compulsory water meters in a landmark ministerial ruling under which it was given 'water scarcity status' by Environment Minister Elliot Morley. In a written ministerial statement, Mr Morley said: 'In many parts of the country, water is a precious resource which we can no longer simply take for granted.'

Operational criticisms
A 2001 study by the Public Services International Research Unit, which is affiliated with trade unions and opposes privatisation, stated that
 tariffs increased by 46% in real terms during 1990-2000
 operating profits have more than doubled (+142%) in eight years, between 1991-2000
 investments were reduced and
 public health was jeopardised through cut-offs for non-payment.

England (2013-)

Retail market for businesses
Since 1 April 2017, most businesses and organisations in England have been able to choose which company supplies their retail water services. Deregulation was designed to deliver lower bills, increase water usage efficiency and improve customer satisfaction. , the deregulated non-household market includes 1.2 million businesses, charities and other organisations.

Foreign ownership in England
A 2022 study, found that over 70% of the English water industry is in foreign hands (foreign ownership).

Responsibility
Within the government the Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has the responsibility for policy in the water and sanitation sector in England only. The Environment Agency is responsible for water quality and resource in England. The economic regulator of water companies in England and Wales is the Water Services Regulation Authority, OFWAT and The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) provides independent reassurance to consumers that supplies are safe and of drinking water quality.

Reports
The Environment agency also makes "Water situation reports for England" which include monthly water situation reports and weekly rainfall and river flow reports.

Demand
The Committee on Climate Change has predicted that demand for water in England will be greater than the available supply by between 1.1 and 3.1 billion litres per day by the 2050s.

Leakage
3 billion litres (20% of total supply) is lost daily via pipe leakages and the Department has been criticised for not emphasising water reduction targets and promoting to the public the importance of reducing water use. England’s largest water and sewerage service provider is Thames Water. Thames Water supplies drinking water to 9 million customers in London and the Thames Valley, and loses 600m litres of water per day.

Infrastructure
No substantial reservoir has been built in England since the Kielder Water dam was built in 1981, despite the increase in demand.

Private water companies

Water was privatised in England by the Conservative government in 1989. Since then, one analysis concluded that the CEOs of England’s water companies earned a total of £34m over the past two years 9source published in 2022.

Legislation
Private Water Supplies (England) Regulations 2016 legislates on all private water supplies and private distribution systems in England.

The act aims to protect public health in England by:

 outlining the drinking water standards

 legislating a duty for compliance with the standards

 categorising and outlining the requirements of private water supplies

Wales (2013-)

Natural Resources Wales

On 01 April 2013, Natural Resources Wales took over the responsibilities of the Countryside Council for Wales, Environment Agency Wales and the Forestry Commission Wales. Since 2013, Natural Resources Wales states that it has established a standalone capability and has developed its own systems that are appropriate for Wales. Natural Resources Wales is now responsible for managing water resources in Wales and is the regulatory body for this purpose.

Water quality, water resources and river management are the responsibility of Natural Resources Wales. Issues relating to the water industry in general are devolved to the Senedd. This is however subject to the reservations in Schedule 7A to the Government of Wales Act 2006 (GoWA 2006).

Welsh Government
The Welsh Government is responsible for the strategic policy for water in Wales. This includes water companies entirely or mostly in Wales  which are Dŵr Cymru and Hafren Dyfrdwy, Ofwat, Natural Resources Wales, the Drinking Water Inspectorate and local authorities.

The Welsh Ministers have functions in relation to any undertaker whose area is wholly or mainly in Wales."

The Welsh government has decided not to pursue deregulation of the water industry, except for large industrial users that consume over 50 million litres of water annually.

Devolution

The Government of Wales Act 2006 (GoWA 2006) devolved multiple water policy powers to the then Welsh Assembly. These powers included water supply, management of water resources including reservoirs, water quality, consumer representation, management of flood risk and coastal protection.

The GoWA 2006 was changed by the Wales Act 2017 which includes devolution of water and sewerage powers as recommended by the Silk Commission.

The secretary of state for Wales' intervention powers over cross-border water matters were repealed and replaced by the water protocol in 2018.

Supply
Dŵr Cymru Welsh Water is the water and sewerage company that supplies most of Wales and also supplies some bordering areas of England. Dŵr Cymru supplies over three million people. Since 2001, Dŵr Cymru has been owned by Glas Cymru, which is a one purpose company that manages and finances Dŵr Cymru as a "company limited by guarantee". It does not have any shareholders, and financial surpluses are reinvested into the company.

The areas of Wales that were previously served by Severn Trent and Dee Valley companies in north east Wales were merged after Dee Valley Water was bought by Severn Trent for £84 million in 2017. Hafren Dyfrdwy (owned by Severn Trent) replaced these areas in 2018 and is aligned with the Welsh national border, serving 115,000 people in Wales.

Supply to England
In total, up to 243 billion litres of water can be exported from Wales to England annually. Water from Elan Valley is exported to Birmingham, whilst water from Lake Vyrnwy is exported to Cheshire and Liverpool. Welsh Water is licensed to give 133 billion litres annually from Elan Valley reservoirs to Severn Trent customers. United Utilities is able to take up to 252 million litres daily from Lake Vyrnwy in Powys (owned by Severn Trent) and 50 million litres daily from the River Dee.

In 2022, John Armitt said that English water companies did not want to build new reservoirs which can be unpopular with communities. He added that Severn Trent (Hafren Dyfrdwy) and Thames Water were discussing exporting water from Wales to southern England, including water from Lake Vyurnwy exported via pipes or canal to the Thames basin.

In February 2023, Powys County Council announced plans to tax water exports to England. In 2023, Powys council said it had written to the Welsh Government and UK government about permission to raise tax on water exports to England. Jane Dodds, leader of the Welsh Liberal Democrats, stated that she was "totally behind" the council's proposal plans, adding that they are a "step in the right direction".

In March 2023, United Utilities, Severn Trent Water and Thames Water were reportedly planning new pipeline for export of up to 155million litres of water per day from Lake Vyrnwy in Powys to south east England.

Value
In 2022, Professor Roger Falconer from Cardiff University said that England should "pay for the water", with the revenue being invested back into local communities in Wales. He added, "We would supply directly under drought conditions to the south east of England and I would see this as the oil of Wales for the future in terms of revenue."

Former lecturer at Swansea University, John Ball has suggested that Welsh water exports to England is worth around £2bn annually. It has also been estimated that a low extraction fee of 0.1p per litre could generate £400 million for Wales.

State of Water (2022)

 All designated bathing waters in Wales except one met the Bathing Waters Directive standards in 2016
 63% of freshwater water bodies did not reach the good or better overall status in 2015 (defined by the Water Framework Directive)
 Pollutants from metal mines have an impact on 700 kilometres of rivers in Wales with nine of the ten worst polluted catchments in the UK

Water industry ownership
The Welsh government has decided not to pursue deregulation of the water industry, except for large industrial users that consume over 50 million litres of water annually.

See also
EU water policy
Northern Ireland Water
United Kingdom water companies
Water Framework Directive
Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom

References

See also

 United Kingdom water companies

External links
 Water UK
 OFWAT, the economic regulator for the water and sewerage industry in England and Wales
 Environment Agency 's water quality website
 Water Resources Management in Cooperation with Agriculture project


Wishram Village, referred to as nixlúidix by its residents, was a summer and winter village on the Columbia River, Washington, United States occupied by Upper Chinook people. It is considered the largest prehistoric Chinook village site. The site is now part of Columbia Hills State Park.

History
Located near Five Mile Rapids, the village was located at the far eastern reach of Chinookan lands. Archaeologists believe the site was occupied for about 10,000 years. The village was a common trading site for Indians in the surrounding areas, acting as a link between tribes from the Pacific Coast, and the interior Northwest. The site was visited by nearby Yakamas, as well as those from as far away as the Nez Perce, who would come to trade fish, berries, skins, buffalo, amongst many other items.

The village was visited during the westward journey by Lewis and Clark, and again on their eastward return journey, though by the time of the second visit, the village was at a site about  downstream from the site visited the previous fall. Lewis and Clark estimated that there were about 600 people living at the site during the first visit (October 1805), and around 1,000 during the second visit (April 1806). Clark noted in his journals that there were about 20 wooden houses at the site, near a man-made earthen mound called Wakemup (or Wakamup) Mound.

By the time of the July 1841 visit by the United States Exploring Expedition, United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes described the village as having forty lodges, and 400 inhabitants.

In 1854, the village was struck by an epidemic of smallpox, which killed 257 residents. Survivors of the epidemic blamed a "medicine-man" for failure to cure the disease, and killed him by putting him on a horse with a noose around his neck.

Around 1860, residents of Wishram began moving to the Yakama Indian Reservation, under treaties signed in 1855, but Indians continued to be allowed to use the site for fishing. Until 1957, the village located at the site was referred to as Spearfish, which was flooded by the creation of The Dalles Dam.

Wakemap Mound
Wakemap Mound is a mound at the site that measures roughly  long, by  wide, and  deep. The site is now surrounded by water caused by the construction of The Dalles Dam.

References

Sources
Boyd, Robert (1996). People of the Dalles: The Indians of Wascopam Mission, University of Nebraska Press.
Oregon Archaeological Society (1959). Wakemap Mound, Binford and Mort.
Ruby, Robert H.; Brown, John Arthur. A Guide to the Indian Tribes of the Pacific Northwest, University of Oklahoma Press.
Samson, Karl (2008). Frommer's Washington State, Frommer's.
Spranger, Michael S. (1996). Columbia Gorge: A Unique American Treasure, DIANE Publishing.

External links

Populated places in Klickitat County, Washington
Native American history of Washington (state)
National Register of Historic Places in Klickitat County, Washington
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
State parks of Washington (state)
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)


Rhadamantus-Klänge (Echoes of Rhadamantus), Op. 94, is a waltz composed by Johann Strauss II. It was written for the 1851 Vienna Carnival. The title of the work was named after Rhadamanthus, one of the judges of the underworld in Greek mythology. Eduard Strauss, the composer's youngest brother, included the waltz's opening number in his potpourri Bluthenkranz Johann Strauss'scher Walzer (Garland of Strauss Waltzes), opus 292.

References

Waltzes by Johann Strauss II
1851 compositions


The Doll in the Garden: A Ghost Story is a children's novel by Mary Downing Hahn. It was first published in 1989.

Summary
Still angry over the recent death of her father, ten-year-old Ashley moves with her widowed mother into the upper floor of a boarding house owned by mean-spirited Ms. Cooper, who dislikes children. In spite of Ms. Cooper's warnings to stay out of the house's overgrown and neglected garden, Ashley goes exploring and meets a younger neighbor, Kristi. Kristi tells her the neighborhood kids believe the garden is haunted by a ghostly cat, and that they hear mysterious crying coming from the hedges. Later that night, Ashley also hears crying in the garden.

Ashley convinces Kristi to help her clean up the garden. While pulling weeds, Kristi uncovers a buried box containing an antique doll named Anna Maria, along with a handwritten apology from a girl named "Carrie" addressed to "Louisa." As the girls wonder who Carrie and Louisa might be, the white cat appears. The girls hear Ms. Cooper approach and quickly hide the doll, but Ms. Cooper, seeing the cat, is terrified. That night Ashley hears crying in the garden once more. Believing Anna Maria is crying from loneliness, she slips outside and takes the doll into the house, hiding her in a dresser. The crying ceases, and Ashley believes she has solved the mystery.

In the morning, Kristi and Ashley quarrel over which of them gets to keep Anna Maria, with Kristi claiming ownership because she discovered her and Ashley insisting that Anna Maria will cry again if taken out of the house. Kristi, believing Ashley made up the story as an excuse to keep the doll for herself, storms off in anger. The white cat reappears, and Ashley follows him through a hole in the hedge. On the other side, she meets a girl named Louisa who is dying of tuberculosis. Louisa shows Ashley her collection of dolls, but tells her that her favorite doll, Anna Maria, was stolen by a girl named Carrie. Ashley realizes that Anna Maria belongs to Louisa and promises to bring her back.

Upon arriving home, Ashley discovers that Kristi, still angry, has told Ms. Cooper about the doll. Ms. Cooper demands Ashley give her the doll. Ashley tries to explain that she promised to give the doll back to Louisa, but hearing the name only makes Ms. Cooper angrier. Ms. Cooper tells Ashley's mother that Ashley stole the doll from her private rooms. Though Ashley protests that she is not a thief, her mother makes her give Anna Maria to Ms. Cooper and scolds Ashley for stealing, while Ms. Cooper smirks in satisfaction. Even Kristi is upset by this unfair outcome.

Ashley forces Kristi to follow her through the hole in the hedge to explain to Louisa why they can no longer bring back her doll. The girls realize that the hole in the hedge is a gateway into the past and that Louisa's ghost will be trapped there until she gets her doll back. Ashley secretly hopes that if the doll is returned, history will be changed so that Louisa lives.

The two girls confront Ms. Cooper, telling her about Louisa's ghost. Realizing there is no other way the girls could know about Louisa and Anna Maria, Ms. Cooper confesses that she was the Carrie who stole Anna Maria from Louisa when they were girls. As a child, Ms. Cooper was poor and had few toys, but envied her wealthy friend's doll collection. Young Ms. Cooper borrowed Anna Maria without permission, intending to return her, but was unable to do so before Louisa died. Out of fear and guilt, she buried the doll in the garden. Now she believes Louisa sent the ghost of her cat as a sign she would never forgive her.

The girls explain Louisa only wants her doll back and convince Ms. Cooper to return it. They lead Ms. Cooper through the hedge, where she emerges as a little girl once more. She gives the doll to Louisa, who forgives her. When the three return to the garden, the now-adult Ms. Cooper thanks the girls for allowing her to reconcile with her long-lost friend. Ashley is devastated Louisa still died in spite of their efforts, but begins to understand that the grief she feels for Louisa is really her own unexpressed grief for her father, whose death she never fully accepted.

Ms. Cooper becomes much kinder, causing Ashley to believe that Louisa's real intention was not to get back her doll, but to free her friend from the guilt that made her so bitter. Ashley wonders if her dreams about her father are his way of telling her to let go of her own guilt at being unable to save him. While she still mourns her father's loss, she is no longer angry that he left her. As Ashley falls asleep, she hears a child laughing in the garden and knows Louisa is finally at peace.

Reception
It won a Children's Sequoyah Award.
It won a Mark Twain Award.
It won a William Allen White Children's Book Award.

References

1989 American novels
American children's novels
Ghost novels
Novels about time travel
1989 children's books
Grief in fiction
Mark Twain Awards
Clarion Books books
Children's books about ghosts
Children's books about time travel


Camera Notes was a photographic journal published by the Camera Club of New York from 1897 to 1903. It was edited for most of that time by photographer Alfred Stieglitz and was considered the most significant American photography journal of its time. It is valuable today both as a record of photographic aesthetics of the time and for its many high-quality photogravures by photographers such as Stieglitz, James Craig Annan, F. Holland Day, Robert Demachy, Frances Benjamin Johnston, Gertrude Kasebier and Clarence H. White.

Background
In September, 1894, Alfred Stieglitz returned to New York after an extended tour in Europe. He found both the quality and quantity of what he considered to be artistic photography, such as that promoted by the Linked Ring in Britain, was much greater in Europe than in the United States, and he was determined to do something to advance fine art photography in America. He turned to the two major photographic clubs in New York, the Society of Amateur Photographers and the New York Camera Club, for assistance in his mission but received little interest from either organization. The critic Sadakichi Hartmann noted that the clubs at that time were "as good as dead. There was no vitality in them. Photography was merely as pastime to them, and all they had to show were their innumerable portraits, transcripts of nature, views, and snapshots as is in the power of almost anyone to produce."

Stieglitz set about to change this situation, and within eighteen months he and his friends succeeded in bringing about a merger of the two clubs. He immediately took over as Vice President of the newly formed and rejuvenated organization, now called The Camera Club of New York. He envisioned the new organization as the American beacon of fine art photography, and to help promote his vision he proposed expanding the former newsletter of the club into a full-fledged journal with himself as editor. Later Stieglitz would write "As a condition precedent to undertaking this labor of love and enthusiasm, it was stipulated by our Editor [Stieglitz] that he would have unhampered and absolute control over all matters, direct or remote, relating to the conduct of the proposed publications; in short, Camera Notes, while published for the club, was nevertheless an independent institution."

History and context
The first issue of Camera Notes premiered in July, 1897. Camera Notes was immediately well-received, and in the second issue Stieglitz published a sampling of the praise that had come from other photographic magazines. Britain's Photogram, for example, said "Camera Notes is such a fine publication that we hesitate to use the adjectives necessary to describe it." With the second issue Stieglitz hit his editorial stride, with a full range of photographs and articles that included F. Holland Day writing on "Art and the Camera" and Lee Ferguson lamenting on "Our Lack of Exhibitions".
With Camera Notes Stieglitz established the pattern he would continue for the rest of his life of exerting complete editorial and aesthetic control over all aspects of the publication. Occasionally he would allow some articles to express ideas contrary to his, mostly for the sake of allowing him to rebut them, but in general his opinions dominated the visual and literary contributions to the magazine.

Stieglitz also instilled in Camera Notes his belief that photographers should be familiar with other arts, since he saw his primary mission as promoting photography as a fine art itself. He included articles on Impressionism, Symbolism, genre painting and portraiture, and commentaries on aesthetics from well-known art critics and artists like Sadakichi Hartmann and Arthur Wesley Dow.

At the same time, Stieglitz regularly took the opportunity to promote his own work, and while he was editor he published twenty-two of his own photos in the magazine, including two images twice.

For much of the first year, Stieglitz emphasized foreign photographers in the magazine as encouragement to his U.S. colleagues to develop a uniquely American school of photography. Within a short time, he was rewarded for his efforts by finding a new level of photographic aesthetics among his close colleagues. For the remainder of the publication's life, American photographers were dominated the highest quality reproductions included in Camera Notes. Of the fifty photographers whose work was included either as photogravures or as tipped-in silver prints, thirty-five were Americans.

While Stieglitz sought independence from the Camera Club in his editorial work, very few of photographers whose work he reproduced came from outside the membership of the club. The most prominent of the non-Club members who were featured were F. Holland Day and Clarence H. White. Both figure prominently in Stieglitz's concurrent efforts to promote pictorialism through his establishment of the Photo-Secession.

Eventually, Stieglitz's autocratic direction of the journal came under fire from the membership of the Club. In spite of the record of reproducing work mostly by Club members, some members felt Stieglitz was spending too much time and effort promoting activities outside of the Club. He also faced criticism from more progressive members who felt that much of the work Stieglitz chose fell into the same tired aesthetics that he originally campaigned against. In late 1900 a special meeting of the Club was held to address these issues, and, while he appeared open to a democratic discussion of the journal, Stieglitz became upset that his leadership and aesthetic integrity were being questioned. He eventually became disillusioned with all of the in-fighting, and in early 1901 he announced that he would step down as editor after one more year.

In May, 1902, Juan C. Abel took over as editor. Abel, who was the Club's librarian, had assisted Stieglitz with two issues of Camera Notes and had experience working on other photographic magazines. He sought to emphasize the change in editorial direction by redesigning the magazine, putting a new cover in place along with a more sophisticated layout. He also introduced the relatively bold concept of including at least one tipped-in, original photographs in each issue. In spite his editorial changes, however, Abel did not have the aesthetic sense of Stieglitz, and the overall quality of the images included in the magazine, including the original prints, was inferior when compared to the previous five years.

When Stieglitz began independently publishing his own journal Camera Work in 1903, interest in Camera Notes quickly flagged. The photographers and critics who were at the forefront of fine art photography at the time recognized that, for all his shortcomings, Stieglitz really was the driving force in the movement.

The last issue of Camera Notes appeared in December 1903. A column under this name and written by members of the Camera Club subsequently appeared in two other magazines, but it contained only news and notes about the club itself.

Design and production
Each of the twenty-four issues of the magazine measured 10 ¼” by 7 ½” (26 cm by 19 cm). Volumes 1-4 displayed a green Art Nouveau cover with a design attributed to Thomas A. Sindelar, a student of Alphonse Mucha. There were numerous halftone reproduction of photos in each issue, but what made the journal stand out were the hand-pulled photogravures. At least two and as many as four meticulously printed photogravures were included in each issue. In addition there were commentaries, criticism and reviews by important photographers and critics of the time. In an average issue, about half of the articles dealt with individual photographers and aesthetic issues, and the rest covering technical matters and notices and reviews of international exhibitions. As Stieglitz biographer Katherine Hoffman points out, "Each issue of Camera Notes was an art object itself, with its finely printed photogravures, well-designed layout and range of articles and text."

Issues and contents
Camera Notes was published quarterly from July, 1897 to December, 1902, and two more issues were published in 1903, for a total of twenty-four issues. The following is a complete list of the photogravures and halftones that appeared in the issues. For a detailed list of the published articles, see Peterson (1993).

Volume 1 Number 1, July 1897
Photographs: one by Emilie V. Clarkson; one by A. Horsely Hinton; one by John W. McKecknie; one by William B. Post; two by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Daniel K. Young.

Volume 1 Number 2, October 1897
Photographs: one by W. H. Collins; one by Fred Holland Day; one by Wilhelm von Gloeden; one by Karl Greger; one by Hugo Henneberg;one by Constant Puyo; two by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 1 Number 3, January 1898
Photographs: one by Robert Demachy; four by Rudolf Eickemeyer, Jr.; three by Emma J. Farnsworth; one by John Gear; one by Constant Puyo.

Volume 1 Number 4, April 1898
Photographs: one by J. Craig Annan; six one by Zaida Ben-Yusuf; one by Charles I. Berg; one by F.A. Engle; one by William D. Murphy; one by William B. Post; one by Adolphus H. Stoiber; one by Henry Troth.

Volume 2 Number 1, July 1898
Photographs: one by Hewitt A. Beasley; six one by Zaida Ben-Yusuf; one Emilie V. Clarkson; three by F. Holland Day; one by Robert Demachy; two by E. Lee Ferguson; one by Wilhelm von Gloeden; one by Karl Greger; one by William B. Post; two by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 2 Number 2, October 1898
Photographs: one by Ernest R. Ashton; five by William E. Carlin; one by Emilie V. Clarkson; one by F. Holland Day; three by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; two by Frances Benjamin Johnston; one by Henry Troth.

Volume 2 Number 3, January 1899
Photographs: one by Charles I. Berg; one by Tom Bright; one by F. Holland Day; one by William A. Fraser; one by W. M. Hollinger; one by Frances Benjamin Johnston; three by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 2 Number 4, April 1899
Photographs: one by William E. Carlin; one by John Dumont; one by W. M. Hollinger; one by Frances Benjamin Johnston; five by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Alphonse Montant; one by William D. Murphy; one by Arthur Scott; two by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Hans Watzek; two by Mathilde Weil.

Volume 3 Number 1, July 1899
Photographs: one by Zaida Ben-Yusuf; one by James L. Breese & Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Cox [no first name given]; one by Frank Eugene; one by A. Horsely Hinton; four by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Rene Le Begue; one by Clarence H. White.

Volume 3 Number 2, October 1899
Photographs: one by J. Craig Annan; one by John Beeby; one by Charles I. Berg; one by J. Edgar Bull; one by William J. Cassard; two by Ferdinand A. Clark; two by F. Holland Day; one by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Wilhelm von Gloeden; three by A. Hinton Horsley; one by William D. Murphy; one by George L. Ronalds; one by Elizabeth A. Slade; one by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Clarence H. White; one by Myra A. Wiggins.

Volume 3 Number 3, January 1900
Photographs: one by Charles I. Berg; one by Eustace G. Calland; one by Desire Declercq; one by Robert Demachy; one by Pierre Dubreuil; one by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Emma J. Farnsworth; one by Hugo Henneberg; one by Sidney Herbert; two by A. Hinton Horsley; five by Joseph T. Keiley; one by Heinrich Kuehn; one by Léonard Misonne; one by George W. Norris; one by J. Henry Quinn; two by Eva Watson-Schütze; one by Mathilde Weil; one by Clarence H. White.

Volume 3 Number 4, April 1900
Photographs: nine by Frank Eugene; one by Dallett Fuguet; two by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Joseph T. Keiley; four by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 4 Number 1, July 1900
Photographs: one by Frank C. Baker;  one by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Hugo Henneberg; one by Theodore & Oscar Hofmeister; three by Gertrude Käsebier; six by Joseph T. Keiley; one by S. H. Lifshey; one by Oscar Maurer; one by Ralph W. Robinson.

Volume 4 Number 2, October 1900
Photographs: one by J. Wesley Allison; one by Lionel C. Bennett; two by William E. Carlin; one by J. Wells Champney; two by Frederick Colburn Clarke: one by A. Walpole Cragie; two by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Dallett Fuguet; one by Karl Greger; one by Gertrude Käsebier; one by J. Ridgeway Moore; one by A. W. Scott; one by Arthur Scott; one by T. O’Connor Sloane Jr.; one by Sydney A. Smith; one by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Adolphus H. Stoiber; one by John Francis Strauss; one by Henry Troth; three by Eva Watson-Schütze; one by Clarence H. White; one by Myra A. Wiggins; one by J. Dunbar Wright.:

Volume 4 Number 3, January 1901
Photographs: four by J. Craig Annan; one by Frank Eugene; one by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Heinrich Kuehn; one by Robert S. Redfield; five by Edward Steichen; two by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Eva Watson-Schütze; one by Hans Watzek; one by Clarence H. White.

Volume 4 Number 4, April 1901
Photographs: one by Ernest R. Ashton; one by Rose Clark and Elizabeth Flint Wade; one by W. E. Johnson & Frank M. Hale; four by Rodrigues Ottolengui; one by Robert S. Redfield; one by Mary R. Standbery; one by Alfred Stieglitz; three by Clarence H. White.

Volume 5 Number 1, July 1901
Photographs: one by Prescott Adamson; seven by Frederick Colburn Clarke; one by William B. Dyer; two by David Octavius Hill; three by Joseph T. Keiley; one by Leonard Misonne; one by William B. Post; five by Frank Meadow Sutcliffe.

Volume 5 Number 2, October 1901
Photographs: one by James L. Breese; one by Charles A. Darling; one by Julian A. Dimock; one by Frank Eugene; one by E. Lee Ferguson; one by A. C. Gould; one by Walter C. Harris; one by F. Huber Hoge & Tom Hadaway; one  by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Joseph T. Keiley; one by Sarah H. Ladd; one by Horace A. Latimer; one by Charles H. Loeber; one by Lewis M. McCormick; one by J. Ridgeway Moore; one by William J. Mullins; one by William W. Renwick; one by A. W. Scott; one by Benjamin Sharp; one by Edward Steichen; one by Charles W. Stevens; two by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Adolphus H. Stoiber; one by Clarence H. White.

Volume 5 Number 3, January 1902
Photographs: one by C. Yarnall Abbott; one by J. Craig Annan; one by Will A. Colby; one by Heinrich Kuehn; two by Rodrigues Ottolengui; three by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 5 Number 4, April 1902
Photographs: one by John. G Bullock; one by George Davison; one by Frederick Detlefsen; three by Hugo Henneberg; five by Heinrich Kuehn; one by Robert S. Redfield, one by Alfred Stieglitz.

Volume 6 Number 1, July 1902
Photographs: one by Arthur E. Beecher; one by Robert Demachy; one by Mary Devens; one by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Albert Fichte; one by Dallet Fuguet; one by Charles F. Inston; one by Gertrude Käsebier; one by Oscar Maurer; one by Alfred Stieglitz; one by Clarence H. White.

Volume 6 Number 2, October 1902
Photographs: six by Frederick Colburn Clarke; two by Harry Countant; one by Edward W. Keck; one by Horace A. Latimer; one by Will H. Moses; one by William D. Murphy; one by Myra A. Wiggins; two by Osborne I. Yellott.

Volume 6 Number 3, February 1903
Photographs: two by Charles I. Berg; three by Leverett W. Brownell; ten by Ed Heim and E.C. Heim; one by Pirei MacDonalad; one by James Patrick; two by Charles Simpson.

Volume 6 Number 4, December 1903
Photographs: one by Juan C. Abel; one by Ernest G. Boon; one by Frederick Detlefsen; one by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr.; one by Walter C. Harris; one by Lewis M. McCormick; one by Adolphus H. Stoiber. one by J.C. Vail.

References

External links

Photogravures from Camera Notes at Photogravure.com

Visual arts magazines published in the United States
Defunct magazines published in the United States
Magazines established in 1897
Magazines disestablished in 1903
Photography magazines
Photography in the United States


Fred Hayes State Park at Starvation (formerly Starvation State Park) is a state park in Duchesne County, Utah, United States, featuring the  Starvation Reservoir. The park is  northwest of the city of Duchesme.

Facilities
The  Starvation Reservoir is open year-round, and is popular for fishing and boating.  It lies at an elevation of . Established in 1972, the marina features a 54-unit RV campground along with developed and primitive camping, rental cabins, boat ramp and dock, a sand beach, restrooms, showers, a group-use pavilion, sewage disposal, and fish cleaning stations.  Primitive camping is allowed in designated areas around the perimeter of the reservoir for a fee.
OHVs are only allowed at Knight Hollow Campground. County-owned dirt roads are open (including the road from Knight Hollow to the town of Duchesne) in the nearby area.

History

There are various narratives explaining the name "Starvation". Orson Mott recounted the most credible story. In 1900, A.M. Murdock of Heber city, approached Major Myton of the Uintah Indian reservation to purchase grazing permits for his cattle. He was given grazing permits in the upper Strawberry river area. Dave Murdock, brother of Al Murdock, had secured a contract to provide beef to the Ute tribe at Fort Duchesne. In the fall of 1904 they brought the herd out of the high grazing areas and made it to the river bottoms which is now covered by Starvation reservoir. Very heavy snows stranded the herd. With no feed the entire herd died. Dave Murdock named the area "Starvation Flats" from this experience.

Another account describes a group of fur trappers stranded in harsh winter conditions who survived by stealing a local Native American cache of food, which resulted in their starvation. Another account tells the opposite story, with the Indians doing the stealing and the trappers starving. A third story involves a local rancher who attempted to graze livestock in the area, and they all starved. Yet another explanation for the name involves settlers in the early 1900s trying to survive along the banks of the Strawberry River, in the area now occupied by the reservoir. These settlers dealt with near-starvation in a hostile environment. Winters in the area are long and cold, and their livestock often died. The area's short growing season was hindered by floods, hail, early frost and other problems. These settlers could have nicknamed the area Starvation.

In 2019 the park (which had previously been named the Starvation State Park) was officially renamed the Fred Hayes State Park at Starvation.Hayes had been the director of the Utah Division of Parks and Recreation (now known as the Utah Division of State Parks) from 2012 until he died unexpectedly in early March 2018.

Starvation Dam
The Starvation Dam () is a ,  earthfill dam. The reservoir is fed by the Strawberry River in the Uinta Basin, and is part of the Central Utah Project – Bonneville Unit. It was constructed in 1970.

See also

 List of Utah State Parks

References

External links

1972 establishments in Utah
State parks of Utah
Protected areas of Duchesne County, Utah
Protected areas established in 1972


Gelder may refer to:

People
Alfred Gelder (1855–1941), British architect and Liberal politician
Ian Gelder (born 1949), English actor
Aert de Gelder (1645–1727), Dutch painter of biblical scenes and portraits
Beatrice de Gelder (born 1944), Belgian cognitive neuroscientist and neuropsychologist
 (1765–1848), Dutch mathematician; see
Kim De Gelder (born 1988), Belgian mass murderer

Places
 Gelderland, a Dutch province
 Guelders, a historical county in what is now the eastern Netherlands (including Gelderland)
 Gelder, Iran (disambiguation), several places

See also

Van Gelder
Geldern, a city in the northwest of the federal state North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany


Chris Smith (born March 31, 1939) is an American former college basketball player for the Virginia Tech Hokies from 1957 to 1961. He was nicknamed "Moose" at Charleston High School in West Virginia where he played as a 6-foot-6 center during an era of exceptional local talent in what was then known as the Kanawha Valley. Smith was later dubbed "the human pogo stick" by former Roanoke sportswriter Bill Brill.

Refusal of the 1961 NBA draft
During the 1961 NBA draft, Smith was the highest draft choice for any Virginia Tech basketball player ever when he was selected as the fourteenth overall choice by the NBA's Syracuse Nationals.

Since playing professional basketball was not financially lucrative in 1961, Smith reportedly informed the NBA teams that he would not play professional basketball, and asked them not to draft him. He never reported to Syracuse camp.

Awards and records
In 1982, Smith was the only basketball player inducted as a charter member to Virginia Tech's Hall-of-Fame.

Smith still holds many Virginia Tech rebounding records: game (36); season (495); career (1508); season per-game average (20.4);  and career per-game average (17.1).
Smith is the state of Virginia's NCAA Division I leader in career average rebounds per game of all time.

He is still ranked 26th nationally for career average rebounds per game (17.1) and 24th nationally for total career rebounds (1508) as listed all-time for Division I players by the Official 2008 NCAA Men's Basketball Records Book. His career average rebound record of 17.1 rebounds per game is the current record for the State of Virginia.

In addition, Smith has the Southern Conference tournament rebounding records of 28 rebounds for a single game and 71 rebounds for three games.  These records were established in 1960 and have been the Southern Conference tournament rebounding records for more than 50 years.

Reputation and coverage
According to the 2009–10 Virginia Tech basketball program, Smith "is regarded by many as the greatest basketball player in school history." In 2010, he was chosen to represent the Hokies at the annual 2010 Atlantic Coast Conference tournament's Legends Class. In 2010, ESPN selected Chris Smith as the "Best Player" in the history of the Virginia Tech Basketball program.

In 1959, Chris Smith was a First Team All-Southern Conference Selection.  In 1960, he was a unanimous 1960 First Team All-Southern Conference Selection along with Jerry West.  In 1961, Smith was the captain of the All-Southern Conference team.  In 1960, he was selected as a Converse Second Team All-American.

Sports Illustrated featured the Virginia Tech basketball team on December 26, 1960. That issue stated the following: Clearly the best performer on the floor was Tech's 6-foot-6 center Chris Smith, who scored 24 points and had 21 rebounds. The next night he led Tech to an 81-54 victory over Baylor and was chosen as the Classic's most valuable player. He is a square-jawed, crew-cut battler whose sheer strength and spring will surely bring him All-American honors this year.

Frequent news articles still appear that document events during Smith's playing career such as Jennings Culley's July 22, 2001 article in the Richmond Times titled "Tech Basketball Recruits said 'Noe' to West Virginia"; Jack Bogaczyk's February 25, 2009 article about the second college basketball game in the Charleston Civic Center between Marshall and Virginia Tech; and MSN Sports November 16, 2008 article about Chuck Noe's successful basketball recruiting in West Virginia for Virginia Tech during the 1950s.

See also
 List of NCAA Division I men's basketball career rebounding leaders

References
General
NBA Draft History 1961
Virginia Tech Sports Hall of Fame
NCAA 2009-10 Official Men's Basketball Records Book
SI Vault

Specific

1939 births
Living people
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from West Virginia
Centers (basketball)
Charleston High School (West Virginia) alumni
Sportspeople from Charleston, West Virginia
Syracuse Nationals draft picks
Virginia Tech Hokies men's basketball players


The 1992 college football season may refer to:

 1992 NCAA Division I-A football season
 1992 NCAA Division I-AA football season
 1992 NCAA Division II football season
 1992 NCAA Division III football season
 1992 NAIA Division I football season
 1992 NAIA Division II football season


"Say You Will" is a song by British-American rock band Foreigner. It was the first single released from the album Inside Information (1987), and was co-written by Lou Gramm and Mick Jones  (See 1987 in music).

Reception
The single reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot 100 and became their fourth #1 hit on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, holding the top spot for four weeks, starting on December 19, 1987.

"Say You Will" was one of Foreigner's last two Top 10 chart hits in the United States, followed by the 1988 release of the single "I Don't Want to Live Without You" (which reached No. 5 on the Hot 100 chart). The song also became the band's third-highest-charting hit in Germany, where it reached No. 22, faring even better in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and particularly Norway, where it reached No. 4. The video clip for this song, directed by David Fincher, reached No. 1 on MTV's Top Twenty chart in February 1988.

Allmusic noted that the single was a "good example" of the band's "balancing act" as "the guitar-heavy style of their early work gave way to slick arrangements that pushed electronics to the fore...temper(ing) its rock guitar edge...and Lou Gramm's quasi-operatic vocals...by thick layers of chiming synthesizers and an array of electronic textures."

Cash Box called it a "powerful pop/rock number" with "wide demographic appeal."

It is also featured on the band's compilation 40: Forty Hits From Forty Years 1977-2017 published in 2017, in an acoustic version with Lou Gramm on vocals as a new song.

Track listing

Chart performance

Year-end charts

See also
List of number-one mainstream rock hits (United States)

References

External links
Single release info at discogs.com

Foreigner (band) songs
1987 singles
Songs written by Mick Jones (Foreigner)
Songs written by Lou Gramm
Music videos directed by David Fincher
Atlantic Records singles
Song recordings produced by Mick Jones (Foreigner)


Franciszek Siarczyński (1758–1829) was a Polish Roman Catholic priest, member of the Piarist religious order, historian, geographer, teacher, writer and publicist.

He was a lecturer of grammar, history and geography at the Collegium Nobilium in Warsaw, Poland from 1781 to 1785.
He was a regular guest at the Thursday Dinners held by the King of Poland, Stanisław August Poniatowski in the era of the Enlightenment in Poland. He was the author of three volumes of ‘Geografii, czyli opisania naturalnego, historycznego i politycznego krajów i narodów’ (Geography, natural history, history and politics of the country and its citizens).

At the time of the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, he wrote for the Gazeta Wolna Warszawska (The Free Warsaw newspaper).

He collected material for the Słownika historyczno-statystyczno-geograficznego Galicji (The Encyclopædia of history, statistics and geography of Galicia), which was published in parts from 1857 as a weekly supplement ‘Rozmaitościach’ in the Lwów Gazette: Gazeta Lwowska.

After the transfer of the Ossoliński family's collection of books, from Vienna to Lwów, in 1827, he became the first director of the National Library of the Ossolineum, from 1827 to 1829.

His religious posts included being the Parish Priest in Jarosław, the Cathedral Canon in Warsaw and Przemyśl and the Prior in Kozieniec (1789) and Łańcut (1799).

References
Parts translated from the Polish version of this page from Polish Wikipedia on 03.11.2008
Notes

1758 births
1829 deaths
Polish Roman Catholics
Polish Roman Catholic priests
Polish male writers
Piarists


Godi, GODI, Goði or Gothi may refer to:

 Gothi or goði, the Old Norse term for a priest and chieftain
 Gothi, Nepal, a village and municipality
 Pont-ar-Gothi, a village in Wales
 Villa Godi, in northern Italy
 Godi-media, a pejorative term used to describe the parts of Indian corporate media that are defined by their subservience to government authorities

People
 Franco Godi (born 1940), Italian composer, conductor, arranger and record producer
 Themba Godi (born 1966), South African politician
 Snorri Goði (963–1031), chieftain in Western Iceland
 Godi Daniel Melanchthon (1934–1994), an Indian Pastor


Brinsford may refer to:

 Brinsford (HM Prison), a prison and Young Offenders Institution in Wolverhampton
 Brinsford Lodge, a former hall of residence for The Polytechnic, Wolverhampton (now the University of Wolverhampton)
 Brinsford Parkway railway station, a prospective new parkway railway station to the north of Wolverhampton


Paul Childress is an American powerlifter.  He holds the World Powerlifting Organization (WPO) world record in the 308 lb. weight class with a squat of 1147.5 lb. and has the third best total in the world with 2662.1 lb. He has been a major part of the fitness industry for 25 years.

In 2004 at the GNC Show of Strength WPO Childress became the first man in the 308 lb. weight class to squat over 1100 lb.
and win the 308 and SHW weight class.

Childress is the Head Strength Coach for the Buffalo Bulls.  Prior to joining UB, Childress worked at Total Health and Fitness as director of facilities and fitness management.  He also continues to be a consultant for elite fitness systems (a powerlifting and strength organization) and sells powerlifting gear. He works with over 28 professional athletes, specialising in strength training, nutrition, athletic performance and conditioning

Childress has a bachelor's degree in health and wellness from  Buffalo State and a master's degree in physical education from Canisius. He was a 3 time All-American at Buffalo State in football

In 1978, he was watching on TV the WSM competition which later inspired him to become a powerlifter. In 1978, he received for Christmas a training kit consisting of weights and dumbbells and that was a pivotal moment in his life.

References

Profile at Buffalo Athletics

External links
World Powerlifting Organization (WPO)

American powerlifters
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Year of birth missing (living people)
Canisius University alumni
Buffalo Bulls football coaches


Tilson Oswaldo Minda (born July 26, 1983) is an Ecuadorian footballer who last played for Barcelona SC in the Ecuadorian Serie A.

Club career
Oswaldo first started out at Sociedad Deportiva Aucas. He remained at the club for five years before joining Deportivo Cuenca. He was part of Deportivo Cuenca's campaign for the Copa Libertadores 2006. His impressive performances attracted the likes of Club Sport Emelec.

After Deportivo Cuenca, Oswaldo became the new high-profile signing for Emelec. He was part of Emelec's squad which participated in the 2007 Copa Libertadores. He did not get a starting position because of the many talented players on Emelec.  As a result, he was sold to Deportivo Quito.

In Deportivo Quito, Oswaldo had a great first season. He played in the Copa Sudamericana 2008 where his team eventually fell to San Luis F.C. While with Quito he had a guaranteed starting position playing in central midfield. Minda formed a great partnership with Edwin Tenorio to help Deportivo Quito win the Ecuadorian Serie A 2008. Minda also helped Deportivo Quito win the Ecuadorian Serie A in December 2011. Days later he signed with Chivas USA of Major League Soccer.

On February 27, 2015, it was confirmed that Minda would be joining Barcelona SC for 2 years.

International career
Minda made his international debut for Ecuador in 2008 and was most recently called up to represent Ecuador in the 2014 FIFA World Cup

Honors
Deportivo Quito
Serie A: 2008, 2009, 2011

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Quito
Men's association football midfielders
Ecuadorian men's footballers
Ecuador men's international footballers
S.D. Aucas footballers
C.D. Cuenca footballers
C.S. Emelec footballers
S.D. Quito footballers
Chivas USA players
Barcelona S.C. footballers
2011 Copa América players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
Ecuadorian Serie A players
Major League Soccer players
Designated Players (MLS)
Ecuadorian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's soccer players in the United States
Ecuadorian expatriate sportspeople in the United States


Benson Municipal Airport  is a public use airport located  northwest of the central business district of Benson, a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States and  east of Tucson International Airport (TUS). The airport was opened in November 1999.

Although most US airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA, IATA, and ICAO 'Benson Municipal Airport is only assigned  E95 by the FAA.

Facilities and aircraft
Benson Municipal Airport covers an area of  at an elevation of  above mean sea level. It has one runway:
 10/28 measuring  asphalt

For the 12-month period ending April 15, 2017, the airport had 24,400 aircraft operations, an average of 67 per day: 92% general aviation, and 2% military. At that time there were 38 aircraft based at this airport: 84% single-engine, 5% ultralight, 3% multi-engine, 5% jet, and 3% helicopters.

Awards and recognition
In 2012 the 1955 Dodge Coronet Airport Courtesy Car at Benson Municipal provided by FBO SouthWestern Aviation, LLC was named "Airport Car of the Month" for June by EAA Sport Aviation Magazine.

References

External links
 Benson Municipal Airport at Arizona DOT Airport Directory
 SouthWestern Aviation, LLC

Airports in Cochise County, Arizona
Benson, Arizona
1999 establishments in Arizona


Lava-Ströme (Streams of Lava), opus 74, is the name of a waltz composed by Johann Strauss II. It was written to commemorate the volcanic activity within Vesuvius in 1850. The waltz was first performed at a benefit ball going under the title of a "Ball in Vesuvius" at the Sofienbad-Saal in Vienna on January 29, 1850.

Lava-Ströme was one of the more imaginative of Strauss' waltzes, having a dramatic 105-bar introduction symbolising the eruption of the volcano. The opening waltz melody was used in Eduard Strauss' musical potpourri Bluthenkranz Johann Strauss'scher Walzer, opus 292. Johann Strauss himself reused the same melody as the main theme of his Jubilee Waltzes, written twenty-two years later, in 1872.

External links
 Lava-Ströme waltz as a Youtube video

References

Waltzes by Johann Strauss II
1850 compositions
Mount Vesuvius


The Women's 100m T36 had its Final held on September 16 at 18:03.

Medalists

Results

References
Final

Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics
2008 in women's athletics


The Humphries Ministry was the seventh ministry of the Government of the Australian Capital Territory, and was led by Liberal Chief Minister Gary Humphries and his deputy, Brendan Smyth. It was sworn in on 19 October 2000, after the forced resignation of Humphries' predecessor Kate Carnell over the Bruce Stadium affair, and the elevation of Deputy Chief Minister Humphries and new deputy Smyth.

Though Carnell resigned from parliament upon losing the Chief Minister position, she was initially sworn into an interim junior portfolio in the ministry of her successor, until a full ministry could be sworn in during December. The ministry operated until 13 November 2001, when the Labor First Stanhope Ministry was sworn in after the Liberal defeat in the 2001 election.

First arrangement

This covers the period from 19 October 2000 (when the Ministry was sworn in) until the reshuffle on 15 December forced by the resignation from politics of Kate Carnell. Carnell had technically continued to hold a number of minor ministerial portfolios after her resignation as Chief Minister, despite her also resigning from parliament at the same time.

Second arrangement

This covers the period from 15 December 2000, until the until 13 November 2001 and was brought about following the resignation from the Assembly from the earlier deposed former Chief Minister Carnell. Carnell was not replaced in the ministry, and Humphries decided to continue to the election with only four ministers after distributing Carnell's portfolios among the remaining members. The reporting of Moore in the list of ministers, in terms of hierarchy, shifted to the bottom of the ministerial list.

References

Australian Capital Territory ministries


The 2008 Copa do Brasil de Futebol Feminino was the second staging of the competition. The competition started on November 1, 2008, and was concluded on December 10, 2008. 32 clubs of all regions of Brazil participated of the cup, which is organized by the Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF). The champion was Santos.

Competition format
The competition was contested by 32 clubs in a knock-out format where all rounds were played over two legs and the away goals rule was used, but in the first round if the away team won the first leg with an advantage of at least two goals, the second leg was not played and the club automatically qualified to the next round.

Participating teams
The 2008 participating teams are the following clubs:

Table

Semifinals

Group 29

Group 30

Final

References

2008
Copa Do Brasil De Futebol Feminino, 2008
Copa Do Brasil
Copa


Cai Zhong Hu (Chinese: , lit. "Hu, Elder of Cai"), born Ji Hu (), was the only known son of Ji Du, the first lord of Cai.

Ji Du was removed from his office after participating in the Rebellion of the Three Guards against the regency of the Duke of Zhou. However, his son made an effort to get his manners straight and be kind to people and was sent by the Duke of Zhou to Lu as an ambassador. Following this, King Cheng restored his father's fief to him and his son inherited it after him.

References

Zhou dynasty nobility
Cai (state)
11th-century BC Chinese monarchs


Huang, Earl of Cai (), born Ji Huang (), was an ancient Chinese noble from the Zhou dynasty and the third ruler of the ancient Chinese state of Cai.

Huang was the only known son of Zhong Hu of Cai and the second cousin of Kings Cheng and Kang of Zhou. His son inherited his land as Marquis Gōng of Cai, with a higher title, hou rather than bo.

See also
Shiji

External links
http://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&char=%E8%94%A1%E4%BC%AF%E8%8D%92
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/rulers-cai.html

11th century BC in China
Zhou dynasty nobility
Cai (state)
11th-century BC Chinese monarchs


Karl Anton Nowotny (June 21, 1904 in Hollabrunn – December 31, 1978 in Vienna) was an Austrian ethnographer, art historian and academic, specialising in the study of Mesoamerican cultures. He is most renowned for his analyses and reproductions of Mesoamerican codices, and his commentaries on their iconography and symbolisms.

Nowotny was a pioneer and leading exponent of applying comparative ethnography to the study of pre-Columbian and conquest-era texts and codices. In this technique, the meaning and symbolism of the texts are analysed and compared with the cultural practices and beliefs of modern indigenous Mesoamerican peoples whose traditions have been maintained. Nowotny used comprehensive ethnographic studies—such as those conducted by Leonhard Schultze in the 1930s among the Nahuas of the central Mexican altiplano—as a means of garnering further insight into the ancestral practices and beliefs underpinning the codices and related iconographies.

Nowotny also contributed extensively to the study and interpretation of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican calendars, their functioning and how they were used. Building upon work by earlier scholars such as Eduard Seler, Nowotny and his contemporaries like Alfonso Caso and Paul Kirchhoff greatly added to the scholarly understanding of calendrical elements such as the central Mexican tonalpohualli, veintena and trecena cycles. Nowotny's analysis and exposition of the ritual and divinatory importance of the tonalamatl almanac has been regarded as of "critical importance" to the modern understanding of this almanac, and a significant development beyond the primarily astronomically based approach of Seler and other predecessors.

Notes

References

 Rohrbacher, Peter (2019) „Encrypted Astronomy” – Astral Mythologies, and Ancient Mexican Studies in Austria, 1910–1945 In: Revista de Antropologia 62/1: 140-161 (Special Number – German and German-speaking Anthropologists in Brazil, Universidade de São Paulo)

External links

1904 births
1978 deaths
People from Hollabrunn
Austrian people of Czech descent
Austrian academics
Austrian Mesoamericanists
Historians of Mesoamerican art
20th-century Mesoamericanists


In economics, a demand shock is a sudden event that increases or decreases demand for goods or services temporarily.

A positive demand shock increases aggregate demand (AD) and a negative demand shock decreases aggregate demand. Prices of goods and services are affected in both cases. When demand for goods or services increases, its price (or price levels) increases because of a shift in the demand curve to the right. When demand decreases, its price decreases because of a shift in the demand curve to the left. Demand shocks can originate from changes in things such as tax rates, money supply, and government spending. For example, taxpayers owe the government less money after a tax cut, thereby freeing up more money available for personal spending. When the taxpayers use the money to purchase goods and services, their prices go up.

In the midst of a poor economic situation in the United Kingdom in November 2002, the Bank of England's deputy governor, Mervyn King, warned that the domestic economy was sufficiently imbalanced that it ran the risk of causing a "large negative demand shock" in the near future. At the London School of Economics, he elaborated by saying, "Beneath the surface of overall stability in the UK economy lies a remarkable imbalance between a buoyant consumer and housing sector, on the one hand, and weak external demand on the other."

During the global financial crisis of 2008, a negative demand shock in the United States economy was caused by several factors that included falling house prices, the subprime mortgage crisis, and lost household wealth, which led to a drop in consumer spending. To counter this negative demand shock, the Federal Reserve System lowered interest rates. Before the crisis occurred, the world's economy experienced a positive global supply shock. Immediately afterward, however, a positive global demand shock led to global overheating and rising inflationary pressures.

See also
 Shock (economics)
 Supply shock
 Demand-pull inflation
 Technology shock

References

Economic events
Demand
Market trends


Cai Shu may refer to:

 Shu Du of Cai, first ruler of the State of Cai
 Cai Shu (athlete) (born 1962), Chinese retired high jumper


Usonia Historic District was a planned community and is now a national historic district located in Town of Mount Pleasant, adjacent to the village of Pleasantville, Westchester County, New York. In 1945, a  rural tract was purchased by a cooperative of young couples from New York City, who were able to enlist Frank Lloyd Wright to build his Broadacre City concept. Wright decided where each house should be placed. Wright designed three homes himself and approved architectural plans of the other 44, which were designed by such architects as Paul Schweikher, Theodore Dixon Bower, Ulrich Franzen, Kaneji Domoto, Aaron Resnick and David Henken – an engineer and Wright apprentice.

The layout of the neighborhood was planned by Wright in a circular manner, preserving most of the original trees and "encouraging the flow of the land". The balance of the homes were decreed to be in the modern "organic" style ordained by Wright. The community was named "Usonia" in homage to Wright, whose ideas on the way Americans should live together guided their plan.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2012 as the Usonia Historic District. The historic district encompasses 43 contributing buildings, 1 contributing site, and 3 contributing structures.

The Frank Lloyd Wright-designed Usonian homes in Pleasantville are:

Notable residents
 Aaron Resnick
 Mel Smilow
 Martin Scheiner
 Ann McGovern
 Roger Kahn

See also
 List of Frank Lloyd Wright works

References

External links

 "Usonia Community Remembers Its Past", The New York Times
 "Wright Find Recalls His Influence On A Community". The New York Times
 "Updating Wright's Ideal", The New York Times
 "Green Before It Had a Name", The New York Times
 Pleasantville has the Wright Stuff, Retro Info!
 Photos on Flickr

Frank Lloyd Wright buildings
Houses in Westchester County, New York
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Modernist architecture in New York (state)
Historic districts in Westchester County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Westchester County, New York
Mount Pleasant, New York


The 2001 North Carolina Tar Heels football team represented the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as a member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) during the 2001 NCAA Division I-A football season. Led by first-year head coach John Bunting, the Tar Heels played their home games at Kenan Memorial Stadium in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. North Carolina finished the season 8–5 overall and 5–3 in ACC play to place third. They beat Auburn in the Peach Bowl.

Schedule

Roster

Coaching staff

Game summaries

at No. 3 Oklahoma

at Maryland

Team players drafted in the NFL
The following players were selected in the 2002 NFL Draft.

References

North Carolina
North Carolina Tar Heels football seasons
Peach Bowl champion seasons
North Carolina Tar Heels football


The New England Colonies of British America included Connecticut Colony, the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and the Province of New Hampshire, as well as a few smaller short-lived colonies. The New England colonies were part of the Thirteen Colonies and eventually became five of the six states in New England, with Plymouth Colony absorbed into Massachusetts and Maine separating from it. Captain John Smith's 1616 work A Description of New England first applied the term "New England" to the coastal lands from Long Island Sound to Newfoundland.

Arriving in America

England, France, and the Netherlands made several attempts to colonize New England early in the 17th century, and those nations were often in contention over lands in the New World. French nobleman Pierre Dugua Sieur de Monts established a settlement on Saint Croix Island, Maine in June 1604 under the authority of the King of France. Nearly half the settlers perished due to the harsh winter and scurvy, and the survivors moved north out of New England to Port-Royal of Nova Scotia (see symbol "R" on map to the right) in the spring of 1605.

King James I of England recognized the need for a permanent settlement in New England, and he granted competing royal charters to the Plymouth Company and the London Company. The Plymouth Company ships arrived at the mouth of the Kennebec River (then called the Sagadahoc River) in August 1607 where they established a settlement named Sagadahoc Colony, better known as Popham Colony (see symbol "Po" on map to right) to honor financial backer Sir John Popham. The colonists faced a harsh winter, the loss of supplies following a storehouse fire, and mixed relations with the local Indian tribes.

Colony leader Captain George Popham died, and Raleigh Gilbert decided to return to England to take up an inheritance left by an older brother— at which point, all of the colonists decided to return to England. It was around August 1608 when they left on the ship Mary and John and on a new ship built by the colony named Virginia of Sagadahoc. The 30-ton Virginia was the first sea-going ship ever built in North America.

Conflict over land rights continued through the early 17th century, with the French constructing Fort Pentagouet near Castine, Maine in 1613. The fort protected a trading post and a fishing station and was the first longer-term settlement in New England. It changed hands multiple times throughout the 17th century among the English, French, and Dutch colonists.

In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block traveled along the coast of Long Island Sound and then up the Connecticut River as far as Hartford, Connecticut. By 1623, the Dutch West India Company regularly traded for furs there, and they eventually fortified it for protection from the Pequot Indians and named the site "House of Hope" (also identified as "Fort Hoop," "Good Hope," and "Hope").

Establishing the New England Colonies
A group of Puritans commonly called the Pilgrims arrived on the Mayflower from England and the Netherlands to establish Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, the second successful English colony in America following Jamestown, Virginia. About half of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower died that first winter, mostly because of diseases contracted on the voyage followed by a harsh winter. In 1621, an Indian named Squanto taught the colonists how to grow corn and where to catch eels and fish. His assistance was invaluable and helped them to survive the early years of colonization. The Pilgrims lived on the same site where Squanto's Patuxet tribe had established a village before they were wiped out from diseases.

The Plymouth settlement faced great hardships and earned few profits, but it enjoyed a positive reputation in England and may have sown the seeds for further immigration. Edward Winslow and William Bradford published an account of their experiences called Mourt's Relation (1622). This book was only a small glimpse of the hardships and dangers encountered by the Pilgrims, but it encouraged other Puritans to immigrate during the Great Migration between 1620 and 1640.

The Puritans in England first sent smaller groups in the mid-1620s to establish colonies, buildings, and food supplies, learning from the Pilgrims' harsh experiences of winter in the Plymouth Colony. In 1623, the Plymouth Council for New England (successor to the Plymouth Company) established a small fishing village at Cape Ann under the supervision of the Dorchester Company. The first group of Puritans moved to a new town at nearby Naumkeag after the Dorchester Company dropped support, and fresh financial support was found by Rev. John White. Other settlements were started in nearby areas; however, the overall Puritan population remained small through the 1620s.

A larger group of Puritans arrived in 1630, leaving England because they desired to worship in a manner that differed from the Church of England. Their views were in accord with those of the Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower, except that the Mayflower Pilgrims felt that they needed to separate themselves from the Church of England, whereas the later Puritans were content to remain under the umbrella of the Church. The separate colonies were governed independently of one another until 1691, when Plymouth Colony was absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay Colony to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay.

Spreading out
The Puritans also established the American public school system for the express purpose of ensuring that future generations would be able to read the Bible for themselves, which was a central tenet of Puritan worship. However, dissenters of the Puritan laws were often banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Wheelwright left with his followers to establish a colony in New Hampshire and then went on to Maine.

It was the dead of winter in January 1636 when Roger Williams was banished from the Massachusetts Bay Colony because of theological differences. One source of contention was his view that government and religion should be separate; he also believed that the colonies should purchase land at fair prices from the Wampanoag and Narragansett tribes. Massachusetts officials intended to forcibly deport him back to England, but he escaped and walked through deep snow from Salem, Massachusetts to Raynham, Massachusetts, a distance of 55 miles. The Indian tribes helped him to survive and sold him land for a new colony which he named Providence Plantations in recognition of the intervention of Divine Providence in establishing the new colony. It was unique in its day in expressly providing for religious freedom and separation of church from state. Other dissenters established two settlements on Rhode Island (now called Aquidneck Island) and another settlement in Warwick; these four settlements eventually united to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

Thomas Hooker left Massachusetts in 1636 with 100 followers and founded a settlement just north of the Dutch Fort Hoop which grew into Connecticut Colony. The community was first named Newtown then renamed Hartford to honor the English town of Hertford. One of the reasons why Hooker left Massachusetts Bay was that only members of the church could vote and participate in the government, which he believed should include any adult male owning property. He obtained a royal charter and established Fundamental Orders, considered to be one of the first constitutions in America. Other colonies later merged into the royal charter for the Connecticut Colony, including New Haven Colony and Saybrook Colony.

Commerce
The earliest colonies in New England were usually fishing villages or farming communities on the more fertile land along the rivers. The rocky soil in the New England Colonies was not as fertile as the Middle or Southern Colonies, but the land provided rich resources, including lumber that was highly valued. Lumber was also a resource that could be exported back to England, where there was a shortage of wood. In addition, the hunting of wildlife provided furs to be traded and food for the table.

The New England Colonies were located along the Atlantic coast where there was an abundance of marketable sea life. Excellent harbors and some inland waterways offered protection for ships and were also valuable for freshwater fishing. By the end of the 17th century, New England colonists had created an Atlantic trade network that connected them to the English homeland as well as to the Slave Coast of West Africa, plantations in the West Indies, and the Iberian Peninsula. Colonists relied upon British and European imports for glass, linens, hardware, machinery, and other items for the household.

The Southern Colonies could produce tobacco, rice, and indigo in exchange for imports, whereas New England's colonies could not offer much to England beyond fish, furs, and lumber. Inflation was a major issue in the economy. During the 18th century, shipbuilding drew upon the abundant lumber and revived the economy, often under the direction of the British Crown.

In 1652, the Massachusetts General Court authorized Boston silversmith John Hull to produce local coinage in shilling, sixpence, and threepence denominations to address a coin shortage in the colony. The colony's economy had been entirely dependent on barter and foreign currency, including English, Spanish, Dutch, Portuguese, and counterfeit coins. In 1661, after the restoration of the monarchy, the English government considered the Boston mint to be treasonous. However, the colony ignored the English demands to cease operations until at least 1682, when Hull's contract expired as mint master, and the colony did not move to renew his contract or appoint a new mint master. The coinage was a contributing factor to the revocation of the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter in 1684.

Indian slavery in the New England Colonies
American Indians who were captured during various conflicts in New England were sometimes sold into slavery, such as the Pequot War (1636–1638) and King Philip's War (1675–1678). Utilizing captured prisoners of war as a source of forced labor was common in Europe; during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, prisoners of war were frequently indentured and transported to plantations in Barbados and Jamaica.

Plymouth Colony ranger Benjamin Church spoke out against the practice of enslaving Indians in the summer of 1675, describing the practice as "an action so hateful... that [I] opposed it to the loss of the goodwill and respect of some that before were good friends." However, Church was not opposed to black slavery, owning black slaves like many of his fellow colonists. During King Philip's War, some captured Indians were enslaved and transported aboard New England merchant ships to the West Indies, where they were sold to European planters. Various colonial councils decreed that "no male captive above the age of fourteen years should reside in the colony." Margret Ellen Newell estimates that hundreds of Indians were enslaved during the colonial conflicts, while Nathaniel Philbrick estimates that at least 1,000 New England Indians were sold into slavery during King Philip's War, with more than half coming from Plymouth.

Education
In the New England Colonies, the first settlements of Pilgrims and the other Puritans who came later taught their children how to read and write in order that they might read and study the Bible for themselves. Depending upon social and financial status, education was taught by the parents home-schooling their children, public grammar schools, and private governesses, which included subjects from reading and writing to Latin and Greek and more.

Composition

See also
 Middle Colonies
 Southern Colonies
 Chesapeake Colonies
 Thirteen Colonies
 History of Massachusetts
 Historical outline of Massachusetts
 British Colonial America
 New England
 History of New England
 Dominion of New England
 New England Confederation

Notes

Sources

-01
B01
Thirteen Colonies
Colonies
Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas
Pre-statehood history of Massachusetts