Finnish (endonym:   or  ) is a Uralic language of the Finnic branch, spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside of Finland. Finnish is one of the two official languages of Finland (the other being Swedish). In Sweden, both Finnish and Meänkieli (which has significant mutual intelligibility with Finnish) are official minority languages. The Kven language, which like Meänkieli is mutually intelligible with Finnish, is spoken in the Norwegian county Troms og Finnmark by a minority group of Finnish descent.

Finnish is typologically agglutinative and uses almost exclusively suffixal affixation. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals and verbs are inflected depending on their role in the sentence. Sentences are normally formed with subject–verb–object word order, although the extensive use of inflection allows them to be ordered differently. Word order variations are often reserved for differences in information structure. Finnish orthography uses a Latin-script alphabet derived from the Swedish alphabet, and is phonetic to a great extent. Vowel length and consonant length are distinguished, and there are a range of diphthongs, although vowel harmony limits which diphthongs are possible.

Classification
Finnish is a member of the Finnic group of the Uralic family of languages; as such, it is one of the few European languages that is not Indo-European. The Finnic group also includes Estonian and a few minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea and in Russia's Republic of Karelia.

Finnish demonstrates an affiliation with other Uralic languages (such as Hungarian) in several respects including:

Shared morphology:
case suffixes such as genitive , partitive  /  ( < Proto-Uralic *-ta, originally ablative), essive  /  ( < *-na, originally locative)
plural markers  and  ( < Proto-Uralic *-t and *-j, respectively)
possessive suffixes such as 1st person singular  ( < Proto-Uralic *-n-mi), 2nd person singular  ( < Proto-Uralic *-ti).
various derivational suffixes (e.g. causative  < Proto-Uralic *-k-ta)
Shared basic vocabulary displaying regular sound correspondences with the other Uralic languages (e.g.  'fish' ~ North Saami  ~ Hungarian ; and  'disappear' ~ North Saami  ~ Hungarian  'leave (behind)'.

Several theories exist as to the geographic origin of Finnish and the other Uralic languages. The most widely held view is that they originated as a Proto-Uralic language somewhere in the boreal forest belt around the Ural Mountains region and/or the bend of the middle Volga. The strong case for Proto-Uralic is supported by common vocabulary with regularities in sound correspondences, as well as by the fact that the Uralic languages have many similarities in structure and grammar.

The Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, United States, classifies Finnish as a level III language (of four levels) in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers.

Geographic distribution

Finnish is spoken by about five million people, most of whom reside in Finland. There are also notable Finnish-speaking minorities in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Estonia, Brazil, Canada, and the United States. The majority of the population of Finland (90.37% ) speak Finnish as their first language. The remainder speak Swedish (5.42%), one of the Sámi languages (for example Northern, Inari, or Skolt), or another language as their first language. Finnish is spoken as a second language in Estonia by about 167,000 people. The varieties of Finnish found in Norway's Finnmark (namely Kven) and in northern Sweden (namely Meänkieli) have the status of official minority languages, and thus can be considered distinct languages from Finnish. However, since all three are mutually intelligible, one may alternatively view them as dialects of the same language.

There are also forms of Finnish spoken by diasporas in Siberia, by the Siberian Finns and in America, where American Finnish is spoken by Finnish Americans.

In the latest census, around 1000 people in Russia claimed to speak Finnish natively; however, a larger amount of 14,000 claimed to be able to speak Finnish in total.

Official status
Today, Finnish is one of two official languages of Finland (the other being Swedish), and has been an official language of the European Union since 1995. However, the Finnish language did not have an official status in the country during the period of Swedish rule, which ended in 1809. After the establishment of the Grand Duchy of Finland, and against the backdrop of the Fennoman movement, the language obtained its official status in the Finnish Diet of 1863.

Finnish also enjoys the status of an official minority language in Sweden. Under the Nordic Language Convention, citizens of the Nordic countries speaking Finnish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable to any interpretation or translation costs. However, concerns have been expressed about the future status of Finnish in Sweden, for example, where reports produced for the Swedish government during 2017 show that minority language policies are not being respected, particularly for the 7% of Finns settled in the country.

History

Prehistory
The Uralic family of languages, of which Finnish is a member, are hypothesized to derive from a single ancestor language termed Proto-Uralic, spoken sometime between 8,000 and 2,000 BCE (estimates vary) in the vicinity of the Ural mountains. Over time, Proto-Uralic split into various daughter languages, which themselves continued to change and diverge, yielding yet more descendants. One of these descendants is the reconstructed Proto-Finnic, from which the Finnic languages developed, and which diverged from Proto-Samic (a reconstructed ancestor of the Sámi languages) around 1500–1000 BCE.

Current models assume that three or more Proto-Finnic dialects evolved during the first millennium BCE. These dialects were defined geographically, and were distinguished from one another along a north–south split as well as an east–west split. The northern dialects of Proto-Finnic, from which Finnish developed, lacked the mid vowel . This vowel was found only in the southern dialects, which developed into Estonian, Livonian, and Votian. The northern variants used third person singular pronoun  instead of southern  (Est. ). While the eastern dialects of Proto-Finnic (which developed in the modern-day eastern Finnish dialects, Veps, Karelian, and Ingrian) formed genitive plural nouns via plural stems (e.g., eastern Finnish  < *kaloi-ten), the western dialects of Proto-Finnic (today's Estonian, Livonian and western Finnish varieties) used the non-plural stems (e.g., Est.  < *kala-ten). Another defining characteristic of the east–west split was the use of the reflexive suffix , used only in the eastern dialects.

Medieval period

The birch bark letter 292 from the early 13th century is the first known document in any Finnic language. The first known written example of Finnish itself is found in a German travel journal dating back to :  (Modern Finnish: "" English: "I want to speak Finnish, [but] I am not able to"). According to the travel journal, the words are those of a Finnish bishop whose name is unknown. The erroneous use of  (Modern Finnish ) in the accusative case, rather than  in the partitive, and the lack of the conjunction  are typical of foreign speakers of Finnish even today. At the time, most priests in Finland were Swedish-speaking.

During the Middle Ages, when Finland was under Swedish rule, Finnish was only spoken. At the time, the language of international commerce was Middle Low German, the language of administration Swedish, and religious ceremonies were held in Latin. This meant that Finnish speakers could use their mother tongue only in everyday life. Finnish was considered inferior to Swedish, and Finnish speakers were second-class members of society because they could not use their language in any official situations. There were even efforts to reduce the use of Finnish through parish clerk schools, the use of Swedish in church, and by having Swedish-speaking servants and maids move to Finnish-speaking areas.

Writing system

The first comprehensive writing system for Finnish was created by Mikael Agricola, a Finnish bishop, in the 16th century. He based his writing system on the western dialects. Agricola's ultimate plan was to translate the Bible, but first he had to develop an orthography for the language, which he based on Swedish, German, and Latin. The Finnish standard language still relies on his innovations with regard to spelling, though Agricola used less systematic spelling than is used today.

Though Agricola's intention was that each phoneme (and allophone under qualitative consonant gradation) should correspond to one letter, he failed to achieve this goal in various respects. For example, k, c, and q were all used for the phoneme . Likewise, he alternated between dh and d to represent the allophonic voiced dental fricative  (like th in English this), between dh and z to represent the geminate voiceless dental fricative  (like th in thin, but longer in duration), and between gh and g to represent the allophonic voiced velar fricative . Agricola did not consistently represent vowel length in his orthography.

Others revised Agricola's work later, striving for a more systematic writing system. Along the way, Finnish lost several fricative consonants in a process of sound change. The sounds  and  disappeared from the language, surviving only in a small rural region in Western Finland. In the standard language, however, the effect of the lost sounds is thus:
 became . The sound  was written ⟨d⟩ or ⟨dh⟩ by Agricola. This sound was lost from most varieties of Finnish, either losing all phonetic realization or being pronounced as , , , or  instead (depending on dialect and the position in the word). However, Agricola's spelling ⟨d⟩ prevailed, and the pronunciation in Standard Finnish became  through spelling pronunciation.
 became . These interdental fricatives were written as ⟨tz⟩ (for both grades: geminate and short) in some of the earliest written records. Though these developed into a variety of other sounds depending on dialect (, , , , , or ), the standard language has arrived at spelling pronunciation  (which is treated as a consonant cluster and hence not subject to consonant gradation).
 became:
  if it appeared originally between high round vowels  and  (cf.  'kin, family' :  [genitive form] from earlier *suku : *suɣun, and  :  'ability, skill' [nominative and genitive, respectively] from *kükü : *küɣün, contrasting with  :  'pig, pork' [nominative and genitive] from *sika : *siɣan. A similar process explains the /f/ pronunciation for some English words with "gh", such as "tough"),
  between a liquid consonant  or  and a vowel  (like in  'I go', a form of the verb  'to go' that was originally *kulɣen),
 and otherwise it was lost entirely.

Modern Finnish punctuation, along with that of Swedish, uses the colon (:) to separate the stem of a word and its grammatical ending in some cases, for example after acronyms, as in  'in the EU'. (This contrasts with some other alphabetic writing systems, which would use other symbols, such as e.g. apostrophe, hyphen.) Since suffixes play a prominent role in the language, this use of the colon is quite common.

Modernization
In the 19th century Johan Vilhelm Snellman and others began to stress the need to improve the status of Finnish. Ever since the days of Mikael Agricola, written Finnish had been used almost exclusively in religious contexts, but now Snellman's Hegelian nationalistic ideas of Finnish as a fully-fledged national language gained considerable support. Concerted efforts were made to improve the status of the language and to modernize it, and by the end of the century Finnish had become a language of administration, journalism, literature, and science in Finland, along with Swedish.

In 1853 Daniel Europaeus published the first Swedish-Finnish dictionary, and between 1866 and 1880 Elias Lönnrot compiled the first Finnish-Swedish dictionary. In the same period, Antero Warelius conducted ethnographic research and, among other topics, he documented the geographic distribution of the Finnish dialects.

The most important contributions to improving the status of Finnish were made by Elias Lönnrot. His impact on the development of modern vocabulary in Finnish was particularly significant. In addition to compiling the Kalevala, he acted as an arbiter in disputes about the development of standard Finnish between the proponents of western and eastern dialects, ensuring that the western dialects preferred by Agricola retained their preeminent role, while many originally dialect words from Eastern Finland were introduced to the standard language, thus enriching it considerably. The first novel written in Finnish (and by a Finnish speaker) was Seven Brothers (), published by Aleksis Kivi in 1870.

Dialects

The dialects of Finnish are divided into two distinct groups, Western and Eastern. The dialects are largely mutually intelligible and are distinguished from each other by changes in vowels, diphthongs and rhythm, as well as in preferred grammatical constructions. For the most part, the dialects operate on the same phonology and grammar. There are only marginal examples of sounds or grammatical constructions specific to some dialect and not found in standard Finnish. Two examples are the voiced dental fricative found in the Rauma dialect, and the Eastern exessive case.

The classification of closely related dialects spoken outside Finland is a politically sensitive issue that has been controversial since Finland's independence in 1917. This concerns specifically the Karelian language in Russia and Meänkieli in Sweden, the speakers of which are often considered oppressed minorities. Karelian is different enough from standard Finnish to have its own orthography. Meänkieli is a northern dialect almost entirely intelligible to speakers of any other Finnish dialect, which achieved its status as an official minority language in Sweden for historical and political reasons, although Finnish is an official minority language in Sweden, too. In 1980, many texts, books and the Bible were translated into Meänkieli and it has been developing more into its own language.

Western dialects

The Southwest Finnish dialects () are spoken in Southwest Finland and Satakunta. Their typical feature is abbreviation of word-final vowels, and in many respects they resemble Estonian. The Tavastian dialects () are spoken in Tavastia. They are closest to the standard language, but feature some slight vowel changes, such as the opening of diphthong-final vowels ( → ,  → ,  → ), the change of d to l (mostly obsolete) or trilled r (widespread, nowadays disappearance of d is popular) and the personal pronouns ( ('we: our'),  ('you: your') and  ('they: their')). The South Ostrobothnian dialects () are spoken in Southern Ostrobothnia. Their most notable feature is the pronunciation of "d" as a tapped or even fully trilled . The Central and North Ostrobothnian dialects () are spoken in Central and Northern Ostrobothnia. The Lappish dialects () are spoken in Lapland. The dialects spoken in the western parts of Lapland are recognizable by retention of old "h" sounds in positions where they have disappeared from other dialects.

One form of speech related to Northern dialects, Meänkieli, which is spoken on the Swedish side of the border, is taught in some Swedish schools as a distinct standardized language. The speakers of Meänkieli became politically separated from the other Finns when Finland was annexed to Russia in 1809. The categorization of Meänkieli as a separate language is controversial among some Finns, who see no linguistic criteria, only political reasons, for treating Meänkieli differently from other dialects of Finnish.

The Kven language is spoken in Finnmark and Troms, in Norway. Its speakers are descendants of Finnish emigrants to the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. Kven is an official minority language in Norway.

Eastern dialects

The Eastern dialects consist of the widespread Savonian dialects () spoken in Savo and nearby areas, and the South-Eastern dialects now spoken only in Finnish South Karelia. The South Karelian dialects () were previously also spoken on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria. The Karelian Isthmus was evacuated during World War II and refugees were resettled all over Finland. Most Ingrian Finns were deported to various interior areas of the Soviet Union.

Palatalization, a common feature of Uralic languages, had been lost in the Finnic branch, but it has been reacquired by most of these languages, including Eastern Finnish, but not Western Finnish. In Finnish orthography, this is denoted with a "j", e.g.   "water", cf. standard  .

The language spoken in those parts of Karelia that have not historically been under Swedish or Finnish rule is usually called the Karelian language, and it is considered to be more distant from standard Finnish than the Eastern dialects. Whether this language of Russian Karelia is a dialect of Finnish or a separate language is sometimes disputed.

Helsinki slang ()
The first known written account in Helsinki slang is from the 1890 short story Hellaassa by young Santeri Ivalo (words that do not exist in, or deviate from, the standard spoken Finnish of its time are in bold):

Dialect chart of Finnish

 Western dialects
Southwest Finnish dialects
Proper Finnish dialects
 Northern dialect group
 Southern dialect group
Southwest Finnish middle dialects
Pori region dialects
Ala-Satakunta dialects
dialects of Turku highlands
Somero region dialects
Western Uusimaa dialects
Helsinki slang\dialects
Tavastian dialects
Ylä-Satakunta dialects
Heart Tavastian dialects
Southern Tavastian dialects
Southern-Eastern Tavastian dialects
Hollola dialect group
Porvoo dialect group
Iitti dialect group
South Ostrobothnian dialects
Central and North Ostrobothnian dialects
Central Ostrobothnian dialects
North Ostrobothnian dialects
Lappish dialects
Torne dialects ("Meänkieli" in Sweden)
Kemi dialects
Kemijärvi dialects
Gällivare dialects ("Meänkieli" in Sweden)
Finnmark dialects ("Kven language" in Northern Norway)
Eastern dialects
Savonian dialects
North Savonian dialects
South Savonian dialects
Middle dialects of Savonlinna region
East Savonian dialects or North Karelian dialects
Kainuu dialects
Central Finland dialects
Päijänne Tavastia dialects
Keuruu-Evijärvi dialects
Savonian dialects of Värmland (Sweden)
South Karelian dialects
Proper South Karelian dialects
Middle dialects of Lemi region
Dialects of Ingria (in Russia)

Linguistic registers

There are two main registers of Finnish used throughout the country. One is the "standard language" (), and the other is the "spoken language" (). The standard language is used in formal situations like political speeches and newscasts. Its written form, the "book language" (), is used in nearly all written texts, not always excluding even the dialogue of common people in popular prose. The spoken language, on the other hand, is the main variety of Finnish used in popular TV and radio shows and at workplaces, and may be preferred to a dialect in personal communication.

Standardization
Standard Finnish is prescribed by the Language Office of the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland and is the language used in official communication. The Dictionary of Contemporary Finnish ( 1951–61), with 201,000 entries, was a prescriptive dictionary that defined official language. An additional volume for words of foreign origin (, 30,000 entries) was published in 1991. An updated dictionary, The New Dictionary of Modern Finnish () was published in an electronic form in 2004 and in print in 2006. A descriptive grammar (the Large grammar of Finnish, , 1,600 pages) was published in 2004. There is also an etymological dictionary, , published in 1992–2000, and a handbook of contemporary language (). Standard Finnish is used in official texts and is the form of language taught in schools. Its spoken form is used in political speech, newscasts, in courts, and in other formal situations. Nearly all publishing and printed works are in standard Finnish.

Colloquial Finnish

The colloquial language has mostly developed naturally from earlier forms of Finnish, and spread from the main cultural and political centres. The standard language, however, has always been a consciously constructed medium for literature. It preserves grammatical patterns that have mostly vanished from the colloquial varieties and, as its main application is writing, it features complex syntactic patterns that are not easy to handle when used in speech. The colloquial language develops significantly faster, and the grammatical and phonological changes also include the most common pronouns and suffixes, which amount to frequent but modest differences. Some sound changes have been left out of the formal language. For example, irregular verbs have developed in the spoken language as a result of the elision of sonorants in some verbs of the Type III class (with subsequent vowel assimilation), but only when the second syllable of the word is short. The result is that some forms in the spoken language are shortened, e.g.  →  ('I come'), while others remain identical to the standard language  "he comes", never *). However, the longer forms such as  can be used in spoken language in other forms as well.

The literary language certainly still exerts a considerable influence upon the spoken word, because illiteracy is nonexistent and many Finns are avid readers. In fact, it is still not entirely uncommon to meet people who "talk book-ish" (); it may have connotations of pedantry, exaggeration, moderation, weaseling or sarcasm (somewhat like heavy use of Latinate words in English, or more old-fashioned or "pedantic" constructions: compare the difference between saying "There's no children I'll leave it to" and "There are no children to whom I shall leave it"). More common is the intrusion of typically literary constructions into a colloquial discourse, as a kind of quote from written Finnish. It is quite common to hear book-like and polished speech on radio or TV, and the constant exposure to such language tends to lead to the adoption of such constructions even in everyday language.

A prominent example of the effect of the standard language is the development of the consonant gradation form  as in , as this pattern was originally (1940) found natively only in the dialects of the southern Karelian isthmus and Ingria. It has been reinforced by the spelling "ts" for the dental fricative , used earlier in some western dialects. The spelling and the pronunciation this encourages however approximate the original pronunciation, still reflected in e.g. Karelian  (). In the spoken language, a fusion of Western  () and Eastern  () has resulted in  (). Neither of these forms are identifiable as, or originate from, a specific dialect.

The orthography of informal language follows that of the formal. However, in signalling the former in writing, syncope and sandhi – especially internal – may occasionally amongst other characteristics be transcribed, e.g. . This never occurs in the standard variety.

Examples

{| class="wikitable"
|-
||formal language
||colloquial language
||meaning
|notes
|-
||

||

||"he/she goes"
"they go"
|loss of an animacy contrast in pronouns ( and  are inanimate in the formal language), and

loss of a number contrast on verbs in the 3rd person ( is 3rd person singular in the formal language)
|-
|
|
|"I, my, ..."
|various alternative, usually shorter, forms of 1st and 2nd person pronouns
|-
||

||

||"I'm coming" or "I will come"
"I am" or "I will be"
|elision of sonorants before short vowels in certain Type III verbs along with vowel assimilation,
and no pro-drop (i.e., personal pronouns are usually mandatory in the colloquial language)
|-
||

||

||"do you (pl.) have?"
"don't you (pl.) have (it)?"
|vowel apocope and common use of the clitic  in interrogatives
(compare  to standard Estonian confirmatory interrogative )
|-
||
||
||"we don't say" or "we won't say"
|the passive voice is used in place of the first person plural
|-
||
||
||"my book"
|lack of possessive clitics on nouns
|-
||

||

||"I don't know"
"to eat"
|elision of  between vowels, and subsequent vowel assimilation
(compare  to standard Estonian  or dialectal forms  or )
|-
||
||
||"sixty-five"
|abbreviated forms of numerals
|-
||

||

||"red"
"to time"
|unstressed diphthongs ending in  become short vowels, and apocope of phrase-final
|-
||
||
||"probably will fix"
|absence of the potential mood, use of  'probably' instead
|}

There are noticeable differences between dialects. Here the formal language does not mean a language spoken in formal occasions but the standard language which exists practically only in written form.

Phonology

Segmental phonology
The phoneme inventory of Finnish is moderately small, with a great number of vocalic segments and a restricted set of consonant types, both of which can be long or short.

Vocalic segments
Finnish monophthongs show eight vowel qualities that contrast in duration, thus 16 vowel phonemes in total. Vowel allophony is quite restricted. Vowel phonemes are always contrastive in word-initial syllables; for non-initial syllable, see morphophonology below. Long and short vowels are shown below.

The usual analysis is that Finnish has long and short vowels and consonants as distinct phonemes. However, long vowels may be analyzed as a vowel followed by a chroneme, or also, that sequences of identical vowels are pronounced as "diphthongs". The quality of long vowels mostly overlaps with the quality of short vowels, with the exception of u, which is centralized with respect to uu; long vowels do not morph into diphthongs. There are eighteen phonemic diphthongs; like vowels, diphthongs do not have significant allophony.

Consonants
Finnish has a consonant inventory of small to moderate size, where voicing is mostly not distinctive, and fricatives are scarce. Finnish has relatively few non-coronal consonants. Consonants are as follows, where consonants in parentheses are found either only in a few recent loans or are allophones of other phonemes.

Almost all consonants have phonemic short and long (geminated) forms, although length is only contrastive in consonants word-medially.

Consonant clusters are mostly absent in native Finnish words, except for a small set of two-consonant sequences in syllable codas, e.g. "rs" in . However, because of a number of recently adopted loanwords that have them, e.g.  from Swedish , meaning 'ostrich', clusters have been integrated to the modern language to different degrees.

Finnish is somewhat divergent from other Uralic languages in two respects: it has lost most fricatives, as well as losing the distinction between palatalized and non-palatalized consonants. Finnish has only two fricatives in native words, namely  and . All other fricatives are recognized as foreign, of which Finnish speakers can usually reliably distinguish  and . The alphabet includes "z", usually pronounced [ts]. While standard Finnish has lost palatalization, which is characteristic of Uralic languages, the Eastern dialects and the Karelian language have redeveloped or retained it. For example, the Karelian word  , with a palatalized , is reflected by  in Finnish and Savo dialect   is  in standard Finnish.

/h/ can allophonically vary between [ç~x~h~ɦ] i.e. vihko ['ʋiçko̞], kahvi ['kɑxʋi], raha ['rɑɦɑ].

A feature of Finnic phonology is the development of labial and rounded vowels in non-initial syllables, as in the word . Proto-Uralic had only "a" and "i" and their vowel harmonic allophones in non-initial syllables; modern Finnish allows other vowels in non-initial syllables, although they are uncommon compared to "a", "ä" and "i".

Prosody
Characteristic features of Finnish (common to some other Uralic languages) are vowel harmony and an agglutinative morphology; owing to the extensive use of the latter, words can be quite long.

The main stress is always on the first syllable, and is in average speech articulated by adding approximately 100 ms more length to the stressed vowel. Stress does not cause any measurable modifications in vowel quality (very much unlike English). However, stress is not strong and words appear evenly stressed. In some cases, stress is so weak that the highest points of volume, pitch and other indicators of "articulation intensity" are not on the first syllable, although native speakers recognize the first syllable as being stressed.

Morphophonology

Finnish has several morphophonological processes that require modification of the forms of words for daily speech. The most important processes are vowel harmony and consonant gradation.

Vowel harmony is a redundancy feature, which means that the feature [±back] is uniform within a word, and so it is necessary to interpret it only once for a given word. It is meaning-distinguishing in the initial syllable, and suffixes follow; so, if the listener hears [±back] in any part of the word, they can derive [±back] for the initial syllable. For example, from the stem  ('product') one derives  ('into his product'), where the final vowel becomes the back vowel "a" (rather than the front vowel "ä") because the initial syllable contains the back vowels "uo". This is especially notable because vowels "a" and "ä" are different, meaning-distinguishing phonemes, not interchangeable or allophonic. Finnish front vowels are not umlauts, though the graphemes ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ feature dieresis.

Consonant gradation is a partly nonproductive lenition process for P, T and K in inherited vocabulary, with the oblique stem "weakened" from the nominative stem, or vice versa. For example,  'precise' has the oblique stem , as in  'of the precise'. There is also another gradation pattern, which is older, and causes simple elision of T and K in suffixes. However, it is very common since it is found in the partitive case marker: if V is a single vowel, V+ → Va, e.g. * → .

Grammar

Finnish is a synthetic language that employs extensive agglutination of affixes to verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals. However, Finnish is not generally considered polysynthetic, its morpheme-to-word ratio being somewhat lower than a prototypical polysynthetic language (e.g., Yup'ik).

The morphosyntactic alignment of Finnish is nominative–accusative, but there are two object cases: accusative and partitive. The contrast between accusative and partitive object cases is one of telicity, where the accusative case denotes actions completed as intended ( 'I shot the/an elk (dead)'), and the partitive case denotes incomplete actions ( 'I shot (at) the/an elk'). Often telicity is confused with perfectivity, but these are distinct notions. Finnish in fact has a periphrastic perfective aspect, which in addition to the two inflectional tenses (past and present), yield a Germanic-like system consisting of four tense-aspect combinations: simple present, simple past, perfect (present + perfective aspect) and pluperfect (past + perfective aspect). No morphological future tense is needed; context and the telicity contrast in object grammatical case serve to disambiguate present events from future events. For example,  'I eat a fish (completely)' must denote a future event, since there is no way to completely eat a fish at the current moment (the moment the eating is complete, the simple past tense or the perfect must be used). By contrast,  'I eat a fish (not yet complete)' denotes a present event by indicating ongoing action.

Finnish has three grammatical persons; finite verbs agree with subject nouns in person and number by way of suffixes. Non-finite verb forms bear the infinitive suffix  (often lenited to  due to consonant gradation). There is a so-called "passive voice" (sometimes called impersonal or indefinite) which differs from a true passive in various respects. Transitivity is distinguished in the derivational morphology of verbs, e.g.  'to solve something' vs.  'to solve by itself'. There are also several frequentative and momentane affixes which form new verbs derivationally.

Lexicon

Finnish has a smaller core vocabulary than, for example, English, and uses derivational suffixes to a greater extent. As an example, take the word  "a book", from which one can form derivatives  'a letter' (of the alphabet),  'a piece of correspondence, a letter',  'a library',  'an author',  'literature',  'to write',  'a writer',  'a scribe, a clerk',  'in written form',  'to write down, register, record',  'a font', and many others.

Here are some of the more common such suffixes. Which of each pair is used depends on the word being suffixed in accordance with the rules of vowel harmony.

Verbal derivational suffixes are extremely diverse; several frequentatives and momentanes differentiating causative, volitional-unpredictable and anticausative are found, often combined with each other, often denoting indirection. For example,  'to jump',  'to be jumping',  'to be jumping wantonly',  'to make someone jump once',  'to make someone jump repeatedly' (or 'to boss someone around'),  'to make someone to cause a third person to jump repeatedly',  'to, without aim, make someone jump repeatedly',  'to jump suddenly' (in anticausative meaning),  'to jump around repeatedly',  'to be jumping repeatedly and wantonly'. Caritives are also used in such examples as  'without jumping' and  'without jumping around'. The diversity and compactness of both derivation and inflectional agglutination can be illustrated with  'I wonder if I should sit down for a while after all' (from , 'to sit, to be seated'):
 'to sit down' ( 'I sit down')
 'to sit down for a while'
 'I'll sit down for a while'
 'I would sit down for a while'
 'should I sit down for a while?'
 'I wonder if I should sit down for a while'
 'I wonder if I should sit down for a while after all'

Borrowing
Over the course of many centuries, the Finnish language has borrowed many words from a wide variety of languages, most from neighbouring Indo-European languages. Owing to the different grammatical, phonological and phonotactic structure of the Finnish language, loanwords from Indo-European have been assimilated.

While early borrowings, possibly even into Proto-Uralic, from very early Indo-European languages can be found, Finnic languages, including Finnish, have borrowed in particular from Baltic and Germanic languages, and to a lesser extent from Slavic and Indo-Iranian languages (all of which are subgroupings of Indo-European). Furthermore, a certain group of very basic and neutral words exists in Finnish and other Finnic languages that are absent from other Uralic languages, but without a recognizable etymology from any known language. These words are usually regarded as the last remnant of the Paleo-European language spoken in Fennoscandia before the arrival of the proto-Finnic language. Words included in this group are e.g.  (hare),  (black),  (island),  (swamp) and  (cape (geography)).

Also some place names, like Päijänne and Imatra, are probably from before the proto-Finnic era.

Often quoted loan examples are  'king' and  'sovereign prince, high ranking nobleman' from Germanic  and —they display a remarkable tendency towards phonological conservation within the language. Another example is  'mother' (from Germanic ), which is interesting because borrowing of close-kinship vocabulary is a rare phenomenon. The original Finnish  and  occurs only in restricted contexts. There are other close-kinship words that are loaned from Baltic and Germanic languages ( 'bride',  'dear',  'whore'). Examples of the ancient Iranian loans are  'hammer' from Avestan ,  and  'slave' from arya, airya 'man' (the latter probably via similar circumstances as slave from Slav in many European languages).

More recently, Swedish has been a prolific source of borrowings, and also, the Swedish language acted as a proxy for European words, especially those relating to government. Present-day Finland was a part of Sweden from the 12th century and was ceded to Russia in 1809, becoming an autonomous Grand Duchy. Swedish was retained as the official language and language of the upper class even after this. When Finnish was accepted as an official language, it gained legal equal status with Swedish. During the period of autonomy, Russian did not gain much ground as a language of the people or the government. Nevertheless, quite a few words were subsequently acquired from Russian (especially in older Helsinki slang) but not to the same extent as with Swedish. In all these cases, borrowing has been partly a result of geographical proximity.

Especially words dealing with administrative or modern culture came to Finnish from Swedish, sometimes reflecting the oldest Swedish form of the word ( – , 'law';  – , 'province';  – , 'bishop';  – , 'potato'), and many more survive as informal synonyms in spoken or dialectal Finnish (e.g. , from Swedish , 'girl', usually  in Finnish).

Some Slavic loanwords are old or very old, thus hard to recognize as such, and concern everyday concepts, e.g.  'bean',  'border' and  'priest'. Notably, a few religious words such as  ('Bible') are borrowed from Old East Slavic, which indicates language contact preceding the Swedish era. This is mainly believed to be result of trade with Novgorod from the 9th century on and Russian Orthodox missions in the east in the 13th century.

Most recently, and with increasing impact, English has been the source of new loanwords in Finnish. Unlike previous geographical borrowing, the influence of English is largely cultural and reaches Finland by many routes, including international business, music, film and TV (foreign films and programmes, excluding ones intended for a very young audience, are shown subtitled), literature, and the Web – the latter is now probably the most important source of all non-face-to-face exposure to English.

The importance of English as the language of global commerce has led many non-English companies, including Finland's Nokia, to adopt English as their official operating language. Recently, it has been observed that English borrowings are also ousting previous borrowings, for example the switch from  'to date' (from Swedish, ) to  from English 'to go for a date'. Calques from English are also found, e.g.  (hard disk), and so are grammatical calques, for example, the replacement of the impersonal () with the English-style generic you, e. g.  'you cannot', instead of the proper impersonal  'one cannot' or impersonal third-person singular  'one cannot'. This construct, however, is limited to colloquial language, as it is against the standard grammar.

However, this does not mean that Finnish is threatened by English. Borrowing is normal language evolution, and neologisms are coined actively not only by the government, but also by the media. Moreover, Finnish and English have a considerably different grammar, phonology and phonotactics, discouraging direct borrowing. English loan words in Finnish slang include for example  'PlayStation',  'hot dog', and  'headache', 'headshot' or 'headbutt'. Often these loanwords are distinctly identified as slang or jargon, rarely being used in a negative mood or in formal language. Since English and Finnish grammar, pronunciation and phonetics differ considerably, most loan words are inevitably sooner or later calqued – translated into native Finnish – retaining the semantic meaning.

Neologisms
Some modern terms have been synthesised rather than borrowed, for example:
 'telephone' (from the stem  'talk' + instrument suffix  to make 'an instrument for talking')
 'computer' (literally: 'knowledge machine' or 'data machine')
 'diskette' (from  'disc' + a diminutive )
 'email' (literally: 'electricity mail')
 'bus, coach' (literally: line-car)
 'plastic' (from  'to mould, form or model, e.g. from clay'; compare plastic from Ancient Greek  () 'mouldable, fit for moulding')

Neologisms are actively generated by the Language Planning Office and the media. They are widely adopted. One would actually give an old-fashioned or rustic impression using forms such as  (computer) or  (calculator) when the neologism is widely adopted.

Loans to other languages

The most commonly used Finnish word in English is , which has also been loaned to many other languages.

Orthography

Finnish is written with the Latin alphabet including the distinct characters ä and ö, and also several characters (b, c, f, q, w, x, z, å, š and ž) reserved for words of non-Finnish origin. The Finnish orthography follows the phoneme principle: each phoneme (meaningful sound) of the language corresponds to exactly one grapheme (independent letter), and each grapheme represents almost exactly one phoneme. This enables an easy spelling and facilitates reading and writing acquisition. The rule of thumb for Finnish orthography is write as you read, read as you write. However, morphemes retain their spelling despite sandhi.

Some orthographical notes:
Long vowels and consonants are represented by double occurrences of the relevant graphemes. This causes no confusion, and permits these sounds to be written without having to nearly double the size of the alphabet to accommodate separate graphemes for long sounds. If a sequence of two identical vowels in different syllables occurs, it is written with an apostrophe, e.g. rei'itin "hole punch".
The grapheme h covers all the allophones of 'h'. In some positions, it has a fricative quality, which can be voiced glottal or voiceless velar or palatal. This occurs after or between vowels, as in e.g. lahti, which is pronounced [lɑxti] with a voiceless velar fricative.
Sandhi is not transcribed; the spelling of morphemes is immutable, such as  .
Some consonants (v, j, d) and all consonant clusters do not have distinctive length, and consequently their allophonic variation is typically not specified in spelling; e.g.   ('I limit') vs.   ('I haul').
Pre-1900s texts and personal names use w for v. Both correspond to the same phoneme, the labiodental approximant , a v without the fricative ("hissing") quality of the English v.
The letters ä  and ö , although written with diaereses, do not represent phonological umlauts (as in German, for example), and they are considered independent graphemes; the letter shapes have been copied from Swedish. An appropriate parallel from the Latin alphabet are the characters C and G (uppercase), which historically have a closer kinship than many other characters (G is a derivation of C) but are considered distinct letters, and changing one for the other will change meanings.

Although Finnish is almost completely written as it is spoken, there are a few differences:
 The n in the sequence nk is pronounced as a velar nasal , as in English. When not followed by k,  is written ng. The fact that two spellings correspond to this one sound (putting aside the difference in length) can be seen as an exception to the general one-to-one correspondence between sounds and letters.
 Sandhi phenomena at word or clitic boundaries involving gemination (e.g.,  is pronounced , not ) or the place assimilation of nasals ( would usually be pronounced as , and  as )
 The  after the letter i is very weak or there is no  at all, but in writing it is used; for example: . Indeed, the j is not used in writing words with consonant gradation such as  and .
 In speech there is no difference between the use of  in words (like , but ), but in writing there are quite simple rules: The i is written in forms derived from words that consist of two syllables and end in a or ä (, 'to write song-lyrics', from , 'word'), and in words that are old-stylish (). The i is not written in forms derived from words that consist of two syllables and end in o or ö ( 'to discern, to differentiate' from  'difference'), words which do not clearly derive from a single word ( can be derived either from the stem  seen in such adverbs as , or from the related verb ), and in words that are descriptive () or workaday by their style ().

When the appropriate characters are not available, the graphemes ä and ö are usually converted to a and o, respectively. This is common in e-mail addresses and other electronic media where there may be no support for characters outside the basic ASCII character set. Writing them as ae and oe, following German usage, is rarer and usually considered incorrect, but formally used in passports and equivalent situations. Both conversion rules have minimal pairs which would no longer be distinguished from each other.

The sounds š and ž are not a part of the Finnish language itself and have been introduced by the Finnish national languages body for more phonologically accurate transcription of loanwords (such as , 'Czech Republic') and foreign names. For technical reasons or convenience, the graphemes sh and zh are often used in quickly or less carefully written texts instead of š and ž. This is a deviation from the phonetic principle, and as such is liable to cause confusion, but the damage is minimal as the transcribed words are foreign in any case. Finnish does not use the sounds z, š or ž, but for the sake of exactitude, they can be included in spelling. (The recommendation cites the Russian opera  as an example.) Many speakers pronounce all of them s, or distinguish only between s and š, because Finnish has no voiced sibilants.

The language may be identified by its distinctive lack of the letters b, c, f, q, w, x, z and å.

Language examples
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

'All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood."
Excerpt from Väinö Linna's  (The Unknown Soldier); these words were also inscribed in the 20 mark note.

"The sun smiled down on them. It wasn't angry – no, not by any means. Maybe it even felt some sort of sympathy for them. Rather dear, those boys."
(translation from Liesl Yamaguchi's 2015 "Unknown Soldiers")

Basic greetings and phrases

Influence on Tolkien
Professor J. R. R. Tolkien, although better known as an author, had a keen interest in languages from a young age, and became a professional philologist, becoming Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford University. He described his first encounter with Finnish was:
"like discovering a complete wine-cellar filled with bottles of an amazing wine of a kind and flavour never tasted before. It quite intoxicated me..."

See also

 Finland's language strife
 Finnish cultural and academic institutes
 Finnish name
 Finnish numerals
 Finnish profanity
 Sisu
 Swedish-speaking Finns

References

Further reading

External links
 Collection of Finnish bilingual dictionaries
 FSI Finnish Language Course (Public Domain)
 Finnish phrases for beginners (Public Domain)

Agglutinative languages
Finnic languages
Languages of Estonia
Languages of Finland
Languages of Norway
Languages of Russia
Languages of Sweden
Vowel-harmony languages
Subject–verb–object languages


Onykia loennbergii, the Japanese hooked squid, is a species of squid in the family Onychoteuthidae, named for Swedish zoologist Einar Lönnberg. It occurs in the Western Pacific Ocean, at an estimated depth of 230–1200 m. The mantle length is approximately 300 mm. Each tentacular club contains 25 hooks. The arms are about 60% of the size of the mantle length.

References

"Moroteuthis loennbergii, Japanese Hooked Squid", SeaLifeBase. http://www.sealifebase.org/summary/speciessummary.php?id=57316, October 29, 2008.
"Onykia loennbergii, ToLweb. http://www.tolweb.org/Onykia_loennbergii/19974, October 29, 2008.

Squid
Molluscs described in 1914


Pazhaya Suriyani Pally a.k.a. Old Syrian Church, Chengannur is an ancient Syrian Christian church of Kerala. It is considered as one among the oldest still standing church buildings in Kerala and across India, that predates several centuries before the arrival of European Christianity in India. It is located at Chengannur, a major town along the MC Road, about 117 km north of the Kerala state capital Thiruvananthapuram and about 98 km south of Kochi.

History
It is believed that the church was built about 1650 years ago. The structure of the church building certifies that it is very very old. The story is that long ago a hermit priest came to Chengannur and began a worship place at this spot.

Till AD 1580, Nazranis and Knanaya people were worshipping together in this church. Then the Knanaya people who escaped the persecution in Cochin and surrounding area, also joined with those at Chengannur. Later the Knanaya people had built their own church and moved out.
During reformation two groups were formed in the Malankara Church. These two factions quarreled in this church and there was a court case. Now the Chengannur Pazhaya Pally is co-owned by the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church.

Trust Agreement
The parish is governed according to a Trust Agreement signed by both parties on 7 August 1877 The names of the signatories in the same order as given in the original Agreement:
 Vicar Marakkan Parampil Ouseph Koshy Kathanaru. (‘’Kathanaru = clergy’’)
 Vicar Pallyil Veettil Geevarghese Geevarghese Kathanaru.
 Thoppil Cherian Yohannan Kathanaru.
 Poovathuru Chandy Yaccob Kathanaru’
 Kottaarathil Varkey Thoma Kathanaru’
 Kottureth Mammen Ouseph Kathanaru
 Pallyil Veettil Geeverghse Yaccob Kathanaru
 Perukaavil Vareeth Geevarghese Kathanaru
 Kadamthottil Nazrani Kocherya Mammen. (‘’Nazrani = St. Thomas Christian’’)
 Chittooru Nazrani Umumman Cherian
 Kurisummoottil Nazrani Kappitha Yohannan Chandy
 Pallithekkethil Nazrani Kappitha Ittyavira Chandy

Architecture
Architectural style is a blend of 18th Century Christian and Hindu temple architecture and something fast disappearing from Kerala landscape. Its gopuravathil, nadapanthal, kalluvilakku and doors adorned with carved figurines includes a Hanuman holding a baton. This is indicative of communal and religious harmony exhibited by the localities in yesteryears.

The Pazhaya Suriyani Pally in Chengannur and the Cheriya Pally (St. Mary's Orthodox Church) in Kottayam are unique with the same architectural splendor.

History

History has it that Ivanios Yuhanon, a metropolitan from Antioch, Syria, visited Malankara in 1751 and made the western malika (double storied building) of the Pazhya Suriyani Pally (this malika is no more there) his home. Mar Ivanios, credited with the propagation the liturgy of Mar Yacob in Malankara, died in 1794 and was interred in front of the southern thronos (altar) of the Church.

There is legend regarding Mar Ivanios’ arrival in Chengannur. When he reached Erapuzha Kadavu on River Pampa by boat, his followers took him to the Church in a procession. But the Nair chiefs of the land did not allow the procession to pass in front of the Vanchipuzha Chief's palace and the procession had to take a different route. When the son of Vanjipuzha Chief fell ill, the royal astrologer found that the curse of a saint had fallen on the son.  The Chief is said to have tendered an apology to Mar Ivanios whose prayer rid the boy of his illness. In return the Chief bestowed tax-free land and properties to the Church.

Tablets of History: Over 1200 tombs in the cemetery adjoining the Suriyani Pally, some of them belonging to eminent Christians, stand as  mute witness to the bygone days when all Christians were united in Christ but fell apart for reasons purely temporal. George Joseph, who was once President of the Indian National Congress and his brother renowned journalist Pothen Joseph and Padmashri PM Joseph, once principal of the National Physical Education College, Gwalior, are among those buried here.

Suriyani Pally, short of written evidences of its hoary past except perhaps the words carved on the pillars of its nadapanthal, proudly recalls the stories of its tour de resistance against foreign machinations, both from the East and the West. Throughout the centuries the church proclaimed its independence as evidenced by the formation of a Trust ratified by Travancore Royal, Court and latest by the High Court of Kerala

Two tombs conspicuous by their close proximity to the Church belong to two illustrious sons of the Marthoma Church—Kottooreth Valiachan and  Kottarathil Thoma Kaseesa. Valiachan, Rev. M. Joseph Kottooreth, was the first translator of the Syrian liturgy and first Secretary of the Church. He was also the first editor of  the Malankara Sabha Tharaka. He also successfully conducted the Suriyani Pally case. Thoma Kaseesa and 11 others founded the Marthoma Suvishesha Sangham, which has been organizing the renowned Maramon Convention for more than a century.

Traditions
The Church is famous  Aval Nercha (offering of sweetened rice flakes) held on every Maundy Thursday, for the last four centuries. The current Trustee, V.A.Abraham Vaikkathethu, is one of the chief organisers of the Nercha at present.

The aval nercha custom is said to have an uninterrupted history of not less than 400 years. It was the patronage of the then rural chieftain of Vanjippuzha Palace, attached to the erstwhile kingdom of Venad who ruled Chengannur in the 16th century, which made it a popular event in the region.

The Vanjippuzha chief had given the power of local administration to Thomman Thomman, founder of the Mukkathu family of Syrian Christians, who had migrated to Chengannur in the late 16th century.

Origins of the custom

According to church trustee V.A. Abraham, the origin of the aval nercha is attributed to an elderly matriarch of the Mukkathu family named Ackamma who used to take a small packet of aval to distribute it to the devotees after the Holy Qurbana on Maundy Thursday.

Ackamma used to give a pinch of rice flakes to all around her, and the members of the Mukkathu family continued the practice even after her death. The aval nercha became an elaborate event in later years, says Babu Zacharia, a former English professor and former president of the Mukkathu Kudumbayogam.

It is believed that a unique eight-headed coconut-scraper was gifted to the church by the royal chief for the annual aval nercha. There are others who believe that the foldable eight-headed coconut scraper is as old as the 1,650-year-old church. This antique piece is a major attraction of the aval nercha.

More than a thousand coconuts, 300 kg of rice flakes, 200 kg of jaggery, and spices go into the preparation of the aval, says Zacharia.

In the olden days, all these items were collected from the members of the Mukkathu family. However, now, rice flakes, jaggery and spices are purchased from the market, while the coconuts are collected from family members.

Collective effort

As many as 100 family members assemble on the church premises on the eve of Maundy Thursday, immediately after the evening service. The eldest member of the family present breaks a coconut after a short prayer, marking the beginning of the collective preparation of the aval.

The sweetened aval is kept to soak and swell in large bell metal vessels. It is distributed immediately after the morning service.

The faithful here still follow the custom and tradition of accepting the aval nercha in a cloth and not in a container of any kind, says Abraham.

References

Churches in Alappuzha district
Malankara Orthodox Syrian church buildings
Mar Thoma Syrian churches


Black Russian is a cocktail comprising vodka and coffee liqueur. It may also refer to:
Black Russian Terrier, a breed of dog
Black Russian, a type of Sobranie cigarette
Black Russian, a variety of tomato
Members of the African diaspora who emigrated to Russia
Frederick Bruce Thomas, Mississippi native and the son of former slaves who became a prominent citizen of Moscow and, later, Constantinople
Black Russian, a Motown-label band in 1980


The Borsod Power Plant is one of Hungary's largest biomass power plants having an installed heat capacity of 140 MW and electric capacity of 40 MW.

External links

 Reference from AES Corporation

Biomass power stations in Hungary


Carl Johan Sverdrup Marstrander (26 November 1883 – 23 December 1965) was a Norwegian linguist, known for his work on the Irish language. His works, largely written in Norwegian, on the Celtic and Norse components in Norwegian culture, are considered important for modern Norway.

Life

He was a student of Sophus Bugge and Alf Torp, and spent time in Ireland from 1907, studying the Corca Dhuibhne dialect of Munster Irish on Great Blasket Island with Peig Sayers and Tomás Ó Criomhthain, and then teaching at the School of Irish Learning in 1910. He jointly edited Ériu volumes 5–6 (1911–12) with Kuno Meyer. From 1913 to 1954 he was Professor in Celtic languages at the University of Oslo. During the German occupation of Norway he was jailed several times, and once came close to execution after an arrest by the Gestapo. He influenced later linguists, including Alf Sommerfelt and Carl H. J. Borgstrøm.

Scholarly work
He was general editor from 1910 to 1914 for the long-projected historical Dictionary of the Irish Language, the first fascicle of which was published by the Royal Irish Academy in 1913. His articles were of enduring influence, and published in Revue Celtique and Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie, and his own journal, Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap which he founded in 1928.

His Bidrag til det Norske Sprogs historie i Irland (1915) and Les présents indo-européens à nasale infixée en celtique (1924), are two of his larger works.

He is also known for his writings on the history of the Isle of Man, and for securing support and recognition for the Manx historian John Kneen. He made pioneering sound recordings of the Manx language, at a time when few fluent native speakers survived.

He theorised a North Italian or Etruscan origin for the runes. This was, however, partly based on an artefact known now to have been faked.

Notes

Bibliography

1883 births
1965 deaths
Celtic studies scholars
Linguists of Germanic languages
Linguists of Indo-European languages
Linguists from Norway
20th-century linguists


The MV Cristina A is a Turkish flagged container ship owned by the Turkey based Limar Liman ve Gemi Isletmeleri A.S. and operated by the Delmas Shipping Co. in Le Havre, France. The vessel has a capacity of 1,604 nominal teus or 1,174 teus 14TH. She has been in service since June 8, 2008 on the route between Europe and West Africa. She is the 18th vessel in the fleet of Arkas Shipping & Transport Co. with the company having 23 container ships in total as of October 2008.  The shipping line is ultimately operated by CMA CGM through its subsidiary OTAL.

In 2019 the ship was renamed Vento di Maestrale, and brought under the Malta flag, homeport Valletta. She is still in management of Arkas Shipping.

References

Ships of CMA CGM
Merchant ships of Turkey
Container ships
Ships built in Wolgast
2007 ships


Jared Andrew Wilson (born 24 January 1989) is an English footballer who plays as a full back. He previously played in the Football League for Birmingham City and Chesterfield, and in non-League football for Redditch United, Worcester City, Cirencester Town and Evesham United.

Club career
Wilson, from Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, played in the under-18 side that reached the quarter-final of the 2007 FA Youth Cup. Before the 2007–08 season he signed his first one-year professional contract. He made ten appearances for the reserve team and five for the Academy team that season, after which he was given a further one-year contract.

In the build-up to the 2008–09 season, Wilson was part of the first-team squad and, together with fellow youngsters Jordon Mutch and Sone Aluko, went on the club's pre-season tour to Austria. Manager Alex McLeish described him as "an energetic full-back ... one we think could make a career in football". He was given a squad number and included among the substitutes for the Championship match against Crystal Palace in October 2008, but remained unused. A week later, called into the matchday squad at the last minute when Garry O'Connor was injured during the pre-match warm-up, he made his first-team debut as a 12th-minute replacement for the injured Stuart Parnaby in a 1–0 defeat at Queens Park Rangers.

Wilson joined Chesterfield of Football League Two in February 2009 on loan for the remainder of the 2008–09 season. He appeared regularly for the club, and in June 2009 signed a year's extension to his Birmingham contract. In May 2010 the club announced that he would be released when his contract expired at the end of June.

Wilson then spent pre-season on trial with both Cheltenham Town and Bishop's Cleeve but failed to land a deal. He signed for Redditch United in October, but made only one substitute appearance in the Conference North before dislocating a shoulder in a Birmingham Senior Cup tie. In the summer of 2011, Wilson joined Worcester City of the Conference North, and appear five times before leaving for Southern League Premier Division club Cirencester Town.

In January 2012, Wilson left Cirencester for Evesham United, also playing in the Southern League Premier Division. Wilson suffered relegation with Evesham at the end of the 2011–12 season but re-signed to remain with the club for the 2012–13 season where they would compete in the Southern League South & West Division. He stayed with the club until 2016, when he joined Bishop's Cleeve's reserves as player-coach.

References
Infobox statistics
 Birmingham City, Chesterfield:
 Redditch United, Worcester City:
 Cirencester Town:
 Evesham United: For 2011–12:
 Bishop's Cleeve Reserves:

General

External links
Birmingham City profile, via archive.org

1989 births
Living people
Footballers from Cheltenham
English men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Birmingham City F.C. players
Chesterfield F.C. players
Redditch United F.C. players
Worcester City F.C. players
Cirencester Town F.C. players
Evesham United F.C. players
Bishop's Cleeve F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
Southern Football League players


The Pécs Power Station is one of Hungary's largest biomass power stations, with an installed electrical capacity of 200 MW. Two units of 35 MW, and one unit of 65 MW, uses natural gas as fuel, whereas the fourth 65 MW unit burns wood (biomass).

References

External links

 Veolia Environnement acquires Hungary's largest biomass power plant

Biomass power stations in Hungary
Buildings and structures in Pécs


The Kisigmánd Wind Farm is a wind power project in Komárom-Esztergom County, Hungary. It is owned and operated by Iberdrola Renovables, and has an output of up to 50 MW of power, which made it Hungary's largest wind farm by power generation when it was built. It was Iberdrola's first wind farm in Hungary when it began operation in early 2009.

See also
Wind power in Hungary

References

Wind farms in Hungary


The Think Bike Campaign was started by biking enthusiasts in South Africa, and is run by bikers, in the interests of road safety and public awareness. Many motorcycle accidents happen because of a lack of awareness of the issues among the general motoring public. The aim of the campaign is to correct that through the use of stickers, leaflets, and information distributed in other ways.

History
During 2005, a number of bikers were using an online forum to discuss the alarming number of unnecessary motorcycle accidents; avoidable accidents caused by inattentiveness, ignorance, incompetence, and failure to exercise due care.  The Think Bike sticker campaign was started by Tony Day of Cape Town in the 1980s, and its short life was discussed, and it was decided then and there to revive the campaign and expand on its goals and methods.

Background
The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, (South African province). It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects, such as the annual Toy Run.

A number of studies have been done in the past, most notably in the United States and United Kingdom, that show that an alarming number of motorcycle accidents are directly caused by other vehicles. Being as vulnerable as they are, bikers very often emerge from these avoidable accidents seriously injured, maimed or dead.

The campaign is also aimed at the biking community, to educate about safety issues and encourage the use of protective clothing.

The Hurt Report, published in the United States in 1981, showed some alarming trends. More than 900 motorcycle accidents were investigated in the Los Angeles area, and the results showed that:

 Approximately three-fourths of motorcycle accidents involve a collision with another vehicle, usually a passenger automobile.
 In these accidents, the driver of the other vehicle violated the motorcycle's right of way and caused the accident in two-thirds of cases.
 The failure of motorists to detect and recognise motorcycles in traffic is the predominant cause of motorcycle accidents. The driver of the other vehicle involved in the collision with the motorcycle did not see the motorcycle before the collision or did not see the motorcycle until too late to avoid the collision.

References

External links
 Think Bike Campaign
 Toy Run

Transport organisations based in South Africa
Motorcyclists organizations
Motorcycle safety organizations
1980s establishments in South Africa


William Gordon Reid (born 28 January 1942) is an Anglican priest and former Dean of Gibraltar and Vicar General of the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.

Biography
Reid was born in Hawick, Scotland and educated at Galashiels Academy in the Scottish Borders. He attended the University of Edinburgh where he studied French and German literature, graduating with an MA in 1963. He began his theological studies at the Scottish Episcopal Theological College in Edinburgh and went on to Keble College at the University of Oxford, receiving a BA in theology before completing his theological training at Cuddesdon Theological College, also in Oxford.

Reid was ordained to the priesthood in 1968 and began his ministry with a curacy at St Salvador's Edinburgh, after which he was a tutor at Salisbury Theological College. In 1972, he was named Rector of St Michael and All Saints, Edinburgh and served in that position until he was appointed Provost of Inverness Cathedral in 1984.

In 1988 Reid became a priest of the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe, the diocese of the Church of England that encompasses all of continental Europe as well as Iceland, Morocco, Turkey and parts of the former Soviet Union. After serving as Chaplain of St Nicholas' Church in Ankara, Turkey, and Chaplain of St Peter and St Sigfrid's Church in Stockholm, Sweden, he was appointed Vicar General of the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe in 1992 and Dean of Gibraltar in 1998. Reid was named Archdeacon of Italy and Malta in 2000 and served in that capacity until 2004, when he was appointed Rector of Saint Clement's Church, Philadelphia in the United States in 2004. He retired in 2014 as Rector and is now Rector Emeritus.

References

1942 births
People educated at Galashiels Academy
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Keble College, Oxford
Alumni of Ripon College Cuddesdon
Provosts of Inverness Cathedral
Deans of Gibraltar
Archdeacons of Italy and Malta
Living people


The Ikervár Wind Farm is a wind power project in Vas County, Hungary. It has 17 individual wind turbines with a nominal output of around 2 MW delivering up to 34 MW of power, with a capital investment required of approximately US$81 million.

Construction works were finished in early spring 2011, the trial operation ended on 31 March.
After the successful trial operation, 17 wind turbines have been put into operation on 1 April 2011

Iberdola Renovables installed wind turbines model G90 made by Gamesa of Spain. These wind turbines are 100 metre high and have 44 metre long blades. The nominal output of each wind turbine is two MW. Gamesa is responsible for manufacturing, delivering and installing the turbines. After putting into operation, maintenance will be provided under Gamesa's supervision during the two-year warranty period, after which it will be taken over by the local team.

See also

Rábaköz Wind Farm
Veszprém Wind Farm

References

External links
 Photos of the construction

Wind farms in Hungary


Michele Pinto (born 2 January 1931, Teggiano) is an Italian politician.

Biography
He served as Minister of agriculture in the Prodi I Cabinet and was the promoter of the "Pinto law" on fair reparation for the damage, patrimonial or non-patrimonial, suffered for the unreasonable duration of a trial (Law No. 89 of 24 March 2001).

On 4 February 1997 the Chamber of Deputies rejected with 250 votes in favor and 311 votes against a motion of no confidence filed by the Northern League and National Alliance against him on the charge of not having been able to protect Italian breeders before the European Union on the issue of milk quotas.

He was made Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic by the President in Rome on 21 December 2005.

External links
Michele Pinto - From the Senate of the Republic site - information on Pinto's parliamentary activity

References

1931 births
Living people
People from Teggiano
Agriculture ministers of Italy


Onykia robsoni, the rugose hooked squid, is a species of squid in the family Onychoteuthidae. It occurs in the Antarctic Ocean, at an estimated depth of 250–550 meters. The mantle of this species grows to a length of 75 cm. The species has been suggested as a junior synonym of Onykia carriboea, the tropical clubhook squid, due to similarities between the species.

References
"Moroteuthis robsoni, Rugose Hooked Squid", SeaLifeBase. http://www.sealifebase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=57601&lang=English, October 29, 2008.

References

External links
 Tree of Life web project: Onykia robsoni

Squid
Molluscs described in 1962


Frank Stanfield (April 24, 1872 – September 25, 1931) was an entrepreneur in Nova Scotia, Canada, who was the 15th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (1930–31) and represented Colchester County in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly (1911–20 and 1925–30). He was the father of the politicians Robert Lorne Stanfield and Frank Thomas Stanfield.

Early life
He was born in Truro, Nova Scotia, the son of Charles E. Stanfield, who established the Stanfield Mills in Truro, and Lydia Dawson. In 1896, with his brother John Stanfield, he took over the operation of the business, which was incorporated as Stanfield's Limited in 1906. Its "unshrinkable" underwear, developed in 1898, became popular with gold prospectors in the Yukon. The company expanded to be one of the largest producers of woollen goods in Canada.

Career
Stanfield represented Colchester County in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1911 until 1920, serving with Robert H. Kennedy. He was re-elected five years later and sat as a Conservative member from 1925 until 1928. He was appointed as the 15th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia in 1930 but died in office in Halifax the following year at the age of 59.

Family
Stanfield married Sarah Emma Thomas in 1901. Their son Robert Lorne Stanfield became premier of Nova Scotia and served as leader of the federal Progressive Conservative Party. Another son Frank Thomas Stanfield also served in the House of Commons of Canada.

References
 Marble, AE Nova Scotians at home and abroad: biographical sketches ... (1977) p. 372

1872 births
1931 deaths
Lieutenant Governors of Nova Scotia
People from Truro, Nova Scotia
Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs


Amruthavarshini () is a 1997 Indian Kannada-language romantic drama film written, photographed and directed by Dinesh Baboo. It is inspired from 1990 film, Bad Influence. It stars Suhasini, Sarath Babu and Ramesh Aravind. Nivedita Jain appears in a cameo role. It features Ramesh Arvind playing a negative role for which he was widely praised. The film revolves around the three central characters of a husband (Sharath), wife (Suhasini) and a friend (Ramesh) who intrudes into the couple's life and turns their life into tragic events.

The film was produced by Bharathi Devi under the banner Chinni Chitra. Upon release, the film was declared a musical blockbuster hit with all the songs of the soundtrack composed by Deva becoming evergreen hits. The songs of the film continue to be favorites among the Kannada audience. The film was one of the highest grossers at the box-office for the year 1997. The film was awarded with multiple State Awards and Filmfare Awards, particularly for the story and acting.

The film was subsequently dubbed in Telugu with same title name and in Tamil as Uyirinum Melaaga. In Malayalam, the film was remade as Mazhavillu (1999) by the same director.

Plot
Hemanth heads an advertising firm and is happily married to Veena. His childhood friend and poet Abhishek Bharadwaj visits him and stays with the family for a while. Abhishek is depressed due to the death of his girlfriend, Shruti, due to cancer. Before her death, Shruthi had asked Abhishek to promise her that he would marry another girl after her death. A prolonged stay at Hemanth's leads to Abhishek becoming obsessed with Veena due to her strong resemblance to Shruthi. Hemanth learns of this but does not reveal it to Veena.

A few days later, the three, together with employees of Hemanth's firm, take a trip to Kodaikanal. Abhishek happens to drive Hemanth to a cliff by an off-road vehicle for the latter to photograph the sunset. Once there, Hemanth chides Abhishek over his advances towards Veena and asks him to return home before things worsen. However, Abhishek, in an attempt to kill him, puts the vehicle's gears on neutral hoping it would run him down the cliff. Hemanth survives the hit but is left hanging off the cliff, but is not saved by Abhishek.

Veena is distraught over her husband's death. Friends of Hemanth request Abhishek to stay with Veena at her residence until she recovers. However, Veena learns of Abhishek's intentions and confides in her friend, Dr. Vimala. She has also got hold of the negatives from her husband's motorised camera and develops them only to find that all of her husband's final moments were captured, including Abhishek watching on as he asked for help. However, she pretends to have moved on and suggests that she is ready to share her life with Abhishek and announces before her friends that she would marry him. A day later, she asks him to take her to the cliff where Hemanth died as it was his long-cherished dream to take photographs from there. Once there, she confronts and reveals that she knows what transpired on that fateful day before handing over a trembling Abhishek the developed photographs. She then kills her self by leaping from the cliff, in front of him, as a revenge.

Cast

Soundtrack

Deva composed the music for the film and the soundtrack, with lyrics of the tracks penned by K. Kalyan. The soundtrack album has nine tracks. The male version of the song "Tunturu" appears for only 30 seconds in the movie — after climax during the end credits.

Awards and honors
 It won the Arya Bhata Award and was also screened at the Indian Panorama Festival
 Filmfare Award for Best Film – Kannada 1997 - B. Jayashree Devi
 Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Kannada 1997 - Ramesh Aravind
 Filmfare Award for Best Music Director – Kannada 1997 - Deva
 Karnataka State Film Award for Best Screenplay
 Karnataka State Film Award for Best Editor - Kemparaj
 Screen Award for Best Actress (Kannada) – Suhasini Maniratnam

References

External links

1990s Kannada-language films
1997 films
Films scored by Deva (composer)
Kannada films remade in other languages
1997 romantic drama films
Indian romantic drama films
Films directed by Dinesh Baboo


The awelo (derived from Spanish abuelo, meaning "grandfather") is the religious supernatural tribal protector that embodies the essence of the Tigua Indians. The awelo is similar to the kachinas found in other Puebloan societies. The awelo monitors the conduct of tribal members by punishing those who behave incorrectly. The awelo is believed to live near Cerro Alto Mountain. The awelo is represented by grandfather and grandmother buffalo masks, which are fed with smoke.

See also
 Grandpa Wenteyao

References
 Houser, Nicholas P. (1979). Tigua Pueblo. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 9, pp. 336-342). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

Pueblo culture
Tutelary deities


The Dunaújváros Power Plant, located close to Dunaújváros city, is one of Hungary's largest biomass power plants, with an installed heat capacity of 160 MW and electric capacity of 50 MW. It was commissioned in 2016.

References

Biomass power stations in Hungary
Energy infrastructure completed in 2016


Theodosius of Sinai (, ), was a Bulgarian priest, writer and printer. He founded the first Bulgarian printing-house in Thessaloniki. Although Theodosius died before the earliest expressions of incipient Macedonian national identity, he is considered an ethnic Macedonian in North Macedonia.

Life

Teodosius was born in the late 18th century in the town of Dojran, Ottoman Empire (today in North Macedonia).  His birth name was Teohar (). After he had finished Greek language school in Istanbul, Teohar went back to Dojran, where he got married and was later ordained a priest.  The death of his wife however drove him into a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In 1828 Teohar became a monk in Saint Catherine's Monastery and there he adopted the monastic name Teodosiues (Theodosiy in Bulgarian).

After returning to the Balkans, Theodosius was appointed a priest in "St. Minas" church in Solun (Thessaloniki) in 1831. While in Solun, he established the firsts printing house in Bulgarian language in 1838. Theodosius used the movable type printing press of Daskal Kamche from Vatasha.  The moveable types of the press were crafted by a Russian immigrant type-founder.  The first books, typed in Teodosius's printing house, were "Primary study through Slavonic-Bulgarian and Greek Orthodox morning prayers" („Началное учение с молитви утренния славяноболгарский и греческия“) and "Jewish ceremony and all of the harms, they've done" - an anti-Semitic lampoon, which was initially translated "to simple and plain Bulgarian language" by Nathanael Ohridski. In 1839 Teodosius typed his own "A Brief description of twenty monasteries that are situated in the Holly Mount Athos".

In 1839 Teodosius' printing-house was burned down, but it was soon restored with the finansical support of Kiril Peychinovich. Peychinovich's book Utesheniе Greshnim ("Solace of the sinner") was typed in the restored printing-house in 1840. Teodosius wrote an introduction to the book, where he mentioned that the book was written by Kiril Peychinovich into "...the plainest Bulgarian language, spoken in Lower Moesia, and the region of Skopje and Tetovo...". There Teodosius also praised the Bulgarian language and compared it to a key, which can unlock the heart of the Bulgarian nation for the light of the truth.

In 1841 Teodosius typed a book, called "A book for studying three languages - Slavonic-Bulgarian, Greek and Karamanlian".  The book was a Bulgarian-Greek-Turkish dictionary, designed to be of use for merchants.

In 1843 a fire destroyed Teodosius's printing house for a second and final time. Theodosius returned to Dojran, where he began working as a miller in his sons' water-mill. According to Arseniy Kostentsev, the usable remains of Theodosius' printing press were taken to the village of Vataša.

Theodosius died in an accident in March 1843. He was killed by a collapsed roof.

Nine years after Theodosius' death, the brothers Kiryak and Konstantin Darzhilovi opened a new Bulgarian language printing press in Thessaloniki.

References

Sources
 "Началное Оучение с Молитви Оутренния Славяноболгарский и Греческия" - The first book printed by Theodosius of Sinai in Salonica in 1838.
 Марин Дринов, Първата българска типография в Солун и някои от напечатаните в нея книги. – Периодическо списание на Българското книжовно дружество, год. 7, кн. 31, 1889
 Шоповъ, А. "Първата българска печатница въ Солунъ. Синаитски архимандритъ Хаджи попъ Теодосий", Пловдивъ, 1895.
 Български възрожденски книжовници от Македония: избрани страници (отг. ред. Иван Дуриданов). С., 1983, 61-71

18th-century births
1843 deaths
People from Dojran
Bulgarian male writers
Bulgarian publishers (people)
Bulgarian printers
19th-century Bulgarian people
Macedonian Bulgarians
Year of birth unknown


William Ernest Edebohls is an Australian priest. He was formerly an Anglican priest who subsequently became a Roman Catholic.

Edebohls was formerly the Dean of Ballarat from 1987 to 1996 and the Archdeacon of Italy and Malta. He is currently the parish priest at St Pius X in Heidelberg West, Melbourne.

References

Deans of Ballarat
Anglican priest converts to Roman Catholicism
Archdeacons of Italy and Malta
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)


Swapner Feriwala (, ...and they dared to dream) is a 2002 Bengali film. Directed by Subrata Sen, it featured Subrata Dutta, Ferdous Ahmed, Nilanjana Sharma. The film is Nilanjana Sharma's  cinematic debut.

Plot
Swapner Feriwala is a soothing fantasy in the pursuit of the last magical charms in our modern, urban lives. It's a symbolic story of youthful and vigorous rebellion against age-old orthodoxy and religious fanaticism and a clarion call to set everyone free of blind prejudices.

Saritsekhar Roychowdhury, the old descendant of a renowned family, gets obsessed with the attainment of spiritual emancipation and brings a "godman" (Dipankar De) to the house to help him find the true way to freedom.  The latter him the confidence of everyone in the family through his Tantra tricks and promises the childless couple a child within a year.

Som (Subrat Dutta) an iconoclast magician and his friend, a fellow magician named Ferdoup Siddhartha, have devoted their lives to uncover the magic rackets fooling people with petty magic tricks. Som is an enigma, while Siddhartha believes the magic to pervade the beauty of nature, the vastness of the universe, the beautiful movements of togetherness and entire human existence.  He wants only to drink the elixir of life and insists Som stop hankering after an elusive goal. The evil godman plots to seize the Roychowdhury house from Sanitsekhar and lay his hands on young, pretty Turni (Nilanjana Sharma), the only granddaughter of Saritsekhar, who lost her parents at an early age.

Som and Sidhartha befriend Turni and warn her about the upcoming danger in her life.  The godman reduces the woman in his aid and entrusts upon her the duty to keep an eye on Turni and to lure her closer to him. Turni escapes their evil plans with the help of the magician duo at first but soon she feels to be at her wit's end when her grandfather donates his house to the godman to build an ashram there. She could not settle elsewhere like her two uncles, being financially dependent on her grandfather. The satanic duo threatens Turni to follow their instructions to stay at the ashram and finally traps her and gets her intoxicated. As the sinister godman pounces upon her, the magician duo comes at her rescue and brings her to consciousness. The godmen fly away while the trio set on a journey.

By then, Turni has fallen for Som while Siddhartha loves her with his whole heart. When she reveals her feeling to Som, he resists her and leaves to follow his destiny. Siddhartha consoles the bereaved Turni and promises to stay with her forever. She recognises her true love in Siddhartha with the help of the magical hourglass, given by her mother and together they start a new journey.

Cast
 Subrat Dutta as  Shome
 Ferdous Ahmed as Siddhartha
 Nilanjana Sharma as Turni
 Deepankar De as Godman (as Dipankar De)
 Baisakhi Marjit as Godman's lady assistant
 Haradhan Bannerjee as Turni's grandfather
 Gautami Bhattacharya as Turni's aunt
 Bodhisattva Mazumdar as Turni's uncle

Awards
 BFJA Awards  (2003)
 Most Promising Actress Nilanjana Sharma
 Official selection at Karlovy Vary Film Festival

References

External links

2002 films
2000s Bengali-language films
Bengali-language Indian films
Films set in Kolkata
Films directed by Subrata Sen


The Senior Scout Adventure Cederberg is a biennial event for Scouts from South Africa and other countries, organised by Scouts South Africa.  The adventure takes the form of a hike of about 10 days, usually in the Cederberg mountains. During this time, participating Scouts get to visit a number of activity centres where they can participate in activities ranging from marksmanship and rock climbing to sailing and gold panning.

History
In 1968, Colin Inglis, the Western Cape Divisional Commissioner at the time, called a meeting to discuss the loss of 15- and 16-year-old Scouts, which usually happened before they achieved their 1st Class Badge. He felt that once a Scout had reached the age of 16, troop activities were no longer an adventure for them and as a result they left the movement. He suggested that an adventure activity be held for 16-year-old Scouts who had obtained their 1st Class Badge, which could be the 'cherry on top' of their Scout careers.

The meeting agreed and a small committee was set up to run an event late in 1969. This committee was composed of Colin Inglis, "Fatty" Rutter, Richard Knight, "Impie" Bryant and the Divisional Secretary. The rest of the year was spent organising the location in the Cederberg, testing communications, hiring school busses, finding activity leaders and various other functions. This first adventure was open only to Scouts from the Western Cape, but it was so successful that it was requested for subsequent events to be opened to Scouts from all over South Africa.

The team decided to rename it 'The National Senior Scout Adventure' and open it to all Scouts over 15 and 6 months of age who held the 1st Class Badge. It was decided that if the national event was a success it would be opened up to international Scouts. Due to pressure, the minimum age was lowered to 14 for Scouts who held their 1st Class Badge and were recommended by their Scouter. However, in 2004 the minimum age of 15 was reinstated.

The first national event was held over new years of 1970/1971 and was an even greater success that the experimental event and it was decided that it would be repeated every 2 years. However, this was not always possible and the next one was only held in 1974.

After the 1974 adventure the Cederberg was declared a wilderness area and activity centres were no longer allowed to be in the same location for more than 24 hours due to the new forestry rules. For this reason the 1976 adventure was moved to the Winterhoek. On this adventure a storm made rivers uncrossable and the adventure came to a stand-still for several days until the water subsided. To date, this was the only adventure where a helicopter has been used to rescue Scouts, who were trapped in a kloof by rising water. Although unexpected, this added a new dimension to the adventure.

The following three were held in the Witzenberg Valley over the new years of 1978, 1981 and 1983. These adventures went well with the 1983 adventure being the biggest with 600 Scouts.

In 1985, permission was obtained from private landowners in the Cederberg to put activity centres on their land and the Department of Forestry gave permission for Scouts to hike and camp in the wilderness area. In December 1986, the National Senior Scout Adventure moved back to the Cederberg and has remained there ever since.

Colin Inglis continued to organise adventures in 1988, 1990, 1992 and 1994, until handing over to Richard Goldschmidt for the 1996 and 1998 adventures. Buzz Macey took over as the organiser for 2000 and 2002 when the event was opened up to Guides and Girl Scouts. John Mütti was the Adventure Organiser for 2004 and 2006/7 Centenary of Scouting. Buzz Macey ran the 2008 and 2010 Adventures, and Nigel Forshaw ran the Adventure in December 2012.

External links

Scouting and Guiding in South Africa


Eugene "Gene" Wilson (11 September 1932 – March 2006) was an English professional footballer who played as a winger.

Career
Born in Sheffield, Wilson played for Sheffield Wednesday, Rotherham United, Stockport County and Altrincham. He also played for Wigan Athletic in the 1963–64 season.

References

External links

1932 births
2006 deaths
English men's footballers
Men's association football wingers
Sheffield Wednesday F.C. players
Rotherham United F.C. players
Stockport County F.C. players
Altrincham F.C. players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
English Football League players
Footballers from Sheffield


The Leckwith development is in the Leckwith area of southwest Cardiff, Wales. Work started in Autumn 2007 with the construction of a new stadium for Cardiff City F.C.

The proposal
The project consisted of:
 A new 26,828 seat stadium for Cardiff City F.C.
 A  retail park with 18 retail units
 A New athletics stadium to replace the recently demolished Cardiff Athletics Stadium
 A new housing estate on the site of the current Ninian Park Stadium
 A 70-room hotel with bar and restaurant
 A new Glamorgan Archives to house archives from the historic county of Glamorgan and worldwide genealogical resources.

Completion of the development was planned for Spring 2010.

Three way land-swap

To complete the deal, it involved a simple land-swap arrangement of existing facilities across three sites:
Cardiff Council gave a nominal 125year lease to Cardiff City on a 40acre block of land, on which the former Cardiff Athletics Stadium stood
Cardiff City agreed to build a new athletics stadium on a further 20acre council owned plot north of the existing site
On completion of the new athletics stadium, Cardiff City gained the 125-year rent-free lease. On half of the land they developed the new Cardiff City stadium and retail park
The residual 20acres would be used for development of the new Glamorgan Record Office (at the cost of the council), a hotel (build by the football club, which they could lease off) and the community sports facility House of Sport (built at the cost of football club, run by the council). If the football club failed to complete House of Sport development by December 2009, then the lease on the hotel would forfeit to the council
The football club, once they had moved stadium, could sell the land of the former Ninian Park stadium for housing redevelopment

Unfortunately, due to unforeseen issues in construction across the two council owned sites, the football club incurred additional costs. This initially resulted in an agreement to lapse the development of the House of Sport until December 2010. In January 2009, with Cardiff City facing a winding-up order due to an outstanding £2.7M bill to HMRC, the club asked the council for permission to sell the residual 20acres to a developer.

Capital Shopping Park

The Capital Shopping Park in Leckwith, started building at the end of 2007 and originated from the idea of a new stadium for Cardiff City FC. The retail development was completed in 2009 and has a total of 21 tenants including Costco, Asda, ScS, Next, Hobbycraft, Smyths Toys and Costa. It has  of retail space. It was originally owned by Capital Retail Park Partnership, which is owned by commercial developer PMG, but in February 2014 it was sold to Aberdeen Asset Management for £59.65 million.

Matalan were named in an original planning application, but pulled out in March 2005.

Cardiff City Stadium

The new stadium has 33,280 seats and is home to Cardiff City F.C. club. The stadium also hosted the home matches of the Cardiff Blues rugby union team until the 2011–12 season. It is the second largest stadium in Cardiff and also Wales (the largest being the Millennium Stadium). The stadium cost £29,000,000, Laing O'Rourke was contracted for the whole development.

Cardiff International Sports Stadium

The new athletics stadium, built to replace the previous Cardiff Athletics Stadium which was demolished to make room for the new rugby and football stadium. Construction started in March 2007. The athletics stadium is the only part of the development to not be built by the main contractor, Laing O'Rourke and instead individual contractor, Cowlin Construction. The stadium will include a gym, meeting rooms, and several offices, which should be completed in the new year. Members of the public are now permitted to come and watch the events that are taking place on the track or field in the now completed stand. The track and field are now open for public use.

Glamorgan Record Office/Glamorgan Archives

The Glamorgan Record Office moved to a site behind the new football stadium from the Glamorgan Building in Cathays Park at the end of 2009. The newly renamed Glamorgan Archives offers facilities for visitors to search its 8.5 km of archives relating to the historic county of Glamorgan, as well as conference space for workshops, lectures and school groups, and a modern paper conservation studio.

Leckwith and Droves allotments and city farm
The retail park now rests on the site previously occupied by Cardiff's city farm. Cardiff Council originally planned for the retail park to be built on the current site of the allotments, located on Bessemer Road.

Some of the unused plots at the entrance to the allotments were planned to become the site for a new community centre for disabled children and people with learning disabilities, run by Cardiff-based charity, Vision 21. This development was accepted by Cardiff Council on 20 October 2008, in their development control announcements. This site was to include a café, garden centre, a small shop, offices and meeting rooms.

Ninian Park housing estate

The stadium was handed over to Redrow Homes by Cardiff City chairman Peter Ridsdale on 10 September 2009. Redrow was to build 142 new homes on the site. The development was still to be known as Ninian Park. A planted square was proposed at the centre of the new housing development, in the area of Ninian Park football ground's centre spot. The first show home of the £24m development was to open by late spring 2010, with a mixture of terraced, detached and semi-detached houses.

The estate welcomed its first residents in November 2010. The main road was named Bartley Wilson Way after the founder of Cardiff FC.

See also
 Ground improvements at British football stadia
 Cardiff Arms Park – the former Cardiff Blues stadium
 Ninian Park – the former Cardiff City stadium

References

External links
 Cardiff City Stadium
 Glamorgan Archives
 Cardiff City F.C.
 Welsh Athletics

Economy of Cardiff
Buildings and structures under construction in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in Cardiff
Redevelopment projects in Cardiff


Bonnie is a given name, predominantly but not always feminine.

Bonnie may also refer to:

Places
 Bonnie, Illinois, a village
 Bonnie Lake (Alberta), Canada
 Bonnie, West Virginia, an unincorporated community

Other uses
 Bonnie, a character in the Toy Story franchise Toy Story franchise
 Bonnie, an animatronic character from Five Nights at Freddy's
 Bonnie (orangutan) (born 1976), noted for her musical ability in whistling
 Bonnie (TV series) (1995–1996), an American sitcom starring Bonnie Hunt
 Bonnie Field, a privately owned public airport in Marquette County, Michigan
 Bonnie Scotland (horse), an early 20th century thoroughbred racehorse
 St. Bonaventure Bonnies, the sports teams of.St. Bonaventure University
 Tropical Storm Bonnie, name given to several tropical storms
 Triumph Bonneville, a British motorcycle also nicknamed "Bonnie"
 bonnie and bonnie++, free (open-source) file system benchmarking tools for Unix-like operating systems

See also

 Bonny (disambiguation)


Grupo Desportivo de Ribeirão, known as Ribeirão, is a Portuguese football club based in Ribeirão, Vila Nova de Famalicão, Braga District. Founded in 1968, it currently plays in the Portuguese Third Division, holding home matches at Estádio do Passal, which has a capacity of 3,000.

Appearances
Segunda Divisão: 19
Terceira Divisão: 19

League history

References

External links
Zerozero team profile

Football clubs in Portugal
Association football clubs established in 1968
1968 establishments in Portugal