Race for the Galaxy (abbreviated "RftG" or simply "Race") is a card game designed by Thomas Lehmann. It was released in 2007 by Rio Grande Games. Its theme is to build galactic civilizations via game cards that represent worlds or technical and social developments.  It accommodates two to four players by default although expansions allow for up to six players, as well as solo play. The game uses iconography in place of language in some places, with complex powers also having a text description. While appreciated by experienced players for being concise, some new players find the icons difficult to learn and to decipher.

The game won Boardgamegeek's Golden Geek Award for best card game, Fairplay Magazine's À la carte award for best card game of 2008, and was described by the magazine Tric Trac as "LE jeu de cartes de cette année 2008" (THE card game of the year 2008).

Gameplay
Like many other Euro-style games, players win Race by having the most victory points at game end. VPs come from three sources: worlds and developments placed on a player's tableau, and VP chips earned by consuming goods from worlds. To place a world or development, players pay a cost in cards from their hand. Keeping a steady income of new cards throughout the game is important to victory.

Phase selection
At the start of each round, all players simultaneously and secretly choose one of five phases: Explore, Develop, Settle, Consume, or Produce. Selections are revealed simultaneously. The only phases which actually occur in a round are those selected by players. Additionally, the players who picked a certain phase get a special bonus during that phase, such as the ability to look at more cards during the Explore phase.

Every card in play has powers which are active during various phases. For instance, the development  "Investment Credits" has a Develop power which makes placing developments one card cheaper.

Round play
Within a round, phases (those selected by players) happen in the following order:
 Explore – Draw two cards and keep one.
 Develop – Play a development.
 Settle – Play a world, either by paying to take it peacefully or by military conquest.
 Consume – "Ship" resources for cards and VPs. As a bonus activity, players can Trade a resource to earn many cards, but no VPs.
 Produce – Put a good (a face-down card from the deck) on all production worlds that do not have one.
After all phases are complete, players discard down to a hand limit of 10 cards.  Unusually among card games, cards discarded due to the hand limit or when paying a cost are placed face-down (in a "messy" pile to distinguish them from the draw deck), concealing information that could be used to deduce upcoming draws.

Play continues until, at the end of a round, either at least one player has 12 or more cards in their tableau, or the entire starting pool of victory point tokens has been claimed by the players. At that point, the player with the highest total of victory points from tokens and from cards in their tableau is the winner.

Race vs. other titles
The play style of the game is similar to that of another Rio Grande game, San Juan, which is the card game version of the board game Puerto Rico. Lehmann, Race'''s designer, developed his own card game version of Puerto Rico at the request of the publisher. Some of its ideas were incorporated in San Juan. Later, Lehmann used those ideas to create a different game, one of space exploration, settlement, and conquest rather than development in the colonial Caribbean.

The principal difference in the playing sequence between Race and Puerto Rico/San Juan is that in the latter games, a given phase can only be chosen by one player each round, and the order of activities is based on player order and the phases each player picks in succession; in Race, multiple players may choose the same phase, and the order of activity execution is fixed.

Wei-Hwa Huang, who is credited as a development assistant for Race, went on to become the primary designer of Roll for the Galaxy (assisted by Tom Lehmann). In this adaptation six-sided dice represent a player's workers, with rolls determining what phases workers are placed in.

Expansions

During playtesting, plans were made for two expansionsRace for the Galaxy Designer Preview #3:  to add more variety to gameplay, shore up certain strategies, and to accommodate more players. The game's success prompted the publisher to request a third expansion, as well as new expansions not requiring the original trio.

Currently there are five expansions for Race. The first three expansions, Gathering Storm, Rebel vs Imperium, and The Brink of War, comprise the first expansion arc. These expansions thematically focus on a struggle for galactic control between the militarily powerful Imperium and a Rebel uprising. The second arc, which is designed to be played separately from the first, includes only the expansion Alien Artifacts, about the revival of long-dead Alien overseer technology. In the third arc the Xeno Invasion set chronicles a catastrophic invasion by monstrous "Xenos" from a distant world.

All the expansions provide new game cards, starting worlds, and support for at least five players. Many new mechanics also interact with base set keywords, such as "Rebel" or "Uplift".

The Gathering Storm
The first expansion adds components for a fifth player, additional cards, goals (opportunities to gain extra victory points chosen at random at game start), and rules and components for solo play (against a "robot" player)."Game Preview: Race for the Galaxy: The Gathering Storm" , By Tom Lehmann, September 26, 2008, Boardgame News.

Rebel vs Imperium
The second expansion is intended for use with the first expansion. It adds components for a sixth player, more cards and goals, and direct player interaction in takeovers of other players' military worlds; players who refrain from playing certain cards are immune to conquest. Takeovers are optional and the rules for this expansion encourage trying the game both with and without them. This set also introduces many new Rebel and Imperium Cards and introduces a special two-player scenario where one player takes the role of The Imperium while the other starts with a Rebel homeworld. In this variant the starting hands consist partly of Imperium/Rebel cards and takeovers are allowed.

The Brink of War
The third expansion adds still more cards, and goals, as well as a new mechanic called galactic prestige. Each round the player(s) with the most prestige earn an additional victory point and possibly a card. Each prestige is worth one victory point at the end of the game, and many of the new cards allow prestige to be spent (for victory points, cards, or other effects). Additionally, a new "once-per-game" action is introduced that allows the user to search the deck for a card meeting a specific stated requirement, or to enhance the bonus the user earns in a round (at the cost of one prestige). The set further extends takeover options: the Interstellar Casus Belli development can allow attacks against anyone, and the Imperium Planet Buster can destroy enemy worlds outright.

Alien Artifacts
The fourth expansion is used with only the base game and was released during 2013. It includes new explore powers and an optional "orb game" in which players explore for victory points and new powers. Some players have criticized the gameplay of the orb game while praising the game cards in the set, saying that the orb makes the overall game play non-simultaneously and last too long.

Xeno Invasion
The fifth expansion, published 2015, is for use with the base game only. According to Lehmann, "XI'' is aimed at intermediate players" and has the most new base cards of any expansion so far. It allows for up to 5 players, and in addition to new world and development cards it includes an optional "Invasion Game", in which players must defeat three waves of Xeno alien invaders. Players can earn bonuses by contributing to the war effort, but the game can also end in two new ways: repulsing the Xeno threat or losing to the invaders.

References

External links
 Rio Grande Games: Race for the Galaxy

 Keldon's AI began an open source program for Windows, Macintosh, and Linux, implementing Race for the Galaxy against human and AI opponents. While unofficial, the project has been specifically allowed by Lehmann and Rio Grande.  The most recent version can be found at github.
 A Race for the Galaxy app was released in 2017, on Steam/iOS/Android, for PC/mobile/tablets. As of early 2018 the first arc of expansions are available as in-app purchases.

Dedicated deck card games
Rio Grande Games games
Space opera games
Card games introduced in 2007


Keith Carlton Robertson (1914–1991) was an American writer of children's books and murder mysteries. He was a former captain in the United States Navy.

Biography
Keith Robertson was born on May 9, 1914, in Dows, Iowa. He joined the Navy in 1931, and served as a radioman on a destroyer. Later, he attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating with a B.S. degree. He attributed his initial decision to study at the academy to a "fanatical aversion to washing dishes." He said, "When I discovered that midshipmen at the United States Naval Academy did not wash dishes but were gentlemen by act of Congress, I promptly applied for entrance." Robertson served in World War II as captain of a destroyer. He was awarded five battle stars. He retired from the service as a captain in the United States Naval Reserve.

Robertson published his first book, Ticktock and Jim, in 1948. His writing career spanned 40 years. As a member of the Rutgers University Council on Children's Literature, he was active in encouraging aspiring authors.

He was married to Elizabeth Woodburn Robertson, a rare-book dealer, and had four children. He died of cancer at his home in Hopewell, New Jersey on September 23, 1991, aged 77.

Writing career
Keith Robertson is best known for the five books of the Henry Reed series, beginning in 1958 with Henry Reed, Inc., which won the William Allen White Children's Book Award in 1961. Another Henry Reed book, Henry Reed's Baby-Sitting Service, also won this award, along with the Pacific Northwest Library Association Young Readers' Choice Award, in 1969. The Henry Reed series was illustrated by Robert McCloskey.

Keith Robertson used the pseudonym Carlton Keith for his six murder mysteries.

Series books
Ticktock and Jim series
Ticktock and Jim aka Watch for a Pony (1948)
Ticktock and Jim, Deputy Sheriffs (1949)

The Neil and Swede series AKA the Carson Street Detective Agency series
The Mystery of Burnt Hill (1952)
Three Stuffed Owls (1954)
The Crow and the Castle (1957)
The Money Machine (1969)

The Sourland Mountain series AKA the John Michelson series
Outlaws of the Sourland (1953)
The Pinto Deer (1956)

The Henry Reed series
Henry Reed, Inc. (1958)
Henry Reed's Journey (1963)
Henry Reed's Baby-Sitting Service (1966)
Henry Reed's Big Show (1970)
Henry Reed's Think Tank (1986)
The Adventures of Henry Reed omnibus (1982)

Standalone novels
The Dog Next Door (1950)
The Missing Brother: A Mystery Story for Older Boys (1950)
The Lonesome Sorrel (1952)
Mascot of the Melroy (1953)
Wreck of the Saginaw (1954)
Ice to India (1955)
The Phantom Rider (1955)
The Pilgrim Goose (1956)
If Wishes Were Horses (1958)
The Year of the Jeep (1968)
In Search of a Sandhill Crane (1972)
Tales of Myrtle the Turtle (1974)

Non-fiction books
The Navy: From Civilian to Sailor (U.S. Armed Services Library) (1958)
New Jersey (States of the Nation series) (1968)

Carlton Keith books
The Diamond-Studded Typewriter  aka A Gem of a Murder (1958)
Missing, Presumed Dead (1961)
Rich Uncle (1963)
The Hiding Place (1965)
The Crayfish Dinner aka The Elusive Epicure (1966)
A Taste of Sangria aka The Missing Book-keeper (1968)

References

External links

 Carlton Keith at LC Authorities, with 7 records

1914 births
1991 deaths
20th-century American novelists
American children's writers
American male novelists
American mystery writers
Deaths from cancer in New Jersey
People from Hopewell, New Jersey
Novelists from Iowa
Novelists from New Jersey
United States Navy officers
20th-century American male writers
Military personnel from New Jersey
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Naval Academy alumni


Direct TPMS, or direct tire pressure monitoring systems (direct sensor TPMS) refers to the use of a pressure sensor directly mounted on the wheels or tires of a vehicle. The pressure inside the tire is measured using a pressure transducer with the pressure information being subsequently sent to the vehicle to warn the driver of under or over inflation of a tire. The pressure information is commonly transmitted to the vehicle using radio frequency (RF) technology, though systems using mechanical, electrical or magnetic methods have been used over recent years.

Typical system

In most current designs of direct TPMS, a small electronic assembly which is rugged enough to be mounted inside a tire, measures the pressure using a microelectromechanical system (MEMS) pressure sensor and then transmits this and other information to one or more vehicle receivers. Other information can include a serial number, temperature, acceleration, direction of rotation and the status of the complete tire pressure monitoring system. The purpose of the serial number is to allow the vehicle to ignore transmissions from other vehicles and operate with a unique data field. A typical direct TPMS (e.g. Ford, BMW or Toyota) comprises the following components on a vehicle:

 A direct TPM sensor fitted to the back of the valve stem on each wheel
 A TPM Warning Light
 Unique identifier (IDs) for which tire is providing the data including speed and the direction of rotation
 A tire pressure monitor electronic control unit (ECU)
 Antenna(s)
 Controller for periodic measurements
 Source of power
 Diagnostics and wake up system

Most direct TPMS systems use ultra high frequency (UHF) radio in one of the 'unlicensed' ISM bands (industrial, scientific and medical) for transmitting the data, often around 433 MHz in Europe and 315 MHz in much of the rest of the world.  On some systems there is a separate receiver or antenna near each wheel whilst more commonly there is a single receiver which receives data from all of the wheels on the vehicle. Commonly this receiver is also used for remote keyless entry system (RKE) as this also usually uses UHF radio transmissions.

TPM sensors can be fitted to the wheels in a number of ways. They can be mounted on the back of the tire's valve stem or attached using adhesive or to a band which is then securely wrapped around the rim inside the tire, usually in the drop zone.

Direct tire pressure monitor system warning light
When the direct TPMS warning light comes on, either one of the tires is under-inflated,  severely over-inflated, or there is a fault with the system. If the light is constant then inflating to the correct placard pressure should turn it off. If this is not the case then this indicates a puncture. If the light is intermittent or if it stays on after correct inflation or replacement of a punctured tire then this indicates a fault with the direct TPMS system.

Registration of direct TPMS IDs
When the direct TPMS system is fitted at the factory the unique ID numbers of the TPM (tire pressure monitoring) sensors have to be registered along with their position on the vehicle with the tire pressure monitor ECU. This is also the case if any of the system components are subsequently changed e.g. in the event of rotating the tires, changing sensors, replacing the ECU etc.

This process requires the activation of the direct TPMS sensor using low frequency (LF) radio and the capture of the UHF data transmitted. This data includes the direct TPMS ID, the pressure and the temperature. In automotive manufacturing plants, the activation is carried out using large antenna systems whilst in the dealerships and tire shops, hand tools are used. These tools can also be used to check the direct TPMS for faults prior to disassembly. If a TPM sensor or its position on the car are changed without re-registering the IDs, then the TPMS warning light will turn on and stay on until the IDs are re-registered.

Localization
If there are multiple antennas or receivers, this permits localization of the TPM such that the vehicle can tell from which wheel the pressure data has come. As an alternative to this method, the vehicle can be programmed at the time of manufacture with the position of the tire together with its TPM serial number. This allows the vehicle to display which tire has low pressure.

Also, some vehicles have low frequency radio transmitters mounted near to each wheel which can be used to force the individual TPMs to transmit at will. These typically use similar technology to 125 kHz RFID tags where the transmitted field is predominantly magnetic and can be easily detected by a small LF antenna located in the TPM. This method of localization is often referred to as a high line system.

The LF antenna is also often used by the TPM for configuration and to force transmission so that localization can be re-learned by the vehicle if a sensor is changed or the wheels are rotated.

A third method uses the UHF signal strength which is proportional to the distance of the TPM from the receiver. If the receiver is located towards the front of the vehicle, the signal from the front wheel TPM's will be stronger than that from the wheels at the rear.

In those systems, the TPM's have a method of detecting the rotational direction of the wheel, which forms part of the message transmitted to the receiver. This information allows the receiver to identify which side of the vehicle the TPMS transmits from. Combined with the signal strength, the correct wheel can be identified.

TPM sensor features
The TPM sensors currently fitted to high volume production cars worldwide are battery-powered, self-contained units which periodically measure tire pressure, and often temperature and acceleration. The sensor is equipped with an RF transmitter circuit which is used to broadcast the measured pressure etc. within the tire.

The TPM is designed to use as little power as possible to give maximum battery life. This is done by using very low power circuitry and transmitting the data as infrequently as possible and with as low power as possible. The UHF transmitter in a TPM typically transmits around 250μW (1μW is equal to one millionth (10−6) of a watt).

TPMs do not have UHF receivers built in due to the relatively high power requirements of this technology. This means that they can't tell that they are transmitting at the same time as another TPM. Most TPMs do have LF receivers as this uses little or no power.

The pressure, temperature and acceleration sensors generate analog signals which are converted to their digital equivalents using analog to digital converters. The acceleration sensor measures the centrifugal force generated when the wheel rotates. This force is proportional to the rotational speed. The acceleration sensor may be a simple switch rather than an analog transducer (accelerometer). This is usually referred to as a roll switch. The acceleration sensor allows the TPM to be placed in a low-power communication device mode, when the vehicle is stationary which can extend the battery life. The advantage of a roll switch over an accelerometer is that the switch is purely mechanical and doesn't use any power to take a measurement.

When the vehicle is stationary, the TPM may periodically transmit to the vehicle. This allows (as long as the vehicle receiver is always on) the driver or vehicle operator to be warned of low pressure as soon as the Ignition system is switched on rather than having to wait until the vehicle is moving.

All TPM units on a vehicle operate on the same RF channel frequency and each message includes pressure data, temperature data, a unique ID code, operating state data, status information and check digits. The check digit is either a checksum or a cyclic redundancy check (CRC).

The TPM does not usually have information about the tire's correct pressure as this would be very difficult and possibly dangerous to support. However it may have an algorithm contained within it which detects both slow and rapid changes in pressure. This condition may be transmitted as part of the TPM's status. It may also cause the TPM to transmit more frequently.

Direct tire pressure monitoring systems
There are two main types of direct tire pressure monitoring system currently in use. These are known as 'high line' and 'low line'.

High line system
If the vehicle is fitted with low frequency (LF) transmitters near each wheel, the vehicle may use these to force the sensors to transmit. In this case, the TPM may not transmit on its own, but the vehicle will periodically command the sensors to send their information.

In addition, the TPMs will be forced to transmit when the ignition is switched on. This will give an early indication of low pressure without having to have the vehicle's receiver switched on when the vehicle is not in use. The transmitters are usually activated one at a time in sequence so that the vehicle can inform the driver of the location of the wheel with low pressure. This information can then be used later for localisation by matching the TPM's unique ID with its position discovered by this sequential activation. This method is used on some high line systems where the TPM also transmits periodically.

On some vehicles only three LF transmitters are used in order to save money. The vehicle assumes that transmissions from a nearby TPM which has not been woken up by the LF belong to the TPM located where there is no LF transmitter.

High line systems are inherently more expensive than low line systems but they have the advantage of the vehicle knowing the pressure when started without draining the vehicle's main battery and providing localisation. These systems tend to be used on higher end models.

Low line system
In this system, the TPM units transmit on their own at fixed or random intervals. As the individual TPMs on the vehicle do not know if another TPM is transmitting at the same time, it is possible to have collisions between messages transmitted. Measures have to be taken to ensure that the message is received by the vehicle. On some systems the message is re-transmitted multiple times to reduce the effect of interference (communication). The transmission pattern can be random or pseudo random to reduce the chance of collisions between transmissions from the sensors on the vehicle.

Another method of attempting to avoid collisions is simply to transmit more frequently such as once per minute. In addition, if the TPM detects a rapid change in pressure or too high a temperature, it will start to transmit more frequently so that the vehicle has more chance of receiving the information. The low line system is used on the majority of vehicles due to its lower cost.

Aftermarket systems
Aftermarket valve cap-based dTPMS systems, which require a smartphone and an app or portable display unit, are also available for bicycles, automobiles, and trailers.

Legal status

United States
The use of TPMS in vehicles in the USA was mandated in 2008 by the Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act (or TREAD). This states that the driver of a vehicle must be warned of under inflation by 25%. The warning is displayed to the driver in line with 49 CFR Part 571 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS). The minimum requirement for the warning is in the form of a simple lit symbol on the dashboard, and this is often augmented by the display of a graphic of the car showing the wheel position to which the warning light corresponds. All new model year 2008 light vehicles shall have a TPMS (direct or indirect) fitted which is capable of detecting when one or more of the vehicle's tires, up to all four tires, is 25% or more below the manufacturer's recommended inflation pressure (placard pressure) or a minimum activation pressure specified in the standard, whichever is higher.

EU and Far East
European Union (EU) and Far East legislators looked at TPMS as a way of reducing CO2 emissions. From November 2014 (ECE-R 64 EU Directive), all new passenger cars models sold in the EU must be equipped with a TPMS.

See also
Central tire inflation system
Cold inflation pressure
Run-flat tire
Tire-pressure gauge
Car safety

Notes

Bibliography
.

External links
Security and Privacy Vulnerabilities of In-Car Wireless Networks: A Tire Pressure Monitoring System Case Study
Media file presenting information on direct tpms, tpm sensors and tpms safety tool
NHTSA impact analysis report for tpms

Automotive technologies
Tires
Automatic identification and data capture


The 1. FC Haßfurt is a German association football club from the city of Haßfurt, Bavaria.

History
The club was formed in 1917 under its current name, 1. FC Haßfurt.

The 1. FC Haßfurt first appeared above the local football level in 1957, when it achieved promotion to the Amateurliga Bayern-Nord (III), the northern division of the highest state league. It could not manage to hold this level in its first season 1957–58 and was relegated straight back to the 2. Amateurliga Unterfranken.

Bouncing straight back in 1959, Haßfurt had a much better second try in the Amateurliga, coming sixth in 1959–60. A strong performance the season after saw the club winning its league and earning promotion to the 2. Oberliga Süd, then the second tier of league football in Southern Germany. While the club easily won its promotion round, unbeaten in six games versus Offenburger FV, TSV Heusenstamm and Salamander Kornwestheim, it could only obtain a licence for the second division on appeal.

In the same league with some well-known football clubs from the south of Germany, like Hessen Kassel, FSV Frankfurt and Stuttgarter Kickers, the team performed well, earning a tenth place in its first season. Its second year in the league was to be the last edition of the competition due to the formation of the Bundesliga. A fourteenth place was not enough for the 1. FC Haßfurt to earn a place in the new tier two Regionalliga Süd and it had to return to the now single-division Amateurliga Bayern.

Upon return to the third tier, the club continued to perform well, earning a third place in its first year. After a some mixed results, the team repeated this performance in 1968–69. From there, however, the club went downhill, resulting in relegation from the Amateurliga to the Landesliga Bayern-Nord (IV) in 1972. After three unimpressive seasons in this league, Haßfurt took out the title in 1975–76 and returned to the third division.

Settling in its first season, the second, 1977–78, proved to be a highlight in the club's history. Winning the division, one point ahead of MTV Ingolstadt, the 1. FC Haßfurt was directly promoted to the 2. Bundesliga Süd. Financial reasons however forced the club to not accept this offer and Ingolstadt found itself promoted instead. The club had one more outstanding season after this, in 1979–80, when it finished second in the league to FC Augsburg. The season after, it slipped to seventeenth place, and was relegated from what was now the Amateur-Oberliga Bayern.

The 1. FC Haßfurt did not manage to return to its successful past after this, fluctuating between the Landesliga Bayern-Nord and the league below, the Bezirksliga Unterfranken and later the Bezirksoberliga Unterfranken. The club found itself relegated from the Landesliga five times in the next two decades, in 1985, 1989, 1993, 1999 and 2005, only to return each time.

Having returned to the Landesliga in 2007, the club played in this league until 2009, when a 17th-place finish meant another relegation. The club continued its descend through the leagues, playing in the tier-eight Bezirksliga in 2011–12, where it suffered another relegation, now to the Kreisliga Schweinfurt.

Honours
The club's honours:

League
 Amateurliga Bayern (III)
 Champions: 1978
 Amateurliga Bayern-Nord (III)
 Champions: 1961
 2. Amateurliga Unterfranken West (IV)
 Champions: (2) 1954, 1957
 2. Amateurliga Unterfranken Ost (IV)
 Champions: 1959
 Landesliga Bayern-Nord (IV)
 Champions: 1976
 Bezirksoberliga Unterfranken (V-VI)
 Champions: 1990, 2001
 Runners-up: (2) 1996, 2007

Recent seasons
The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

With the introduction of the Bezirksoberligas in 1988 as the new fifth tier, below the Landesligas, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 and the 3. Liga in 2008 as the new third tier, below the 2. Bundesliga, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the establishment of the Regionalliga Bayern as the new fourth tier in Bavaria in 2012 the Bayernliga was split into a northern and a southern division, the number of Landesligas expanded from three to five and the Bezirksoberligas abolished. All leagues from the Bezirksligas onwards were elevated one tier.

DFB Cup appearances
The club has qualified for the first round of the German Cup only once:

Former players
 Ludwig Müller (1961–64), former German international (1968–69)
 Heinz-Herbert Kreh top-scorer in the Amateurliga Bayern-Nord (1960 – 36 goals), the 2, Oberliga Süd (1962 – 30 goals) and the Amateurliga Bayern (1965 – 38 goals and 1966 – 30 goals), also played 19 times for the German national amateur side

References

External links
Official team site
1. FC Haßfurt at Groundhopping.de  Report with pictures of the Stadium
1. FC Haßfurt at Fussballdaten.de
Das deutsche Fußball-Archiv historical German domestic league tables
Manfreds Fussball Archiv Tables and results from the Bavarian amateur leagues

Football clubs in Germany
Football clubs in Bavaria
Association football clubs established in 1917
Football in Lower Franconia
1917 establishments in Germany


Christian Louis de Massy, Baron de Massy (born 17 January 1949) is the son of Princess Antoinette of Monaco, Baroness de Massy, and her husband, international tennis champion Alexandre-Athenase Noghès. His grandfather, Antony Noghès, created the world-famous Monaco Grand Prix. He was one of the two page boys at the wedding of his uncle Rainier III with Grace Kelly.

Biography

Massy is a first cousin of the reigning Prince Albert II and nephew of Prince Rainier III. He was born out of wedlock, his parents marrying on 4 December 1951.  The second of three siblings, his two sisters were Elizabeth-Ann (1947–2020) and Christine Alix (1951–1989).

Status
By 1951, Rainier was the prince of Monaco, but was unmarried and had no children. Antoinette began exploring the possibility of replacing Rainier and passing the throne to her son.  The Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1918 already provided that a childless sovereign of Monaco could adopt an heir to the throne. Therefore, had Rainier then chosen to adopt Christian de Massy, that would have made Christian the heir presumptive (although he would lose his place in the order of succession to any children born of a subsequent marriage of Rainier).

Regardless, once Rainier married Grace Kelly and had children, Princess Antoinette's concern over succession waned and the possibility of Christian acceding to the throne became more remote. Princess Antoinette then threw her full support behind the succession of her brother. The family presented a unified front thenceforth, with Prince Rainier III granting his sister the title of Baroness of Massy, and young Christian de Massy serving as ring bearer at the marriage of his uncle to Grace Kelly.

In 2002, the constitution was adjusted to allow siblings of the reigning prince and their descendants to succeed to the throne if the sovereign lacked legitimate descendants, and Christian thereupon became 11th in line of succession to the Monegasque throne. When Albert succeeded on the death of Rainier, Antoinette was no longer the sibling of the sovereign, so she and her children lost their places in the line of succession. They and their descendants do, however, remain eligible for selection by the Crown Council to accede if the current line fails.

Education
Christian Louis was, initially, educated at the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland. He was expelled. He then became a pupil at Downside School, Somerset, UK (September 1963-July 1967). He obtained a place at Cambridge University but left before completion of a degree course.

More inspired by adventure than the classroom, Christian's self-education in the real world saw him become a professional race driver in Europe, before motorcycling the entire 7400 km coast of Brazil.  He returned to a motorcycle to crisscross North America from east to west, north to south in 1994. Christian Louis de Massy has lived in Spain, Zimbabwe, Argentina, Brazil, Italy, France, Hungary, Panama and the USA, in addition to his homeland of Monaco.  He is claimed to speak English, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese.

Career
Christian de Massy is presently the Economic Attaché to the Embassy of Monaco in Washington, D.C, having been appointed by Prince Albert II in 2010.

From March, 2009 until his current diplomatic assignment, Christian held the office of Diplomatic Advisor to the Ministry of Foreign, Economic and Financial Affairs on appointment by Albert II following nomination on 26 February 2009.  His diplomatic endeavors began in 2008, when he was likewise appointed Monegasque chargé d'affaires for Latin America and the Caribbean.

Prior to holding diplomatic posts, Christian de Massy opened the first foreign office of the Société des bains de mer de Monaco in Manhattan, New York in 1979. Soon after he began the first mail order company to operate in Eastern Bloc countries, "Top Trading", in Hungary before the fall of the Iron Curtain.

In 1972-1973 Christian was a driver for Formula Renault Europe Marlboro racing team.

In 1987 de Massy published an autobiography ghosted by celebrity biographer Charles Higham. The book was reviewed in the Tatler by Stephen Fry.

Marriages and issue
Christian Louis has been married and divorced four times.

First
He married María Marta Quintana y del Carril (b. London, 17 June 1951), daughter of Enrique Quintana y Achával, an Argentine ambassador,  and his wife Marta Juana del Carril y Aldao (remarried to the 7th Duke of Tamames), in Buenos Aires on 14 November 1970. This marriage ended in 1978, with one daughter:

 Leticia de Massy (Noghès) (b. Buenos Aires, 16 May 1971) married to Jonkheer Thomas de Brouwer.

Second
He married Anne Michelle Lütken (b. 28 November 1959 - d. London, 25 November 2001) in Ramatuelle on 11 September 1982. She was the first child of Carl Fredrik Lütken and his first wife Bjørg, née Christiansen. This marriage ended in 1987, without issue.

Third
He married Julia Lakschin (b. 6 November 1968), daughter of Roman Lakschin and his wife Ludmila, in Geneva in April 1992. This marriage ended in 1995, without issue. Roman Lakschin is the Dominican ambassador to the United Nations and to the World Trade Organization. She is remarried to Ivan Mikhailovich Musatov and has issue.

Fourth
He married Cécile Irène Gelabale (b. Guadeloupe, 1968), daughter of Denis Gelabale and his wife Lucie Darius Denon, in 1996. This marriage ended in 2015 after separation since 2009. Cecile has since reverted to her maiden name and no longer uses the title of Baroness.
They have two sons:
 Brice Souleyman Gelabale-de Massy (by adoption)(b. Abymes, Guadeloupe, 2 Nov 1987)
 Antoine de Massy (b. 15 January 1997)

Sources
The Grimaldis of Monaco: The Centuries of Scandal, The Years of Grace by Anne Edwards. (New York, William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1992,

Footnotes

External links
 Website of Antoine de Massy

1949 births
Living people
House of Grimaldi
People educated at Downside School
Monegasque Roman Catholics
Monegasque people of Italian descent
Monegasque people of English descent
Monegasque people of Mexican descent
Monegasque people of Scottish descent
Monegasque people of German descent
Alumni of Institut Le Rosey


The Cornwall-Lebanon School District is a public school district covering the Boroughs of Cornwall and Mount Gretna and North Cornwall Township, North Lebanon Township, South Lebanon Township, West Cornwall Township and West Lebanon Township in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania. It is part of the Lancaster-Lebanon Intermediate Unit (IU 13).  The district operates one High School, one Middle School and four Elementary Schools.

Schools

Elementary schools

Cornwall Elementary, located in historic Cornwall, Pennsylvania, home of the Cornwall Iron Furnace.
Ebenezer Elementary, one of the oldest elementary schools in Pennsylvania, then moved to a bigger location, now the largest elementary school.
South Lebanon Elementary, located in South Lebanon Township, is the smallest elementary school.
Union Canal Elementary, named after the historic Union Canal Tunnel, it is located on the east end of the school district.

Middle school

Cedar Crest Middle School

Secondary school

Cedar Crest High School Located at 115 East Evergreen Road, Lebanon, PA 17042

References

External links
Cornwall-Lebanon School District Website

School districts in Lebanon County, Pennsylvania


The Christian Social Movement in Ukraine was a political movement that existed in Western Ukraine from the end of the 19th century until the 1930s.

Ideals
The movement's program was based on Christian ethics and on papal encyclicals focused on social concerns whilst its political orientation was clerical-conservative. The movement's leaders included the Ukrainian political and cultural figure Oleksander Barvinsky, Anatole Vakhnianyn, and Kyryl Studynsky. The Christian Social Movement's support was based on Ukrainian moderates seeking rapprochement between Ukrainians and Poles.  Originally its principles included loyalty to Austria-Hungary and the Habsburg monarchy, the creation of a separate Ukrainian province, support for the Ukrainian language and expansion of Ukrainian schools, and opposition to Galician Russophiles.

History

Its political party, founded in 1896, was originally named the Catholic Ruthenian People's Union. During this time, it was supported by Metropolitan Sembratovich, head of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and by the Austrian government, which subsidized the newspaper Ruslan.  In 1911 the Catholic Ruthenian People's Union, under the leadership of Oleksander Barvinky, renamed itself as the Christian Social Party and sent representatives to the Austrian Parliament in Vienna as well as to the local Galician Diet. The Christian Social Party was more popular among Ukrainian civil servants than it was among the clergy, was uncritically loyal to the Habsburg monarchy, and did not enjoy widespread popularity among the Ukrainian population.

After Austria-Hungary's collapse, the Christian Social Party subsequently participated in the formation of the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Following the Polish–Ukrainian War, after western Ukraine had passed under the control of the Second Polish Republic, the party continued to function until the 1930s.  At that time, part of its members joined the Ukrainian National Democratic Alliance (UNDO) (a moderate political organization opposed to the radical Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists), while others founded the Ukrainian Catholic People's Party. The latter party advocated autonomy for western Ukraine but was loyal to the Polish state.  It was able to place a member in the Polish parliament and Senate but was generally not very influential within Ukrainian society.

In the Second World War, western Ukraine was annexed by the Soviet Union and the Christian Social Movement ceased to exist there.

Due to its strong ties to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, the Christian Social Movement was criticized for its clericalism by both left-wing socialist groups as well as by right-wing nationalist groups in western Ukraine.

References

See also
 Political Catholicism

Establishments in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria
Catholic political parties
Ukrainian political parties in Austria-Hungary
History of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
Defunct political parties in Poland
Second Polish Republic
Ukrainian political parties in Poland


Michał Płotka (born 11 June 1988 in Puck) is a Polish former professional footballer who played as a defender. He last played for Znicz Pruszków, and has previously played in Ekstraklasa for Arka Gdynia and Widzew Łódź.

External links

1988 births
Living people
People from Puck, Poland
Footballers from Pomeranian Voivodeship
Polish men's footballers
Poland men's under-21 international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Arka Gdynia players
Motor Lublin players
Warta Poznań players
Widzew Łódź players
Znicz Pruszków players
Ekstraklasa players
II liga players


Mumbai, also known as Bombay, is the financial capital of India and one of the most populous cities in the world. Mumbai grew into a leading commercial center of India during the 19th century on the basis of textile mills and overseas trade. After independence, the desire to domesticate a Marathi social and linguistic Mumbai to a cosmopolitan framework was strongly expressed in the 1950s. Mumbai, one of the earliest cities in India to be industrialized, emerged as the centre of strong organized labour movement in India, which inspired labour movements across India.

Background

The Seven Islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of the Marathi Speaking Kolis and Aagris for Decades. The islands came under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Mumbai was reshaped by the British with large-scale civil engineering projects, and emerged as a significant trading town.

Mumbai was a native Fisherman Land of Marathi Speaking Kolis And Aagris grew into a leading commercial center of India during the 19th century on the basis of textile mills and overseas trade. The city was, first and foremost, built and developed by an Britishers Then Migrants From Gujarat Came For industrial and commercial bourgeoisie consisting of Parsis, Gujarati Hindus, Muslims communities earning their wealth on the extensive Arabian trade. The expanding labour force in Mumbai was initially drawn from the coastal belt of Konkan, south of the city. Until the 1940s, Marathi speakers from these areas accounted for 68% of the city's population, and held mostly jobs.

Bombay State

After India's independence from British rule on 15 August 1947, the territory of Bombay Presidency retained by India after the partition was restructured into Bombay State. The area of Bombay State increased, after several erstwhile princely states that joined the Indian union were integrated into Bombay State. Subsequently, Bombay City, the capital of erstwhile Bombay Presidency, became the capital of Bombay State. Following communal riots between Hindus and Muslims in the Sindh province of the newly created Pakistan from Bombay Presidency, over 100,000 Sindhi Hindu refugees from Pakistan were relocated in the military camps five kilometres from Kalyan in the Bombay metropolitan region. It was converted into a township in 1949, and named Ulhasnagar by the then Governor-General of India, C. Rajagopalachari.

In 1947, Congress party activists established the Rashtriya Mazdoor Mill Sangh (RMMS), with a claimed membership of 32,000, to ensure a strong political base in the textile industry. The RMMS served as a lasting impediment to the free development of independent unionism in Bombay. Economic growth in India was relatively strong during much of the 1950s, and employment growth in Bombay was particularly good, as the city's manufacturing sector diversified. The Bombay textile industry until the 1950s was largely homogeneous, dominated by a relatively small number of large industrial mills. From the late 1950s, policies were introduced to curb the expansion of mills and to encourage increased production from the handloom and powerloom sectors, because of their employment generating capacities. Bombay was one of the few industrial centres of India where strong unions grew up, particularly company or enterprise based unions, often in foreign owned firms. A key figure in the Bombay labour movement in the early 1950s, was George Fernandes. He was a central figure in the unionisation of sections of Bombay labour in the 1950s.

Bombay's Bollywood film industry grew rapidly as it received intense political attention and new sources of governmental funding after 1947. This enabled the industry to embark on technological innovations and to establish effective systems for nationwide distributions. The enormous growth in spectatorship and cinema halls throughout the country soon established Bombay cinema as the dominant Indian film industry. In April 1950, Greater Bombay District came into existence with the merger of Bombay Suburbs and Bombay City. It spanned an area of  and inhabited 2,339,000 of people in 1951. The Municipal Corporation limits were extended up to Jogeshwari along the Western Railway and Bhandup along the Central Railway. This limit was further extended in February 1957 up to Dahisar along the Western Railway and Mulund on the Central Railway. The Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, one of the finest institutions in the country in science and technology, was established in 1958 at Powai, a northern suburb of Bombay, with assistance from UNESCO and with funds contributed by the Soviet Union.

Battle of Mumbai

The desire to domesticate a Marathi social and linguistic Mumbai to a cosmopolitan framework was strongly expressed in the 1950s. On 13 May 1946, a session of the Marathi literary conference held at Belgaum, unanimously resolved on the formation of a united Marathi state. Consequently, the Samyukta Maharashtra Parishad (United Maharashtra Conference) was formed on 28 September 1946, to unite all Marathi-speaking territories into a single political unit. The Parishad consisted of political leaders from the Congress and other parties, and prominent literary figures. It presented its point of view to the States Reorganisation Committee. However, the States Reorganisation Committee in its report to the Indian Government in 1955, recommended a bilingual state for Maharashtra–Gujarat with Mumbai as its capital. The Maharashtrians wanted Mumbai as a part of Maharashtra, since it had majority of Marathi speakers. However, the city's economic and political elite feared that Bombay would decline under a government committed to developing the rural hinterland. Mumbai Citizens' Committee, an advocacy group composed of leading Migrant Gujarati industrialists lobbied for Mumbai's independent status.

In the Lok Sabha discussions on 15 November 1955, S. K. Patil a pro Gujarati lobby Political Leader, a Congress Member of Parliament (MP) from Mumbai, demanded that the city be constituted as an autonomous city-state, laying stress on his Anti Marathi character. On 20 November 1955, the Mumbai Pradesh Congress Committee organized a public meeting at the Chowpatty beach in Mumbai, where S. K. Patil and Morarji Desai, the then Chief Minister of Bombay State, made provocative statements on Mumbai. Patil said that, "Maharashtra will not get Bombay for the next 5,000 years." On 21 November 1955, violent outbursts erupted, and there was a total hartal in Bombay. Thousands of angry protesters converged at Hutatma Chowk with a view to march peacefully towards the Council Hall, where the State Legislature was in session. The police used tear gas to disperse the crowd, but when it failed, they finally resorted to firing, killing 15 people. Under pressure from business interests in Mumbai it was decided to grant Mumbai the status of a Union territory under a centrally-governed administration, setting aside the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Committee report. On 16 January 1956, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, announced the government's decision to create separate states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, but put Mumbai City under central administration. Large demonstrations, mass meetings and riots soon followed. The Mumbai Police dissolved the mass meetings and arrested several of the movement's leaders. During 16 January–22 January, police fired at demonstrators protesting the arrests, in which more than 80 people were killed.

The States Reorganisation Committee report was to be implemented on 1 November 1956. It caused a great political stir and, led to the establishment of the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti (United Maharashtra Committee) on 6 February 1956. The Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti was basically born from the Samyukta Maharashtra Parishad, but had an enlarged identity with broad representation from not only the Congress, but opposition parties, and independents as well. The Samiti spearheaded the demand for the creation of a separate Maharashtra state including Mumbai out of the bilingual Bombay State using violent means. In the August 1956 discussions, the Union cabinet agreed on the creation of a bigger bilingual Bombay State including Maharashtra, Marathwada, Vidharbha, Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kutch, and Mumbai City. In the second general elections of Bombay State held in 1957, the Samiti secured a majority of 101 seats out of 133 in the present day  Western Maharashtra region. The Congress could secure only 32 seats out of 133 in Maharashtra, obtaining a bare majority of 13 out of 24 in Greater Mumbai The Congress suffered the same fate in Gujarat, winning only 57 out of 89 seats. The Congress however succeeded in forming a government in Bombay State with the support of Marathwada and Vidarbha. Yashwantrao Chavan became the first Chief Minister of the Maharashtra State. In 1959, he headed a cabinet of 15, out of which 4 represented Gujarat, to discuss the future of Bombay State. Chavan managed in convincing Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi, who was elected President of the Indian National Congress in 1959, of the futility of the bilingual Bombay State, which was increasingly jeopardizing Congress prospects in Gujarat and Maharashtra. Finally on 4 December 1959, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) passed a resolution recommending the bifurcation of the Bombay State.

The Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti achieved its goal when Bombay State was reorganised on linguistic lines on 1 May 1960. Gujarati-speaking areas of Bombay State were partitioned into the state of Gujarat. Maharashtra State with Mumbai as its capital was formed with the merger of Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay State, eight districts from Central Provinces and Berar, five districts from Hyderabad State, and numerous princely states enclosed between them. In all 105 persons died in the
battle for Mumbai. As a memorial to the martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, as Hutatma Chowk (Martyr's Square), and a memorial was erected, since it was the starting point of the agitation.

After the 1960 bifurcation, many Gujaratis left Mumbai feeling that they would be better-off in Gujarat than in Mumbai, and fearing that they would be neglected by the Maharashtra Government. The Maharashtrians also blamed the Gujaratis for the death of the 105 martyrs of the Samyukta Maharashtra movement.

Rise of Regionalism

In the 1960s,the Marathi-speaking middle-class in Mumbai, who had been the most consistent supporters of the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, felt threatened in Mumbai despite the creation of Maharashtra. This was mainly because of  the increasing number of migrants competing with them for jobs. The Gujarati and Marwari communities owned majority of the industry and trade enterprises in the city, while the white-collar jobs were mainly sought by the South Indian migrants to the city.

This was the line taken by Mumbai cartoonist and journalist Bal Thackeray in his weekly magazine Marmik (Satire), launched in 1963, which soon became one of the most popular magazines among Native Marathi speakers of Mumbai. Backed by his father Prabodhankar Thackeray and a circle of friends, he established the Shiv Sena party on 19 June 1966, out of a feeling of resentment about the relative marginalization of Maharashtrians in Mumbai. The Shiv Sena rallied against the South Indians, the Communists, the Gujarati city elite, and the Muslims in India. In the 1960s and 1970s, Shiv Sena cadres became involved in various attacks against the South Indian communities, vandalising South Indian restaurants and pressuring employers to hire Marathis.

The creation of Navi Mumbai

The need for urban development on the mainland across from Mumbai Island was first officially recommended in the 1940s. In 1945, a Post-war development committee suggested that areas should be developed on the mainland on the opposite side of the harbour to contain the future growth of the city. In 1947, N. V. Modak and Albert Mayer published their plan, stressing on controlled development of the city, suburbs, and its satellite towns like Thane, Vasai, and Uran. In March 1964, the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai submitted its development plan for Greater Mumbai, which was criticized for various reasons, but approved in 1967. By that time, another plan had been developed by two of Mumbai's leading architects Charles Correa and Pravin Mehta, and an engineer Shirish Patel. They suggested that a "twin city" of equal size and prominence to Greater Mumbai, would only be able to solve the city's congestion problems. Thus, the idea of the creation of Navi Mumbai was born.

The proposed site for Navi Mumbai covered an area of , integrating 95 villages spread over the districts of Thane and Raigad.

21st century

During the 21st century, the city suffered several terrorist attacks and natural disasters.

Terrorist attacks
On 6 December 2002, a bomb placed under a seat of an empty BEST (Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport) bus exploded near Ghatkopar station in Mumbai. Around 2 people were killed and 28 were injured. The bombing occurred on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya.
On 27 January 2003, a bomb placed on a bicycle exploded near the Vile Parle station in Mumbai. The bomb killed 1 and injured 25. The blast occurred a day ahead of the visit of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the then Prime Minister of India to the city.
On 13 March 2003, a bomb exploded in a train compartment, as the train was entering the Mulund station in Mumbai. 10 people were killed and 70 were injured. The blast occurred a day after the tenth anniversary of the 1993 Mumbai bombings.
On 28 July 2003, a bomb placed under a seat of a BEST bus exploded in Ghatkopar. The bomb killed 4 people and injured 32.
On 25 August 2003, two blasts in South Mumbai -  one near the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi occurred. At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured. No group claimed responsibility for the attack, but it had been hinted that the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Toiba was behind the attacks.

On 11 July 2006, a series of seven bomb blasts took place over a period of 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai at Khar, Mahim, Matunga, Jogeshwari, Borivali, and one between Khar and Santa Cruz. 209 people were killed and over 700 were injured. According to Mumbai Police, the bombings were carried out by Lashkar-e-Toiba and Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI).

November terrorist 2008 attacks
There were a series of ten coordinated terrorist attacks by 10 armed terrorists owing allegiance to the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba using automatic weapons and grenades which began on 26 November 2008 and ended on 29 November 2008. The attacks resulted in 164 deaths, 308 injuries, and severe damage to several important buildings.
Eight of the attacks occurred in South Mumbai: at Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, The Oberoi Trident,  The Taj Mahal Palace Hotel & Tower, Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital, the Nariman House Jewish community center, the Metro Cinema, and in a lane behind The Times Of India building and St. Xavier's College. There was also an explosion at Mazagaon, in Mumbai's port area, and in a taxi at Vile Parle. By the early morning of 28 November, all sites except for the [Taj Hotel] had been secured by Mumbai Police Department and security forces. On 29 November, India's National Security Guards (NSG) conducted 'Operation Black Tornado' to flush out the remaining attackers; it culminated in the death of the last remaining attackers at the Taj Hotel and ended the attacks.
Ajmal Kasab disclosed that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, among others. The Government Of India said that the attackers came from Pakistan, and their controllers were in Pakistan. On 7 January 2009, Pakistan confirmed the sole surviving perpetrator of the attacks was a Pakistani citizen. On 9 April 2015, the foremost ringleader of the attacks, Zakiur Rehman Lakhvi, was granted bail against surety bonds of ₨200,000 (US$1,900) in Pakistan.

Anti-migrant attacks
In 2008, members of  Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS) under Raj Thackeray on attacked North Indian migrants from UP and Bihar and  SP Party Workers in Mumbai. Attacks included assault on North Indian taxi drivers and damage of their vehicles.

Natural disasters
Mumbai was lashed by torrential rains on 26–27 July 2005, during which the city was brought to a complete standstill. The city received 37 inches (940 millimeters) of rain in 24 hours — the most any Indian city has ever received in a single day. Around 83 people were killed.

References

Bibliography

History of Mumbai (1947–present)


STPD is an abbreviation for:

Police Departments
 Southold Town Police Department
 Southampton Town Police Department
Sor-Trondelag Police District, Trondheim, Norway

Other
 SCSI Pass-Through Direct
 Short ton per day
 SMK Tinggi Port Dickson (a high school in Port Dickson, Malaysia).
 Schizotypal personality disorder


Weizman Shiry (, born 5 February 1956) is an Israeli politician and a former member of the Knesset for the Labor Party.

Biography
Shiry was born in Beersheba in 1956 to parents who had made aliyah from Iraq and was named after Chaim Weizmann. He served in the Hermesh unit of the Israel Defense Forces. He then turned to business and headed several industrial companies, including a real estate company and a juice company which he purchased in 2007 for NIS 5 million.

He entered politics in 1984. His political activity included his membership in the internal institutions of the Labor Party, as well as being chairman of the party's Negev district. He was on the party's list for the 1996 legislative elections, but failed to win a seat.

In 1999, he was first elected to the Knesset and was chairman of the Joint Committee for the Defense Budget. In August 2002, he was appointed Deputy Minister of Defense, under Binyamin Ben-Eliezer, and maintained this position for three months, until the party's withdrawal from the coalition. He remained in the Knesset until the expiration of its term, in 2003. In January 2006, he re-entered the Knesset, replacing Shimon Peres, and served until the expiration of the Knesset's term in April 2006.

In April 2009, he was appointed temporary secretary-general of the Labor Party.

References

External links

1956 births
Living people
Deputy ministers of Israel
Israeli Labor Party politicians
Members of the 15th Knesset (1999–2003)
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
One Israel politicians
Politicians from Beersheba


Nathaniel Austin Brown (born November 22, 1985) is an American singer-songwriter and record producer.

Early life
Brown was born in Tarzana, California, on November 22, 1985, to Nathaniel Brown and Rebbie Jackson. He is a member of the Jackson family and only son of singer Rebbie Jackson and her late husband Nathaniel Brown. He has two older sisters, Stacee and Yashi.

Career

2005 – 2015
Austin Brown was signed to Interscope Records after a showcase for Jimmy Iovine and later signed with South Five Records. He started his career working as a Producer/Songwriter, collaborating with Tim & Bob, The Underdogs, Cory Rooney, Q-Tip, Pharrell Williams, and Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins. In 2011, Brown released his first single, "All I Need," on KIIS-FM and debuted his Highway 85 mixtape trailer at Wango Tango.

On February 14, 2012, Brown released the music video for "Menage A Trois" on Vevo, Music Choice, Centric, 106 & Park, and MTVU. Outside of the U.S., "Menage A Trois" had plays in Italy, Japan, Netherlands, and UK Radio. In the UK, "Menage A Trois" reached Number 1 for 3 weeks on UK's Bang Radio 103.6 FM.

In mid-2012 Brown started a residency at The Central performing with his band in LA, with additional shows in Las Vegas, Boston, and New York City. During this time Austin Brown performed at CSU East Bay's 'Springfest' with Miguel and Lupe Fiasco. He also had televised appearances on FOX's "Good Day New York," CNN, and the Pandora stage at SXSW. This is also when Brown joined the BET "Music Matters" program, performing on their stages in both Los Angeles and NYC.

On December 21, 2012, Idolator premiered "Highway to the Sky." Highway 85 was then picked up by Global 14, Idolator, Centric, Rap-Up, Singers Room, Ryan Seacrest's AXS Live, Huffington Post, and USA Today. Soon after, "Menage A Trois," "City of Angels," and "Highway to the Sky" were added to the KCRW Los Angeles radio rotation. Brown later performed at KCRW's School Night Concert Series at Bardot in Hollywood and a Pop-Up Shop KIISS 102.7 event with his band, followed up by additional performances throughout the year.

In 2013, Highway 85 was officially released through iTunes. During this time Austin Brown was featured in Vogue Italia and Vman fashion magazines. In June 2013, Brown continued performing live and in July he performed at the L.A. Live BET "Music Matters Experience" with Marsha Ambrosius, as well as live at the BET Awards 2013. His Pepsi "Music Matters" commercial aired the same day.

In January 2014, Austin performed at the Sundance Film Festival in Salt Lake City, Utah, for Hollywood TV. Soon after, a demo-version of "Smile" was put into rotation on KCRW by DJ Chris Douridas.

In 2015, Austin Brown played with The Roots during their annual Grammy Jam.

2016 – 2017
Austin Brown debuted his Guitar & Microphone series to sold-out audiences in Paris, France at the  in the summer of 2016. While traveling in Boston, he gave seminars at Berklee College of Music and Boston Arts Academy on Songwriting. During this time, Austin paired up with DJ Tony Touch to form CaliYork releasing "Show Up At My Place" in September 2016. He continued his live performances through 2017 with residencies at The Sayers Club (with his band The Blvck Castles) and Hotel Café (Guitar & Microphone series). He also performed at the "Live @ Sunset Marquis Concert Series" in Hollywood and acoustically at Rockwood Music Hall in NYC.

On June 2, 2017 "Smile" was officially released on iTunes through Ebro on Apple Music, Beats Radio 1.

In August, Austin was featured on Revolt TV's Revolt Sessions performing an acoustic set and then performed at the SELECT Pre-Emmy Party at the Peppermint Club in September.

In October 2017 Austin released his acoustic "Canyon Sessions" EP, available on Spotify and iTunes.

2018
Austin is credited as a Writer and Producer on Ashlee + Evan, the debut EP from the married, musical duo Ashlee Simpson and Evan Ross (aka Ashlee + Evan). He co-wrote and co-produced "I Do," "Paris," "Tonic," and "I Want You." Austin Brown makes cameos in E!'s reality television series, Ashlee + Evan, which documents the making of the EP.

Writer, Producer, and Musician on Macy Gray's album Ruby. Austin Brown is credited as a Writer of "Witness," Drums and Guitar for "When it Ends," and Musician, Vocals (Background) on "Cold World." Other musical credits on Ruby include Composer, Keyboards, Synthesizer, and Xylophone.

Philanthropy
In September 2017, Austin Brown performed "Smile," as well as Eric Clapton's "Change the World" alongside Evan Ross at the Operation Smile Gala.

Other charitable causes Austin has worked with include Red Eye, A Place Called Home, Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, Friend Movement Campaign, and After-School All-Stars.

Discography

2007
Blonde Ambition (Motion Picture Soundtrack) "Let's Make Love," Writer/Producer

 2012 JoJo – Agápé (Mixtape) "We Get By," Writer/Producer
 "Take the Canyon," Writer/Producer
 "Billions," Writer
 "Thinking Out Loud," Writer

 2013 Austin Brown – Highway 85 (Mixtape) "Highway to the Sky"
 "Menage A Trois"
 "Volcano"
 "Where Were You"
 "What Did I Lose To Love You"
 "City of Angels"
 "F'd with my Mind" (Explicit)
 "Stargazer"
 "Groove 92"
 "To Love Her"
 "All I Need" (feat. David Banner)
 "Feel It Again"House of Lies – S2E10 "Exit Strategy" (Television Soundtrack) "Highway to the Sky," Writer/Producer

 2015 JoJo – LoveJo2
 "Thinkin Out Loud," Writer/Producer

2016
Ariana Grande – Dangerous Woman
 "Leave Me Lonely," Musician

CaliYork
 "Show Up At My Place," Writer/Producer

Yonas Michael
 "Mr. Black President," Producer

2017
Austin Brown – Canyon Sessions EP
 "For the Rest of My Life"
 "Million Ways"
 "Body"
 "She's Not for You"
 "Get Away"
 "Slow Down"
 "Smile"
 "All over Mine"

Eden xo
 "Finger," Writer/Producer

Macy Gray feat. Nik West
 "Stop, Drop, Roll," Producer/Musician

Amanda Tinkler
 "Make You Wanna," Writer/Producer

2018
Ashlee + Evan – Ashlee + Evan (EP)
 "I Do," Writer/Producer
 "Paris," Writer/Producer
 "Tonic," Writer/Producer
 "I Want You," Writer/Producer

Macy Gray – Ruby
 "Witness," Writer
 "When It Ends," Drums and Guitar
 "Cold World," Vocals (Background), Musician

Yonas Michael – Love is Legal (EP)
 "Santa Barbara," Writer/Producer
 "Blue California," Writer

2021
Austin Brown – Heart Over Mind

References

External links

1985 births
Living people
21st-century American singer-songwriters
African-American male singers
African-American male singer-songwriters
American male singer-songwriters
American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent
Jackson family (show business)
People from Tarzana, Los Angeles
Singers from Los Angeles
Singer-songwriters from California


Bruguera () is a Catalan surname. It may refer to:

Editorial Bruguera, a Spanish publishing company
Josep Llimona i Bruguera (1864–1934), Catalan sculptor
Maria Pilar Bruguera Sábat (1906-1994), Spanish nun and medical doctor
Miguel Brugueras (1939-2006), Cuban politician and diplomat
Sergi Bruguera (born 1971), Spanish tennis player
Tania Bruguera (born 1968), Cuban artist

See also
 Brugnera, a comune in the Province of Pordenone, Italy
 Bruguiera, a plant genus in the family Rhizophoraceae

Catalan-language surnames


Bilateral relations exist between Armenia and Serbia. Diplomatic relations between Armenia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia were established on 14 January 1993; Serbia is the legal successor to this country. Both countries are represented through their embassies in Athens, Greece, and both have established honorary consulates, which serve as the only diplomatic representatives between the two countries.

Armenia has a dispute with Azerbaijan over the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, in which Serbia supports finding a peaceful political solution through supporting the OSCE Minsk Group and its work. Serbia has a dispute with Kosovo over its recognition as a sovereign state, where Armenia's asserted position has been not to recognize Kosovo's independence. Both countries are members of the United Nations, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

History

Saint Sava, a member of the medieval Nemanjić dynasty and founder of the Serbian Orthodox Church, visited a number of Armenian monasteries in the early 13th century. There, he met with Armenian clergy and asked them to pray for certain Serbs whom he mentioned by name. Serbian writer Miloš Crnjanski wrote that Sava was impressed with the mastery of local builders and invited them to build churches in Serbia.

One of the earliest traces of Armenians in Serbia can be found at a monastery in the village of Vitovnica, near Petrovac. The monastery contains a marble slab with a bilingual inscription carved in both Church Slavonic and Armenian; the inscription dates back to 1218 C.E. It was written by an Armenian—Ladon, Son of Babug—who built a church that was probably located in the nearby village of Ranovac. According to legend, Armenian warriors in the service of the Ottoman Empire constructed the Jermenčić monastery (lit. "Little Armenian" monastery) near Sokobanja shortly after the Battle of Kosovo in June 1389. It is said that they defected to the Serbs after discovering that they would be fighting their fellow Christians, fought against the Ottomans, retreated to the mountains around Sokobanja after the Serb defeat and built their monastery there. The monastery was razed several times by the Ottomans. Saint Gregory the Illuminator, the first official head of the Armenian Apostolic Church, was depicted in churches of medieval Serbia, and he is still venerated by the Serbian Orthodox Church.

The earliest works of 19th-century Serbian language reformer Vuk Stefanović Karadžić were published in Vienna by a printing house of Armenian Mechitarists. The Mechitarists also published the works of other Serb authors. In total, they printed 37 books and brochures, including The Mountain Wreath by Montenegrin Prince-Bishop Petar II Petrović-Njegoš. A khachkar (Armenian cross-stone),  high and made of volcanic rock, stands at the entrance of the Church of the Archangel Gabriel in the Belgrade municipality of Zemun. The monument was erected in 1993, and it commemorates the Serbian pilots who perished in a plane crash in 1988 while transporting humanitarian aid to Armenia after the country was struck by a catastrophic earthquake.

A colony of Armenian immigrants in Serbia existed in the 17th century. There is also the Armenian cemetery and the old fortress of Kalemegdan at the Danube river, which once was a border between the Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottomans conquered Belgrade, they destroyed the city's Armenian and Jewish cemeteries. Today, only one Armenian tombstone remains, along with an inscription in Serbian which mentions the existence of an Armenian cemetery until the 17th century. A 1709 census shows that Armenians from Belgrade were wealthy and enjoyed a good standing in their community.

Another colony of Armenian immigrants was formed in the 20th century during and after the Armenian genocide. The persecuted Armenians settled in towns such as Belgrade, Vrnjačka Banja, Kruševac, Mladenovac, Zaječar, Negotin, Knjaževac, and Aleksinac. The number of Armenians that arrived in Serbia during this period remains unknown. In the mid-1930s, Armenians in Belgrade founded the Alliance of Armenians of Yugoslavia and established their headquarters in a building that came to be known as the Armenian House (), which was razed at the end of the 1990s. The third wave of Armenian immigrants arrived in the early 1990s. Nearly all of these were wives of Serbs who had come to Armenia looking for work after the 1988 earthquake. According to publicist and diplomat Babken Simonyan, there were around 200 Armenians living in Serbia in 2010, three-quarters of whom lived in Belgrade. A significant Armenian population can be found in Vrnjačka Banja and Novi Sad. The city of Valjevo also has a small Armenian population. Most of Valjevo's Armenians immigrated to Serbia from the Kemah region, seeking employment. The community affairs of Valjevo's Armenians are run through the Armenka organization.

Armenian genocide

Since both Serbs and Armenians are commonly Christians, the genocide is widely known among Serbs. The genocide is studied and there has been a number of proposals over the genocide. However, Serbian Government has yet to recognize, due to dependence on investments from Turkey to develop the country and has rejected a bill to recognize it, owning a pragmatic approach.

While Serbia is yet to recognize the Armenian genocide, many members of Serbian Government paid tribute to victims of Armenian genocide. Serbian President Tomislav Nikolić has urged to recognize the genocide. Recognition of Armenian genocide, unofficially, is often referred with a sense of exotic brotherhood, which Serbs consider Armenians as their brothers and sisters in one similar cause.

Representation

Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Serbia were established on 14 January 1993. Neither country has a resident ambassador. In 2014, Armenia's Foreign Minister Eduard Nalbandyan and Serbia's Foreign Minister Ivica Dačić announced that Serbia would open an embassy in Yerevan. The Armenian and Serbian embassies in Athens, Greece are responsible for relations between the two countries. Armenia's embassy is headed by Gagik Ghalachian, who presented his credentials to Serbia's President Boris Tadić on 17 February 2011, while Serbia's embassy is headed by Dragan Županjevac who presented his credentials to Armenia's President Serzh Sargsyan on 27 July 2009. On 25 January 2007, Serbia named Babken Simonyan its honorary consul to Armenia, while Armenia named Predrag Tomić its honorary consul in Serbia.

Agreements

Six agreements of mutual cooperation had been signed between the countries.

Trade and economic cooperation

Armenia's membership in the Eurasian Customs Union (ECU) enabled free trade between Armenia and Serbia, as Serbia has made such agreement with the ECU. Even before Armenia's joining the ECU, Armenia's economy minister Vahram Avanesyan announced a possibility to sign such agreement with Serbia in March 2014.

Armenia's export to Serbia includes scrap metals and mechanical equipment, while Serbia's export to Armenia includes food. Trade turnover between the countries grew four times in 2013 compared to 2012, to $8.2 million. In 2013, Armenia's main exporting articles were mining materials, copper, clothing, used furniture and parts thereof, while Serbia's main exporting articles were medicine, machinery, agricultural harvesting, pressing, tights and socks. Serbia's Foreign Minister Ivan Mrkić said in March 2014 that agriculture, water management, chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical industries, as well as tourism, were the sectors that offered best prospects for cooperation. The trade exchange between Armenia and Serbia remains small, while both countries have promised to expand their mutual trade.

The first Armenian-Serbian Business Forum was held in Yerevan in March 2014, which was opened during the visit of Serbia's Foreign Minister Ivan Mrkić.

Visa regime

In October 2014, Armenian Foreign Minister Eduard Nalbandyan and Serbian Foreign Minister Ivica Dačić announced an initiative to abolish visas for all citizens of Armenia and Serbia. In February 2015, the Government of Armenia upheld the signing of an agreement with Serbia to abolish entry visa requirements for individual with non-diplomatic passports. Armenia's government justified its decision by saying that "after the signing of the visa regime facilitation agreement with the European Union, the abolition of visa requirements between Armenia and Serbia may become an additional impetus for development of relations between the two countries." The government said that "the agreement is aimed at strengthening economic, humanitarian and cultural ties between the two countries and also at developing tourism".

Armenia's position on Kosovo

The question of Kosovo's sovereignty is one of the most important political issues in Serbia. Armenia does not recognise Kosovo as an independent country, but its views on the dispute have largely been influenced by its interest in securing the independence of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic from neighbouring Azerbaijan. While Baku stresses that the Nagorno-Karabakh is part of Azerbaijan, Armenia holds that the largely Armenian region should be independent in line with the principles of self-determination.

Former National Security Minister and chief Karabakh negotiator David Shahnazarian argued that even if Kosovo achieved its independence, it would not set a precedent for Nagorno-Karabakh because Armenia isn't democratic. He criticised the policy of the Western countries for "bypassing the norms they defended for 50 years", and said that Armenia's only possibility is nothing but to take this into account when formulating foreign policy. Armenia's former president, Serzh Sargsyan, has expressed that Armenia can not recognise Kosovo as long as it does not recognise the independence of the Republic of Artsakh, and that this is the only reason why Armenia would not recognise Kosovo's independence. In March 2008, Sargsyan said that Armenia had always supported a people's right to self-determination and stated that Armenia welcomed Kosovo's independence. He called for serious discussions regarding Kosovo and said that Armenia's recognition of Kosovo wouldn't harm the relations between Armenia and Russia.

In September 2010, Kosovo's Foreign Minister Skënder Hyseni met with Nalbandyan in New York City and asked for Armenia's recognition of Kosovo. At the meeting, Nalbandyan said that the principle of self-determination must not be subordinated to any other principle. He failed to announce Armenia's recognition for Kosovo, and only said that Armenia would maintain "useful" connections. The Armenian leadership has encountered great domestic opposition regarding their views on Kosovo. The largely pro-Serb Armenian population fears that by recognizing Kosovo, Armenia would be putting its strategic partnership with Russia at stake. During his visit to Serbia in 2011, Sargsyan said that Armenia would not change its attitude towards Kosovo and that it would never make any decision regarding Kosovo that was contrary to the interests of Serbia. In 2014, Nalbandyan stated that Armenia supports talks between Serbia and Kosovo so that a mutually acceptable solution could be found.

Serbia's position on Nagorno-Karabakh

In March 2008, Serbia was among the countries that voted in favour of Resolution 62/243 at the United Nations General Assembly. The resolution dealt with the status of Nagorno-Karabakh, reaffirmed "continued respect and support for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Azerbaijan within its internationally recognized borders", demanded the "immediate, complete and unconditional withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all the occupied territories [of Azerbaijan]" and emphasized that "no state shall render aid or assistance" to maintain the occupation of Azerbaijani territories.

During a visit to Baku, then-president Tadić said that Serbia supports Azerbaijan's territorial integrity and its position on the resolution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. In October 2014, Dačić told Nalbandyan that Serbia would support the OSCE Minsk Group and its work in order to "preserve peace and bring a political solution to the problem". On a visit to Baku two months later, Dačić stated that Serbia insists both on the peaceful resolution of the conflict and on the withdrawal of Armenian armed forces from Nagorno-Karabakh. For both, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the position of Serbia on the Nagorno-Karabakh issue is important as on 1 January 2015 Serbia assumed the chairmanship of the OSCE, which guides negotiations on Karabakh via the Minsk Group process. In an interview from October 2014, Serbian President Tomislav Nikolić said that during its chairmanship over the OSCE, Serbia will insist on Madrid principles and support efforts of the Minsk Group "with full respect for international law and territorial integrity".

High level visits

Resident diplomatic missions
 Armenia is accredited to Serbia from its embassy in Athens, Greece.
 Serbia has an embassy in Yerevan.

See also
 Foreign relations of Armenia
 Foreign relations of Serbia
 Armenians in Serbia

Notes

References
Books

Journals

News reports

Other sources

Serbia
Armenia


John Hoerr (December 12, 1930 – June 21, 2015) was an American journalist and historian best known for his work on organized labor, industry, and politics.

He began a journalistic career in 1956 with United Press International in Newark, New Jersey and Trenton. Later he worked at The Daily Tribune in Royal Oak, Michigan, rejoined UPI for two years in Chicago, and served separate stints with Business Week, in Detroit and Pittsburgh, specializing as a labor reporter on the automobile, steel, and coal-mining industries. After five years as an on-air reporter and documentary producer at WQED, the PBS station in Pittsburgh, he returned to Business Week in 1975 as labor editor and later senior writer on the New York staff. Based upon his experience in reporting on national labor issues, in 1988 he published And the Wolf Finally Came, a book describing problems in both labor and management perceptions that contributed to the decline of the US steel industry in production and importance in the world economy. After leaving Business Week in 1991, he published two nonfiction books and one novel.

He was born in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, a steelmaking town in the Monongahela River Valley south of Pittsburgh. He graduated from McKeesport Area High School (1948) and Penn State University (1953). During college he worked short stints in the steel works at McKeesport. Hoerr served in the U.S. Army 1953-1955 and was stationed in France. After living for more than three decades in Teaneck, New Jersey, he moved to Middleborough, Massachusetts in 2009.

Books
 And the Wolf Finally Came: The Decline of the American Steel Industry, nonfiction (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988).
 We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard, nonfiction (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997).
 Harry, Tom and Father Rice: Accusation and Betrayal in America's Cold War, nonfiction (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005).
 Monongahela Dusk, novel (Pittsburgh: Autumn House Press, 2009).

References

Sources
Contemporary Authors Online. The Gale Group, 2008.

External links
 Author website

1930 births
2015 deaths
Pennsylvania State University alumni
Writers from Pittsburgh
People from McKeesport, Pennsylvania
People from Middleborough, Massachusetts
People from Teaneck, New Jersey


Helicoverpa punctigera, the native budworm, Australian bollworm or Chloridea marmada, is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. This species is native to Australia. H. punctigera are capable of long-distance migration from their inland Australian habitat towards coastal regions and are an occasional migrant to New Zealand.

This species is a generalist, with larvae observed feeding on at least 100 plant species, and are considered a pest for tobacco, flax, peas, sunflower, cotton, maize, tomatoes and other crops. Outside of agricultural settings, primary host plants include some Australian native daisies, in particular flat billy buttons Leiocarpa brevicompta, annual yellow tops Senecio gregorii, poached egg daisy Polycamma stuartii, and also the native legume Cullen cinereum.Helicoverpa punctigera is often compared to its cousin species H. armigera who unlike H. punctigera has developed resistance to certain insecticides and other genetically modified cotton crops. The two species can occasionally be confused with one another as they look similar. However, the two species can be differentiated by characteristic differences in their hindwings. H. punctigera is often confused with two other moth species of the family Noctuidae – the Armyworm Moth (Mythimna unipuncta) and the Looper Moth  due to the medium-sized nature of the three species.

Taxonomy

Helicoverpa punctigera was first described in 1860 by Wallengren. The subject of classification has changed over the years. Originally classified into the Heliothis genus, this moth species was later re-classified into the Helicoverpa genus. The earliest record of H. punctigera in South Australia was in 1910 when it was referred to as “Grubby Tomatoes”.

Description

Eggs

Helicoverpa punctigera egg are spherical in shape and  in diameter. While its colours vary based on the stage of larval development. While originally white, the eggs will change to brown and finally black just before hatching.

Larvae

Newly hatched larvae are observed to be  in length and will grow up to  in length. Observed to be various shades of brown, green and orange, the larvae's colour darkens as it matures and the dark spots on it become more apparent. The H. punctigera larva's body is covered in small bumps, long stiff back hairs and bristles that cover its body and there are black hairs around the head.

Pupae

Helicoverpa punctigera pupae range from dark brown to shiny brown in colour.

Adult

Compared to other moths, the adult H. punctigera is average in size, having a wingspan of . While the male H. punctigera generally have dull green or yellow forewings, the female H. punctigera have brown or reddish-brown forewings. The adult H. punctigera strongly resembles the adult H. armigera except for its hindwing pattern: H. punctigera have a uniformly dark section in the hindwing, whereas H. armigera have a small pale patch here.

Life Cycle

Eggs

H. punctigera eggs observe four stages in their development. The stages can be identified based on the colour of the egg. Freshly laid eggs are white and over time.  In warmer climates, the eggs take approximately three days to hatch, while in colder climates, they take between six and ten days to hatch.

Larvae

H. punctigera larvae pass through six stages of growth before reaching the pupa stage. With a warmer temperature, they will reach the final stage within two to three weeks, while under colder temperature, they take about four to six weeks. The caterpillars have been shown experimentally to distinguish between host plant species when moving across the ground, and readily move between nearby plants.

Pupae

Prepupae larvae (larvae after the 6th growth stage) tunnel up to  under the soil to the base of the plant. The pupal chamber constructed will allow the H. punctigera to resurface when in adult stage. The pupal tunnels constructed are smoothed, well-packed soil with a thin layer of silk. The prepupae larvae avoid selecting soil locations where the temperature is higher than 38 degrees and have compacted soil.  The emergence of the adult is highly favoured by dry conditions. Rain and other external conditions that might collapse the tunnel reduces the survival rate of the adult H. punctigera due to the disruption of emergence.

The pupation process relies on the external temperature. In warmer temperatures, the pupation process takes approximately two weeks. While in colder temperatures, up to six weeks. During colder seasons, 70% to 90% of the pupae enter diapause. Pupae Diapause is the process in which the pupae development to the adult stage is suspended due to inhibiting or unfavourable environmental conditions.

Adult
The adult Helicoverpa punctigera moth feeds on nectar after emerging from the pupae. Their adult lifespan is limited to ten days where they mate and lay their eggs before dying. The female typically lay their eggs either in clusters or singly on various developing fruit and flower buds. Each adult female lays approximately 1000 eggs during its lifecycle. Adult Helicoverpa punctigera moths typically live between two and four weeks. As they are nocturnal, they rest during the day and are active at night

Reproduction
Belonging to the insecta class of animals, the H. punctigera follows an oviposition behaviour where it expulses its eggs by a vertebrate. Oviposition is the expulsion of eggs from the female insecta's oviduct to an external environment. While the Oviposition behaviour is unrelated to the feeding habits of the female H. punctigera, the female H. punctigera tends to lay its eggs in areas with more flowering crops than in other areas. This is mainly due to the female H. punctigera feeding habits as the food chain is crucial in the reproductive cycle of the H. punctigera. Any factors affecting the food supply during their reproduction period (usually in summer) would determine the reproductive potential of the H. punctigera specials.  Despite the H. punctigera feeding habits however, the female H. punctigera is able to lay its eggs anywhere and at any time of day.

The selection of area is also crucial to the survival of the eggs and larvae of the H. punctigera. Selecting an area in the open will lead to the eggs and larvae being susceptible to various predatory insects and animals. Furthermore, selecting an area without sufficient food would mean that the larvae would not have enough to feed on as well.

Migration

Helicoverpa punctigera is capable of long-range migration at high altitudes () over host crops () in addition to entire regions (). With long-distance flight being possible for the H. punctigera, their habitats are generally observed to be temporary once the H. punctigera reaches the adult stage of the life cycle. It is noted that the H. punctigera are found in abundance in the far inland and around the coast of Australia during the summer period. This is heavily due to the climate being favourable for the reproduction in summer.

 there was research regarding the migration of the H. punctigera, but it was difficult to test for the back-migration of H. punctigera. That was primarily due to there being a gradual migration of the population and there being no appropriate markers to track individual H. punctigera.  tracking had been greatly improved by advances in radar, population genetics markers, and dispersal modeling.

Ecology

Mutualism

As a member of the Noctuidae family, H. punctigera plays a part in the pollination process of plants.

Food Guilds

H. punctigera particularly feed on high value crops such as cotton, soybean, maize, and tomato and various other horticultural hosts.

In the early larvae stages, the H. punctigera feed on seeds and damage plant pods while in the mid to late stages of development, the larger H. punctigera larvae is able to consume entire plant pods and their contents.

Defence

When disturbed, the H. punctigera lifts its head and curls it below the front of itself.  If disturbed further, it lets go of the leaf it resides on and drops while curling itself up into a spiral shape.

Economics

Agricultural Impact
While in the larvae stage, H. punctigera cause farmers to lose millions of dollars’ worth of crops due to their polyphagous eating habits. They prefer eating mostly broadleaf species of plants such as cotton, chickpea and various native herbs in addition to a broad selection of other various pastures. The further the H. punctigera larvae is in the growth stage, the more the larvae consumes. When in the 5th and 6th instars, the H. punctigera larvae consumes 90% of the grain consumption the H. punctigera consumes in its life cycle.

When the H. punctigera consumes crops, chewing damage and holes can be observed on the plant pods and seed heads.

Pest Control Measures

Pheromone traps
Various pest control measures have been implemented. Including the use of pheromone traps. Pheromone traps use synthetic pheromone lures (similar to the sex pheromones that females emit while mating) to lure the male punctigera into the trap. In addition to trapping the adult H. punctigera, pheromone traps are often used to monitor the activity of and predict the infestation rate of H. punctigera and other moths.

Genetically Modified Crops

Unlike the closely related H. armigera, H. punctigera has not developed any resistance to majority of the chemical control measures created. Genetically modified Cotton plants such as the Bollgard II®   and the Bollarrd 3® are genetically modified plants that are used to deal with the H. punctigera larvae. These genetically modified plants produce their own Bacillus thuringiensis toxin that are toxic to the H. punctigera larvae.

Insecticides

Research has shown that at the different instar (stages of development) stages of the H. punctigera, various insecticides have different levels of effectiveness with significant differences being observed through the various instar stages. (Source) Endosulfan used to be one of the components used in H. punctigera insecticides before its ban in 2011.  In addition to chemical pesticides, various Biopesticides have been created to manage H. punctigera in vegetation and field crops.

A particularly effective biopesticide is nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV) which is a disease that will attack the H. punctigera larvae. While larger doses and more time is required to kill the larvae at the later instar stages, the NPV biopesticide typically kills the larvae between 4 and 7 days. The climate in which this it is used impacts the time taken for NPV to be take effect. Where in cooler climates, it can take up to 10 days to kill the H. punctigera larvae.

Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens

Spiders and Predatory insects including various species of ants, predatory beetles, predatory bugs and lacewings often feed on the H. punctigera genus of moth.  While a proportion of the H. punctigera predators do not specifically prey on the H. punctigera, certain predators’ prey on specific life stages of the H. punctigera (e.g., larvae).

Various parasitoids attack the H. punctigera at various life stages. These parasitoids slowly kill their host by feeding off its nutrients effectively slowing the rate of larvae feeding resulting in lower rate of crop damage. Parasitoids that attack the H. punctigera include the Trichogramma and Ichneumon genera of wasps and Cacelia genus of flies.

Wasp Parasitoids spread ascovirus to larvae staged H. punctigera stunning their growth.  Other natural occurring diseases that kill the Helicoverpa larvae include fungal pathogens, Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV) and Bacillus thuringiensis which creates proteins that are toxic to the larvae when consumed. Some genetically modified bacterial pathogens are used in commercial biopesticides. A popularly used pathogen is Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) which mainly kills larval Lepidopterans when consumed. It is used in pesticides and when genetically modifying cotton plants.

References

External links

Native Budworm on OZanimals

punctigera
Agricultural pest insects
Endemic fauna of Australia
Moths of New Zealand
Moths of Australia