The six string quartets Op. 20 by Joseph Haydn are among the works that earned Haydn the sobriquet "the father of the string quartet". The quartets are considered a milestone in the history of composition; in them, Haydn develops compositional techniques that were to define the medium for the next 200 years.

The quartets were composed in 1772 at a time of tensions in Haydn's life, and also when Haydn was influenced by new philosophical and political ideas sweeping Europe. Some analysts see the impact of these emotions and ideas on the quartets.

The quartets

The set of quartets, along with their incipits are shown below in order of Haydn's own catalog [].

No. 1 in E major

No. 2 in C major

No. 3 in G minor

No. 4 in D major

No. 5 in F minor

No. 6 in A major

Composition

Haydn was 40 years old when he composed the opus 20 quartets and was already well-established as one of the leading composers of Europe. He was Kapellmeister to the Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, a great lover of music. Haydn presided over the busy musical life of the court, producing operas, oratorios, and symphonic and chamber concerts, and writing a steady stream of new music for the prince's amusement.

Nikolaus had eight years prior to this date built the Eszterháza palace southeast of Vienna (in Hungary), where the court resided for most of the year. While the palace itself was one of the most splendid in Austria, and was dubbed the "Hungarian Versailles", it was built over a large swamp; it was humid throughout the year, with a "vexatious, penetrating north wind" from which Haydn and the other musicians in the court suffered. Moreover, it was far from Vienna, and the musicians (Haydn, as Kapellmeister, excepted) had to leave their wives and families behind for many months. Consequently, there was much discontent among the musicians, and Haydn, like the others, suffered from bouts of depression and illness.

This atmosphere found its expression in the opus 20 quartets. "The designation affettuoso found twice in the directions for the tempo of slow movements can be applied to the whole opus", writes Geiringer. Haydn chooses minor keys for two of the quartets, unusual in a time where the minor was rarely used for this ensemble. In particular, the fifth quartet is in the unusual key of F minor, "a key that predisposes even Haydn to sombre thoughts", writes Cobbett.

But the sodden air of Eszterháza was not the only influence on the emotional character of the quartets. It was a time of ferment: new ideas that were to spur the Romantic movement in another 30 years were taking root. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau expounded a philosophy of human freedom and a return to nature. Poets Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller espoused the new Sturm und Drang movement, that "exalted nature, feeling, and human individualism and sought to overthrow the Enlightenment cult of Rationalism". For Haydn, this meant the rejection of the galante style, the courtly, simplified, somewhat slender musical style prevalent at the time.

Analysts trace specific musical choices in the Opus 20 quartets to these new ideas. For example, the minuet movement of the D major quartet (number 4) is replaced by a frenetic gypsy air titled "alla zingarese", full of offbeat rhythms. "Rousseau's 'back to nature' movement resulted in a general reawakening of interest in national folk music. Haydn showed himself in complete sympathy with this tendency", writes Geiringer. Three of the six quartets have fugues as finales. Counterpoint, the densely complex style of the Baroque, had fallen out of favor with the galante composers. "To emphasize his rejection of rococo lightness, Haydn reverted to Baroque features", writes Geiringer.

The opus 20 quartets were the third set of quartets Haydn wrote at Eszterháza. His dedication to the string quartet form is something of a mystery; there is no record of a string quartet concert performed at the palace during this period. The set became known as the "Sun" quartets, because of the picture of a rising sun that graced the cover of an early edition The first known publication of the quartets was in 1774 by Louis-Balthazar de La Chevardière in Paris and later (undated, probably in the 1780s or 1790s) by Artaria in Vienna. The most commonly used Urtext edition is by Eulenburg, published in the 1880s.

Opus 20 and the development of the string quartet

Assessment by music historians
When Haydn published his opus 33 quartets, ten years after the opus 20, he wrote that they were composed in "an entirely new and particular manner". But, if the opus 33 was the culmination of a process, opus 20 was the proving ground. In this set of quartets, Haydn defined the nature of the string quartet – the special interplay of instruments that Goethe called "four rational people conversing". Many of the compositional techniques used by composers of string quartets to the present day were tried out and perfected in these works.

"This cannot be overstated", writes Ron Drummond; "the six string quartets of Opus 20 are as important in the history of music, and had as radically a transforming effect on the very field of musical possibility itself, as Beethoven's Third Symphony would 33 years later". And Sir Donald Tovey writes of the quartets, "Every page of the six quartets of Op. 20 is of historic and aesthetic importance... there is perhaps no single or sextuple opus in the history of instrumental music which has achieved so much".

The musicologist Roger Hickman has demurred from this consensus view. He notes a change in string quartet writing towards the end of the 1760s, featuring characteristics which are to day thought of as essential to the genre - scoring for two violins, viola and cello, solo passages, and absence of actual or potential basso continuo accompaniment.  Noting that at this time other composers were writing works conforming to these 'modern' criteria, and that Haydn's earlier quartets did not meet them, he suggests that "one casualty [of such a perspective] is the notion that Haydn "invented" the string quartet...Although he may still be considered the "father" of the "Classical" string quartet, he is not the creator of the string quartet genre itself...This old and otiose myth not only misrepresents the achievements of other excellent composers, but also distorts the character and qualities of Haydn's opp. 1, 2 and 9".

The musicologist Cliff Eisen contextualizes the op. 20 quartets as follows: "Haydn's quartets of the late 1760s and early 1770s [opp. 9, 17 and 20] are high points in the early history of the quartet. Characterized by a wide range of textures, frequent assymetries and theatrical gestures...these quartets established the genre's four-movement form, its larger dimensions, and ...its greater aesthetic pretensions and expressive range."

Some of the innovations of Haydn's op. 20 quartets, as stated by Tovey and others, are as follows:

Equality of voices

Prior to opus 20, the first violin, or, sometimes, the two violins, dominated the quartet. The melody was carried by the leader, with the lower voices (viola and cello) accompanying. In opus 20, Haydn gives each instrument, and particularly the cello, its own voice. An outstanding example of this is the second quartet in C major. The quartet opens with a cello solo, accompanied by the viola and second violin. This was virtually unheard of in Haydn's time. Another example is in the slow movement of the fourth quartet, in D major. This movement is a set of variations, written in D minor; the first variation is a duet between viola and second violin, and the third variation is a solo for cello.

Structural innovations
With the opus 20 quartets, Haydn moved forward the development of the sonata form. A movement written in sonata form has an exposition, where the themes and motifs of the movement are presented; a development section, where these themes are transformed; and a recapitulation, where the themes are restated. Traditionally, the restatement closely matched the original exposition. But Haydn, in opus 20, uses the restatement to further develop the material of the movement. For example, in the F minor quartet, Haydn embellishes the original theme, and rearranges the original material, adding to the musical tension as the movement moves to the coda. In the G minor quartet, the recapitulation is hardly a recapitulation at all; while all the original materials are included, they are rearranged and transformed.

There are other structural innovations in opus 20. Haydn develops the idea of "false reprise". In the fourth quartet, in D major, for example, Haydn sneaks into the recapitulation of the first movement, treating it dramatically as though it is a continuation of the development. Haydn also experiments with cyclical structure: the reuse of thematic and rhythmic materials in different movements, to give an overall unity to the piece.

Depth of expression
Haydn experiments with expressive techniques in the quartets. An example of this is the G minor quartet, where Haydn defies the standard practice of ending each movement with a cadence played forte. Instead, Haydn ends each movement piano or pianissimo. Another example is the F minor quartet; this quartet, writes Tovey, "is the most nearly tragic work Haydn ever wrote; its first movement being of astonishing depth of thought".

Length and symmetry of phrases
Haydn experiments with asymmetrical phrases and syncopations. The common practice of the time was to write melodies that divided neatly into four- and eight-measure chunks. But the opening phrase of the third quartet, in G minor, is seven measures long, and the minuet of the same quartet has a melody that is divided into two phrases of five measures each.

Indeed, in opus 20, most of the minuet movements are minuets in name only. The minuet was a court dance, through-choreographed, built of four groups of four measures in  time. The minuets of opus 20, with the exception of numbers 1 and 6, would be impossible to dance to, as they do not have this formal structure. The minuet of the second quartet in C major is built of tied suspensions in the first violin, viola and cello, so that the listener loses all sense of downbeat. The fourth quartet has the off-beat alla zingarese movement. The minuet of the fifth quartet has a first section of 18 measures, divided asymmetrically. So far did Haydn stray from the formal minuet dance structure, that in his next set of quartets, opus 33, he did not call them minuets at all, but rather scherzos.

Use of counterpoint
The fugal finales of three of the six quartets are Haydn's statement of rejection of the galante. Not only has Haydn rejected the freedom of the rococo style, he has emphasized that rejection by adhering to strict formality and writing comments into the score explaining the fugal structure. "Al rovescio" he writes at one point in the last movement of quartet number two, where the fugal melody is played in inversion. "In canone" he writes in the finale of number 5. The finale of number six is a "Fuga a 3 Soggetti" (a fugue with three fugal subjects).

The fugal finales are not mere formalism, however; Haydn clothes them in a dramatic structure suitable for the Sturm und Drang. All three movements start out sotto voce; as the fugue develops formally, the tension mounts, but Haydn does not increase the volume, until a sudden, startling burst of forte. "Haydn has, in the quartets of opus 20, a hint of the emotional and dramatic impulse which became so volcanic in Beethoven's fugues", writes Donald Tovey.

Haydn's fugal finales are not the only use of counterpoint in these quartets. Haydn revives Baroque compositional techniques in other movements as well. The opening of the second quartet is essentially contrapuntal, with the viola and the second violins playing countersubjects to the cello's principal melodic line. Haydn also uses more obscure techniques; in the adagio movement of the fifth quartet, for example, he writes at one point "per figuram retardationis", meaning that the melodic line in the first violin lags behind the harmonic changes in the accompaniment. "Enormous importance lies in these fugues", writes Tovey. "Besides achieving in themselves the violent reconquest of the ancient kingdom of polyphony for the string quartet, they effectively establish fugue texture from henceforth as a normal resource of sonata style".

Structure of the quartets

No. 1 in E major

While the first movement is in straightforward sonata-allegro form, Haydn nonetheless breaks with the standard quartet model of the period. The second theme of the exposition is presented by the cello, rather than the violin, playing in a high register above the viola accompaniment. Haydn also disguises the return to the recapitulation after the development section of the movement: after only three bars of development, Haydn returns to the theme in the tonic, suggesting the beginning of the recapitulation; but instead, deviates into a series of transpositions, finally sneaking back to the main theme when least expected. Haydn uses this trick of a pretended recapitulation in other opus 20 quartets.

The second movement is a minuet, one of two from the set that follow all the rules of the traditional dance (the other is the minuet of number 6). The third movement is marked "Affettuoso e sostenuto", written in A major as an aria, with the first violin carrying the melody throughout. The finale, marked presto, is built on a six-measure phrase, with extensive use of syncopations in the first violin. In the middle of the movement there is an extended passage where the first violin plays syncopations and the other instruments are playing on the second beat of the  bar; no one plays on the downbeat, and toward the end of the passage the listener loses track of the meter, until the main theme returns.

No. 2 in C major
In this quartet, Haydn develops the equal interplay between the instruments, the quartet conversation. The first movement opens with a cello solo, playing above the accompanying instruments. In the course of the movement every instrument gets to play the solo – even the viola, who, "besides having a vote in the parliament of four... for once [is heard by Haydn] as he hears the cantabile of the 'cello", writes Tovey. The movement is markedly chromatic; the development ranges from C major, to A major, dipping into D major, A minor, F major, and even A major.
The second movement opens with a bold unisono, then the cello states the theme. It is an emotionally charged movement, with dramatic shifts from pianissimo to forte, mixed with cantabile passages with a sextuplet accompaniment in the viola.

The minuet, like others in the set, defies choreography. In the opening section, all the instruments are tied across the barline, so the sense of downbeat dissipates. The effect recalls the sound of a musette de cour, or other type of bagpipe. This movement, too, is very chromatic, with the melody of the second section built on a descending chromatic scale in the first violin.

The finale is a fugue with four subjects. Haydn marks the opening sempre sotto voce. The fugue ripples along in an undertone, through various learned fugal maneuvers – a stretto, al rovescio. The texture gradually thins so that only two voices are playing at once, when suddenly the fugue bursts into forte and cascades of sixteenth notes lead to the close of the quartet. In the autograph edition, Haydn wrote over this passage, "Laus. Omnip. Deo. Sic fugit amicus amicum" (Praise the Lord. Thus one friend flees another friend).

No. 3 in G minor
"This quartet is among the more enigmatic pieces in the repertory", writes William Drabkin. "Indeed, the work is in so many respects unusual that it seems in places to defy interpretation".

The enigma begins with the opening theme of the first movement: built of two phrases of seven measures each, it defies the galante practice of carefully balanced four- and eight-measure phrases. It is almost as if Haydn was wagging his tongue at his contemporaries, violating accepted shibboleths of composition. "Haydn's compositional freedom seems often defiantly at odds with what textbooks have to say", writes Drabkin. For example, Haydn inserts brief unisono passages in the major key, as a kind of exclamation mark; but, where such passages would normally be played forte, he has marked them piano for a surprisingly different effect.

Haydn continues the odd phrase structure in the minuet, which is built of five-measure units. Aside from its undanceable meter, the minuet is a sombre work, emphatically minor in character. The trio section of the minuet offers a brief respite with a first strain in E major; but the second strain returns to the minor, modulating down through several minor keys. The trio ends with a plagal cadence to G major, for a Baroque-like Picardy third conclusion; but then the minuet recapitulates in G minor. The move from G major back to G minor is so jolting that Drabkin speculates that the trio might possibly have been borrowed from another piece.

The third movement, marked Poco Adagio, is a long cantabile aria in G major, dominated by the first violin and the cello. After the first violin states the theme, the cello takes over with a long rippling line of sixteenth notes. The movement includes a haunting viola solo, unusual in Haydn's quartets, and in quartet writing from that period in general.

The finale is marked Allegro molto. Here, too, Haydn continues to defy accepted practice. Here Haydn makes dramatic use of silence; the opening four-bar theme breaks off suddenly for a half-measure pause. Such pauses recur throughout the movement, giving the movement "a mildly disruptive effect", according to Drabkin. In this movement, Haydn also makes a number of surprising harmonic progressions. He ends the piece in G major, surprisingly, with a descent from piano to pianissimo.

No. 4 in D major
If the third quartet of the set is the most obscure and difficult to understand, the fourth is the most popular. "... The D major quartet, opus 20 number 4, has met with more public recognition than the other five", writes Tovey.

The quartet opens with a quiet, almost hymn-like statement of the theme. Suddenly there is a burst of arpeggio in the first violin, lapsing immediately back to the quiet of the first motive. The juxtaposition of calm and vigor continues through the exposition, to the statement of the second theme, and a short codetta leading to the development. In the development section, Haydn repeatedly offers false reprises: After a section of development, he presents a dominant arpeggio leading back to the first theme. But this is not the reprise, the development goes on. Haydn does this again, and yet again, then sneaks back into the real reprise in a way that the listener does not notice. The movement ends, like several others of the opus 20, in pianissimo.

The second movement, a set of variations in D minor, is one of Haydn's most profound, a rejection of the shallowness of the galante. "The poignant second movement Adagio moves the string quartet even farther from the concept of courtly entertainment", writes Miller. "In this wonderful movement, we have something of three centuries: the seventeenth century Baroque, the eighteenth century Classical, and the nineteenth century Romantic. Haydn's genius encompasses it all". The movement is distinguished by the concertante writing for each of the instruments: the second violin and viola in the first variation, the cello in the second variation, and the first violin in the third variation.

In the third movement, the Allegretto alla zingarese, the upper and lower voices play complex, interlocking cross-rhythms, confusing all sense of downbeat. Although the meter is in , the pulse is in two, with the strong beats of the upper voices alternating with the strong beats of the lower voices. The trio section of the movement is a cello solo, marching in perfectly regular  time, "the perfect foil to the Menuet alla zingarese".

The fourth movement continues the gypsy style of the third movement. Chromatic melodies, octave leaps, use of the gypsy scale (a minor scale with raised fourth and raised seventh), and flashy virtuoso embellishments in the first violin make this movement "sheer fun for the listener and likewise for the players", writes Miller. The movement ends in pianissimo, "an ending that simply evaporates".

No. 5 in F minor
This is the most emotionally intense of the opus 20 quartets. In the opening phrase, the violin sets the tone with a haunting melody. "Haydn, we might imagine, set out to test the limits of what the minor mode could express in this newly serious instrumental combination", writes Roger Parker. The music rolls out almost without interruption; instead of ending each phrase with a cadence before beginning a new phrase, Haydn runs the phrases together, the end of one being the beginning of the next. Throughout the first movement – and, indeed, for almost the entire quartet – the first violin leads with the concertante part. Even so, the texture is not galante, for the other parts play important and independent roles throughout. Haydn in the recapitulation continues developing the melody with new embellishments, and the coda wanders through strange modulations – D major, G minor – before returning to the plaintive F minor conclusion.

The minuet continues the sombre mood in F minor. The character of the minuet is as far from that of a courtly dance as can be imagined. Again, the structure of the minuet is irregular and undanceable. The trio section, in F major, offers a brief respite from the relentless minor, but even this section is subdued in tone.

The slow movement is a Siciliana, in F major. The  theme cycles throughout the movement, constantly transforming itself, while the first violin plays a concertante descant, floating over the theme, sometimes capturing it, then leaving it again.

The finale is a fugue with two subjects. The main subject is a standard fugal motif, used frequently in the Baroque (it appears, among other places, in Handel's Messiah). While constructing a fugue in the strict, learned style, Haydn imbues the movement with an intense dramatic structure; like other fugues in the set, the entire first two thirds of the fugue is sotto voce. Out of this quiet the first violin suddenly erupts to a forte, only to fall back into another piano section. The texture thins and the tension descends, until a second burst of fortissimo, with first violin and cello playing the fugal subject in canon, leading to the dramatic finale.

No. 6 in A major

This, the last quartet as published, but the second of the series as Haydn conceived them, is the most conservative of the set. The quartet has the bright, optimistic character often associated with Haydn's music. The key is A major, a key that highlights the highest and brightest tones of the lead violin. Haydn has marked the first movement Allegro di molto e Scherzando. Yet, here, too, Haydn is trying out new ideas. Traditionally, the exposition proceeds from a first theme in the tonic key to a second theme in the dominant. In the first movement, Haydn indeed proceeds to the dominant key of E major, but then shifts to E minor for the second theme. But he stays in that key only half a measure, modulating to C major, then to D major, and on, shifting keys relentlessly until he comes back to the dominant E major.

The second movement, marked Adagio, is a variation on sonata form, modeled after a form developed by Haydn's contemporary, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach. The violins dominate, with the first violin playing the melody over rippling sixteenth notes in the second, or the second carrying the melody, with the first playing embellishments.

The minuet is in strict danceable form. The theme of the minuet is a variation of the first theme of the first movement – one of the most explicit examples of cyclic form in Haydn's work.

The last movement is a fugue with three subjects. Like the other fugal finales in the set, this proceeds sempre sotto voce until nearly the end, when it breaks into forte. Unlike the other fugues, however, this has none of the Sturm und Drang drama about it, but is predominantly major and upbeat in character.

Impact of the quartets

The Op. 20 quartets transformed the way composers would write string quartets. "When we consider the poor condition" of string quartet writing prior to Haydn, writes C. Ferdinand Pohl, "... it is impossible to overrate his creative powers".

However, it is also disputed how much impact Joseph Haydn alone had on Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in string ensemble works. Euna Na points out by examining works composed by Michael Haydn in 1773 (MH 187, MH 188, MH 189), that in string ensemble works, Mozart shares far more linguistic elements such as chromatic harmony and theatrical gestures with Michael Haydn; "Wolfgang seems to have been influenced earlier and more directly by Michael than by Joseph". Striking examples of linguistic similarity are found in the slow movements of Michael's MH 367 and Mozart's K. 465, for example. Professor David Wyn Jones at the Cardiff University School of Music states that "in Salzburg, if not throughout his life, Mozart was writing in a lingua franca and many of the features of that language are to be found in Michael Haydn too".

Many great composers acknowledged their debt to Haydn and to these quartets. Beethoven also recognized the importance of Haydn's work. Before embarking on his own first set of string quartets, Op. 18, Beethoven studied the scores of the Haydn Op. 20 quartets, copying them out and scoring the first for string orchestra. Throughout his life, Beethoven had a love-hate relationship with Haydn: Haydn was one of Beethoven's teachers, and Haydn's criticisms of his early compositions rankled the young composer to the day of the elder composer's death. Yet, in spite of the antagonism, Beethoven spoke of Haydn with reverence. "Do not rob Handel, Haydn and Mozart of their laurel wreaths", he wrote in a letter in 1812, three years after Haydn's death. "They are entitled to theirs, I am not yet entitled to mine".

Brahms was also a devotee of the Op. 20 quartets. Brahms owned the autograph manuscript of the quartets, studied them carefully and annotated them. He bequeathed the manuscript to the Society of Friends of Music in Vienna, where it is preserved today.

See also

List of string quartets by Joseph Haydn

Footnotes

Bibliography
 (References are to the 2nd edition, published in 1963, with a new volume 3).
Tovey, Sir Donald, "Haydn", in Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music (1929; 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 1963); see vol. 1, pp. 515–545.

Pohl, C. Ferdinand, "Haydn", in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1946)

Further reading

External links

 String Quartet in F minor, Op. 20, No. 5, online full score

20
1772 compositions


Le droit à la vie is a 1917 silent French film directed by Abel Gance.

Cast
 Paul Vermoyal as Pierre Veryal
 Léon Mathot as Jacques Alberty
 Andrée Brabant as Andree Mael
 Georges Paulais as Marc Toln
 Eugénie Bade as Grandmother
 Lebrey as Magistrate
 Anthony Gildès

References

External links

1917 films
1910s French-language films
French silent feature films
French black-and-white films
Films directed by Abel Gance
1910s French films


Steven Pressman (born February 23, 1952 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American economist. He is a former Professor of Economics and Finance at Monmouth University in West Long Branch, New Jersey. He has taught at the University of New Hampshire and Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut.

He has served as co-editor of the Review of Political Economy since 1995, as Associate Editor and Book Review Editor of the Eastern Economic Journal since 1989, and a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of the journal Basic Income Studies since 2005.

He has been on the board of directors of the Eastern Economic Association from 1994 to the present, and since 1996 he has served as Treasurer of the group. In addition he has been a regular book reviewer for "Dollars and Sense" since 2010.

Biography
Pressman is the elder son of Jeffrey and Phyllis Pressman.  Pressman and his brother Alan, a bankruptcy attorney on Long Island, attended public school in Queens (New York) and graduated from Francis Lewis High School. Pressman's sister-in-law, Melissa Palmer, is a Hepatologist and researcher in the field of liver disease. Pressman attended Alfred University in upstate New York, where he received a B.A. in philosophy in 1973. He then attended Syracuse University and received an Master of Arts in philosophy in 1976. He went on to study economics at the New School, working with Robert Heilbroner, Edward J. Nell, David Gordon, and Vivian Walsh. He received his Ph.D. in 1983 for his work on Francois Quesnay's Tableau Économique, the first economic model.

Work
He is known for his contributions to economics, particularly his work on poverty and the middle class, which documents that a thriving middle class and low rates of poverty require substantial redistributive efforts on the part of the government; his work applying the principles of Post Keynesian economics to microeconomic policy issues; his work on tax and redistribution policy and his work on the Tableau Économique.

Poverty, the Middle Class, and Income Distribution
Pressman has published articles (with his colleague at Monmouth University, Robert Scott) arguing that poverty and inequality are greater than measured by government statistics because these measures exclude interest payments on consumer debt and these interest payments cannot be used to support current living standards. This work has estimated that there are more than 4 million debt poor in the United States.  They have also estimated that the problem of inequality is worse than estimated by standard measures such as the Gini coefficient. They are currently seeking to identify the debt poor and to devise policies to aid the debt poor, who do not qualify for many government assistance programs that mainly go to households officially considered as poor.

Pressman has published several papers using the Luxembourg Income Study to examine poverty, the middle class and government redistribution throughout the world.  These papers argue that one main reason poverty rates are so high in the United States is that government tax and government spending policies do little to help those with low earned incomes.  In addition, the United States middle class is very small compared to other developed countries mainly because government tax and government spending policies fail to help middle class families.

Additionally, Pressman has published articles on income guarantees and edited a book on the notion of Basic Income Guarantees as a solution to poverty.  This work argues that a guaranteed income would not have any major negative economic effects, such as creating great work disincentives, as long as the guarantees are kept to a minimal level.  Moreover, this minimal level is greater than the current redistributive efforts in the United States, and something close to what other developed countries provide to their citizens.

Pressman has published articles on refundable tax credits for children as a solution to child poverty in the United States and as a way to support the middle class in the United States. This work argues that these tax credits could be financed by eliminating tax exemptions for children.

He has also published articles on women and poverty. This work argues that the feminization of poverty is due to more female-headed households in the United States and the lack of appropriate tax and spending programs to help female-headed households.  Compared to other developed nations throughout the world who do much to help female-headed families, the poverty rate for U.S. female-headed families is much greater.

Government Tax and Spending Policy
As noted above, Pressman has published work advocating that government tax and spending policy is a main determinant of poverty and the size of the middle class in developed countries.  He has then gone on to argue for more progressive fiscal policies to support poor and middle class households in the United States. He has also argued that these redistributive programs would not have many negative effects.

He has analyzed the U.S. Current Population Survey, and articulated a policy to eliminate tax deductions for children and convert them into a refundable tax credit. This would essentially give the United States a system of child or family allowances, similar to other developed nations throughout the world. Such a policy change would help low and moderate-income households at no additional cost. It would also greatly reduce child poverty in the U.S. and increase the size of the U.S. middle class.

Pressman has published articles articulating how state governments should deal with the dilemmas of taxing e-commerce, arguing that states need to move away from relying on regressive sales taxes and use more progressive forms of taxation.

Finally, Pressman has shown that there is little empirical evidence that government deficits crowd out consumption, business investment, or net exports. There is, however, good empirical evidence that, when used appropriately, fiscal policy is able to mitigate business cycles.

Physiocracy and the History of Economic Thought
Pressman's work has sought to explain the Physiocratic model of the macro-economy (see Physiocracy), and to argue that the Tableau Économique is a consistent economic model.  He has shown how this model can be used to deal with the contemporary economic problems such as the productivity slowdown and appropriate tax policy.  Finally, he has shown how this model is consistent with the models of contemporary schools of thought such as Post-Keynesian economics.

His book, 50 Major Economists, 2nd ed. (Routledge, 2006) brings the ideas of key economists from the past to a more general audience.

Other contributions
Pressman has written on financial frauds and their causes, including articles on specific frauds such as Charles Ponzi, Martin Frankel, and Health South. He has argued that naive optimism, a human character trait, is one reason that financial frauds are so prevalent.  Another reason is herd behavior. Yet another reason is the lack of adequate government controls and insufficient checks and balances on firms and on individuals working for firms. Finally, human laziness comes into play – the failure of people to do the simple homework necessary to identify likely fraudulent activity.

Pressman has also written on economic methodology, arguing that the voting paradox cannot be resolved by claiming that voting is like clapping or applauding for a candidate.  Strong empirical evidence that people engage in strategic voting, and important differences between voting and applause, make this resolution of the voting paradox inadequate.

Finally, Pressman has argued that Robert Nozick's position on the justice of government redistribution programs, which is put into concrete terms with his famous Wilt Chamberlain example, is badly flawed for four reasons – it ignores actual history, yet purports to be a historical theory of justice, it ignores empirical evidence on justice, it ignores the social nature of production and it ignores the future.

Books

Books written
 Fifty Major Economists, 1st ed. 1999. 2nd ed. 2006 3rd ed. 2013 (Routledge; 2006)
(Czech edition, Barrister & Principal, 2002) (Chinese edition, 2005) (Indonesian edition, forthcoming) (Italian edition, forthcoming)
Quesnay's Tableau Economique: A Critique and Assessment (Augustus Kelley; 1994)
Poverty in America: An Annotated Bibliography (University Press of America and Scarecrow Press; 1994)

Books edited
Alternative Theories of the State (Palgrave/Macmillan; 2006)
Leading Contemporary Economists: Economics at the Cutting Edge,(edited volume, Routledge; 2009)
Post Keynesian Macroeconomics: Essays in Honor of Ingrid Rima (Routledge; 2007; edited with Mathew Forstater and Gary Mongiovi)
Empirical Post Keynesian Economics: Looking at the Real World (edited with Richard Holt)(M.E. Sharpe; 2006;
The Economics and the Ethics of the Basic Income Guarantee (Ashgate; 2005; edited with Karl Wilderquist and Michael Lewis)
A New Guide to Post Keynesian Economics (Routledge; 2001; edited with Richard Holt)
Encyclopedia of Political Economy (Routledge; 1999; edited with Phil O'Hara, et al.)
Economics and Its Discontents: Twentieth Century Dissenting Economists (Edward Elgar; 1998; edited with Richard Holt)
Interactions in Political Economy: Malvern After Ten Years (Routledge; 1996; edited volume)
Women in the Age of Economic Transformation (Routledge; 1994; edited with Nahid Aslanbeigui and Gale Summerfield)
(Spanish edition published in 1997 by Narcea, S.A.)
Post Keynesian and Ecological Economics: Confronting Environmental Issues, (edited volume, Routledge; 2011)
The Legacy of John Kenneth Galbraith,(edited volume, Routledge; 2013)

Selected peer reviewed articles

Poverty, the middle class, and income distribution
"Children and Poverty: Getting the Numbers Right and the Policy Right", Journal of Poverty, (Forthcoming) [With Robert Scott].
"The Effects of Consumer Debt on Children's Standard of Living in the USA", Changing Living Standards, ed. D. Figart (Routledge, forthcoming) [With Robert Scott].
"Household Debt and Income Distribution", Journal of Economic Issues (June 2013) [With Robert Scott].
"The Middle Class in Six Latin American Nations", Revista Problemas del Desarrollo, Vol. 64, #42 (January–March 2011), pp. 127–152. [In Spanish]
"Consumer Debt and Poverty Measurement', Focus, Vol. 27, #1 (Summer 2010), pp. 9–12 [With Robert Scott].
"Who are the Debt Poor", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 43, #2 (June 2009), pp. 423–432 [With Robert Scott].
"Consumer Debt and the Measurement of Poverty and Inequality in the US", Review of Social Economy (June 2008) [with Robert Scott] [winner of the 2008 Warren Samuels Prize]
"The Decline of the Middle Class: An International Perspective" Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 40, #1 (March 2007), pp. 181–200.
"Feminist Explanations for the Feminization of Poverty" Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 36, #1 (June 2003), pp. 351–60.
"Explaining the Gender Poverty Gap in Developed and Transitional Economies", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 35, no.1 (March 2002), pp. 17–40.
"The Gender Poverty Gap in Developed Countries: Causes and Cures", Social Science Journal, Vol. 35, #2 (April 1998), pp. 275–86.
"Keynes and Antipoverty Policy", Review of Social Economy, Vol. LXIX, #3 (Fall 1991),  pp. 365–82.

"The Feasibility of an Expenditure Tax", International Journal of Social Economy, Vol. 22, #8 (1995), pp. 3–15.
"Deficits, Full Employment and the Use of Fiscal Policy", Review of Political Economy, Vol. 7, #2 (April 1995), pp. 212–26.
"The Composition of Government Spending: Does It Make Any Difference?", Review of Political Economy, Vol. 6, #2 (April 1994), pp. 221–39.
"Tax Expenditures for Child Exemptions", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 27, #3 (September 1993), pp. 699–719.
"Child Exemptions or Family Allowances: What Sort of Antipoverty Program for America?", American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 51, #3 (July 1992), pp. 257–72.
"The $1000 Question: A Tax Credit to End Child Poverty?", Challenge, Vol. 35, #1 (January–February 1992), pp. 49–52.
"The Myths and Realities of Tax Bracket Creep", Eastern Economic Journal, Vol. XIII, #1 (January–March 1987), pp. 31–9.
"A Tale of Two Taxpayers: The Effects of the Economic Recovery and Tax Act of 1981",Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Vol. IX, #2 (Winter 1986–1987), pp. 226–36.
"Why Not a Flat Tax!", Review of Business, Vol. 8, #1 (Summer 1986), pp. 4–8.

Post-Keynesian economics
"Institutionalism", Elgar Companion to Post Keynesian Economics, 2nd ed., ed. John King (Edward Elgar, forthcoming).
"Microeconomics After Keynes: Post Keynesian Economics and Public Policy", American Journal of Economics and Sociology, (April 2011), pp. 511–539.  Reprinted in Social, Methods, and Microeconomics: Contributions to Doing Economics Better, ed. Frederick Lee (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 210–238.
"Federal Reserve System", Historical Encyclopedia of American Business and Finance, (Salem Press, 2009), pp. 299–302.
"A Time to Return to Keynes", Critical Perspectives on International Business, Vol. 5, #1/2 (2009), pp. 157–161.
"John Kenneth Galbraith and the Post Keynesian Tradition in Economics", Review of Political Economy, Vol. 20, #4 (October 2008), pp. 475–490 [lead article], Reprinted in The Legacy of John Kenneth Galbraith, ed. Steven Pressman (Routledge, 2011), pp. 1–15.
"Nicholas Kaldor and his Principle of Cumulative Causation", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 42, #2 (June 2008) [with Ric Holt], pp. 367–373.
"Expanding the Boundaries of the Economics of Crime", International Journal of Political Economy (Spring 2008), Vol. 37, #1, pp. 78–100.
"A Prolegomena to Any Future Post Keynesian Education Policy", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Vol. 29, #3 (Spring 2007), pp. 455–472.
"Economic Power, the State and Post Keynesian Economics", International Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 35, #4 (Winter 2006–07), pp. 67–86.
"What is Wrong with Public Choice", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, Vol. 27, #1 (Fall 2004), pp. 3–18.
"What Do Capital Markets Really Do? And What Should We Do About Capital Markets?", Economiés et Sociétés, Vol. 10, #2–3 (1996), pp. 193–209.
"The Policy Relevance of The General Theory", Journal of Economic Studies, Vol. 14, #4 (1987), pp. 13–23.  Reprinted in The General Theory and After: Essays in Post Keynesianism, ed. John Pheby (West Yorkshire: MCB University Press, 1987). Also reprinted in John Maynard Keynes (1883–1946), ed. Mark Blaug (Edward Elgar, 1991).
"The Lasting Contributions of John Kenneth Galbraith, 1908–2006", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics (Winter 2006–07), pp. 379–390. [with Stephen Dunn]
"The Economic Contributions of John Kenneth Galbraith", Review of Political Economy, Vol. 17, #2 (April 2005), pp. 161–209 [lead article; with Stephen Dunn]. Revised and reprinted in Leading Contemporary Economists: Their Major Contributions, ed. S. Pressman (Routledge, 2009), pp. 281–334.

Physiocracy and the history of economic thought
"History and Justice: The BIG Problem of Wilt Chamberlain", Economic Issues (forthcoming).
"Paul Samuelson", Great Lives from History, ed. Rafael Medoff (Salem Press 2011), pp. 1028–1030.
"Milton Friedman", Great Lives from History, ed. Rafael Medoff (Salem Press 2011), pp. 409–411.
"Lasting Contemporary Economists: An Introduction to their Cutting-Edge Work", Leading Contemporary Economists: Their Major Contributions, ed. Steven Pressman (Routledge 2009), pp. 1–14.
"The Two Dogmas of Neoclassical Economics", Science and Society, Vol. 68, #4 (Winter 2004-2005), pp. 483–93. Proquest]
"Are the Different Versions of the Tableau Consistent?", International Journal of Applied Economics and Econometrics (January–March 2003), pp. 1–22.
"The Economic Contributions of Amartya Sen", Review of Political Economy, Vol 12, #1 (January 2000), pp. 89–113.  [with Gale Summerfield]. Revised and reprinted in Leading Contemporary Economists: Their Major Contributions, ed. S. Pressman (Routledge, 2009), pp. 66–98.
"The Economic Contributions of David M. Gordon", Review of  Political Economy, Vol. 9, #2 (April 1997), pp. 225–245 [with Heather Boushey]. Revised and reprinted in Leading Contemporary Economists: Their Major Contributions, ed. S. Pressman (Routledge, 2009), pp. 15–37.
"An American Dilemma: Fifty Years Later", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 28, #2 (June 1994), pp. 577–85.
"Quesnay's Theory of Taxation", Journal of the History of Economic Thought, Vol. 16, #1 (Spring 1994), pp. 86–105.
"Econ Agonistes: Navigating and Surviving the Publishing Process", The American Economist (Fall 2008), Vol. 52, #2, pp. 26–32
"Kahneman, Tversky and Institutional Economics", Journal of Economic Issues, Vol. 40, #2 (June 2006), pp. 501–506.
"Clap Happy: Applause and the Voting Paradox", Journal of Economic Methodology, Vol. 13, #2 (July 2006), pp. 241–56.
"On Financial Frauds and Their Causes", The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol. 57, #4 (October 1998), pp. 405–22.
"Multiple Journal Submissions: The Case Against", The American Journal of Economics and Sociology (July 1994), pp. 315–333.

Other works
"Three Million Americans are Debt Poor", Dollars and Sense (July/August 2007), pp. 10–13 [with Robert Scott].  Reprinted in Real World Banking and Finance, 5th ed., Ed. Daniel Fireside and Amy Gluckman (Dollars and Sense Collective, 2008), pp. 214–218.
"The Economics of Grade Inflation", Challenge (July/August 2007), pp. 93–102.

References

External links
 Dr. Steven Pressman  - Monmouth University

1952 births
Living people
People from Brooklyn
Economists from New York (state)
Monmouth University faculty
University of New Hampshire faculty
Trinity College (Connecticut) faculty
Alfred University alumni
Syracuse University alumni
The New School alumni
Universal basic income writers
21st-century American economists


Oncogenic osteomalacia, also known as oncogenic hypophosphatemic osteomalacia, is an uncommon disorder resulting in increased renal phosphate excretion, hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. It may be caused by a phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor.

Signs and symptoms
Adult patients may present with worsening musculoskeletal symptoms, muscle weakness, myalgias, bone pains and fatigue which are followed by recurrent fractures. Children present with difficulty in walking, stunted growth and deformities of the skeleton (features of rickets). There can also be a significant delay between the beginning of symptoms to diagnosis, which research reflects as being between 2.5 and 28 years.

Cause
Tumor-induced osteomalacia is usually referred to as a paraneoplastic phenomenon, however, the tumors are usually benign and the symptomatology is due to osteomalacia or rickets. A benign mesenchymal or mixed connective tissue tumor (usually phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor and hemangiopericytoma) are the most common associated tumors. Association with mesenchymal malignant tumors, such as osteosarcoma and fibrosarcoma, has also been reported.
Locating the tumor can prove to be difficult and may require whole body MRI. Some of the tumors express somatostatin receptors and may be located by octreotide scanning.

A phosphaturic mesenchymal tumor is an extremely rare benign neoplasm of soft tissue and bone that inappropriately produces fibroblast growth factor 23. This tumor may cause tumor-induced osteomalacia, a paraneoplastic syndrome, by the secretion of FGF23, which has phosphaturic activity (by inhibition of renal tubular reabsorption of phosphate and renal conversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D). The paraneoplastic effects can be debilitating and are only reversed on discovery and surgical resection of the tumor.

Pathogenesis
FGF23 (fibroblast growth factor 23) inhibits phosphate transport in the renal tubule and reduces calcitriol production by the kidney. Tumor production of FGF23, Secreted frizzled-related protein 4 and matrix extracellular phosphoglycoprotein (MEPE) have all been identified as possible causative agents for the hypophosphatemia.

Diagnosis
Biochemical studies reveal hypophosphatemia (low blood phosphate), elevated alkaline phosphatase and low serum 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D levels. Routine laboratory tests may not include serum phosphate levels and this can result in considerable delay in diagnosis. Even when low phosphate is measured, its significance is often overlooked. The next most appropriate test is measurement of urine phosphate levels. If there is inappropriately high urine phosphate (phosphaturia) in the setting of low serum phosphate (hypophosphatemia), there should be a high suspicion for tumor-induced osteomalacia. FGF23 (see below) can be measured to confirm the diagnosis but this test is not widely available.

Once hypophosphatemia and phosphaturia have been identified, begin a search for the causative tumor, which may be small and difficult to detect. Gallium-68 DOTA-Octreotate (DOTA-TATE) positron emission tomography (PET) scanning is the best way to locate these tumors. If this scan is not available, other options include Indium-111 Octreotide (Octreoscan) SPECT/CT, whole body CT or MRI imaging.

Differential diagnosis
Serum chemistries are identical in tumor-induced osteomalacia, X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets (XHR) and autosomal dominant hypophosphatemic rickets (ADHR). A negative family history can be useful in distinguishing tumor induced osteomalacia from XHR and ADHR. If necessary, genetic testing for PHEX (phosphate regulating gene with homologies to endopeptidase on the X-chromosome) can be used to conclusively diagnose XHR and testing for the FGF23 gene will identify patients with ADHR.

Treatment
Resection of the tumor is the ideal treatment and results in correction of hypophosphatemia (and low calcitriol levels) within hours of resection. Resolution of skeletal abnormalities may take many months.

If the tumor cannot be located, begin treatment with calcitriol (1–3 µg/day) and phosphate supplementation (1–4 g/day in divided doses). Tumors that express somatostatin receptors may respond to treatment with octreotide. If hypophosphatemia persists despite calcitriol and phosphate supplementation, administration of cinacalcet has been shown to be useful.

References

Further reading

External links

Skeletal disorders


Anableps anableps, the largescale four-eyes, is a species of four-eyed fish found in fresh and brackish waters of northern South America and Trinidad.  This species grows to a length of  TL.  This fish can occasionally be found in the aquarium trade. The fish does not actually have four eyes, but instead each eye is split into two lobes by a horizontal band of tissue, each lobe with its own pupil and separate vision. This allows the fish to see above and below the surface of the water at the same time.

Taxonomy

This fish was first described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. Linnaeus gave it the name Cobitis anableps, but it was later transferred to the genus Anableps, becoming Anableps anableps.

Description
Anableps anableps is a slender elongate fish that can reach . Male fish have the anal fin modified into an intromittent organ with the tip angled to one side. Female fish have a flap of skin covering either the left or right genital opening. The most distinctive feature of this fish is the eyes, which project prominently from the head. Each eye is divided lengthwise and thus has two pupils; the fish positions itself in such a way that the dividing line between the two parts of the eye lies on the surface of the water, so that one pupil has an aerial view while the other is submerged.

Distribution and habitat
Anableps anableps is found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean and the southern Caribbean Sea. Its range extends from Trinidad and Venezuela to the delta of the Amazon River in Brazil. It mostly occurs in estuaries and on coastal mudflats, but it can survive in freshwater environments for extended periods.

Ecology
Anableps anableps feeds on insects and other small invertebrates (such as small crabs), small fish, and on algae. It has occasionally been observed catching insects in the air, but otherwise it ingests prey on or near the surface. It also ingests silt, consuming the diatoms found among the grains. In mangrove areas of Brazil, it has a migration pattern synchronized with the tides; as the tide rises it enters the intertidal channels, feeding in the inundated mangroves at high water, and retreating to the main channels as the tide ebbs. Feed consumption was at its greatest around high water during daylight spring tides and was at its minimum at night-time neap tides, perhaps demonstrating the importance of the split-level eyes. Red intertidal algae (Catenella sp.) was the main food item, supplemented by insects and shore crabs, family Grapsidae.

In the water, the fish uses a combination of biting and suction to capture its prey. It sometimes emerges from the water and feeds on mudbanks, but its mouth is not well adapted for picking up food from the surface on dry land. Anableps anableps solves this difficulty by depressing the lower jaw and protruding the upper jaw, and ingesting the prey by suction. If the prey is too large to swallow, it is gripped by the teeth, the upper jaw is retracted and the fish bites the prey. This cycle of protrusion and biting can be repeated until the prey is able to be swallowed.

This fish has internal fertilisation and bears live young.

References

Anablepidae
Freshwater fish of South America
Fish of French Guiana
Fish of Guyana
Fish of Suriname
Fish of Trinidad and Tobago
Fish described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus


Invaders Must Die is the fifth studio album by English electronic dance music group The Prodigy. The album was released on 23 February 2009 on the band's new record label Take Me to the Hospital, and was distributed by Cooking Vinyl. Although Liam Howlett, Maxim and Keith Flint all contributed material for The Fat of the Land, Invaders Must Die is the first Prodigy record where, given the departure of Leeroy Thornhill, all band members took part in the creative process. It is their first and currently only album to not contain any explicit songs.

The album was a commercial success, faring better than Always Outnumbered, Never Outgunned. In contrast to the commercial performance, critical reaction to the album was mixed. It has spawned four singles, including the title track, "Omen", "Warrior's Dance" and "Take Me to the Hospital".

Recording
Recording began in February 2006, shortly after the release of Their Law: The Singles 1990–2005, and ended in November 2008. Some of the songs recorded for the album, such as the synthesizer-led "Colours" were written before the release of the group's fourth album, and early versions were showcased in live performances. Liam Howlett conceived the album musical direction as a mashup of their previous albums. The new album was set to be released in summer 2007, but when the album's release date was postponed to the "first quarter of next year [2008]," the band had conceived over 25 ideas while completing production on certain tracks and writing lyrics.

Howlett revealed in an April 2008 interview that he had three more months of work left for the new album. He also said that he has a working album title and song titles, but was not ready to publicly announce them until these details were released through The Prodigy's official newsletter on 4 November. This announcement stated that the album would be a return to their "old-school but cutting edge" roots, and would feature collaborations with Dave Grohl of Foo Fighters, Them Crooked Vultures, and Nirvana, and James Rushent of Does It Offend You, Yeah?, but would not feature any guest vocals.

Composition
Invaders Must Dies title track is the album's opening track, and its lyrics include the name of the group on the line "We are The Prodigy." The song is featured in many films and game trailers such as the film Kick-Ass and the Duke Nukem Forever game trailer. "Omen" has a similar tempo, and both tracks were co-produced by James Rushent. "Thunder" recreates elements from Trevor Joe's "Ethiopian Peace Song" (also known as "Rasta Peace Song"), while "Colours" is one of the first songs written by the entire band.

"Take Me to the Hospital"'s music video was The Prodigy's first to be released on the Vidzone application. The promotional film was filmed onto VHS rather than digital recording equipment to obtain an old school 1990s look. The track samples "Salami Fever" by Pepe Deluxé and "Ragamuffin Duo Take Charge" by Asher D & Daddy Freddy, and the name of the song comes from the record label of the same name. "Warrior's Dance" is one of the most progressive tracks on the album; the song chorus is a sample of the True Faith song "Take Me Away", which was then sampled and edited by Major Players in "Come with Me", the song where the vocals for this track come from. The song also samples "Final Cut", a song featuring Bridget(te) Grace. A festival of the same name was curated by the group, and took place at Milton Keynes.

"Run With the Wolves", featuring Dave Grohl on drums, contains a sample of "So Refined" by Senser. This song was featured in the 2011 film Hall Pass. There was a contest to make a music video for the song, and the winning entry was posted on 15 February 2010. After a "reprise" of "Omen", "World's on Fire" follows. This song samples The Breeders' "I Just Wanna Get Along" and "Vamp" composed by Outlander. "Piranha" samples "Troubled Mind" by The Buff Medways and "Sara Zamana" by Kishore Kumar and Chorus, while "Stand Up", the only instrumental track on the album, samples "One Way Glass" from Manfred Mann Chapter Three. This song, along with "Omen", is featured heavily in the 2010 film Kick-Ass, and both are included on the soundtrack release of the album.

Promotion
Invaders Must Die was chosen as the lead single from the album of the same name, and was released from the band's website as a free digital download on 26 November 2008. The download was announced in a newsletter sent to fans on 24 November, and first aired on Zane Lowe's Radio 1 show as the 'Hottest Record in the World' of the same day it was released. Although it was not released as a commercial single, the song peaked at No. 49 in the UK Singles Chart,

"Omen" debuted at No. 1 on the Canadian Singles Chart during the week of 25 February 2009, peaked at No. 4 in the UK. In Australia, the song debuted at #83.

The single that followed, "Warrior's Dance", was released on 11 May 2009. The digital version of the single was released on 17 April 2009 in Australia as an iTunes exclusive, while the "Edit" version with none of the remixes is also available. When released there, however, the song was titled incorrectly and the download was actually a song from the band Placebo; this issue was fixed shortly after its release. Three downloadable remixes of "Warrior's Dance" were sold via the group's website, while an extra remix was exclusive to iTunes. The song peaked at No. 9 on the UK Singles Chart.

"Take Me to the Hospital", released on 31 August 2009, was the final commercially released single from the album. It was remixed six times, with the "Wreckage" mix being a collaboration with Josh Homme. The song debuted at No. 38 in the UK Singles Chart and topped the UK Dance Chart.

Release and reception

Invaders Must Die was released as a CD, CD/DVD set, double-vinyl, digital download and a luxury-like 7-inch vinyl box set that includes five 7-inches, CD/DVD, bonus CD, poster, stickers and stencils. To coincide with the release of the album, the band embarked on a nine date UK arena tour, with support from Dizzee Rascal, Noisia, Herve and DJ Kissy Sell Out. The "Warrior's Dance" video aired on Channel 4 on 28 March at 12:00 am.

As with Always Outnumbered, Never Outgunned, initial critical response to Invaders Must Die was mixed. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 60, based on 20 reviews. One example was AllMusic, who called it "a curious nu-rave record, as though the sound of 1991 (such as their Top Ten hit "Charly") has been filtered through the sound of 1996 (such as their number one, "Firestarter") to emerge as nothing more than a hodgepodge of uptempo dance music with extroverted beats and grimy basslines.

However, it was a commercial success. The album debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart on 1 March 2009 with 97,254 copies sold, giving them their fourth consecutive number one album in the UK. The album performed well worldwide as well, entering the top five in Poland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, Belgium and Germany. The album debuted at No. 117 in the US but jumped to No. 58 in its second week. The album received Gold sales status in Australia and Germany, while Switzerland classified it as "2× Gold" with 30,000 copies. As of 7 November 2009 the album has sold over 1,029,000 copies worldwide.

The European edition includes an 11-track audio CD and a DVD with the videos for "Invaders Must Die," "Omen" and live performances of "World's on Fire" and "Warrior's Dance". The DVD has a computer-readable (HD data for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X) high definition version of the former music video. On 21 October 2009, the album was re-released as "Invaders Must Die Special Edition", which included remixes of the album itself, a different album cover, and a DVD containing music videos and live performances. One of the tracks on the edition was eventually released as a MP3 for download. The song was later released as "Invaders".

On Saturday 23 February 2019, in celebration of the 10 year anniversary of Invaders Must Die's original release in 2009, the album was repressed on clear vinyl and limited to 1,000 copies to be sold on The Prodigy's official merchandise web store for release on 17 May 2019.

Track listing

Notes
 Lost Beats EP is available with the deluxe box set edition and was also released on iTunes some time after.
 "The Big Gundown" is a renamed, studio version of "Comanche," a track played live by the band.

Singles

Personnel
The Prodigy
Liam Howlett – synthesizers, sampling, programming, production, engineering, mixing
Keith Flint – vocals ("Omen", "Colours", "Take Me to the Hospital", "Run with the Wolves", "World's on Fire")
Maxim – vocals ("Omen", "Colours", "Take Me to the Hospital", "Omen Reprise", "World's on Fire", "Piranha")

Additional musicians and co-production
Brother Culture – vocals on "Thunder"
Amanda Ghost – backing vocals on "Colours"
Tim Hutton – additional guitars on "Colours", horns on "Piranha"
Dave Grohl – live drums on "Run with the Wolves" and "Stand Up"
James Rushent – co-producer on "Invaders Must Die" and "Omen"
Damian Taylor – additional pre-production on all tracks

Engineers
Neil McLellan – mixing (all tracks, except "Omen Reprise" and "Stand Up")
Damian Taylor – mixing ("Omen Reprise" and "Stand Up")
John Davis – mastering (at Metropolis Mastering)

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Commercial performance
In 2010, the album was awarded a double platinum certification from the Independent Music Companies Association, indicating sales of at least 1,000,000 copies throughout Europe.

References

External links

InvadersMustDie.com − Invaders Must Die Microsite
Invaders Must Die Review at Metacritic
Invaders Must Die Review

The Prodigy albums
2009 albums
Cooking Vinyl albums
Albums produced by Liam Howlett


The 2004–05 Montreal Canadiens season was the team's 96th season, 88th in the National Hockey League. However, its games were cancelled as the 2004–05 NHL lockout could not be resolved in time. The other 29 teams did not play either due to the labour dispute.

Schedule
The Canadiens preseason and regular season schedules were announced on July 14, 2004.

|-
| 1 || September 23 || Tampa Bay Lightning
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| 2 || September 24 || Toronto Maple Leafs
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| 3 || September 26 || Ottawa Senators
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| 4 || September 28 || Boston Bruins
|-
| 5 || September 29 || @ Boston Bruins
|-
| 6 || October 2 || Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 7 || October 5 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 8 || October 6 || @ Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 9 || October 9 || @ Ottawa Senators
|-

|-
| 1 || October 13 || @ Ottawa Senators
|-
| 2 || October 16 || Philadelphia Flyers
|-
| 3 || October 19 || Pittsburgh Penguins
|-
| 4 || October 21 || @ Washington Capitals
|-
| 5 || October 23 || Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 6 || October 26 || Carolina Hurricanes
|-
| 7 || October 28 || @ Philadelphia Flyers
|-
| 8 || October 30 || Atlanta Thrashers
|-
| 9 || November 3 || @ Florida Panthers
|-
| 10 || November 5 || @ Carolina Hurricanes
|-
| 11 || November 6 || @ St. Louis Blues
|-
| 12 || November 9 || Washington Capitals
|-
| 13 || November 12 || @ Ottawa Senators
|-
| 14 || November 13 || Ottawa Senators
|-
| 15 || November 16 || Boston Bruins
|-
| 16 || November 17 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins
|-
| 17 || November 20 || New York Rangers
|-
| 18 || November 24 || @ New York Islanders
|-
| 19 || November 26 || @ Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 20 || November 27 || Boston Bruins
|-
| 21 || November 30 || Minnesota Wild
|-
| 22 || December 3 || @ New Jersey Devils
|-
| 23 || December 4 || @ Boston Bruins
|-
| 24 || December 8 || @ Florida Panthers
|-
| 25 || December 9 || @ Tampa Bay Lightning
|-
| 26 || December 11 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 27 || December 14 || Tampa Bay Lightning
|-
| 28 || December 17 || @ New Jersey Devils
|-
| 29 || December 18 || New Jersey Devils
|-
| 30 || December 21 || Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 31 || December 22 || @ Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 32 || December 29 || @ Vancouver Canucks
|-
| 33 || December 31 || @ Calgary Flames
|-
| 34 || January 1 || @ Edmonton Oilers
|-
| 35 || January 4 || Pittsburgh Penguins
|-
| 36 || January 6 || @ Boston Bruins
|-
| 37 || January 8 || Florida Panthers
|-
| 38 || January 10 || @ New York Rangers
|-
| 39 || January 11 || Carolina Hurricanes
|-
| 40 || January 15 || Dallas Stars
|-
| 41 || January 17 || @ Nashville Predators
|-
| 42 || January 19 || @ Colorado Avalanche
|-
| 43 || January 22 || Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 44 || January 24 || Atlanta Thrashers
|-
| 45 || January 26 || @ Columbus Blue Jackets
|-
| 46 || January 28 || @ Washington Capitals
|-
| 47 || January 29 || New York Rangers
|-
| 48 || February 1 || Boston Bruins
|-
| 49 || February 3 || San Jose Sharks
|-
| 50 || February 5 || Los Angeles Kings
|-
| 51 || February 6 || New York Islanders
|-
| 52 || February 8 || Vancouver Canucks
|-
| 53 || February 10 || @ Boston Bruins
|-
| 54 || February 15 || Philadelphia Flyers
|-
| 55 || February 17 || Edmonton Oilers
|-
| 56 || February 19 || Ottawa Senators
|-
| 57 || February 20 || @ Philadelphia Flyers
|-
| 58 || February 22 || New York Islanders
|-
| 59 || February 24 || Florida Panthers
|-
| 60 || February 26 || Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 61 || February 27 || @ Pittsburgh Penguins
|-
| 62 || March 2 || @ Chicago Blackhawks
|-
| 63 || March 3 || @ Detroit Red Wings
|-
| 64 || March 5 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 65 || March 8 || Washington Capitals
|-
| 66 || March 11 || @ New York Islanders
|-
| 67 || March 12 || Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 68 || March 15 || @ Ottawa Senators
|-
| 69 || March 17 || @ Carolina Hurricanes
|-
| 70 || March 19 || Anaheim Mighty Ducks
|-
| 71 || March 21 || Phoenix Coyotes
|-
| 72 || March 23 || @ Atlanta Thrashers
|-
| 73 || March 24 || @ Tampa Bay Lightning
|-
| 74 || March 26 || Calgary Flames
|-
| 75 || March 28 || @ New York Rangers
|-
| 76 || March 29 || Tampa Bay Lightning
|-
| 77 || March 31 || Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 78 || April 2 || @ Toronto Maple Leafs
|-
| 79 || April 4 || New Jersey Devils
|-
| 80 || April 6 || @ Atlanta Thrashers
|-
| 81 || April 8 || @ Buffalo Sabres
|-
| 82 || April 9 || Ottawa Senators
|-

Transactions
The Canadiens were involved in the following transactions from June 8, 2004, the day after the deciding game of the 2004 Stanley Cup Finals, through February 16, 2005, the day the  season was officially cancelled.

Trades

Players acquired

Players lost

Signings

Draft picks
The 2004 NHL Entry Draft was held on June 26 at the RBC Center in Raleigh, North Carolina. It was the last NHL event to take place before the beginning of the lockout which cancelled all the games scheduled for the 2004–05 NHL season.

Montreal selected nine players at the 2004 Draft:

Notes

References

Montreal Canadiens seasons
Montreal
Mon
Montreal Canadiens
Montreal Canadiens


Criss Angel Believe was the sixth Cirque du Soleil show in Las Vegas, which premiered at the 1,600-capacity Believe Theatre inside the Luxor hotel in Las Vegas in 2008. It is a theatrical production created in partnership of Cirque du Soleil and magician Criss Angel, who was billed as the "co-writer, illusions creator and designer, original concept creator and star" of the show. The show had its final performance on April 17, 2016, being replaced by Criss Angel Mindfreak Live on May 11 of the same year.

History

Development

Angel claimed to have been developing aspects of the show for over 15 years. He originally tried to develop the show for a Broadway run, as well as other casinos, but nothing came to fruition. Eventually, Believe came together when he entered a partnership with Cirque du Soleil and the Luxor's parent company, MGM Mirage Resorts, which financed the show with $100 million.  The partnership marked the first time Cirque built a show around an individual performer.

After the failure of the musical Hairspray at Luxor, MGM Mirage signed with Cirque to install a new show for the theater by 2008, the sixth Cirque show on The Strip.  That show became the partnership with Angel, which was formally announced on March 22, 2008, in a press conference with MGM Mirage and Cirque executives, and Angel that included an awkward speech by the latter.  The title was announced in a press release on April 17.  During this period, Angel received bad press from incidents during the Miss USA 2008 contest.  After his then-girlfriend, Miss Nevada, was eliminated, Angel was filmed on NBC giving the finger; afterward he threatened Las Vegas Review-Journal gossip columnist Norm Clarke over negative press regarding his actions earlier in the competition: Angel told Clarke, who had an eye removed and wears an eyepatch, "Don't ever write another word about me, or you'll need an eyepatch over your other eye."  Angel refused to apologize and later denied the incident ever occurred, despite an assertions from several including the Review-Journals publisher.Sherman Frederick, Threats from Criss Angel, Las Vegas Review-Journal  Blogs, April 18, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.Steve Friess, Criss Angel: I Didn't Threaten Norm, Vegas Happens Here, May 19, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.

Angel described the show as "[A]bout my life. It's Alice in Wonderland. It's The Wizard of Oz. Mindfreak. It's about the demons in my head, the good that's out there, the angels and love and lust—all that stuff mixed up."  Cirque selected Serge Denoncourt as director and co-writer, a somewhat counterintuitive selection since he explicitly disliked magic. Denoncourt stated that he was "trying to direct a show for people who love it but also for people like me who hate magic".

Originally planned for a summer 2008 opening, more than $5 million in advance tickets were sold.  After several delays, the show had was set for a gala opening on October 31, 2008 with preview shows in late September.Richard Abowitz, Previews of Criss Angel's 'Believe' delayed again , LATimes.com, September 2, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.

Reception
Audience reactions to the initial preview performance were thoroughly negative.Doug Elfman, Angel's 'Believe' magic: Miffed fans disappear, Las Vegas Review-Journal, September 29, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.  The show opened to equally harsh reviews, citing a lack of the magic Angel is known for as well as a confusing and uninteresting theme; reviewers felt neither Angel nor Cirque du Soleil were able to perform their capabilities.Joe Brown, Illusion is elusive in Angel’s ‘Believe’, Los Angeles Times, November 1, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.Reed Johnson, Criss Angel, in a word: unbelievable, Los Angeles Times, November 3, 2008, Accessed November 4, 2008.  By December 17, two months into the show's run, the Luxor was offering a 40% discount on show tickets. In lieu of quotes from theater critics, by January 2009 the Believe website used quotes from celebrities, including Angel's then-girlfriend, Holly Madison.

Perez Hilton
After Cirque du Soleil spent some months altering the show, blogger and television personality Perez Hilton attended a performance on April 17, 2009.  During the show, Hilton tweeted to his half-million Twitter followers: "We are 20 minutes in and Criss Angel's Vegas show, Believe, is unbelievably BAD!", followed by other criticism.  As the show was ending, Angel singled out Hilton, asked him to stand up, and told the audience, "We have the world's biggest douchebag asshole in the house!"  To which Hilton replied, "Thanks for the free tickets."  Hilton, who was a fan of Cirque du Soleil's other Vegas shows, later noted that "until 'Believe', Cirque has had an incredible track record of excellence. I have seen all of their Vegas shows and loved them all."

Afterwards, Cirque du Soleil, but not Angel, apologized to Hilton and the rest of the audience.  Speaking also on behalf of hotel owner MGM Mirage, Cirque du Soleil called Angel's remarks "inappropriate and disrespectful", noting that "Cirque du Soleil does not condone disrespectful behavior towards any audience member at any time.  Cirque management will address such behavior privately with any of its artists to ensure it will not happen again."  The Vegas media reaction was strongly against Angel, who was viewed as having broken a taboo among casino employees in the largely tourist economy by insulting a guest, notably during an economic downturn.John Katsilometes, Cirque, Vegas no longer need Criss Angel’s ready-shoot-aim act, Las Vegas Sun, April 21, 2009, Accessed April 22, 2009.

Additional illusions added
After many reviews cited the disappointing lack of magic in the show, officials announced in April 2010 that they would add some 30 illusions to the performance by May 2010.Robin Leach, Criss Angel’s $25 million castle home, Grand Canyon stunt on Mindfreak, Las Vegas Weekly, March 29, 2010, Accessed April 15, 2010. — twice the number of illusions in any other show then on the Las Vegas Strip. This was the second major change to the show; the first was in April 2009.

Cast
Criss Angel: Criss acts as the protagonist of his show, as a Victorian Noble who is on a quest for love and to find his existence in this surreal world.	Crimson: The antagonist of Believe, Crimson is often dressed in reds and blacks to symbolize her evil nature. She fights desperately for both Criss' love and to destroy his life. Crimson acts as the evil force in the show.Kayala: A foil to Crimson, Kayala is Criss' reciprocating love. She was born out of a large poppy, and acts as the force of good in the show.	Ushers: Maestro, Luigi, Slim and Lars are the four bumbling assistants to Criss, acting as his link between the real world and the world of Believe. Maestro acts as the leader of the four, controlling them, along with performing mediocre magic tricks.  	Lucky: Lucky is a white rabbit, appearing during the show only for a short period of time. He is the mascot of Believe, and much of the show's merchandise features him.

Acts

Before the show opens, the Ushers come out and interact with the audience; most notable are Maestro's simple magic tricks and his obvious desire to be Criss.OpeningPremonition: Criss comes towards the audience and throws his wristband into the crowd. Once a spectator catches it, Criss has the person tell their name, where they're from, and to pick any word out of the English language. A small, locked box (always within the view of the audience) is then lowered from the top of the stage, where Maestro opens it and brings its contents - a clear plastic jar with a piece of paper in it - to Criss and the selected audience member. Much to the amazement of the audience, the paper contains the name, location, and chosen word of the participant.Tesla Coil: Criss is suited up in a chainmail outfit as a very large tesla coil is presented onstage. Criss goes to enter the cage surrounding the coil, but Crimson has other plans. She turns the power to the coil all the way on, causing sparks to fly and the theatre lights to go out. A pained shout is heard from Criss, and he writhes on the ground in pain as human-sized rabbits in doctor's coats lift him onto a gurney and roll him offstage.Lucky and Homage to the Rabbits: A small rabbit appears on a large projection screen, desperately trying to escape. It makes its way out and hops onto a box, taking a small microphone and discussing Cirque du Soleil show rules and how it is now going to take over the show. While assuring the audience that no animals were harmed during the production of the show, a large light burns out and falls from the top of the stage, crushing Lucky and killing him instantly. The Ushers come out to find Lucky, placing him on the front of the stage as multiple rabbits come out to dance for their fallen friend. While they dance, Lucky's corpse is taken away, only to be replaced with Criss' body on a gurney. Crimson, who seems to be leading the dance, rips Criss' form off of the gurney and onto the floor, where all of the rabbits fight over it to get a piece. They then dance around with his limbs, head and torso, before being shooed away by the Ushers.Humbodik: The Ushers reassemble Criss, before running offstage to get "the machine". Crimson reappears, dancing for the body of Criss while the machine is brought out. Criss' body is then lifted from the ground, before being engulfed in . After the  is blown away, we see Criss, whole again.The Dolls: Three dolls - Gigi, Taz and Charissa - appear, dancing seductively while they dress Criss.Doves: Criss does some sleight of hand with doves, before he disappears into a cloud of , reemerging with his own pair of wings. He levitates above the stage for a few moments, before disappearing into the stage.Poppy: Grit, a rabbit, appears on the stage and performs some contact juggling, while a large rabbit hops onstage to watch him. Two men dressed up as poppies come out and spin around, as a very large poppy is brought onstage. Suddenly, the poppy opens to reveal a beautiful woman clad in a white unitard. She performs some aerial acrobatics as Criss appears through a trapdoor in the middle of the stage. He stands on a platform made of thorns, staring up at the woman in awe, a hand clutching at his heart. The woman descends from her flower into Criss' arms. The two embrace before she gets off of the platform.Scarecrow: Two men in white, billowy skirts wave large white fans before Criss, hiding him from view. When he is show again, he is shouting in pain, as Crimson is crawling through his body. Kayala hides behind the Ushers, who urge her to save Criss. She goes to run offstage as Crimson exits Criss' body, but Crimson catches her and begins to strangle Kayala. Criss has escaped his thorny prison, and runs over with a large white cloth to protect Kayala. He makes Kayala vanish under the white cloth, as Crimson makes herself vanish under a red cloth. Criss rips the red cloth away to reveal a burning tree. He then runs offstage to follow Kayala.De Kolta Chair: The four Ushers appear on the dark stage with flashlights, looking for Criss. They come upon many rabbits, before Zangelica appears onstage with a baby carriage. The doll-sized Criss and Kayala appear from the carriage, before Lars picks up the smaller Criss and sits him on a chair. Lars and Maestro then lift a cloth over the chair, allowing Criss to reappear as normal. Maestro then begs him to perform his "favourite trick", the De Kolta chair. Kayala, a chair, and a large box are then brought onstage. Criss places a purple cape over Kayala, having her move her hands before she disappears. The box is then opened to reveal her.Danceoff: Multiple Moles appears onstage and begin to dance. Criss and Kayala run offstage as the Ushers begin to play Rock, Paper, Scissors to decide who will dance against the moles. Each dances in turn, the most notable being Lars breakdancing on his head.Tronik: Criss and Kayala return, and the Ushers begin to haggle them about their romance. Criss only smirks and replays that they "can kiss the monster", the monster being a lurking Tronik. Kayala runs offstage as Criss and Maestro run into the audience, Lars, Luigi and Slim running offstage to get whips and shields. Criss goes back onstage and defeats Tronik with magic. The creature staggers back for a moment, before regaining itself and heading toward Maestro, who cowers. The creature then removes its arms and torso, revealing Criss inside.Metamorphosis: Crimson appears onstage and begins to seduce Criss, along with partially undressing him. He is then thrown into a wooden crate, while Crimson and her minions writhe upon the stage, tying up the crate. Crimson then climbs atop it, hidden in a cloud of  before a firewall goes off. Criss then appears atop the crate, and begins to open it, revealing a straight-jacketed Crimson inside.Wedding: Kayala is revealed, wearing a white wedding gown with a huge train following her. The Ushers come out to congratulate her as Criss is seen to appear atop the wall of the train. He then begins to walk down it, marrying Kayala after his descent. The two proceed to kiss as the Ushers pose for photographs. A large pool of blood begins to form on the gown's train, growing large with each flash of the camera. Finally, the gown is ripped from Kayala. A spotlight shines on Crimson and her paparazzi, before Criss is illuminated, Kayala lying on the ground next to him.Paparazzi: Criss and his Ushers fight to keep the paparazzi away from Kayala's lifeless form, the paparazzi dancing with Crimson before the wind blows them away. Criss mourns for Kayala before the Ushers take her away. A large projection of Crimson appears before Criss, knocking him to the ground.In Two: A large, mechanical-like table is rolled out, along with figures sharpening chainsaws on it. Criss is chased offstage by a Crowman, before one of the Dolls brings him back on and throws him upon the table. Crimson takes a chainsaw from one of her henchmen as Criss is bound and shackled to the table, before sawing him in half. Blood and gore spill out everywhere, each half of Criss' now-lifeless body pulled in separate directions offstage.Funeral': The Ushers come out and mourn over Criss, placing red roses on his grave. Crimson walks out with a Crowman and a wheelchair, spitting on Criss' grave before throwing her black rose on the ground. She is then covered by a blanket on the wheelchair and spun around so that she is no longer facing the audience. More mourners bestow roses upon Criss' grave as Kayala comes out in a black mourning gown, placing her white rose gently upon her beloved's grave. A large scrim comes down upon the stage before the wheelchair begins spinning. The figure seated removed the blanket, revealing Criss. He turns around to look at the characters of his surreal adventure, but the lights have gone dark and they are no longer visible. He then turns back to the audience, his whisper of "Believe" echoing throughout the theatre.

Costumes
Mérédith Caron, costume designer, drew much inspiration from the 17th through the 19th centuries, including the Victorian era.  The fabrics chosen reflected the themes of desire, seduction, and dreams. The many materials for the characters include linen, cotton netting, crushed velvet, jute, hemp, and crinyl.  As an example, Kayala wears a bodice of black crinyl and organza train which is highly influenced by 18th-century decadence.  The dolls, on the other hand, are inspired by 17th-century paintings and enlarged paisley patterns.  Crimson is seen wearing a costume made of leather and "Mirror of Holland" linen.  Her costume's skin effect was created by using two layers of linen covered by black netting which was slashed and sewn back together to give the impression of scars.

Music
The official soundtrack for the show, by French composer Éric Serra, was released in late November 2010 exclusively through Cirque du Soleil's web store; the soundtrack can also be purchased at the official Believe store. The soundtrack is composed of the songs from the original variation of the show, with track listing as follows:

 Homage to the Rabbits (Rabbit Dance)
 The Life Factory
 Sexy Pet (The Dolls)
 Flying with the Birds
 Kayala and the Poppies
 Sympathy for Crimson
 The Magic Door
 The Cockroach Dance (The Moles)
 In and Out of the Dream
 Shadows and Whispers
 Being Houdini I (Straight Jacket)
 Being Houdini II
 Prewed
 Blow Me a Tornado
 She is Gone to the Sky
 The Magic Wedding

The song "Sexy Pet" also appears on the two-disc 25 compilation soundtrack.

References

External links

Cirque du Soleil resident shows
Production shows in the Las Vegas Valley
Las Vegas shows


Ravindra Kumar (born 1959) is a Political Scientist, Peace Educator, an Indologist, a Humanist, Cultural Anthropologist and a former Vice-Chancellor of CCS University, Meerut (India).

He has worked an Ombudsman of Swami Vivekananda Subharati University, Meerut and the editor-in-chief of  Global Peace International Journal. He has written more than one hundred books and four hundred articles on greatest personalities of the Indian sub-continent, especially Gautama Buddha, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and on various social, political, educational, cultural and academic issues to his credit.

Early life and education
Born in 1959 at Kakrauli village of Muzaffarnagar district in Uttar Pradesh, India, he is M. A. in Political Science & Philosophy, PGD in Gandhian Studies, Ph. D. and D. Lit.

Career
A well-known Indologist and the former Vice-Chancellor of CCS University Meerut, India, Kumar has been associated with several national and international academic, cultural, educational, peace and social bodies/institutions/organizations. As an International Professor and a Cultural Ambassador of India, he has delivered more than four hundred lectures at various institutions and universities of the world on subjects related to Asian values, civilization, culture, Gandhian philosophy, Indology, international co-operation and understanding, leadership,  way of life, women's empowerment, world peace, youth affairs etc.

As a Peace Worker, Kumar started Peace Review – an international journal of peace studies in 1998 and worked as its Editor-in-Chief. In 2001 he has started Global Peace –another international journal of philosophy, peace, education, culture and civilization. Besides, he has inspired hundred and thousands of people all over the world for their commitment towards non-violence by signing pledges.

Between 1993 and 2015 Ravindra Kumar has organised a number of seminars, symposiums and workshops at national and international level on subjects related to value education, religion and politics, non-violence and democracy, morality and ethics in public life, human values and rights, education, peace and development,  Gandhian philosophy.

Books

Religion and Word Peace (1993-2006)
Morality and Ethics in Public Life (1999)
Towards Peace, two-parts (2001-7)
Theory and Practice of Gandhian Non-Violence (2002-7)
Non-Violence and Its Philosophy (2003)
Five Thousand Years of Indian Culture (2003)
Fundamentals of Civilization (2006)
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: Life, Works and Views (2005–12)
Towards Buddha (2007), Gandhian Thought: New World, New Dimensions (2008)
India and Mahatma Gandhi (2009–10)
Peace Philosophy in Action (2010)
Resolving Conflicts: The Gandhian Way (2011)
Education, Peace and Development (2012)
Gandhi in Current Perspective (2012)
The Indian Way (2013)
The Gandhian Way: A Universal Method of Resolving Conflicts (2013)
Non-Violence and Peace Education, two-parts (2013)
Facets of Education in Global Perspective (2013-5)
Unveiling the Universality of Indology and Indian Philosophy (2015)
Value and Peace Education (2016)
Essays on Socio-Cultural Sensitization, Empowerment and Human Rights (2016)
Sanatana Dharma –The Vedic-Hindu Jeevan Marg (2016)
Gandhi Marg (2016)
Gandhi’s Vision of the World in the Light of Indian Philosophy (2018)
Greatest Indians –a multi-volume series (2016-8).

Positions
Teacher, Department of Political Science, SD College, Muzaffarnagar, Uttar Pradesh (1982-3), Research Representative/Senior Research Officer, Sardar Patel National Memorial, Ahmedabad/Sardar Patel Works Committee, New Delhi (1985–90),  Member Secretary and Chief Editor of Vithalbhai Patel Works Committee (1990–92), Vice Chancellor, CCS University, Meerut, India (1994), Visiting Professor, Department of Philosophy and Religion, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, Thailand (1996-2001), Visiting Professor/Scholar at more than one hundred Universities/Institutions of higher studies and research around the world including Ateneo de Manila University (Philippines), Universities of Thammasat, Silpakorn, Mahidol, Kasetsart and Chulalongkorn (Thailand), Universities of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur and Malaysia Science, Penang (Malaysia), Universities of Mandalay and Yangon (Myanmar), Udayana University, Bali (Indonesia), Institute Kern, Leiden University (The Netherlands), Universities of Aalborg, Aarhus, NIAS Copenhagen and Odense (Denmark), St. Petersburg State University (Russia), Jaume-I University, Castellon (Spain), University of Torino (Italy), University of Vienna (Austria), North Florida University, Jacksonville, Florida (USA), Universities of Autonomic Latin-American, Antioquia, EAFIT, Pontificia Bolivariana and Externado de Colombia (Columbia), Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Santo –the UEES, Guayaquil (Ecuador, South America), University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban (South Africa)(1995-2019), Ombudsman, Swami Vivekananda Subharati University, Meerut, India (since 2013), Patron/Chairman, Director and Coordinator for international relations of many universities and institutions of higher studies and research in India and other countries of Asia.

Memberships

 Member, Executive Council, Meerut University, Meerut, India, between 1993 and 1994
 Member, Executive Council, MD University, Rohtak, India, between 1994 and 1996
 Vice-Chancellor, CCS University, India, 1994

 Member, Senate, Gandhigram Rural Institute Deemed University, Tamil Nadu, India, between 1994 and 1997
 Life Fellow, (United Writers’ Association), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India since 1997
 Consultant to UNUP, CR., CA. for Gandhian Studies 2000
 Founder and Secretary General, World Peace Movement Trust since 2001
 Member, Gandhi-Information-Zentrum, Berlin, Germany since 2001
 Life Member, International Film & Television Research Centre, Noida, India since 2006
 Honorary Advisor, Peace Education Academy of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal since 2006
 Member, Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, London, UK since 2006
 Honorary Advisor, Institute For Inspiration & Self Development, Kolkata, India since 2006
 Member, Advisory Board, Media For Freedom, USA since 2007
 Member, Indian Language Newspapers Association (ILNA), India since 2009
 Member, Asia-Pacific Peace Research Association, since 2009
 Member, Action Asia, since 2009
 Patron, Stallion College for Engineering and Technology, Chhutmalpur, Saharanpur, India since 2010
 Member, Gandhi Serve Foundation, Germany since 2010
 Member, National Executive, Indian Language Newspapers Association (ILNA), India, between  2010 and 2012
 Patron, Ruminations –a bi-annual international journal for analysis and research in humanities and social sciences , India since 2010
 Member, Executive Council, Uttarakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India, between 2011 and 2013
 Patron, The EDUQUEST –a bi-annually international-refereed journal in Education , JKC, Purulia, West Bengal, India since 2012
 Member, Advisory Board to Techno LEARN –a bi-annually international journal of educational technology , New Delhi, India since 2012
 Patron, LM Institute of Technology and Management, Lucknow, India since 2012
 Member Academic Council and the Coordinator for international affairs, Shridhar University (Rajasthan), India, between 2012 and 2017
 Founder Director, Institute of Indology and Oriental Studies,  Shridhar University (Rajasthan), India since 2012
 Coordinator for international relations for the universities and institutions of higher studies and research under the Baise-Chumphon and Krabi Sister’s Cities Projects, between 2012 and 2017
 The Ombudsman, Swami Vivekananda Subharati University, Meerut (UP), India and 17 other institutions along, since 2013
 Chairman of the Committee for Classification of Affiliated Colleges with the Uttrakhand Sanskrit University, Haridwar, 2013
 Patron, International Centre of Nonviolence (ICON), Sydney, Australia since 2013
 Patron, The Ashram Gandhi Puri, Bali, Indonesia since 2014
 Patron, Adi Shankara Vedanta Pratishthanam, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India since 2015
 Advisor/Council Head and Convener, Gandhi Peace Foundation, Kathmandu, Nepal since 2018
 Member Advisory Board of Acid Survivors & Women Welfare Foundation –ASWWF, India since 2019

Awards

 1993: Meerut Ratna
 1998: Nirala Smriti Samman
 2001: Padma Shri for Literature and Education
 2003: Shan-I-Kaum
 2004: Shantidoot
 2005: Ambassador for Peace
 2006: Sardar Patel National Award
 2008: Master of Wisdom
 2010: Peace Messenger
 2010: Peace Envoy
 2012: Soham Smarkam Award of Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
 2012: The Buddha Ratna
 2013: Uttar Pradesh Ratna
 2013: D. LIT. (Honoris Causa)
 2013: Samaj Ratna
 2014: The Gandhi Ratna
 2014: Shiksha Ratna
 2014: Gandhi Shiksha Ratna
 2015: Sardar Patel Ratna
 2015: SREIT Lifetime Achievement Award
 2016: Vidyavachaspati
 2017: Shivkumar Shastri Smriti Samman along with Hindi Bhasha Bhushan
 2017: Madyanirodhan Samman –the highest honour of Kerala Hindi Sahitya Academy
 2018: Gandhi Peace Honour
 2018: Bharat Gaurav                                        * 2020: Buddhist Humanitarian Award.         * 2020: Gandhi Nobel Peace Award.              * 2021: Country's Pride

References

External links

 World Security Network
 World Peace Movement
 The Danish Peace Academy
 Articles By Dr. Kumar
 https://ravindrakumar.org
 https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=879137459606926778#allposts

1959 births
Living people
People from Muzaffarnagar district
Indian political scientists
Indian magazine editors
Writers from Uttar Pradesh
Indian columnists
Indian Indologists
Recipients of the Padma Shri in literature & education
20th-century Indian biographers
Scientists from Uttar Pradesh
20th-century Indian educational theorists
Indian political writers
20th-century Indian non-fiction writers


The Torture of Silence () is a 1917 French silent drama film directed by Abel Gance.

Cast
 Emmy Lynn as Manon Berliac
 Firmin Gémier as Emile Berliac
 Armand Tallier as François Rolland
 Anthony Gildès as Jean
 Paul Vermoyal as Jean Dormis
 Gaston Modot
 Antonin Carène
 Antonin Artaud

Reception
Like many American films of the time, the French film The Torture of Silence was subject to cuts by city and state film censorship boards. The Chicago Board of Censors issued an Adults Only permit and required a cut in reel 2 of the last scene with the nude boy with sex visible.

References

External links

1917 films
1917 drama films
Silent French drama films
1910s French-language films
French silent feature films
French black-and-white films
Films directed by Abel Gance
1910s French films


Robots of the United States include simple household robots such as Roomba to sophisticated autonomous aircraft such as the MQ-9 Reaper that cost 18 million dollars per unit. The first industrial robot, robot company, and exoskeletons as well as the first dynamically balancing, organic, and nanoscale robots originate from the United States.

History

In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled torpedo. Based on patents for "teleautomation", Tesla hoped to develop it into a weapon system for the US Navy.

In 1926, Westinghouse Electric Corporation created Televox, the first robot put to useful work. In the 1930s, they created a humanoid robot known as Elektro for exhibition purposes, including the 1939 and 1940 World's Fairs.

Unimate was the first industrial robot,
which worked on a General Motors assembly line in New Jersey in 1961.
It was created by George Devol in the 1950s using his original patents. Devol, together with Joseph F. Engelberger started Unimation, the world's first robot manufacturing company.

In 2008 the U.S. Air Force 174th Fighter Wing transitioned from F-16 piloted planes to MQ-9 Reaper drones, which are capable remote controlled or autonomous flight, becoming the first all-robot attack squadron.

Modern robots

Domestic

 PatrolBot a configurable guide/delivery/surveillance robot
 Roomba a vacuum cleaner
 Scooba a floor washer
 Looj a rain gutter cleaner

Entertainment
 iRobot Create

Extraterrestrial
 ATHLETE lunar rover
 Mars Exploration Rover

Medical

 Da Vinci Surgical System

Military (offensive/multi-role)

Aerial
 MQ-8 Fire Scout
 MQ-9 Reaper

Terrestrial
 Black Knight tank
 Gladiator
 MarkV-A1
 MULE / XM1219
 PackBot / SUGV
 TALON

Military (non-offensive)

Aerial
 RQ-4 Global Hawk
 RQ-7 Shadow
 RQ-14 Dragon Eye

Terrestrial
 ACER
 Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot
 BigDog dynamically balancing quadruped
 Crusher
 Dragon Runner
 MATILDA

Nanoscale

 New York University walking DNA robot Smallest Robot: Science Videos - Science News - ScienCentral

Walker

 BigDog dynamically balancing quadruped
 Anybots Dexter, the first dynamically balancing biped
 Timberjack Walking Machine logger

Non-autonomous (human operated)
These machines are human operated and not autonomous. Therefore, they do fit the classical description of a robot.

Exoskeleton

 Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton
 Sarcos/Raytheon XOS Exoskeleton, currently the most advanced exoskeleton, research for the XOS is funded by DARPA and NIST for use in the military and to "replace the wheelchair".

Military
 MQ-1 Predator

Research
 Tufts University morphing chemical robot Tufts to develop morphing 'chemical robots'

Software

 Microsoft Robotics Studio - .NET based
 VxWorks - operating system, notably used by ASIMO
 Robot App Store - Apps for every robot

American robotics companies
 Anybots
 Barrett Technology
 Berkshire Grey
 Bluefin Robotics
 Boston Dynamics
 Brooks Automation
Cobalt Robotics
Cobot Nation
Diligent Robotics
 Energid Technologies
 Evolution Robotics
Fetch Robotics
 Foster-Miller
 Harvest Automation
 Hydroid
 Intuitive Surgical
 iRobot
 Kiva Systems
Locus Robotics
 Mitsubishi Electric Automation - Robotics
 Myomo (myoelectric prosthetics)
 Rethink Robotics
Savioke
 Vecna Robotics
Vishwa Robotics
 Willow Garage

See also
 Japanese robotics
 Robots in warfare
 Shadow Hand British Robotics company
Underwater robot
Drone
Terminator, movie about and artificial intelligence

References

External links

 http://www.shadowrobot.com/


Government Majid Memorial City College is a college in Khulna, Bangladesh. The institute was established in the middle of the 19th century. It is beside the Khan Jahan Ali Road, near the "Royal er mor".  It is a combined college offering 11th and 12th grades in three major subjects: science, commerce, and arts.

References

Universities and colleges in Bangladesh
Education in Khulna
Educational institutions of Khulna District