The second Persian invasion of Greece (480–479 BC) occurred during the Greco-Persian Wars, as King Xerxes I of Persia sought to conquer all of Greece. The invasion was a direct, if delayed, response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece (492–490 BC) at the Battle of Marathon, which ended Darius I's attempts to subjugate Greece. After Darius's death, his son Xerxes spent several years planning for the second invasion, mustering an enormous army and navy. The Athenians and Spartans led the Greek resistance. About a tenth of the Greek city-states joined the 'Allied' effort; most remained neutral or submitted to Xerxes.

The invasion began in spring 480 BC, when the Persian army crossed the Hellespont and marched through Thrace and Macedon to Thessaly. The Persian advance was blocked at the pass of Thermopylae by a small Allied force under King Leonidas I of Sparta; simultaneously, the Persian fleet was blocked by an Allied fleet at the straits of Artemisium. At the famous Battle of Thermopylae, the Allied army held back the Persian army for three days, before they were outflanked by a mountain path and the Allied rearguard was trapped and annihilated. The Allied fleet had also withstood two days of Persian attacks at the Battle of Artemisium, but when news reached them of the disaster at Thermopylae, they withdrew to Salamis.

After Thermopylae, all of Euboea, Phocis, Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persian army, which captured and burnt Athens. However, a larger Allied army fortified the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, protecting the Peloponnesus from Persian conquest. Both sides thus sought a naval victory that might decisively alter the course of the war. The Athenian general Themistocles succeeded in luring the Persian navy into the narrow Straits of Salamis, where the huge number of Persian ships became disorganised, and were soundly beaten by the Allied fleet. The Allied victory at Salamis prevented a quick conclusion to the invasion, and fearing becoming trapped in Europe, Xerxes retreated to Asia leaving his general Mardonius to finish the conquest with the elite of the army.

The following spring, the Allies assembled the largest ever hoplite army and marched north from the Isthmus to confront Mardonius. At the ensuing Battle of Plataea, the Greek infantry again proved its superiority, inflicting a severe defeat on the Persians and killing Mardonius in the process. On the same day, across the Aegean Sea an Allied navy destroyed the remnants of the Persian navy at the Battle of Mycale. With this double defeat, the invasion was ended, and Persian power in the Aegean severely dented. The Greeks would now move to the offensive, eventually expelling the Persians from Europe, the Aegean Islands and Ionia before the war finally came to an end in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias.

Sources

The main source for the Great Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History', was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—Historia; English—(The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it. As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."

Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds that have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism. Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus from Sicily, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's. The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.

Background

The Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499–494 BC. The Persian Empire was still relatively young and prone to revolts among its subject peoples. Moreover, Darius was a usurper and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire). Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece. A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate kingdom part of Persia. It had previously been a vassal as early as the late 6th century BC, but remained having autonomy and not fully subordinate yet.

In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him. Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well. This meant that Sparta was also now effectively at war with Persia. (Later, in order to appease Xerxes,  who was about to launch the Second Persian invasion of Greece after succeeding his father, Darius, two Spartans were voluntarily sent to Susa for execution, in atonement for the death of the Persian heralds sent earlier by Darius.)

Darius thus put together an ambitious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC, which attacked Naxos, before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed. Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of Marathon, where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing Battle of Marathon, the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.

Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died while preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.

Persian preparations

Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription. It was decided that Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges were to be set up to allow his army to cross the Hellespont to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC). These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state. However, the campaign was delayed one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia.

In 481 BC, after roughly four years of preparation, Xerxes began to muster the troops for the invasion of Europe. Herodotus gives the names of 46 nations from which troops were drafted. The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC. The armies from the Eastern satrapies was gathered in Kritala, Cappadocia and were led by Xerxes to Sardis where they passed the winter. Early in spring it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies. Then the army that Xerxes had mustered marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges.

Size of the Persian forces

Army

The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute because the numbers given in ancient sources are very large indeed. Herodotus claimed that there were, in total, 2.5 million military personnel, accompanied by an equivalent number of support personnel. The poet Simonides, who was a contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias, based on Persian records, gave 800,000 as the total number of the army (without the support personnel) that was assembled by Xerxes. While it has been suggested that Herodotus or his sources had access to official Persian Empire records of the forces involved in the expedition, modern scholars tend to reject these figures based on knowledge of the Persian military systems, their logistical capabilities, the Greek countryside, and supplies available along the army's route.

Modern scholars thus generally attribute the numbers given in the ancient sources to the result of miscalculations or exaggerations on the part of the victors, or disinformation by the Persians in the run up to the war. The topic has been hotly debated but the modern consensus revolves around the figure of 200,000 or 300,000–500,000. Nevertheless, whatever the real numbers were, it is clear that Xerxes was eager to ensure a successful expedition by mustering overwhelming numerical superiority by land and by sea, and also that much of the army died of starvation and disease, never returning to Asia.

Herodotus tells us that the army and navy, while moving through Thrace, was halted at Doriskos for an inspection by Xerxes, and he recounts the numbers of troops found to be present:

Herodotus doubles this number to account for support personnel and thus he reports that the whole army numbered 5,283,220 men. Other ancient sources give similarly large numbers. The poet Simonides, who was a near-contemporary, talks of four million; Ctesias gave 800,000 as the total number of the army that assembled in Doriskos.

An early and very influential modern historian, George Grote, set the tone by expressing incredulity at the numbers given by Herodotus: "To admit this overwhelming total, or anything near to it, is obviously impossible." Grote's main objection is the supply problem, though he does not analyse the problem in detail. He did not reject Herodotus's account altogether, citing the latter's reporting of the Persians' careful methods of accounting and their stockpiling of supply caches for three years, but drew attention to the contradictions in the ancient sources. A later influential historian, J. B. Bury, calls Herodotus's numbers "wholly fabulous" and judges that the Persian land forces may have been 180,000.  A major limiting factor for the size of the Persian army, first suggested by Sir Frederick Maurice (a British transport officer) is the supply of water. Maurice suggested in the region of 200,000 men and 70,000 animals could have been supported by the rivers in that region of Greece. He further suggested that Herodotus may have confused the Persian terms for chiliarchy (1,000) and myriarchy (10,000), leading to an exaggeration by a factor of ten. Other early modern scholars estimated that the land forces participating in the invasion at 100,000 soldiers or less, based on the logistical systems available to the Ancients.

Munro and Macan note Herodotus giving the names of six major commanders and 29 myriarchs (leaders of a baivabaram, the basic unit of the Persian infantry, which numbered about 10,000-strong); this would give a land force of roughly 300,000 men. Other proponents of larger numbers suggest figures from 250,000 to 700,000.

Fleet
The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed, though perhaps less so. According to Herodotus the Persian fleet numbered 1,207 triremes and 3,000 transport and supply ships, including 50-oared galleys (Penteconters) (πεντηκοντήρ). Tetramnestos, King of Sidon, served as the chief advisor of Xerxes in naval matters. In effect, the Sidon fleet held a position of primacy among the naval forces of the Achaemenid Empire at that time, providing the best ships in the fleet, even before the fleet of Artemisia of Halicarnassus or the Egyptians. The Phoenicians furnished a fleet of 300 ships, "together with the Syrians of Palestine".

Herodotus gives a detailed breakdown of the Persian triremes by nationality:

Herodotus also records that this was the number at the Battle of Salamis, despite the losses earlier in storms off Sepia and Euboea, and at the battle of Artemisium. He claims that the losses were replenished with reinforcements, though he only records 120 triremes from the Greeks of Thrace and an unspecified number of ships from the Greek islands. Aeschylus, who fought at Salamis, also claims that he faced 1,207 warships there, of which 1,000 were triremes and 207 fast ships. Diodorus and Lysias independently claim there were 1,200 at Doriskos. The number of 1,207 (for the outset only) is also given by Ephorus, while his teacher Isocrates claims there were 1,300 at Doriskos and 1,200 at Salamis. Ctesias gives another number, 1,000 ships, while Plato, speaking in general terms refers to 1,000 ships and more.

These numbers are (by ancient standards) consistent, and this could be interpreted that a number around 1,200 is correct. Among modern scholars some have accepted this number, although suggesting that the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis. Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number—1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad—and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.

Greek preparations

The Athenians had been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the politician Themistocles, to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians. The Athenians did not have the man-power to fight on land and sea; therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of several Greek city states. In 481 BC Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta. Support thus began to coalesce around these two states.

Hellenic alliance
A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. This confederation had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. Herodotus does not formulate an abstract name for the union but simply calls them "οἱ Ἕλληνες" (the Greeks) and "the Greeks who had sworn alliance" (Godley translation) or "the Greeks who had banded themselves together" (Rawlinson translation). Hereafter, they will be referred to as the 'Allies'. Sparta and Athens had a leading role in the congress but interests of all the states played a part in determining defensive strategy. Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings. Only 70 of the approximately 700 Greek cities sent representatives. Nevertheless, this was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.

The majority of other city-states remained more-or-less neutral, awaiting the outcome of the confrontation. Thebes was a major absentee and was suspected of being willing to aid the Persians once the invasion force arrived. Not all Thebans agreed with this policy, and 400 "loyalist" hoplites joined the Allied force at Thermopylae (at least according to one possible interpretation). The most notable city actively siding with the Persians ("Medised") was Argos, in the otherwise Spartan-dominated Peloponnese. However, the Argives had been severely weakened in 494 BC, when a Spartan-force led by Cleomenes I had annihilated the Argive army in Battle of Sepeia and then massacred the fugitives.

Size of allied forces

The allies had no 'standing army', nor was there any requirement to form one; since they were fighting on home territory, they could muster armies as and when required. Different-sized allied forces thus appeared throughout the campaign. These numbers are discussed fully in the article for each battle.

Spring 480 BC: Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly

Having crossed into Europe in April 480 BC, the Persian army began its march to Greece. Five major food depots had been set up along the path: at White Headland on the Thracian side of the Hellespont, at Tyrodiza in Perinthian territory, at Doriskos at the Evros river estuary where the Asian army was linked up with the Balkan allies, at Eion on the Strymon river, and at Therme, modern-day Thessaloniki. There, food had been sent from Asia for several years in preparation for the campaign. Animals had been bought and fattened, while the local populations had, for several months, been ordered to grind the grains into flour. The Persian army took roughly three months to travel unopposed from the Hellespont to Therme, a journey of about 600 km (360 mi). It paused at Doriskos where it was joined by the fleet. Xerxes reorganized the troops into tactical units replacing the national formations used earlier for the march.

The Allied 'congress' met again in the spring of 480 BC. A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe, on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance. A force of 10,000 Allies led by the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles was thus dispatched to the pass. However, once there, they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed by at least two other passes and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming; the Allies therefore retreated. Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. The abandonment of Tempe meant that all of Thessaly submitted to the Persians, as did many cities to the north of the pass of Thermopylae when it seemed help was not forthcoming.

A second strategy was therefore suggested to the Allies by Themistocles. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae. This could easily be blocked by the Allies, despite the overwhelming number of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians from bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the allied navy could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by congress. However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should it come to it, while the women and children of Athens were evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen.

August 480 BC: Thermopylae and Artemisium

When the Allies received the news that Xerxes was clearing paths around Mount Olympus, and thus intending to march towards Thermopylae, it was both the period of truce that accompanied the Olympic games, and the Spartan festival of Carneia, during both of which warfare was considered sacrilegious. Nevertheless, the Spartans considered the threat so grave that they despatched their king Leonidas I with his personal bodyguard (the Hippeis) of 300 men (in this case, the elite young soldiers in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had sons). Leonidas was supported by contingents from the Peloponnesian cities allied to Sparta, and other forces that were picked up en route to Thermopylae. The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass and waited for Xerxes's arrival.

When the Persians arrived at Thermopylae in mid-August, they initially waited for three days for the Allies to disperse. When Xerxes was eventually persuaded that the Allies intended to contest the pass, he sent his troops to attack. However, the Greek position was ideally suited to hoplite warfare, the Persian contingents being forced to attack the phalanx head on. The Allies thus withstood two full days of battle and everything Xerxes could throw at them. However, at the end of the second day, they were betrayed by a local resident named Ephialtes who revealed to Xerxes a mountain path that led behind the Allied lines. Xerxes then sent his elite guards, the Immortals on a night march to outflank the Allies. When he was made aware of this maneuver (while the Immortals were still en route), Leonidas dismissed the bulk of the Allied army, remaining to guard the rear with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebians and perhaps a few hundred others. On the third day of the battle, the remaining Allies sallied forth from the wall to meet the Persians and slaughter as many as they could. Ultimately, however, the Allied rearguard was annihilated, and the pass of Thermopylae opened to the Persians.

Simultaneous with the battle at Thermopylae, an Allied naval force of 271 triremes defended the Straits of Artemisium against the Persians. Directly before Artemisium, the Persian fleet had been caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia, losing many ships, but could still probably muster over 800 ships at the start of the battle. On the first day (also the first of the Battle of Thermopylae), the Persians detached 200 seaworthy ships, which were sent to sail around the eastern coast of Euboea. These ships were to round Euboea and block the line of retreat for the Allied fleet. Meanwhile, the Allies and the remaining Persians engaged in the late afternoon, the Allies having the better of the engagement and capturing 30 vessels. That evening, another storm occurred, wrecking the majority of the Persian detachment which had been sent around Euboea.

On the second day of the battle, news reached the Allies that their lines of retreat were no longer threatened; they therefore resolved to maintain their position. They staged a hit-and-run attack on some Cilician ships, capturing and destroying them. On the third day, however, the Persian fleet attacked the Allies lines in full force. In a day of savage fighting, the Allies held on to their position, but suffered severe losses (half the Athenian fleet was damaged); nevertheless, the Allies inflicted equal losses on the Persian fleet. That evening, the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allies at Thermopylae. Since the Allied fleet was badly damaged, and since it no longer needed to defend the flank of Thermopylae, they retreated from Artemisium to the island of Salamis.

September 480 BC: Destruction of Athens, battle of Salamis

Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes; the two cities that had resisted him, Thespiae and Plataea, were captured and razed. Attica was also left open to invasion, and the remaining population of Athens was thus evacuated, with the aid of the Allied fleet, to Salamis. The Peloponnesian Allies began to prepare a defensive line across the Isthmus of Corinth, building a wall, and demolishing the road from Megara, thereby abandoning Athens to the Persians.

Athens fell a first time in September 480 BC. The small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered Athens to be torched. The Acropolis was razed and the Older Parthenon as well as the Old Temple of Athena were destroyed.

The Persians had now captured most of Greece, but Xerxes had perhaps not expected such defiance from the Greeks; his priority was now to complete the war as quickly as possible; the huge invasion force could not be supplied indefinitely, and probably Xerxes did not wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long. Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position had little chance of success; with the Allies now dug in across the isthmus, there was therefore little chance of the Persians conquering the rest of Greece by land. However, if the isthmus's defensive line could be outflanked, the Allies could be defeated. Such an outflanking of the isthmus required the use of the Persian navy, and thus the neutralisation of the Allied navy. In summary, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season. Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Greeks could avoid conquest. In the final reckoning, both sides were prepared to stake everything on a naval battle, in the hope of decisively altering the course of the war.

Thus, it was that the Allied fleet remained off the coast of Salamis into September, despite the imminent arrival of the Persians. Even after Athens fell to the advancing Persian army, the Allied fleet still remained off the coast of Salamis, trying to lure the Persian fleet to battle. Partly as a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the navies finally engaged in the cramped Straits of Salamis. There, the large Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to manoeuvre and became disorganised. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships, and thus ensuring the Peloponnesus would not be outflanked.

According to Herodotus, after this loss Xerxes attempted to build a causeway across the straits to attack Salamis (although Strabo and Ctesias place this attempt before the battle). In any case, this project was soon abandoned. With the Persians' naval superiority removed, Xerxes feared that the Greeks might sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges. According to Herodotus, Mardonius volunteered to remain in Greece and complete the conquest with a hand-picked group of troops, while advising Xerxes to retreat to Asia with the bulk of the army. All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, with Mardonius over-wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly.

Some Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt-out city for the winter. They would have to evacuate again in front of a second advance by Mardonius in June 479 BC.

Autumn/winter 480/479 BC

Siege of Potidaea
According to Herodotus a Persian general known as Artabazus escorted Xerxes to the Hellespont with 60,000 men; as he neared Pallene on the return journey to Thessaly: "he thought it right that he should enslave the people of Potidaea, whom he found in revolt". Despite attempts to capture Potidaea by treachery, the Persians were forced to keep up the siege for three months. Then, attempting to use an unusually low tide to attack the town from sea, the Persian army was caught by the returning tide, many drowning and the survivors being attacked by the Potideans in boats. Artabazus was thus forced to lift the siege, and return to Mardonius in Thessaly with the remnants of his men.

Siege of Olynthus
While besieging Potidea, Artabazus also decided to besiege Olynthus, which was also in revolt. The town was held by the Bottiaean tribe, who had been driven out of Macedon. Having taken the town, he massacred the defenders and handed over the town to the Chalcidian people.

June 479 BC: Plataea and Mycale

Over the winter, there seems to have been some tension between the Allies. In particular, the Athenians, who were not protected by the isthmus, but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnesus, felt hard done by. They demanded an Allied army march north the following year. When the other Allies failed to commit to this, the Athenian fleet probably refused to join the Allied navy in the spring. The navy, now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides, thus skulked off Delos, while the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos, both sides unwilling to risk battle. Similarly, Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus.

Mardonius moved to break the stalemate, by offering peace, self-government and territorial expansion to the Athenians (with the aim of thereby removing their fleet from the Allied forces), using Alexander I of Macedon as an intermediary. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the offer, but rejected it. Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it. Mardonius brought even more thorough destruction to the city. According to Herodotus, Mardonius "burnt Athens and utterly overthrew or demolished whatever wall or house or temple was left standing".

Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. Athens, along with Megara and Plataea, sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance, and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not. The Spartans, who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus, delayed making a decision for 10 days. However, when the Athenian emissaries then delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans, they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already marching to meet the Persians.

When Mardonius heard that the Allied army was on the march, he retreated into Boeotia, near Plataea, trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry. The Allied army however, under the command of the Spartan regent Pausanias, stayed on high ground above Plataea to protect themselves against such tactics. Mardonius ordered a hit-and-run cavalry attack on the Greek lines, but the attack was unsuccessful and the cavalry commander killed. The outcome prompted the Allies to move to a position nearer the Persian camp, still on high ground. As a result, the Allied lines of communication were exposed. The Persian cavalry began to intercept food deliveries and finally managed to destroy the only spring of water available to the Allies. The Allied position now undermined, Pausanias ordered a night-time retreat towards their original positions. This went awry, leaving the Athenians, and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills, with the other contingents scattered further away, near Plataea itself. Seeing that he might never have a better opportunity to attack, Mardonius ordered his whole army forward. However, as at Thermopylae, the Persian infantry proved no match for the heavily armoured Greek hoplites, and the Spartans broke through to Mardonius's bodyguard and killed him. The Persian force thus dissolved in rout; 40,000 troops managed to escape via the road to Thessaly, but the rest fled to the Persian camp where they were trapped and slaughtered by the Allies, thus finalising their victory.

On the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea, Herodotus tells us that rumour of the Allied victory reached the Allied navy, at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia. Their morale boosted, the Allied marines fought and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Mycale that same day, destroying the remnants of the Persian fleet. As soon as the Peloponnesians had marched north of the isthmus, the Athenian fleet under Xanthippus had joined up with the rest of the Allied fleet. The fleet, now able to match the Persians, had first sailed to Samos, where the Persian fleet was based. The Persians, whose ships were in a poor state of repair, had decided not to risk fighting and instead drew their ships up on the beach under Mycale. An army of 60,000 men had been left there by Xerxes, and the fleet joined with them, building a palisade around the camp to protect the ships. However, Leotychides decided to attack the camp with the Allied fleet's marines. Seeing the small size of the Allied force, the Persians emerged from the camp, but the hoplites again proved superior and destroyed much of the Persian force. The ships were abandoned to the Allies, who burnt them, crippling Xerxes' sea power, and marking the ascendancy of the Allied fleet.

Aftermath

With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale, the second Persian invasion of Greece was over. Moreover, the threat of future invasion was abated; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again, over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished.

In many ways Mycale represents the start of a new phase of the conflict, the Greek counterattack. After the victory at Mycale, the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges, but found that this was already done. The Peloponnesians sailed home, but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos, still held by the Persians. The Persians in the region, and their allies made for Sestos, the strongest town in the region, which the Athenians then laid siege to; after a protracted siege, it fell to the Athenians. Herodotus ended his Historia after the Siege of Sestos.

Over the next 30 years, the Greeks, primarily the Athenian-dominated Delian League, would expel the Persians from Macedon, Thrace, the Aegean islands and Ionia. The Achaemenid maintained a strong presence at the doorstep of Greece, in Thrace, until circa 465 BC. In 477–455 BC, according to Thucydides, the allies campaigned against the city of Eion, at the mouth of the Strymon river. Eion was one of the Achaemenid garrisons left in Thrace during and after the second Persian invasion, along with Doriskos. Herodotus then alludes to several failed attempts, presumably Athenian, to dislodge the Persian governor of Doriskos, Mascames. The Achaemenids finally removed Mascames and their garrison at Doriskos circa 465 BC.

Peace with Persia came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias, finally ending the half-century of warfare.

Tactical analysis

The Greek style of warfare had been honed over the preceding centuries. It revolved around the hoplite, members of the middle-classes (the zeugites) who could afford the armour necessary to fight in this manner. The hoplite was, by the standards of the time, heavily armoured, with linothorax or a breastplate (originally bronze, but probably by this stage made of organic materials such as linen (possibly linothorax) and leather, greaves, a full helmet, and a large round shield (the aspis). Hoplites were armed with a long spear (the doru), which was evidently significantly longer than Persian spears, and a sword (the xiphos). Hoplites fought in the phalanx formation; the exact details are not completely clear, but it was a close-knit formation, presenting a uniform front of overlapping shields, and spears, to the enemy. Properly assembled, the phalanx was a formidable offensive and defensive weapon; on occasions when it is recorded to have happened, it took a huge number of light infantry to defeat a relatively small phalanx. It is also possible that the "leather armor" was actually untanned or partially tanned rawhide rather than fully tanned leather, because modern tests have concluded that plain or treated rawhide is a significantly better material for making armor than leather.

The phalanx was vulnerable to being outflanked by cavalry, if caught on the wrong terrain, however. The hoplite's heavy armour and long spears made them excellent troops in hand-to-hand combat and gave them significant protection against ranged attacks by light troops and skirmishers. Even if the shield did not stop a missile, there was a reasonable chance the armour would.

The Persian infantry used in the invasion were a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire. However, according to Herodotus, there was at least a general conformity in the type of armour and style of fighting. The troops were, generally speaking, armed with a bow, 'short spear' and sword, carried a wicker shield and wore at most a leather jerkin. The one exception to this may have been the ethnic Persian troops, who may have worn a corslet of scaled armour. Some of the contingents may have been armed somewhat differently; for instance, the Saka were renowned axemen. The 'elite' contingents of the Persian infantry seem to have been the ethnic Persians, Medians, Cissians and the Saka. The foremost of the infantry were the royal guards, the Immortals, although they were still armed in the aforementioned style. Cavalry was provided by the Persians, Bactrians, Medes, Cissians and Saka; most of these probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry. The style of fighting used by the Persians was probably to stand off from an enemy, using their bows (or equivalent) to wear down the enemy before closing in to deliver the coup de grace with spear and sword.

The Persians had encountered hoplites in battle before at Ephesus, where their cavalry had easily routed the (probably exhausted) Greeks. However, at the battle of Marathon, the Athenian hoplites had shown their superiority over the Persian infantry, albeit in the absence of any cavalry. It is therefore slightly surprising that the Persians did not bring any hoplites from the Greek regions, especially Ionia, under their control in Asia. Equally, Herodotus tells us that the Egyptian marines serving in the navy were well armed, and performed well against the Greek marines; yet no Egyptian contingent served in the army. The Persians may not have completely trusted the Ionians and Egyptians, since both had recently revolted against Persian rule. However, if this is the case, then it must be questioned why there were Greek and Egyptian contingents in the navy. The Allies evidently tried to play on the Persian fears about the reliability of the Ionians in Persian service; but, as far as we can tell, both the Ionians and Egyptians performed particularly well for the Persian navy. It may therefore simply be that neither the Ionians nor Egyptians were included in the army because they were serving in the fleet — none of the coastal regions of the Persian empire appear to have sent contingents with the army.

In the two major land battles of the invasion, the Allies clearly adjusted their tactics to nullify the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry, by occupying the pass at Thermopylae and by staying on high ground at Plataea. At Thermopylae, until the path outflanking the Allied position was revealed, the Persians signally failed to adjust their tactics to the situation, although the position was well chosen to limit the Persian options. At Plataea, the harassing of the Allied positions by cavalry was a successful tactic, forcing the precipitous (and nearly disastrous) retreat; however, Mardonius then brought about a general melee between the infantry, which resulted in the Persian defeat. The events at Mycale reveal a similar story; Persian infantry committing themselves to a melee with hoplites, with disastrous results. It has been suggested that there is little evidence of complex tactics in the Greco-Persian wars. However, as simple as the Greek tactics were, they played to their strengths; the Persians, however, may have seriously underestimated the strength of the hoplite, and their failure to adapt to facing the Allied infantry contributed to the eventual Persian defeat.

Strategic analysis

At the beginning of the invasion, the Persians held most advantages. Regardless of its actual size, it is clear that the Persians had brought an overwhelming number of troops and ships to Greece. The Persians had a unified command system, and everyone was answerable to the king. They had a hugely efficient bureaucracy, which allowed them to undertake remarkable feats of planning. The Persian generals had significant experience of warfare over the 80 years in which the Persian empire had been established. Furthermore, the Persians excelled in the use of intelligence and diplomacy in warfare, as shown by their (nearly successful) attempts to divide and conquer the Greeks. The Greeks, by comparison, were fragmented, with only 30 or so city-states actively opposing the Persian invasion; even those were prone to quarrel with one another. They had little experience of large-scale warfare, being largely restricted to small-scale local warfare, and their commanders were chosen primarily on the basis of the political and social standing, rather than because of any experience or expertise. As Lazenby therefore asks: "So why did the Persians fail?"

The Persian strategy for 480 BC was probably to simply progress through Greece in overwhelming force. The cities in any territory that the army passed through would be forced to submit or risk destruction; and indeed this happened with the Thessalian, Locrian and Phocian cities who initially resisted the Persians but then were forced to submit as the Persians advanced. Conversely, the Allied strategy was probably to try and stop the Persian advance as far north as possible, and thus prevent the submission of as many potential Allies as possible. Beyond this, the Allies seem to have realised that given the Persians' overwhelming numbers, they had little chance in open battle, and thus they opted to try to defend geographical bottle-necks, where the Persian numbers would count for less. The whole Allied campaign for 480 BC can be seen in this context. Initially they attempted to defend the Tempe pass to prevent the loss of Thessaly. After they realised that they could not defend this position, they chose the next-most northerly position, the Thermopylae/Artemisium axis. The Allied performance at Thermopylae was initially effective; however, the failure to properly guard the path that outflanked Thermopylae undermined their strategy, and led to defeat. At Artemisium the fleet also scored some successes, but withdrew due to the losses they had sustained, and since the defeat of Thermopylae made the position irrelevant. Thus far, the Persian strategy had succeeded, while the Allied strategy, though not a disaster, had failed.

The defence of the Isthmus of Corinth by the Allies changed the nature of the war. The Persians did not attempt to attack the isthmus by land, realising they probably could not breach it. This essentially reduced the conflict to a naval one. Themistocles now proposed what was in hindsight the strategic masterstroke in the Allied campaign; to lure the Persian fleet to battle in the straits of Salamis. However, as successful as this was, there was no need for the Persians to fight at Salamis to win the war; it has been suggested that the Persians were either overconfident or overeager to finish the campaign. Thus, the Allied victory at Salamis must at least partially be ascribed to a Persian strategic blunder. After Salamis, the Persian strategy changed. Mardonius sought to exploit dissensions between the Allies in order to fracture the alliance. In particular, he sought to win over the Athenians, which would leave the Allied fleet unable to oppose Persian landings on the Peloponnesus. Although Herodotus tells us that Mardonius was keen to fight a decisive battle, his actions in the run-up to Plataea are not particularly consistent with this. He seems to have been willing to accept battle on his terms, but he waited either for the Allies to attack, or for the alliance to collapse ignominiously. The Allied strategy for 479 BC was something of a mess; the Peloponnesians only agreed to march north in order to save the alliance, and it appears that the Allied leadership had little idea how to force a battle that they could win. It was the botched attempt to retreat from Plataea that finally delivered the Allies battle on their terms. Mardonius may have been overeager for victory; there was no need to attack the Allies, and by doing so he played to the main Allied tactical strength, combat in the melee. The Allied victory at Plataea can also therefore be seen as partially the result of a Persian mistake.

Thus, the Persian failure may be seen partly as a result of two strategic mistakes that handed the Allies tactical advantages, and resulted in decisive defeats for the Persians. The Allied success is often seen as the result of "free men fighting for their freedom". This may have played a part, and certainly the Greeks seem to have interpreted their victory in those terms. One crucial factor in the Allied success was that, having formed an alliance, however fractious, they remained true to it, despite the odds. There appear to have been many occasions when the alliance seemed in doubt, but ultimately it withstood; and while this alone did not defeat the Persians, it meant that even after the occupation of most of Greece, the Allies were not themselves defeated. This is exemplified by the remarkable fact that the citizens of Athens, Thespiae and Plataea chose to carry on fighting from exile rather than submit to the Persians. Ultimately, the Allies succeeded because they avoided catastrophic defeats, stuck to their alliance, took advantage of Persian mistakes, and because in the hoplite they possessed an advantage (perhaps their only real advantage at the start of the conflict), which, at Plataea, allowed them to destroy the Persian invasion force.

Significance

The second Persian invasion of Greece was an event of major significance in European history. A large number of historians hold that, had Greece been conquered, the Ancient Greek culture that lies at the basis of Western civilization would have never developed (and by extension Western civilization itself). While this may be an exaggeration, it is clear that even at the time the Greeks understood that something very significant had happened.

Militarily, there was not much in the way of tactical or strategic innovation during the Persian invasion, one commentator suggesting it was something of "a soldier's war" (i.e., it was the soldiers rather than generals that won the war). Thermopylae is often used as a good example of the use of terrain as a force multiplier, while Themistocles's ruse before Salamis is a good example of the use of deception in warfare. The major lesson of the invasion, reaffirming the events at the Battle of Marathon, was the superiority of the hoplite in close-quarters fighting over the more-lightly armed Persian infantry. Taking on this lesson, the Persian empire would later, after the Peloponnesian War, start recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries.

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources
Herodotus, The Histories
 Macan translation of books 7–9 of The Histories (The Perseus Digital Library) (1908)
 Macauley translation of The Histories
 Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica
 Ctesias, Persica (from Photius's Epitome)

Modern sources
Holland, Tom (2006). Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. Abacus, .
Green, Peter (1996). The Greco-Persian Wars. University of California Press.
de Souza, Philip (2003). The Greek and Persian Wars, 499–386 BC. Osprey Publishing, ()
Lazenby, JF (1993). The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC. Aris & Phillips Ltd., ()
Burn, A.R., "Persia and the Greeks" in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenid Periods, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). Cambridge University Press.
Sekunda, N & Chew, S (1992). The Persian Army (560–330 BC), Elite series, Osprey Publishing.

Bradford, E. Thermopylae: The Battle for the West. Da Capo Press, .
 Strauss, Barry. The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004 (hardcover, ; paperback, ).
Bury, J. B. & Meiggs, R. (2000). A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great (4th Revised Edition). Palgrave Macmillan.
Grote, G. A History of Greece: Part II
Maurice, F (1930). "The size of the army of Xerxes in the invasion of Greece 480 BC". Journal of Hellenic Studies vol. 50, pp. 115–128.
Delbrück, Hans (1920). History of the Art of War. University of Nebraska Press. Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. 4 Volumes.
Warry, J. (1998). Warfare in the Classical World. .
Engels, DW. (1978). Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London.

Scott, JA (1915). "Thoughts on the Reliability of Classical Writers, with Especial Reference to the Size of the Army of Xerxes", The Classical Journal 10 (9).
von Fischer, R. Das Zahlenproblem in Perserkriege 480–479 v. Chr. Klio, N. F., vol. VII.
Cohen, R (1934). La Grece et l'hellenization du monde antique
Tarn, WW. (1908). "The Fleet of Xerxes", The Journal of Hellenic Studies v.28
Obst, E. (1914). Der Feldzug des Xerxes. Leipzig
Munro, JAR (1929). Cambridge Ancient History vol. IV
Köster, AJ (1934). Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens. Klio Belheft 32
Οι δυνάμεις των Ελλήνων και των Περσών (The forces of the Greeks and the Persians), E Istorika no. 164 19 October 2002.
Papademetriou, K (2005). "Περσικό Πεζικό: Η δύναμη που κατέκτησε τη νοτιοδυτική Ασία" (Persian Infantry: The force that conquered southwest Asia), Panzer magazine, Issue 22 September–October 2005, Periscopio editions Athens.
Fehling, D (1989). Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art. Translated by J. G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns.

480 BC
479 BC
480s BC conflicts
470s BC conflicts
Greco-Persian Wars
Wars involving ancient Greece
Wars involving the Achaemenid Empire
Wars involving Athens
Wars involving Sparta
Invasions of Greece
Xerxes I


Grabian is a village and a former municipality in the Fier County, western Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Divjakë. The population at the 2011 census was 3,638.

References

Former municipalities in Fier County
Administrative units of Divjakë
Villages in Fier County


Faruk Khan (born 18 September 1951) is a Bangladeshi politician and former Minister of Civil Aviation and Tourism of Bangladesh Government. Khan is a parliament member for five consecutive times from Gopalganj-1 and former Commerce & Industry Secretary of the Awami League.

Early life
Khan was born on 18 September 1951 in Dhaka to his parents Serajul Karim Khan and mother Khaleda Karim Khan. He holds a Masters in Defense Studies from Defense Services and Staff College in Mirpur.

Career
Khan was commissioned from 44 Pakistan Military Academy long course in the corps of infantry on 26 March 1971. He retired as a Lieutenant Colonel on 15 May 1995 from Bangladesh Army.

Khan was parliament member. He also held cabinet portfolio of Civil Aviation and Tourism, and Commerce. He was elected from the seat of Gopalganj-1 with 99% votes the third time in a row at 29 December 2008's National Election. Khan pledged that the reduction of prices of basic foods and commodities are a priority in his term.

Personal life
Khan is married to Nilufer Faruk Khan, a social worker. Together they have two daughters Qantara K Khan and Qareena K Khan. His father, Sirajul Karim Khan, was an army officer and mother was Khaleda Karim Khan.

See also
 2008 Bangladesh general election

References

External links
Faruk Khan
Faruk Khan Website
Commerce Minister Muhammad Faruk Khan - Google News

Living people
1951 births
Awami League politicians
8th Jatiya Sangsad members
Bangladesh Army colonels
Civil Aviation and Tourism ministers of Bangladesh
11th Jatiya Sangsad members
7th Jatiya Sangsad members
9th Jatiya Sangsad members
10th Jatiya Sangsad members
People from Gopalganj District, Bangladesh
Politicians from Dhaka Division


Wágner Luiz Fogolari (born 19 November 1989 in Porto Alegre) or simply Wágner, is a Brazilian footballer who plays for Sampaio Corrêa as a central defender.

Career

Grêmio
In January 2008, as the season starts, he was promoted to the first team after a strong and solid performances in the youth side. His huge physical presence and good aerial game in pre-season impress the managers and earned him a spot in the starting eleven, with only 18 years-old.

But he failed to impress making some weak appearances in the Rio Grande do Sul State Championship, including an own goal in a 2-2 draw against Caxias.

After that, he was relegated to play in the B squad in order to give more experience. In October, he took a squad number in Campeonato Brasileiro roster and back to training with the first team. On November 8, 2008, he was named on the bench for his first Championship game, Gremio's 1-0 away win against Palmeiras, but was an unused substitute.

Footnotes

External links
 Profile

1989 births
Living people
Brazilian men's footballers
Brazilian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense players
Esporte Clube São José players
Associação Desportiva São Caetano players
Associação Portuguesa de Desportos players
Cosenza Calcio players
Modena FC 2018 players
Benevento Calcio players
Serie B players
Campeonato Brasileiro Série B players
Men's association football defenders
Footballers from Porto Alegre


James Elmer Duggan (June 1, 1885 – December 5, 1951) was an American professional baseball player. Except for one game with St. Louis Browns in 1911, first baseman Duggan spent his entire 11-year professional career in the minor leagues.

Early life and career
Duggan born on Monday, June 1, 1885, in Whiteland, Indiana. He graduated from Whiteland High School and attended Franklin College before entering pro ball with the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association in 1906. He was playing for the Holyoke, Massachusetts Papermakers (Connecticut League) in 1911 when the franchise folded on June 20. A few days later, the Browns summoned him to Detroit for a game with the Tigers. Batting seventh, Duggan went hitless in four at bats, drew a walk, drove in a run and scored once in a 6-5 St. Louis victory. It would be his only major league appearance.

After the majors
Duggan's last six professional seasons were spent in the Three-I League. Starting in 1912, he spent four years in Decatur, Illinois, and in 1915 he was the Commodores' playing manager. He split the 1916 season between the Rock Island Islanders. and Davenport Blue Sox. He finished his career in 1917 as a player-manager with the Blues of Alton, Illinois.

In 1918 Duggan entered the army, He was on board a ship bound for Europe when World War I ended.

Johnny Duggan, Jim's brother, was a minor league outfielder.

External links

Major League Baseball first basemen
St. Louis Browns players
Nashville Vols players
Atlanta Crackers players
New Haven Blues players
Holyoke Papermakers players
Decatur Commodores players
Rock Island Islanders players
Davenport Blue Sox players
Baseball players from Indiana
1885 births
1951 deaths
People from Johnson County, Indiana
Sportspeople from the Indianapolis metropolitan area
Alton Blues players


Burning the Days is the fifth studio album from the band Vertical Horizon, released on September 22, 2009.

Background
Following the multi-platinum success of their 1999 album, Everything You Want, the members of Vertical Horizon were disappointed with what they felt was a  lack of support from RCA in promoting their 2003 follow up, Go. Go failed to gain any real support from RCA, but despite the label's lack of interest in Go, Vertical Horizon had difficulty getting released from its contract. Despite setbacks, the group and label severed their relationship when RCA merged with Sony Music in 2004, after which Vertical Horizon signed with Hybrid Recordings, where Go was re-released as Go 2.0 in 2005.

Shortly after the release of Go 2.0, longtime drummer Ed Toth announced he was leaving Vertical Horizon to join The Doobie Brothers.

Recording
After an extended hiatus, work began on Burning the Days in 2007.  Scannell took a different approach to the record by working at his home studio, and created his own label, Outfall Records, to release Burning the Days on. Though free of any external pressures, Scannell felt the need to be cautious with the recording: "You have the freedom to be a little creative when you're not working against the clock, but at the same time you can be a little too lenient, and spending an awful lot of time."

Scannell also worked with outside musicians while writing and recording Burning the Days, which included drummer Neil Peart from Rush, and singer/songwriter Richard Marx. Peart played drums on three songs: "Even Now", "Save Me from Myself" and "Welcome to the Bottom", and wrote the lyrics to "Even Now". Scannell asked Peart if he would be interested in playing drums on the song, and Peart responded, "No one else can play drums on it — I won’t let anyone else play drums on it. I have to play the drums on it." Marx played piano on "Here" and produced Scannell's vocals on two of the album's songs.

As with Go, longtime singer/guitarist Keith Kane is largely absent from Burning the Days, only being credited with performing harmony vocals on the album. Scannell has insisted that Kane's minimal involvement in the recording of the album was not due to any tension between the two, explaining that Kane's limited involvement has been a part of the changing dynamics within the group that's naturally progressed through the years starting with their first album: "[W]ith There and Back Again, the album was purposefully half Keith's songs and half my songs. And what really started happening, quickly as we started progressing as a band, is that my output of songs just started greatly increasing. Keith’s input started slowing down, and I think that is evident with Running on Ice." Over the years Kane has always stated contentment with his role in the band, and Scannell's as frontman. Kane stopped touring with the band in 2010 to work on solo projects.

According to an interview with Matt Scannell for Songfacts, he wrote "All Is Said and Done" about control freaks.

Release
"All Is Said and Done" was first revealed on the band's MySpace page in November 2008. The album was released on September 22, 2009, on the band's own label, Outfall Records.

Reception

The album's reception was mixed. AllMusic praised the album for its "immaculate production" and its progressive rock elements introduced on the tracks that featured contributions by Neil Peart.  Alternative Addiction praised the album for its lyrics and guitar-work, calling it "a perfect showcase for Vertical Horizon’s return to the spotlight, and could easily be one of the best albums of 2009." The Los Angeles Times was less enthusiastic, feeling that the album felt "flat and lifeless", and paled in comparison to Third Eye Blind's 2009 comeback album Ursa Major.

Track listing
All songs written by Matt Scannell, except where noted.

 "All Is Said and Done" - 4:23
 "The Lucky One" - 3:54
 "The Middle Ground" - 4:24
 "I Believe In You" - 3:23
 "Save Me From Myself" - 4:17
 "Carrying On" - 3:36
 "Back to You" - 3:33
 "Can You Help Me" - 3:59
 "Afterglow" - 3:58
 "Here" - 3:41
 "Welcome to the Bottom" - 5:47
 "Even Now" (Scannell, Neil Peart) - 6:43

Personnel

Vertical Horizon
 Matt Scannell - lead vocals, guitars, keyboards and programming
 Keith Kane - harmony vocals
 Sean Hurley - bass guitar
 Jason Sutter - drums

Additional personnel
 Neil Peart - drums on "Save Me from Myself", "Even Now" and "Welcome to the Bottom"
 Richard Marx - piano on "Here"
 Blair Sinta - drums on "Here"

Production
 Steve Hardy: Engineering, Mixing
 Joel Numa: Engineering
 Mark Valentine: Engineering
 Ted Jensen: Mastering
 Anik McGrory: Artwork

References

2009 albums
Vertical Horizon albums


Golem is a former municipality in the Fier County, western Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Lushnjë. The population at the 2011 census was 5,243.

References

Former municipalities in Fier County
Administrative units of Lushnjë


Call of Duty: World at War is a 2008 first-person shooter game developed by Treyarch and published by Activision. It was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, Wii and Xbox 360 in November 2008. It is the fifth main installment of the Call of Duty series and takes place in World War II. The campaign focuses on the Pacific and Eastern Front theaters involving the United States, Empire of Japan, Soviet Union, and Nazi Germany. It is told from the perspectives of Marine Raider Private C. Miller, US Navy Petty Officer Locke, and Red Army soldier Private Dimitri Petrenko. The games missions are based on several historical battles.

The multiplayer component of the game contains various game modes and a leveling system that allows the player to unlock additional weapons and rewards as they progress, similar to Call of Duty 4 and repeated in many following Call of Duty entries. Vehicles, in the form of tanks, that players can control appear on certain multiplayer maps. The game also contains downloadable content called "map packs", which can be purchased online. A new feature to the series was the addition of a cooperative mode, which supports up to two players locally and four players online, as well as the introduction of the Zombies mode, which became a mainstay in Call of Duty games developed by Treyarch.

Development for World at War took two years and began after the release of Treyarch's previous title, Call of Duty 3, which was also set in World War II and was their first title they developed for the series. The game is based on an enhanced version of the IW engine developed by Infinity Ward with increased development on audio and visual effects. Treyarch utilized the engine to make more parts of certain environments destructible and introduce limb dismemberment and realistic burns to character models. The game was announced by Activision on June 23, 2008.

World at War received positive reviews from critics, with praise directed at its intensity and violent nature, though it received criticism for its lack of innovation. It was also a commercial success, selling 3 million copies in the United States within the first two months of its release, becoming one of the best-selling titles of 2008. It also marked the beginning of the Black Ops subseries, as characters from the game were carried over into its sequel, Call of Duty: Black Ops (2010). Other games under the title World at War were published for the Nintendo DS (DS version), and  PlayStation 2 featuring different storylines and missions. The PS2's version has the subtitle of Final Fronts. The Xbox 360 version of World at War became backwards compatible on the Xbox One in September 2016.

Gameplay

Overview
World at War  features more mature themes than previous Call of Duty installments and  is open-ended, giving the player multiple ways to complete objectives, but otherwise generally plays like previous iterations of the franchise. Players fight alongside AI-controlled teammates. They help during the game's missions by providing cover fire, shooting down enemies, and clearing rooms for entry. When playing the Wii version of the game, the Wii Remote and Nunchuk is used to aim at enemies with motion controls.

The game features a variety of different weapons and technology from World War II. The player gains access to these over the course of the game, but may only carry up to two weapons in addition to hand grenades. Weapons and ammo from fallen foes or friendlies can be picked up to replace weapons in a player's arsenal. Players can also find weapons with additional attachments, including guns equipped with rifle grenades, telescopic sights, and bayonets.

A character can be positioned in one of three stances – standing, crouching, or prone – with each affecting the character's rate of movement, accuracy, and stealth. Using cover helps the player avoid enemy fire or recover health after taking significant damage, as there are no armor or health powerups. When the character has taken damage, the edges of the screen glow red and the character's heartbeat increases. If the character stays out of fire, the character can recover. When the character is within the blast radius of a live grenade, a marker indicates the direction of the grenade, helping the player in deciding whether to flee or throw it back at the enemy.

The single-player campaign includes thirteen hidden "death cards", denoted by playing cards attached to makeshift war graves. There is one in each level (barring those that take place in vehicles); collecting them unlocks cheats for Co-op mode, such as reduced enemy endurance and "paintball mode".

Multiplayer

World at Wars multiplayer experience resembles the one established in Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. All versions of the game use a similar perk and ranking system and feature six multiplayer modes, including Team Deathmatch and capture the flag. There are three "killstreak rewards" that can be used to turn the tide of battle: a recon plane, showing opposing players on the mini-map; an artillery strike upon an area; and attack dogs, which spawn and attack opposing players. These are gained with 3, 5, and 7 kills, respectively. They are available in all game modes, apart from team survival, and cannot be edited.

The game also features a cooperative gameplay mode with up to two players via split-screen on consoles, or four players online, for the first time in the franchise. The Wii version of the game does not include online co-op, but two players can play through a "squadmate co-op" mode which allows both players to experience the game through the same screen and point of view.

Nazi Zombies
The Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Windows versions of World at War feature the minigame Nazi Zombies. This is the first time the "Zombies" mode ever appeared in any Call of Duty game, and the mode now has become a mainstay for any Call of Duty game developed by Treyarch ever since. To play the mode, the campaign must be completed. On completion of the final campaign mission, the map "Nacht der Untoten" will launch automatically.

In this mode, one to four players fight an unlimited number of waves of Nazi zombies (with exception for the map "Shi No Numa", which has undead members of the IJA), beginning with an M1911 pistol. Players earn points for killing zombies or repairing boarded-up windows, which are used to expand areas of the map to access more useful weapons. Zombies routinely break the windows to enter and attack the players; if a player is attacked enough times, they fall and will need to be "revived" by another player in a certain time, or wait until the next round occurs to play again. If all players are damaged enough to fall, the game is over. As the game's DLC cycle continued, more features were added such as "Perk-a-Colas" (soda themed player upgrades); traps; Hellhounds; the Bowie knife and "Pack-a-Punch" (weapon upgrading machine).

Synopsis

Characters
During the single-player campaign, the player controls three characters from a first-person perspective. The player first assumes the role of Private C. Miller of the United States Marine Corps' 1st Marine Division, fighting with Corporal, later Sergeant, Roebuck (voiced by Kiefer Sutherland), and his men from the Marine Raiders, during the Pacific War. Other notable non-playable characters of the Marine Raiders unit include Sergeant Tom Sullivan (voiced by Chris Fries) and Private Polonsky (voiced by Aaron Stanford). The second playable character is Private Dimitri Petrenko of the Red Army, who fights on the Eastern Front with Sergeant Viktor Reznov (voiced by Gary Oldman). They are joined by a third character, Private Chernov, Reznov's subordinate, who serves as a voice of reason throughout the campaign and regularly voices shock and disapproval at the brutal slaughter he witnesses. The third playable character in the campaign is Petty Officer Locke, a weapons operator on a PBY Catalina, who is only playable in the mission "Black Cats".

Plot

American Campaign
On Makin Island, in August 1942, Private C. Miller witnesses the torture and execution of his squad of Marines by the Imperial Japanese Army, before he is rescued by a squad of Marine Raiders, led by Corporal Roebuck and Sergeant Sullivan, who then begin assaulting Japanese positions on the island. In September 1944, the squad participates in the Battle of Peleliu. After breaking through the Japanese lines on the beach, Sullivan is fatally stabbed by a Japanese soldier, and Roebuck is promoted to Sergeant. The squad make their way through a swamp to capture an airfield to disable anti-aircraft guns. After pushing further inland, the squad take out enemy mortar crews so their tanks can proceed inland. They proceed through tunnels to attack the artillery-filled Point, allowing American ships to advance, and Peleliu falls into American hands.

In April 1945, Petty Officer Locke, in a PBY Catalina, takes part in a raid on Japanese merchant ships before being diverted to assist Task Force 58 of the US Fifth Fleet, who are being attacked as part of Operation Ten-Go. Locke's crew works to rescue as many American sailors as possible while fighting off Imperial Japanese Navy torpedo boats and Zeroes. A sudden attack from a squadron of Vought F4U-1Cs drives off the remaining Zeroes just as the damaged Catalina runs out of ammunition.

In May 1945, Miller's squad assaults a Japanese position on Okinawa, clearing out machine gun bunkers to allow American tanks to progress. With the battle almost won, the Americans storm Shuri Castle. Several Japanese soldiers appear to surrender, but reveal concealed grenades when Roebuck and Private Polonsky attempt to search them; Miller is presented with the choice of saving either Roebuck or Polonsky (at the end of the mission, the individual saved gives Miller the dog tags of the dead individual). More American troops arrive to help engage the remaining Japanese soldiers in the castle. After air strikes are called in, Shuri Castle is captured, crushing the last bastion of Japanese resistance on Okinawa.

Soviet Campaign
In September 1942, Private Dimitri Petrenko of the 62nd Rifle Division wakes in a body-filled fountain in Stalingrad as German troops execute his comrades. He meets fellow survivor Sergeant Viktor Reznov, who tells him of his mission to kill German General Heinrich Amsel, who is responsible for numerous war crimes across the Soviet Union. After evading and fighting German soldiers, Dimitri and Reznov meet up with the remainder of Dimitri's unit preparing to assault the General's communications post. Dimitri and Reznov provide overwatch for Soviet soldiers as they attempt to capture the post, managing to kill Amsel as he attempts to escape. Their position is discovered, and Dimitri and Reznov flee into the Volga River.

In April 1945, during the Battle of the Seelow Heights, Dimitri is saved from capture by German soldiers by the advancing 3rd Shock Army. He is reunited with Reznov and introduced to Private Chernov, who is reluctant to be merciless toward the enemy as ordered by Reznov. The Soviet troops fight through German lines before reaching and clearing out an enemy camp. Dimitri and Reznov then operate a T-34 tank alongside several others, eliminating the last German resistance in the area before boarding a train to Berlin. Upon arrival, they engage German soldiers on the outskirts of the city. They advance through the streets before entering a Berlin U-Bahn station, fighting through it until the Germans flood it in an attempt to eliminate the Soviets.

Reznov drags Dimitri out of the U-Bahn station to regroup with Soviet infantry. The Red Army then advances towards the Reichstag. During the assault at its entrance, Chernov is killed by a flamethrower. Reznov, Dimitri and the remaining Soviet soldiers enter the Reichstag, clearing it of the German defenders, and reach the rooftop. Dimitri is badly wounded by a lone German soldier, whom Reznov then brutally kills with a machete before helping Dimitri plant the Soviet flag, signaling Soviet victory and ending the war in Europe.

Development
World at War was announced on June 23, 2008, by Activision, who confirmed that the game was to be released in fall 2008, and that the series would revert to its customary World War II setting. The game took about two years to make, twice as long as Treyarch's previous entry to the series, Call of Duty 3. The game is powered by an improved version of the Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare engine, with several improvements made to the physics model. Environments are more destructible and can be set on fire with the flamethrower, whose fire propagates. Dismemberment, as well as realistic skin and clothes burning of the characters were added. Exakt Entertainment assisted in porting the game in this engine to the Wii while Arkane Studios assisted in the creation of levels for the multiplayer mode under the direction of Austin based studio Certain Affinity.

Not long after, Treyarch released the modding tools for Call of Duty: World at War. These tools were the same ones used to create all the other Call of Duty series games, but with slight changes version to version, which can be downloaded online. Kiefer Sutherland and Gary Oldman were cast as voice actors for the game. Sutherland voices the narrator and squad leader of the American campaign, Sergeant Roebuck, while Oldman voices that of the Soviet campaign, Sergeant Reznov. A full-sized replica PBY Catalina was constructed for motion capture use.

Audio
The music for Call of Duty: World at War was composed by Sean Murray. He had worked with Brian Tuey, Treyarch's audio director, on True Crime: New York City, the sequel to the first True Crime: Streets of LA. Murray said Tuey "knew I would bring a fresh approach to Call of Duty: World at War". Adam Levenson, the audio director of Activision, was called in to help them. Murray said that he wanted to make the music more fun and intense, but also "a specific musical path that follows the psyche of the gameplay".

The new technology of occlusion, which changes the sound made by nearby object depending on objects blocking its path e.g. walls, has been added to World at War. The game has various levels of "muffled" sound depending on the objects it travels through e.g. a more muffled sound through a thick wall compared to a slightly muffled sound through a thin short wall. For the first time in a Call of Duty game, the player is able to tell the difference between someone walking next to the player and someone walking above or below the player, as well as telling the difference between a shot fired in the distance and a shot fired close by, but behind a solid object.

The other technology of Flux was also developed using field recording systems. The World at War crew traveled to a desert with mountains on both side of the range to test the frequencies of sounds made by World War II weapons. Microphones were placed  behind and 60 yards in front of the gun to test the echoes. This was later replicated and developed in the studio for the game software. It means that players will be able to pinpoint a sniper rifle shot, as it reflects off them, as well as hearing the initial 'pop' of a hand grenade blowing up and then the grenade's loud "whoosh" sound that begins where the grenade blew up, and ends behind the player. The flux system also combines with the occlusion system.

Marketing
The first trailer for the game premiered on Xbox Live on June 21, 2008, and arrived on PlayStation Network five days later. A beta of the game's online multiplayer mode was released for the Xbox 360 on October 10, 2008. A PC version of the beta was later released on October 28, 2008. Those who pre-ordered the game at GameStop, Game and EB Games in Australia or North America or who are members of the Call of Duty official website were given codes which allowed them to download both beta versions of the game. Coinciding with the release of the game, McFarlane Toys produced four action figures. Three are different varieties of US Marine Corps infantry, and the fourth is a British Special Ops soldier.

A collector's edition of World at War was released on November 11, 2008 in North America and November 14, 2008 in Europe. It includes several bonus items, among them a stainless steel canteen imprinted with the Call of Duty series logo and a metal storage tin. The collector's edition also gives the player access to an unlockable weapon and the opportunity to earn double experience points in the online multiplayer mode, as well as a specially colored clan tag to denote the player's VIP status. This edition of the game is only available for the Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 platforms.

Downloadable content
On February 26, 2009, an update was made available to the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions, as well as the addition of a new multiplayer map, Makin Day. The update included several bug fixes which removed glitches in several multiplayer maps and player movements, and provided more information in the stats display. The Makin Day map was released for Microsoft Windows on February 6, 2009, in the downloadable patch 1.2. Makin Day has a similar layout as the existing Makin map, but includes subtle changes such as daylight, reflected in the tide being out along the shoreline as well as some reworked areas of the map.

On March 18, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced that downloadable content (DLC) was under development for World at War, titled Map Pack 1. This first installment of DLC was released on March 19, 2009, for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, while the Windows version received the DLC at a later date. The map pack includes three new multiplayer maps and one new Nazi Zombies map, entitled "Zombie Verrückt" (). The map is based on the multiplayer map Asylum, in turn based on the asylum in the campaign mission Ring of Steel. The map includes new weapons and power-ups intended to expand the experience. Players can turn on a power generator that reunites both sides of the map and enables "Perk-a-Cola" machines, which have been featured in every subsequent Treyarch Zombies map (excluding Bus depot). The new multiplayer map called "Nightfire" takes places at night in the streets of a bombed-out area of Berlin. The "Knee Deep" map is in the jungle of Peleliu and contains fortified huts and streams. "Station" is located in a ruined underground train station in Berlin featuring subway cars and hidden passages. Reports stated that Map Pack 1 sold over 1 million copies in the first week of availability, setting an Xbox Live record for the number of downloads in a week.

On April 30, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced Map Pack 2, which was released on June 11. Map Pack 2 contains an additional four multiplayer maps. "Shi No Numa" (死の沼" 'swamp of death') is a new map on the Nazi Zombies co-op mode, set in a misty swamp-land surrounded by jungle. The map takes place in the Japanese occupied Dutch East Indies and new features include flaming hellhounds, the Wunderwaffe DG-2 weapon and ten new achievements/trophies. The map also introduced four new playable characters who have appeared in many subsequent Treyarch Zombie maps: Tank Dempsey of the U.S.M.C, Nikolai Belinski of the Red Army, Nazi Doctor Edward Richtofen and Takeo Masaki of the Imperial Japanese Army. The multiplayer map "Banzai" is set in a jungle featuring a river bridge, villages, a waterfall and hidden caves. The "Corrosion" map is set in a run-down train yard in Russia, featuring broken pipelines and train cars. The "Sub Pens" map is located in a bombed-out Japanese submarine base with heavy rain.

On July 20, 2009, Activision and Treyarch announced Map Pack 3, which was released on August 6, 2009. This DLC also consists of three new multiplayer maps and a new Nazi Zombies map. The three multiplayer maps are "Battery", which takes place on an abandoned coastal artillery battery Pacific; "Breach", which is set in the overcrowded streets of Berlin, Germany near the Brandenburg Gate; and "Revolution", which is based on an industrialized city in Russia. The new Nazi Zombies map, "Der Riese" which means "The Giant" in English, is based in a factory in Breslau where "Element 115" is being processed and used to build teleporters and other mysterious devices, such as the "Pack-a-Punch Machine", which upgrades guns, such as the Wunderwaffe DG-2. New weapons such as Monkey Bombs were also added. This map also heavily expanded the official backstory to Zombies mode, which is continued into Call of Duty: Black Ops.

All map packs were released for free on Microsoft Windows. The packs were paid DLC for the Xbox 360 and PS3.

Other versions

Nintendo DS

Call of Duty: World at War was released for the Nintendo DS on November 11, 2008 in North America, and on November 14 in Europe. It was published by Activision and developed by n-Space, who used the same game engine as their previous title, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. The game's scenarios are also based on World War II's Pacific theater and Eastern front with American, British and Soviet campaigns. Up to four players can be supported online with four different types of game, as well as perks and rank-ups. Compared to Modern Warfare, it has improved in-level geometry, has more responsive sprints and crouches and 3D-modeled guns instead of 2D sprites. However the flamethrower, which is new to the game series, is rendered with 2D sprites. The framerate is just under 30 and has much voice-over during the missions. Players are able to defuse mines and send Morse code with the touch screen, as well as using mortar rounds, an anti-air gun from a battleship, parachuting and using mounted guns. There is also a tank mode which allows the player to turn the main gun and fire machine gun rounds at the same time.

PlayStation 2

The PlayStation 2 version, titled Call of Duty: World at War: Final Fronts, differs significantly from the main versions. Developed by Rebellion Developments, it features 13 missions set near the end of World War II across three different campaigns. Aside from the two campaigns in the Pacific and Western to Central Europe, Final Fronts also includes a third campaign involving the British advance on the Rhine River. The missions range from infantry, infiltration, sniper, large-scale assaults, night fighting, and tank assaults.

The U.S. campaign follows Pvt. Miller and the squad from World at War, but here Miller is of the 2nd Marines Division instead of the 1st. The game includes his missions from World at War. The Western Europe campaign is from the perspective of infantry grunt Lucas Gibson, of the American 80th Infantry Division, with his missions set in Luxembourg and Austria. For most of the Europe campaign, the player controls Pvt. Tom Sharpe of the British 6th Airborne. Final Fronts does not feature online multiplayer or a Nazi Zombies mode. Like other versions, the game includes two flamethrower missions and a tank mission, however the latter is on-rails rather than free roaming. The flamethrower in Final Fronts only fires on a small scale, whereas the main version allows the flamethrower to be used on a large scale in more missions and it is highly visible where it is fired. The tank mission is from the perspective of a tank gunner named Alex.

iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad versions

Call of Duty: World at War Zombies was released for the iPhone and iPod Touch on November 16, 2009, by Activision, Treyarch, and Ideaworks Game Studio. The game is based on the Nazi Zombies mode in Call of Duty: World at War, and featured a tutorial map and maps called Nacht der Untoten, Shi No Numa and Der Riese, with a downloadable map named Zombie Verrückt. In 2010, an HD iPad version was released with enhanced graphics and the Zombie Verrückt map free to play without buying, but without the Shi No Numa and Der Riese maps.
The game was removed from the app store in 2018.

Windows Mobile version
Call of Duty: World at War was released for the Windows Mobile. However, the game features a run and gun genre similar to Commando from Capcom rather than a first-person shooter, a different storyline, and a different set of characters. The game was developed by Glu Mobile and published by Activision.

Reception

Critical response
Call of Duty: World at War received "generally positive" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Describing the game as a whole, GameSpot stated that by returning to the World War II setting, "World at War achieves greatness but falls short of excellence." IGN concluded that World at War was a "solid, confident shooter with plenty to offer the casual and hardcore alike." Overall, the Official Xbox Magazine described the game as being more like an expansion pack in the Call of Duty series rather than a full game.

IGN applauded the developer Treyarch for its decision to stage World at War in the Pacific theater of World War II. The addition of a co-op mode was also complimented as helping to increase the game's replayability, and the multiplayer mode was described as "definitely an area where World at War shines." Some positive points noted by GameSpot include the "well-acted dialogue" of the characters Sgt. Roebuck and Sgt. Reznov, as well as the solid and fast-paced single-player/co-op campaign."

IGN criticized that the scope of the campaign hurt the continuity of the plot, with some missions taking place several months after others and disrupting the flow of the narrative. Official Xbox Magazine's main criticism was that Treyarch had not expanded upon the success of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, but had instead created a "play-it-safe sequel" that used elements of Call of Duty 4 but added "nothing noteworthy of its own." Other flaws pointed out by the reviewer included the lack of excitement in the campaign storyline and the few differences between the Pacific theater missions and European theater missions, stating "you could just be marching through another European town with a lot more trees." GameSpot criticized the game's use of "well-worn source material" and "déjà vu" game mechanics, also implying its similarity to the Call of Duty series' other games. 1UP.com stated that the horror of the game is "almost too much at times".

GameSpot praised the darker, grittier portrayal of the World War II settings. 1UP.com noted the significantly increased graphic violence and gore (even over the M-rated Call of Duty 4) as a significant improvement in realism, saying, "While enemies died en masse in previous installments, dismemberment and gore were essentially nonexistent. That's no longer the case — here, legs are severed, men cry out in agony as they reach for lost body parts, and gouts of blood fly as bullets pierce flesh." and that "World at War portrays the horror of WWII more accurately than ever before..."

Sales
Call of Duty: World at War was the second best-selling game for November 2008 in the United States, selling over 1.41 million units. The Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions were the second and ninth best-selling game of December 2008 in the United States, selling in excess of 1.33 million and 533,000 copies respectively. The Xbox 360 version was the sixth best-selling game of 2008, selling in excess of 2.75 million copies. The Wii version ranked as the 19th best-selling game and the seventh best-selling Wii game of December 2008 in the United States. It received particular interest in the United Kingdom, where it doubled the amount of first-week sales compared to Modern Warfare on the PS3 and Xbox 360. It also became the third fastest-selling video game in the UK behind Grand Theft Auto IV and Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas. The Xbox 360 version of World at War received a "Double Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 600,000 copies in the United Kingdom. ELSPA gave the PlayStation 3 release a "Platinum" certification for sales of at least 300,000 copies in the region. As of November 2013, the game has sold 15.7 million copies.

Notes

References

External links

2008 video games
Action-adventure games
Activision games
World at War
Cooperative video games
Games for Windows
Horror video games
First-person shooters
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Multiplayer online games
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Anti-Japanese sentiment
Treyarch games
Video games about the United States Marine Corps
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Video games set in Berlin
Video games set in Germany
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World War II first-person shooters
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Video games about zombies
Video games set in 1942
Video games set in 1944
Video games set in 1945
Pacific War video games
Japan in non-Japanese culture
Glu Mobile games
Video games developed in the United States
Exakt Entertainment games


Guttormur Andrasson (died 1572 in Bergen), was, from 1544 to 1572, lawman of the Faroe Islands.

Guttormur Andrasson was the son of previous lawman Andras Guttormsson from Sumba, and father of later lawman Ísak Guttormsson.

References

G.V.C. Young's textbook Færøerne - fra vikingetiden til reformationen, 1982
Løgtingið 150 - Hátíðarrit. Tórshavn 2002, Bind 2, S. 366. (Avsnitt Føroya løgmenn fram til 1816) (PDF-Download )

Year of birth missing
1572 deaths
Lawmen of the Faroe Islands
16th-century heads of government
16th-century Norwegian people


Anand Bhate (born 29 April 1971) is an Indian classical vocalist from the Kirana gharana. He is popular for his classical singing of songs from the Marathi film Balgandharva (2011).

Early life and training
Anand was born in Pune, India in 1971, in a family active in classical music. He inherited the singing tradition from his great-grandfather Bhate Buva, who was a well known vocalist for Thumri and Natya Sangeet in the 19th century. By the age of 10, he had started systematic training in classical singing from Chandrashekhar Deshpande, after which he trained under Yashwantbua Marathe and with Bhimsen Joshi, with whom he trained for 15 years.

Career
His first public appearance was as a child in 1981, when he performed Balgandharva's gayaki on All India Radio, Doordarshan and had a tour in the USA. Over the years, he has performed all over India and abroad in many prestigious music festivals such as the Sawai Gandharva Sangeet Mahotsav, Pandit Jitendra Abhisheki Sangeet Samaroha, Chaturang Pratishthan Rangsammelan and Learn quest Music Conference.

Bhate won the National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer for the 2011 Marathi movie on the life of the Marathi stage actor/singer Balgandharva

Awards and achievements
 Honoured with the title "Anand Gandharva" in 1981 at the age of 10
 Released an album of Natyasangeet in 1983
 Swaryogini Dr. Prabha Atre award from Gaanvardhan & Tatyasaheb Natu foundation Pune, for his significant achievements and performing career.
 Balgandharva Gunagaurav Puraskar by Balgandharva Sangeet Rasik Mandal
 Pandit Ramkrishnabua Vaze Young Artiste Award in 2006
 Dr. Prabha Atre Puraskar, by Ganawardhan, Pune in 2012
 National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer for Balgandharva
 Balagandharva Puraskar by Akhil Bharatiya Natya Parishad, Mumbai in 2012
 Maharashtra State award
 Zee award
 MIFTA award

References

External links
 Anand Bhate, official website

21st-century Indian male classical singers
1971 births
Living people
Savitribai Phule Pune University alumni
Hindustani singers
Kirana gharana
Singers from Pune
20th-century Indian male classical singers
Best Male Playback Singer National Film Award winners
Indian male playback singers


Dushk is a former municipality in the Fier County, western Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Lushnjë. The population at the 2011 census was 7,872.

Economy
The economy of Dushk is based on agriculture. There are many farms such as olive oil farms and small food processing factories. Most of the population of the subdivision have farms. There are many businesses such as cafes, bars, and shops that support the economy. There are many gas stations due to the SH4 state road passing on the side of it.

References

Former municipalities in Fier County
Administrative units of Lushnjë


LovEvolution (formerly San Francisco LovEvolution and San Francisco LoveFest) was a technoparade and festival that occurred annually in the Bay Area in late September  and early October. From its inception in 2004 to 2009, the parade included 25 floats and started at San Francisco's 2nd and Market Streets. The parade continued all the way to San Francisco Civic Center Plaza. The 2009 parade drew over 100,000 people.

History
The parade has its origins in Berlin's Loveparade which began in 1989. In 2003, the city denied the parade a permit and the event moved to San Francisco. In 2004, when German organizers were able to secure permits back in Berlin, North American organizers decided to continue their own event and dubbed it the LoveFest. In 2009 the name was changed to LovEvolution to avoid confusion with a similarly named electronic music event in LA.

In 2009 the permit for LovEvolution was revoked by officials in San Francisco citing safety concerns. Unable to find a suitable venue after the permits were revoked the event was cancelled in 2010 and moved to Oakland the following year and became a paid event. Since 2011 the parade has not been held and its website states it is looking for a venue.

Artists who have performed at LovEvolution Afterparty in previous years include Deadmau5, Above & Beyond, DJ Rap, Kaskade, ATB, Armin Van Buuren, Ferry Corsten, Gabriel & Dresden, Kyau & Albert, Deep Voices, Dave Dresden, Green Velvet, Paul Oakenfold, Christopher Lawrence, Junkie XL, Andy Moor, Bad Boy Bill, DJ Dan, Donald Glaude, Dieselboy, Aphrodite, DJ Sasha, John 00 Fleming, Eddie Halliwell, DJ Icey, Mr. Becker, Sector -7G and Robert Nickson.

Gallery

See also

How Weird Street Faire (annual electronic music festival in San Francisco)
List of electronic music festivals
List of technoparades

References

External links
 Official site
 San Francisco Late Night Coalition

Music festivals established in 2004
Festivals in the San Francisco Bay Area
Music festivals in California
Technoparade
Recurring events established in 2003
Electronic music festivals in the United States
Free parties


Anoka Technical College is a public 2-year technical college in Anoka, Minnesota.  It was founded in 1968 and is a member of the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities system.

History
Dr. Kent Hanson has been serving as president of Anoka-Ramsey Community College since 2013. Beginning July 2011, Anoka Technical College and Anoka-Ramsey Community College, which has campuses in Coon Rapids and Cambridge, are aligned under one president to better serve students in the northern suburbs of the Twin Cities.

Academics
Academic programs at the college generally fall into the following categories:

 Automotive
 Construction and Manufacturing
 General Education
 Health
 Horticulture
 Information Technology and Business

Anoka Technical College is accredited by the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission of Institutions of Higher Education. All programs offered at Anoka Technical College are approved by the Minnesota State College and Universities system, the Minnesota Division of Rehabilitation Services, and the state-approving agency of Veterans Education. The college was granted initial accreditation by the North Central Association on March 5, 1999.

Campus
The campus is located in the City of Anoka and partially rests on the eastern border of the City of Ramsey. The building is largely the superstructure of the old Char-Gale plant. The plant transitioned in the war effort to make tarps for the military during WWII. Periodic investments over time have transformed the building into a state-of-the-art technical college.

References

External links
 Official website

Education in Anoka County, Minnesota
Buildings and structures in Anoka County, Minnesota
Educational institutions established in 1968
1968 establishments in Minnesota
Two-year colleges in the United States
Anoka, Minnesota


Tërbuf is a village and a former municipality in Fier County, western Albania.  At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Divjakë.

Population
The population at the 2011 census was 10,201.

In media
In The Man from U.N.C.L.E. episode "The Terbuf Affair", Terbuf is a fictional Balkan country loosely identified with Albania. The character Illya Kuryakin refers to it as "the land of the eagle". This is the popular translation of Shqiperia, the word for Albania in the Albanian language.

References

Former municipalities in Fier County
Administrative units of Divjakë
Villages in Fier County


Fier-Shegan is a village and a former municipality in the Fier County, western Albania. At the 2015 local government reform it became a subdivision of the municipality Lushnjë. The population at the 2011 census was 7,023.

References

Former municipalities in Fier County
Administrative units of Lushnjë
Villages in Fier County