Jean-François Tartu (Recouvrance, 11 October 1751 – Uranie, off Gascogne, 24 October 1793) was a French Navy officer, and hero of the French Revolution.

Tartu took part in the American War of Independence as a non-commissioned officer, taking part in several significant battles in the fleet of Admiral d'Estaing. After the end of the war, he worked at the naval foundry of Indret.

During the French Revolution, Tartu became a minor political figure; he assured the interim direction of the foundry, and at the outbreak of the war with Britain, obtained command of the frigate Uranie. He was killed in action on 24 October 1793 while disabling HMS Thames. Tartu was hailed as a hero, and Uranie was renamed Tartu in his honour.

Career
Tartu was born to a family of fishers. He joined the French Royal Navy in 1766 as a sailor, at the age of 15, raising to master gunner.

Service on Fortunée
After enlisting in the French Royal Navy, Tartu was appointed as master gunner on the frigate , under Bernard de Marigny. On Fortunée, he took part in the Battle of Ushant.

In 1779 sailed to Fort Royal to take part in a squadron under Lamotte-Picquet in the fleet of Admiral d'Estaing. On the background of the naval operations in the American Revolutionary War, Fortunée took part in the French operations on the Anglo-French War, notably in the Capture of Grenada.

In December 1779, Fortunée sailed in consort with the 32-gun , under La Galissonière, and the 20-gun corvette , under Captain Fonteneau, to ferry troops that had fought in the Siege of Savannah back to various French colonies of the Caribbean. On 21 December, between  off Guadeloupe, the frigate squadron met a British four-ship division under Rear-Admiral Parker, comprising the 74-gun , ,  and the 64-gun , sent by Rear-Admiral Rowley to intercept it. As the British squadron flew the French flag, the frigates continued on their route and approached until the ships hoisted British colours and gave chase; a running battle ensued and in the course of the next hours, the frigates were overhauled by the 74-guns and struck their colours, Fortunée surrendering after a two-hour cannonade, surrounded by two ships. Tartu was taken prisoner with the crew of Fortunée.

Service under Marigny
After being exchanged, Tartu served on , again under Marigny. He took part in the Battle of Martinique on 17 April 1780, where he was wounded.

Returned to France, Tartu was appointed to the , again under Marigny, on which he took part in the Battle of the Chesapeake. He transferred to  . and on to .

On César, Tartu took part in the Battle of the Saintes. Marigny was mortally wounded, and entrusted Tartu with jewelry before dying. César blew up, throwing Tartu overboard; he was rescued by the British, who seized the jewelry.

Naval foundry of Indret
Tartu was released at the Peace of Paris; he returned to Brest and married.

Upon his return, Tartu worked at the naval foundry of Indret. In 1786, he was promoted to sous-lieutenant de vaisseau, and appointed controller the next year. Despite the money bestowed by these promotions, Tartu lived in relative poverty due to his 7-child family. In March 1791, he was appointed Knight of the Order of Saint-Louis.

Political activities during the French Revolution
After the outbreak of the French Revolution, the director of the foundry emigrated and was replaced by a militant Republican. Tartu was elected substitute deputy to the National Convention for Loire-Inférieure; he never served at the Convention in this capacity, but in early 1793, he accompanied représentant en mission Fouché to Paimboeuf.

Tartu went on to serve as interim director for the foundry of Indret. Tartu was promoted to captain in January 1793. After France declared war to Britain on 1 February 1793, Tartu requested command of a warship. On 13 March, he was appointed to command the 40-gun frigate , then under commissioning in Rochefort.

Service on Uranie

In June, Tartu returned to Indret to dispose of rusted cannonball from Rochefort in the foundry and to recruit crewmembers. Uranie departed Rochefort in August, and engaged in commerce raiding. On 25 August, Tartu observed the Ancien Régime custom of firing salvoes for Saint Louis Day. After completing her patrol, Uranie returned to Rochefort.

Uranie departed for another patrol in the Bay of Biscay on 24 September, in a frigate squadron under Captain Allemand consisting of the frigates , ,  and Uranie with the brig-corvette . Uranie captured two Spanish brigs, which were scuttled, a wheat merchantmen from Genoa and a British merchantman. On 22 October, the squadron sighted the 16-gun Spanish brig Alcoudia and Allemand detached Uranie to capture her. Uranie also captured the liner Quiros. On 24 October, Uranie met with the 32-gun . In the ensuing Action of 24 October 1793, Uranie engaged in an artillery duel rather than attempting a boarding, as she lacked 60 of her sailors, despatched in prize crews over three captured ships, and was burdened with over 260 prisoners.

In the artillery duel, Thames lost most of her rigging and suffered heavy damage to her port batteries. As she manoeuvered to train her intact starboard batteries on Uranie, one of her cannonballs swept Uranies quarterdeck, killing two and severing Tartu's leg below the knee. The first officer of Uranie, Lieutenant Wuibert, immediately rushed to take command as Tartu was brought below decks; soon afterwards, a dying Tartu instructed the lieutenant to break the engagement, as the drifting Thames was still heading towards the British blockade.

Uranie suffered 4 killed and 7 wounded. Thames was captured the next day by Carmagnole, under Captain Allemand.

Legacy
Tartu was hailed as a hero, and Uranie was renamed after him. His widow was awarded a pension by the National Convention, which passed a resolution that the crew of Uranie had bien mérité de la Patrie.

Tartu's 10-year-old son was aboard Uranie and took part in the action of 24 October 1793 as a boy; contemporary propaganda has it that on his death bed, Tartu told him

Two destroyers were later named in his honour (a  and a ).

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
 netmarine.net
 Escorteur d'Escadre le Tartu (D636)

French Navy officers
1751 births
1793 deaths
French military personnel killed in action


Bullcroft Colliery was a coal mine situated by the village of Carcroft north of Doncaster. It operated from 1908 to 1970.

History
The Bullcroft Colliery Company was formed in April 1908 and sinking of the shafts commenced immediately. In January 1909, at a depth of , a water course yielding over  per minute was struck, it was capped back and sinking continued but only a month later, at , another water course, big enough to be described as a "subterranean river", was struck - too much for the steam operated pumps to cope with. Electric pumps were brought in to cope with the flow but even with a capability of  per minute they couldn't cope and sinking was stopped so the full situation could be assessed.

It was decided to withdraw the pumps and freeze the ground. Commencing January 1910 the first freeze was unsuccessful and a second, after the shafts had iron "tubbing" installed, commenced in February 1911. This was successful, and sinking recommenced finally reaching the coal measures in December 1911 at  below the surface.

Before the colliery company arrived, the nearby settlement of Carcroft consisted of only 50 houses. By 1910, an additional 400 houses had been erected to cope with the influx of miners and their families.

Between 1908 and 1940 the company traded as Bullcroft Main Colliery Ltd. It merged with five other collieries (Brodsworth, Hickleton, Markham Main and Yorkshire Main) in 1940 to form the Doncaster Amalgamated Collieries Ltd. In 1947, the enterprise was nationalised into British Coal.

The colliery worked normally until 1968 when it was joined to Brodsworth Colliery by a  drift and a  long conveyor made it possible that Bullcroft coal could be brought up at Brodsworth for washing etc.

The collieries officially merged in 1970, with the final shift clocking off on 25 September of that year. As the last remaining seam could be reached via the Brodsworth Colliery, the Bullcroft shafts were filled, using spoil from pit heaps and capped. Bullcroft Colliery kept its landsale depot to deal with concessionary coal and retained a locomotive to work it for about a year afterwards.

The colliery was served by a branch off the Hull and Barnsley and Great Central Joint Railway and a connection to the West Riding and Grimsby Railway.

The colliery had its own football team, which competed in the FA Cup on numerous occasions.

Accidents
On 20 March 1923, John William Severn Carlin aged 20 was crushed by a tub that he had uncoupled from the front, the incline from the mine entrance was steep, the tub ran away with him still in the kneeling position and crushed him against the stationery tubs, he sustained broken femur and internal injuries, he died at Doncaster Infirmary after surgery of shock and exhaustion. The coroner gave a verdict of accidental death and asked that the colliery ensure that tubs are uncoupled from behind in future. John left a wife of three years.

On 13 January 1937, Kenneth Oliver, 14, was killed in accident whilst he was uncoupling tubs from the internal conveyor system. Oliver was under adult supervision, but his death lead to questions being raised in Parliament about boys working in mines.

On 19 October 1941, six men died whilst trying to deal with problems within the mine. An ignition of gas just after 3:00 am caused an explosion and killed the men outright. They were about  distant from the shaft bottom and all, bar one,  had been members of the mine rescue team.

Post-mine land use
The  of land that the colliery occupied above ground is now used as a community parkland. There was a proposal in 2013 to sift the spoil for usable coal. However, the price of coal fell soon afterwards and the plan was abandoned. The local community want the area to be landscaped and the spoil tip removed as has happened at other neighbouring collieries such as Askern, Bentley and Brodsworth.

References

 Colliery Company records. (NCB Archives)

Coal mines in South Yorkshire
Underground mines in England
Adwick le Street
1908 establishments in England
1970 disestablishments in England


John Bell (7 October 1886 – 27 December 1917) was an Australian rules footballer who played with Geelong Football Club in the Victorian Football League (VFL).

Family
The son of John Bell (1855-1906), and Annie Carstairs Bell (1854-1935), née Russell, John Bell was born at Toorak, Victoria on 7 October 1886.

One of his brothers, Lieutenant George Russell Bell (1892-1918), also died on active service in World War One.

Education
He attended Geelong Grammar School from 1896 to 1905.

Football career
Bell played 18 games in all, with Geelong during the 1906 and 1908 seasons.

War service
He enlisted in the First AIF on 2 September 1914, and left Melbourne for overseas service on the HMAT Orvieto (A3) on 21 October 1914.

During World War I, Bell served as a pilot with the Australian Flying Corps. He initially served with No. 1 Squadron AFC, in Palestine.

Bell achieved the rank of Captain. He was later transferred to the Western Front, flying Airco DH.5s with No. 2 Squadron (2 Sqn AFC; sometimes known in British military circles as "68 Squadron").

Death
He was badly wounded ("gunshot wound penetrating his chest": Service Record) and made a forced landing just behind the Allied front line on 20 November 1917, when 2 Squadron was involved in ground attack duties during the First Battle of Cambrai.

Bell died of his wounds on 27 December 1917, and he is buried at Tincourt New British Cemetery in Tincourt-Boucly, Picardy, in Northern France.

Remembered
On 28 April 1931, the Bell family dedicated two stained-glass windows in the chapel of the Geelong Grammar School: the one on the left (holding the football) to John Bell, and the one on the right, to his brother George.

See also
 List of Victorian Football League players who died in active service

Footnotes

References

 Barwon in the Air: Part One — Captain John Bell and the Monkey, barwonrowing.
 Death  of Captain John Bell, The Geelong Advertiser, (Saturday, 5 January 1918), p.4.
 Holmesby, Russell & Main, Jim (2007). The Encyclopedia of AFL Footballers. 7th ed. Melbourne: Bas Publishing.
 Main, J. & Allen, D., "Bell, John", pp. 17–20 in Main, J. & Allen, D., Fallen – The Ultimate Heroes: Footballers Who Never Returned From War, Crown Content, (Melbourne), 2002.
 World War One Nominal Roll: Captain John Bell, collection of the Australian War Memorial.
 World War One Embarkation Roll: Captain John Bell, collection of the Australian War Memorial.
 Australia's Roll of Honor: 378th and 379th Casualty Lists: Dangerously Wounded, The Age, (Monday, 14 January 1918), p.5.
 Victorian Casualties: List No.383: Died of Wounds, The Argus, (Monday,  16 February 1918), p.9.
 Roll of Honour: Captain John Bell, Australian War Memorial.
 World War One Service Record: Captain John Bell, National Archives of Australia.
 Captain John Bell, Commonwealth War Graves Commission.

External links
 (photograph with Bell at extreme left), collection of the Australian War Memorial.

1886 births
Australian rules footballers from Victoria (state)
Geelong Football Club players
1917 deaths
Australian military personnel killed in World War I
People educated at Geelong Grammar School
Australian Flying Corps officers
Military personnel from Melbourne


The Pulse was a Sirius Satellite Radio channel that played music "from the '90s and Today" on Sirius Satellite Radio channel 9 and Dish Network channel 6012.

The Pulse began on July 1, 2002 as part of the newly launched Sirius lineup, with the same music and format heard on the current Pulse.  By November 4, 2002, when I-90 signed off the air, it became a 1990s and hot AC hybrid, even though it played 1990s urban music.

Every half-hour, the old incarnation of The Pulse reviewed music news on tours, future albums, and other topics covered.

As part of the merger between Sirius and XM Satellite Radio, and the subsequent reorganization of the services' respective channel lineups on November 12, 2008, the old Pulse was replaced by The 90s on 9, bringing a 1990s pop channel back to the Sirius lineup for the first time since I-90 had signed off.  The decision to drop the original Pulse was because the channel ranked ninth in the Sirius ratings, whereas XM's counterpart channel, Flight 26, ranked second. Flight 26 was added to the Sirius lineup and rechristened on both services as the new Pulse, which still lists its calls as X026-FM.  The Bridge (which became Led Zeppelin Radio for two months) forced its move from channel 12 to channel 33 (replacing SIRIUS Disorder).

See also
 List of Sirius Satellite Radio stations

External links
 Sirius The Pulse

Defunct radio stations in the United States


Contractual terms in English law is a topic which deals with four main issues.

which terms are incorporated into the contract
how are the terms of the contract to be interpreted
whether terms are implied into the contract
what controls are placed on unfair terms

The terms of a contract are the essence of a contract, and tell the reader what the contract will do. For instance, the price of a good, the time of its promised delivery and the description of the good will all be terms of the contract.

What are terms

A contractual "[a]ny provision forming part of a contract" Each term gives rise to a contractual obligation, breach of which can give rise to litigation. Not all terms are stated expressly and some terms carry less legal gravity as they are peripheral to the objectives of the contract.

Condition or Warranty. Conditions are terms which go to the very root of a contract. Breach of these terms repudiate the contract, allowing the other party to discharge the contract. A warranty is not so imperative so the contract will subsist after a breach. Breach of either will give rise to damages.

It is an objective matter of fact whether a term goes to the root of a contract. By way of illustration, an actress' obligation to perform the opening night of a theatrical production is a condition, whereas a singers obligation to perform during the first three days of rehearsal is a warranty.

Statute may also declare a term or nature of term to be a condition or warranty; for example the Sale of Goods Act 1979 s15A provides that terms as to title, description, quality and sample (as described in the Act) are conditions save in certain defined circumstances.

Innominate term. Lord Diplock, in Hong Kong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd, created the concept of an innominate term, breach of which may or not go to the root of the contract depending upon the nature of the breach. breach of these terms, as with all terms, will give rise to damages. Whether or not it repudiates the contract depends upon whether legal benefit of the contract has been removed from the innocent party. Megaw LJ, in 1970, preferred the use of the classic categorising into condition or warranty due to legal certainty. This was interpreted by the House of Lords as merely restricting its application in Reardon Smith Line Ltd v Hansen-Tangen.

Status as a term
Status as a term is important as a party can only take legal action for the non fulfillment of a term as opposed to representations or mere puffs. Legally speaking, only statements that amount to a term create contractual obligations. Statements can be split into the following types:
 Puff (sales talk): If no reasonable person hearing this statement would take it seriously, it is a puff, and no action in contract is available if the statement proves to be wrong. It may also be referred to as "puffery". This is common in television commercials.
 Representation: A representation is a statement of fact which does not amount to a term of the contract but it is one that the maker of the statement does not guarantee its truth. This gives rise to no contractual obligation but may amount to a tort, for example misrepresentation.
 Term: A term is similar to a representation, but the truth of the statement is guaranteed by the person who made the statement therefore giving rise to a contractual obligation. For the purposes of Breach of Contract a term may further be categories as a condition, warranty or innominate term.

There are various factors that a court may take into account in determining the nature of a statement. These include:
 Timing: If the contract was concluded soon after the statement was made, this is a strong indication that the statement induced the person to enter into the contract. Lapse of a week within the negotiations of a car sale was held to amount only to a representation in Routledge v McKay
 Content of statement: It is necessary to consider what was said in the given context, which has nothing to do with the importance of a statement.
 Knowledge and expertise: In Oscar Chess Ltd v Williams, a person selling a car to a second-hand car dealer stated that it was a 1948 Morris, when in fact it was a 1939 model car. It was held that the statement did not become a term because a reasonable person in the position of the car dealer would not have thought that an inexperienced person would have guaranteed the truth of the statement.
 Reduction into Writing: Where the contract is consolidated into writing, previous spoken terms, omitted from the consolidation, will probably be relegated to representations. The old case of Birch v Paramount Estates Ltd provided that a very important spoken term may persist even if omitted from the written consolidation; this case concerned the quality of a residential house.

The parol evidence rule limits what things can be taken into account when trying to interpret a contract. This rule has practically ceased operation under UK law, but remains functional in Australian Law.

Implied terms

A term may either be expressed or implied. An Express term is stated by the parties during negotiation or written in a contractual document. Implied terms are not stated but nevertheless form a provision of the contract.

Terms implied in fact
The Privy Council established a five stage test in BP Refinery (Westernport) Pty Ltd v Shire of Hastings:
 Reasonableness and equitableness: The implied term must be reasonable and equitable.
 Business efficacy: The implied term must be necessary for the business efficacy of the contract. For instance, if the term simply causes the contract to operate better, that does not fit this criterion. This is the principle laid out in The Moorcock. The presiding judge created a quaint concept of an officious bystander; if the officious bystander were to propose a term and both the parties would be likely to reply "oh, of course", the term is implied.
 Obviousness: The term is so obvious that it goes without saying. Furthermore, there must be one and only one thing that would be implied by the parties. For example, in Codelfa Construction Pty Ltd v State Rail Authority of New South Wales, a term regarding the inability of construction company to work three shifts a day could not be implied because it was unclear what form it would have taken. In English Law, This principle was established in the case of Spring v NASDS, in the context of a Trade Union membership contract.
 Clear expression: The term must be capable of clear expression. No specific technical knowledge should be required.
 Consistency: The implied term may not contradict an express term.

In Australia, the High Court has ruled that the test in BP Refinery applies only to formal contracts, while the test in Byrne and Frew v Australian Airlines Ltd shall apply to informal contracts:
 Necessity: The term must be necessary to ensure reasonable or effective operation of a contract of the nature before the court.
 Consistency: The implied term may not contradict an express term (same as for formal contracts).
 Clear expression: The term must be capable of clear expression (same as for formal contracts).
 Obvious: McHugh and Gummow JJ have stated that it must also be obvious.

Terms implied in law
These are terms that have been implied into standardised relationships.

Common law.

Liverpool City Council v Irwin established a term to be implied into all contracts between tenant and landlord that the landlord is obliged to keep the common areas in a reasonable state of repair.
Wong Mee Wan v Kwan Kin Travel Services Ltd established that when a tour operator contracts to for the sale of goods. The most important legislation under United Kingdom law is the Sale of Goods Act 1979, the Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 2000 and the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 which imply terms into all contracts whereby goods are sold or services provided.

These terms will be implied into all contracts of the same nature as a matter of law.

Statutory.

The rules by which many contracts are governed are provided in specialized statutes that deal with particular subjects. Most countries, for example, have statutes which deal directly with sale of goods, lease transactions, and trade practices. For example, each American state except Louisiana has adopted Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code, which regulates contracts for the sale of goods. The most important legislation implying terms under United Kingdom law are the Sale of Goods Act 1979, the Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Regulations 2000 and the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982 which imply terms into all contracts whereby goods are sold or services provided.

Terms implied by custom or trade
One is generally bound by the custom of the industry that one is in. To imply a term due to custom or trade, one must prove the existence of the custom, which must be notorious, certain, legal and reasonable.

Course of dealing
If two parties have regularly conduct business on certain terms, the terms may be assumed to be same for each contract made, if not expressly agreed to the contrary. The parties must have dealt on numerous occasions and been aware of the term purported to be implied. In Hollier v Rambler Motors Ltd four occasions over five years was held to be sufficient. In British Crane Hire Corp Ltd v Ipswich Plant Hire Ltd written terms were held to have been implied into an oral in which there was no mention of written terms.

Good faith

It is common for lengthy negotiations to be written into a heads of agreement document that includes a clause to the effect that the rest of the agreement is to be negotiated. Although these cases may appear to fall into the category of agreement to agree, Australian courts will imply an obligation to negotiate in good faith provided that certain conditions are satisfied
 Negotiations were well-advanced and the large proportion of terms have been worked out; and
 There exists some mechanism to resolve disputes if the negotiations broke down.

The test of whether one has acted in good faith is a subjective one; the cases suggest honesty, and possibly also reasonably. There is no general obligation to act in good faith term under English contract law: an attempt was made by Lord Denning in a series of case during the 70s and 80s but they are no longer considered 'good law'. European legislation imposes this duty, but only in certain circumstances.  For the circumstances when an obligation of good faith may in certain circumstances be implied see Yam Seng PTE Ltd v International Trade Corporation Ltd.

The Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations 1999 reg 8 will render ineffective any 'unfair' contractual term if made between a seller or supplier and a consumer.
Regulation 5 of the Statutory Instrument further elaborates upon the concept of 'unfair', which is rather novel to English law. 'Unfair' is a term that was not individually negotiated (i.e. standard form) that "causes a significant imbalance in the parties' rights and obligations arising under the contract to the detriment of the consumer". This is not possible if the term is not contrary to 'good faith'; such as in Director General of Fair Trading v First National Bank, wherein the lack of a seemingly unfair interest term would leave the bank open to a very poor deal whereby no interest could be charged.

"Subject to" contracts
If a contract specifies "subject to contract", it may fall into one of three categories:
 The parties are immediately bound to the bargain, but they intend to restate the deal in a formalised contract that will not have a different effect; or
 The parties have completely agreed to the terms, but have made the execution of some terms in the contract conditional on the creation of a formalised contract; or
 It is merely an agreement to agree, and the deal will not be concluded until the formalised contract has been drawn up.
Subsequent authorities have been willing to recognize a fourth category in addition to those stated in Masters v Cameron.

The parties intend to immediately bound by the terms agreed upon and expect to create a further contract as a replacement for the initial contract which will contain additional terms (if agreed upon).
If a contract specifies "subject to finance", it imposes obligations on the purchaser:
 The purchaser must seek finance; and
 When offers of finance arrive, the purchaser must make a decision as to whether the offers of finance are suitable.

This may also refer to contingent conditions, which come under two categories: condition precedent and condition subsequent.
Conditions precedent are conditions that have to be complied with before performance of a contract
With conditions subsequent, parties have to perform until the condition is not met.
Failure of a condition repudiates the contract this is not to necessarily discharge it.  Repudiation will always gives rise to an action for damages.

Notes

English contract law
Legal documents
Contract clauses

pt:Cláusula


Charles Alwis Hewavitharana, FRCS, LRCP was a Ceylonese (Sinhalese) physician who played a significant role in Sri Lanka's Independence and Buddhist Revival movements. He was the brother of Anagarika Dharmapala.

Early life
He was born in Colombo, Ceylon, to Don Carolis Hewavitharana and Mallika Dharmagoonewardena the daughter of Lansige Lansige Andiris Perera Dharmagunawardhana, a wealthy businessman. His other siblings were Don David Hewavitharana who later changed his name to Anagarika Dharmapala and became a prominent figure in the Buddhist revival movement in Ceylon and in India; Edmund Hewavitharana; Simon Alexander Hewavitharana and Dona Engeltina née Moonesinghe.

Education
Charles Hewavitharana was educated at Colombo Academy and at the Ceylon Medical College. After graduating he joined the Ceylon Medical Service left for Britain for further studies gaining a LRCP (London) and FRCS. Although working as a physician he became an active independence activist working with his older brother leaving the Ceylon Medical Service.

Independence activity
He was imprisoned in 1915 along with his brother Edmund Hewavitarne (who later died in prison), D. S. Senanayake, D. R. Wijewardena following the Muslim riots. Fearing an uprising the inexperienced British colonial Governor of Ceylon Sir Robert Chalmers declared Martial Law on 2 June 1915 and on the advice of Inspector General of Police Herbert Dowbiggin began a brutal suppression of the Sinhala Buddhist community by giving orders to the Police and the Army to shoot any one who they deemed a rioter without a trial, it is said that the numbers of Sinhalese killed this way were in the thousands. Many local leaders were imprisoned and Captain D.E.Henry Pedris, a military officer, was executed based on false charges of mutiny.

Later years
Dr. Hewavitharana was a member of the University College Ceylon Council. The Dr. C.A. Hewavitharana Memorial Prizes for Physics & Sanskrit are annually awarded at the University of Colombo in his memory.
The Dr. C.A. Hewavitharana Memorial Prize for Physics is also annually awarded by the Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya.

References

External links
  The Hewawitharana Ancestry
Faculty of Science, University of Colombo
Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya

Sinhalese people
Sri Lankan medical doctors
Sri Lankan independence activists
Sri Lankan Buddhists
Alumni of Royal College, Colombo
Alumni of Ceylon Medical College
Prisoners and detainees of British Ceylon
People from British Ceylon
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing


Sir Robert Atkyns,  (1647 – 29 November 1711) was a topographer, antiquary, and Member of Parliament. He is best known for his county history, The Ancient and Present State of Glostershire, published in 1712.

Early life and education
Sir Robert was born in 1647, and was baptised on 26 August of that year. He was the eldest son of Sir Robert Atkyns, chief baron of the Exchequer, and sometime speaker of the House of Lords. Thomas Atkyns, who died in London 1401, was succeeded in the fourth generation by David Atkins, an eminent merchant in Chepstow, who removed before his death in 1552 to Tuffley, near Gloucester. Tuffley continued to be the family seat until the purchase of Sapperton, Gloucestershire, by Baron Atkyns in 1660.

He was educated at St Edmund Hall, Oxford (admitted 1663), and Lincoln's Inn (admitted 1661). He was called to the Bar in 1668 but did not practise.

Career
Atkyns served as Deputy Receiver-General of Law Duties (1671–1672), Receiver-General (1672–1673), Comptroller (1673–1679), Commissioner for Assessment for Gloucestershire (1673–1680, 1689–1690) and Deputy Lieutenant for Gloucestershire (1683–1688). He was knighted by Charles II on his visit to Bristol on 5 September 1663.

He was elected M.P. for the borough of Cirencester (1679–85) and afterwards for the county of Gloucester (1685–1689).

Publications
Atkyns was the author of The Ancient and Present State of Glostershire, London, 1712. The first edition contains a fine portrait of the author by Michael Vandergucht, together with a series of views of seats in the county, drawn and engraved by Jan Kip in his earliest manner.

Honours
Atkyns was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in November 1664.

Personal life and death
Atkyns married Louise-Margaret (Louisonne), the daughter of Sir George Carteret of Hawnes, Bedfordshire, in about 1674. He died on 29 November 1711 at his house in Westminster of dysentery, at the age of sixty-five, and was buried at Sapperton, where his monument is preserved.

References and sources
References

Sources

Further reading

External links
 N. Kingsley, Landed families of Britain and Ireland: "(242), Atkyns of Sapperton, Swell Bowl, Pinbury Park and Ketteringham Hall", Blogspot, December 2016.

See also

Samuel Rudder

1647 births
1711 deaths
English antiquarians
Fellows of the Royal Society
People from Gloucestershire
English topographers
17th-century antiquarians
18th-century antiquarians
Members of Lincoln's Inn
Alumni of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
17th-century English lawyers
Deaths from dysentery
English MPs 1679
English MPs 1680–1681
English MPs 1681
English MPs 1685–1687
Historians of Gloucestershire


The Bath Profile is an international Z39.50 Specification for Library Applications and Resource Discovery. The Bath Profile is maintained by Library and Archives Canada.

The syntax of Z39.50 is abstracted from the underlying database structure. For example, if the client specifies an author search using attribute 1003, the server must determine how to map that search to the indexes it contains. This allows Z39.50 queries to be formulated without knowing anything about the target database, but it also means that results for the same query can vary widely among different servers. One server may have an author index and another may use its index of personal names, whether they are authors or not. A third may have no name index and fall back on its keyword index, and yet another may have no suitable index and return an error.

An attempt to remedy this inconsistency is the Bath Profile. It was named after Bath, England, where the working group first met in 1999. The document rigidly specifies the search syntax for common bibliographic searches, and the expected response of Bath-compliant servers. Implementation of the Bath Profile has been slow but is gradually improving the Z39.50 landscape.

References

Metadata publishing
Library automation


Zgornji Brnik (; in older sources also Zgornji Bernik, ) is a village in the Municipality of Cerklje na Gorenjskem in the Upper Carniola region of Slovenia.

The church in the village is dedicated to John the Baptist. Remains of a Gothic presbyterium have been excavated, but the current church dates to 1742.

The central part of Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport is built within the territory of Zgornji Brnik. The head office of Adria Airways was located on the airport property in Zgornji Brnik until the airline ceased operations in 2019.

References

External links

Zgornji Brnik on Geopedia

Populated places in the Municipality of Cerklje na Gorenjskem


Nantawat Tansopa (; born February 22, 1984), simply known as ying (), is a Thai professional footballer. He is currently a Player-coach at Chiangrai City.

Club career

He was also the leading scorer of the 2008 AFC Champions League with 9 goals.

Honours

Club
Police United
 Thai Division 1 League: 2006

Individual
 AFC Champions League Top Scorer : 2008

References

External links
 Profile at Goal

1984 births
Living people
Nantawat Tansopa
Nantawat Tansopa
Men's association football forwards
Nantawat Tansopa
Nantawat Tansopa
Nantawat Tansopa
Nantawat Tansopa


NO Vouliagmeni or "NOV" (Greek: Ναυτικός Όμιλος Βουλιαγμένης, "NOB" = Nautical Club of Vouliagmeni) is a major aquatic sports club, founded by local sportsmen in 1937 in the seaside resort of Vouliagmeni, Athens, Greece. The club is located on the eastern edge of the Mikro Kavouri peninsula, adjacent to the Astir Palace Hotel and overlooking the bay, town and lake of Vouliagmeni.

The club also takes particular pride in being an "extended family" for all its past and present athletes. Almost all its coaches and sports staff are past club athletes, and members are encouraged to involve their children in club sports from the youngest age possible.

Activities
The club admits members and their guests and operates a marina, a waterskiing school, junior and Olympic competition sailing boats and facilities, an open-air, heated swimming pool, two rocky beaches, members' indoor and outdoor lounges, reading and conference rooms, a first-aid station, a gym, and an upscale restaurant.  The club publishes a quarterly illustrated newsletter, the "Tríaina" (Τρίαινα, "Trident"), distributed free.  As part of the celebrations for the club's seventy years, a memorial volume, "In Search of the Sporting Ideal", was published in 2008, in commemoration of the club's history.  The volume chronicles the club's foundation and development, and pays particular tribute to the many club athletes who have taken part in Olympic Games and won Olympic medals.  The most notable Olympic athlete to have been fostered at the club is windsurfer Nikolaos Kaklamanakis (gold medal, Atlanta Olympics, 1996, and silver medal, Athens Olympics, 2004).

The outdoor, heated pool hosts swimming, finswimming, synchronized swimming and water polo teams and the respective training schools for children.  The club hosts two annual competition meetings for youngsters, the "Tzeláteia" swimming gala and the "Chatzitheodórou" water polo Cup, as well as annual water skiing and sailing events.  In addition to regular training for its young athletes, the club organises training schools for beginners, open to all children interested in swimming, finswimming, water polo, boat sailing, windsurfing, synchronized swimming, and waterskiing.  Four periods are offered per year in total, two (winter and spring) during school season and two more during the summer vacations.

Sports activities for members include aquarobics, aerobics, martial arts classes, long-distance sea swimming, water skiing, and Olympic and recreational sailing and windsurfing.  The club also provides mooring for recreational boats owned by members.  Several social events and functions are also held at the club, including concerts, art exhibitions, lectures, receptions, dinner parties, the Christmas Eve and New Year's Eve balls, the all-day "May Day at the Club" barbecue, and the midsummer "Full Moon Ball".

Crest and colours
The club crest depicts a blue anchor set inside a white lifebuoy with eight red stripes; blue, white and red being the club colors.

Water polo
The women's and men's water polo teams are a traditional force in European water polo and have won many Greek and several European Championships and Cups.  The club often hosts LEN Euroleague and LEN Cup tournaments, its star players consistently being capped for the Greek men's and women's national teams.

The women's team are the reigning Greek champions (2010) and also the reigning European champions for the second consecutive year (2009, 2010).  In 2009 they won the LEN Champions' Cup in Kirishi, Russia, defeating the Italian champions, Orizzonte Catania, in the final.  In 2010 they won the LEN Champions' Cup in Corfu, Greece, defeating the Russian champions, Kinef Kirishi, in the final.

In addition to the men's and women's teams, the club maintains water polo teams for girls and boys aged 9 and upwards, and participates in all relevant youth competitions.  All teams train under the supervision of head coaches (2010) Ioannis Giannouris and Alexia Kammenou, both former NOV players.

Notable players

Men
  Georgios Afroudakis
  Christos Afroudakis
  Zachos Afroudakis
  Nikos Darras
  Ioannis Giannouris
  Theodoros Lorantos
  Dimitrios Mazis
  George Mavrotas
  Georgios Psykhos
  Georgios Reppas
  Vangelis Roupakas
  Stefanos Santa
  Konstantinos Tsalkanis
  Anthony Hrysanthos
  Petar Trbojević

Women
  Rebecca Rippon
  Alexandra Asimaki
  Alexia Kammenou
  Angeliki Gerolymou
  Kelina Kantzou
  Dina Kouteli
  Georgia Lara
  Kyriaki Liosi
  Antiopi Melidoni
  Evangelia Moraitidou
  Anthoula Mylonaki
  Aikaterini Oikonomopoulou
  Antigoni Roumpesi
  Christina Tsoukala
  Patricia del Soto
  Heather Petri
  Moriah van Norman
  Ashleigh Johnson

Notable coaches

Men
  Ioannis Giannouris
  Theodoros Lorantos
  Dimitris Mavrotas
  Vangelis Roupakas
  Josep Brasco Cata

Women
  Alexia Kammenou
  Giorgos Katsoulis
  Vangelis Roupakas
  Akis Tsatalios

Water polo titles
Men:
Greek water polo championships (4): 1991, 1997, 1998, 2012
Greek water polo cups (4): 1996, 1999, 2012, 2017
Double (1): 2012
Greek Super Cup (1): 1996
  LEN Cup Winners' Cup (1): 1997
  LEN Euro Cup
Runners-up (1): 2004
Women:
Greek water polo championships (11): 1991, 1993, 1994, 1997, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2012,2013
Greek water polo cups (1):2019
  Women's LEN Champions' Cup (2): 2009, 2010
Runners-up (3): 2008, 2012, 2014
  Women's LEN Trophy (1): 2003
Runners-up (3): 2000, 2005, 2016
  LEN Women's Supercup (2): 2009, 2010

European Honours

References

External links
Official website
The photographic archive of NOV, tracking the club's course from the 1940s to the present (in English and Greek)
"La regina Alexia" - news item from the Water Polo Development World website (in Italian and English)

Water polo clubs in Greece
Yacht clubs in Greece
1937 establishments in Greece
Multi-sport clubs in Athens
Sports clubs and teams established in 1937
Vari-Voula-Vouliagmeni


Gruppo 7 was a group of Italian architects who wanted to reform architecture by the adoption of Rationalism. It was formed in 1926 by Luigi Figini, Guido Frette, Sebastiano Larco, Gino Pollini, Carlo Enrico Rava, Giuseppe Terragni and Ubaldo Castagnoli, replaced the following year by Adalberto Libera.

Gruppo 7 declared that intent was to strike a middle ground between the classicism and the industrially-inspired architecture.

References

External links

Architecture groups


St Audries Park Manor house at West Quantoxhead in the Quantock Hills of Somerset, England, was the manor house of the Acland family. It was rebuilt on the site of an earlier house, between 1835 and 1870 and has had a number of owners since Sir Alexander sold the building.

The property was divided in 1934, when the house was sold and turned into St Audries School, which remained in occupation until 1990. In 1996 the house was sold to the Amitabha Buddhist Centre.

It was sold again in 2001.

The house and parkland are listed Grade II on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England. They are also on the Heritage at Risk Register.

It is now run as a wedding venue.

References

West Somerset
Grade II listed buildings in West Somerset
Country houses in Somerset
Structures on the Heritage at Risk register in Somerset
Grade II listed parks and gardens in Somerset
Gardens in Somerset


The Awakening Conscience (1853) is an oil-on-canvas painting by the English artist William Holman Hunt, one of the founders of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which depicts a woman rising from her position in a man's lap and gazing transfixed out room's window.

The painting is in the collection of the Tate Britain in London.

Subject matter
Initially, the painting appears to depict a momentary disagreement between husband and wife, but the title and a host of symbols within the painting make it clear that this is a mistress and her lover. The woman's clasped hands provide a focal point and the position of her left hand emphasizes the absence of a wedding ring, although rings are worn on every other finger. Around the room are dotted reminders of her "kept" status and her wasted life: the cat beneath the table toying with a bird; the clock concealed under glass; a tapestry that hangs unfinished on the piano; the threads which lie unravelled on the floor; the print of Frank Stone's Cross Purposes on the wall; Edward Lear's musical arrangement of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's 1847 poem "Tears, Idle Tears" which lies discarded on the floor, and the music on the piano, Thomas Moore's "Oft in the Stilly Night", the words of which speak of missed opportunities and sad memories of a happier past. The discarded glove and top hat thrown on the tabletop suggest a hurried assignation.

The room is too cluttered and gaudy to be in a Victorian family home; the bright colours, unscuffed carpet, and pristine, highly polished furniture speak of a room recently furnished for a mistress. Art historian Elizabeth Prettejohn notes that although the interior is now viewed as "Victorian" it still exudes the "'nouveau-riche' vulgarity" that would have made the setting distasteful to contemporary viewers.  The painting's frame is decorated with further symbols: bells (for warning), marigolds (for sorrow), and a star above the girl's head (a sign of spiritual revelation). It also bears a verse from the Book of Proverbs (25:20): "As he that taketh away a garment in cold weather, so is he that singeth songs to an heavy heart".

The mirror on the rear wall provides a tantalizing glimpse out of the scene. The window — opening out onto a spring garden, in direct contrast to the images of entrapment within the room — is flooded with sunlight. The woman's face does not display a look of shock that she has been surprised with her lover; whatever attracts her is outside of both the room and her relationship. The Athenæum commented in 1854:

In some ways this painting is a companion to Hunt's Christian painting The Light of the World, a picture of Christ holding a lantern as he knocks on an overgrown handleless door which Hunt said represented "the obstinately shut mind". The young woman here could be responding to that image, her conscience pricked by something outside of herself. Hunt intended this image to be The Light of the World'''s "material counterpart in a picture representing in actual life the manner in which the appeal of the spirit of heavenly love calls a soul to abandon a lower life."  In Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood Hunt wrote that Peggotty's search for Emily in David Copperfield had given him the idea for the composition and he began to visit "different haunts of fallen girls" looking for a suitable setting. He did not plan to recreate any particular scene from David Copperfield, and initially wanted to capture something more general: "the loving seeker of the fallen girl coming upon the object of his search". But he reconsidered, deciding that such a meeting would engender different emotions in the girl than the repentance he wanted to show. He eventually settled on the idea that the girl's companion could be singing a song that suddenly reminded her of her former life and thereby act as the unknowing catalyst for her epiphany.

The model for the woman was Annie Miller, who sat for many of the Pre-Raphaelites and to whom Hunt was engaged until 1859. The male figure may be based on Thomas Seddon or Augustus Egg, both painter friends of Hunt.

Repainting
The look on the girl's face in the modern painting is not the look of pain and horror that viewers saw when the painting was first exhibited, and which shocked and repulsed many of the contemporary critics. The painting was commissioned by Thomas Fairbairn, a Manchester industrialist and patron of the Pre-Raphaelites, after Egg discussed Hunt's ideas and possibly showed him some of the initial sketches. Fairbairn paid Hunt 350 guineas. The painting was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1854, along with The Light of the World.  Fairbairn found himself unable to bear looking at the woman's expression day-to-day, so persuaded Hunt to soften it.  Hunt started work but fell ill and allowed the painting to be returned to Fairbairn for display at the Birmingham Society of Artists exhibition in 1856 before he was completely happy with the result. Later he was able to work on it again and confided to Edward Lear that he thought he had "materially bettered it". As noted in the spandrels, Hunt retouched the painting in 1864 and again in 1886 when he repaired some work that had been carried out by a restorer in the interim.

Views of John Ruskin
The Victorian art theorist John Ruskin praised The Awakening Conscience as an example  of a new direction in British art in which the narrative was created from the artist's imagination rather than chronicling an event. Ruskin's reading of the painting was also to a moral end.  In an 1854 letter to The Times defending the work, he claimed that there is "not a single object in all that room...but it becomes tragical if read rightly". He was struck by both the stark realism of the room — Hunt had hired a room in a "maison de convenance" (where lovers would take their mistresses) in order to capture the feeling — and the symbolic overtones and compared the revelation of the subjects' characters through the interiors favourably with that of William Hogarth's Marriage à-la-mode.
The "common, modern, vulgar" interior is overwhelmed by lustrous, unworn objects that will never be part of a home. To Ruskin, the exquisite detail of the painting only called attention to the inevitable ruin of the couple: "The very hem of the poor girl's dress, at which the painter has laboured so closely, thread by thread, has story in it, if we think how soon its pure whiteness may be soiled with dust and rain, her outcast feet failing in the street".  The idea of a visual morality tale, based on a single moment, influenced Augustus Egg's 1858 series of three paintings, Past and Present.

In literature
In Evelyn Waugh's 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited'' an allusion to the painting reflects the unraveling of the affair between Julia Flyte and artist Charles Ryder.

Provenance
The painting was inherited by Fairbairn's son, Sir Arthur Henderson Fairbairn, 3rd Baronet. It was sold anonymously at Christie's in January 1946 and had been bought by Colin Anderson by 1947. It was donated to the Tate Gallery by Sir Colin and Lady Anderson in 1976.

Notes

Citations

References

1853 paintings
Cats in art
Collection of the Tate galleries
Musical instruments in art
Paintings by William Holman Hunt
Birds in art
Paintings of women


Gwilym Davies CBE (24 March 1879 – 26 January 1955) was a Welsh Baptist minister, who spent much of his life attempting to enhance international relations through supporting the work of the League of Nations and its successor, the United Nations.  He also established the Annual World Wireless Message to Children in 1922, and was the first person to broadcast in Welsh, on St David's Day 1923.

Life
Davies was born on 24 March 1879 at Bedlinog, Glamorgan, in south Wales, to D. J. Davies, a local Baptist minister. He was educated at the grammar school in Llandeilo before training for ordination at the Midland Baptist College in Nottingham.  He then won a scholarship to Jesus College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1906, serving first at Broadhaven in Pembrokeshire and then, between 1908 and 1915, in Carmarthen. With encouragement from David Davies (later Lord Davies of Llandinam), he helped to set up the Welsh School of Social Service in 1911. He served as secretary, chairman and president. Between 1915 and 1919, he was the minister in Abergavenny and then he ministered in Llandrindod Wells between 1919 and 1922.

In 1922, he retired from active ministry and spent the rest of his life promoting world peace. He travelled extensively, spending much of his time in Geneva and Cardiff.  He established the Annual World Wireless Message to Children in 1922, a message of peace from the youth of Wales to the youth of the world.  On St David's Day (1 March) 1923, Davies became the first person to broadcast in the Welsh language. He was the co-founder (with Lord Davies) and honorary director (1922 to 1945) of the Welsh branch of the League of Nations Union, and honorary international secretary of the Union until the League of Nations was dissolved. He organised annual conferences on international education at Gregynog between 1922 and 1939.  During the Second World War, he directed the Welsh Education Committee as it drafted a model constitution for an international education organisation, and his draft was influential in the creation of Unesco. After the Second World War, Davies supported the work of the United Nations and Unesco, becoming the first president of the Welsh National Council of the United Nations Association and helping to establish the Welsh Unesco Committee. He wrote articles for journals and newspapers, some of which were collected as  ("The World Yesterday and Today") (1938).  He also wrote International Education in the Schools of Wales and Monmouthshire (1926), The Ordeal of Geneva (1933), and Intellectual co-operation between the Wars (1943), as well as The Gregynog Conferences on International Education 1922–37 (1952).

He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1948 Birthday Honours; in 1954, the University of Wales awarded him an honorary doctorate of laws (LLD). He died in hospital in Aberystwyth on 26 January 1955, aged 75. His ashes were scattered at Lavernock Point, Penarth, where Marconi transmitted the first radio messages across water.

References

1879 births
1955 deaths
People from Bedlinog
Alumni of Jesus College, Oxford
20th-century Welsh Baptist ministers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Welsh anti-war activists


Halloween is a 1978 American independent slasher film directed, co-written, and scored by John Carpenter. Starring Donald Pleasence and Jamie Lee Curtis, with P. J. Soles and Nancy Loomis in supporting roles, the film is set mostly in the fictional town of Haddonfield, Illinois, the plot centers on a mental patient, Michael Myers, who was committed to a sanitarium for murdering his teenage sister on Halloween night when he was a child. Fifteen years later, having escaped and returned to his hometown, he stalks teenage babysitter Laurie Strode and her friends while under pursuit by his psychiatrist Dr. Samuel Loomis.

Filming took place in Southern California in May 1978. The film premiered in October and grossed $70 million, becoming one of the most profitable independent films of all time. Primarily praised for Carpenter's direction and score, many critics credit the film as the first in a long line of slasher films inspired by Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho (1960) and Bob Clark's Black Christmas (1974). It is considered one of the greatest and most influential horror films ever made. In 2006, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Halloween spawned a film franchise comprising thirteen films which helped construct an extensive backstory for its antagonist Michael Myers, sometimes narratively diverging entirely from previous installments. Additionally, a novelization, a video game and comic book series have been based on the film.

Plot

On Halloween night 1963, in the suburban town of Haddonfield, Illinois, six-year-old Michael Myers brutally stabs his teenage sister Judith to death with a kitchen knife. Fifteen years later, his psychiatrist, Dr. Samuel Loomis, drives with a colleague, Nurse Marion Chambers, to the sanitarium where Michael is incarcerated to escort him to a court hearing. After Loomis exits their car to unlock the main gate, Michael jumps on the roof and attacks Marion. She runs from the vehicle, allowing Michael to steal the car and drive off.

Michael makes his way back to Haddonfield, killing a mechanic for his coveralls on the way and stealing a white mask from a local hardware store. He begins stalking teenager Laurie Strode, whom he saw drop off a key at his long-abandoned childhood house that her father is trying to sell. Laurie notices Michael throughout the day, but her friends Annie Brackett and Lynda Van Der Klok dismiss her concerns. Loomis arrives in Haddonfield and discovers that Michael has stolen Judith's tombstone from the local cemetery. He meets up with Annie's father, Sheriff Leigh Brackett, and they begin to search for Michael. While they investigate the old Myers house, Loomis describes how he came to realize that Michael is pure evil.

That night, Michael follows Annie and Laurie to their babysitting jobs. Laurie watches Tommy Doyle, while Annie stays with Lindsey Wallace across the street. Michael spies on Annie and kills the Wallace family dog. Tommy spots Michael from the windows and thinks he is the boogeyman, but Laurie dismisses him. Later, Annie takes Lindsey to the Doyle house for the night so she can pick up her boyfriend. Michael hides in her car and kills Annie by slashing her throat. Lynda and her boyfriend Bob arrive at the Wallace house and find it empty. After having sex, Bob goes downstairs for a beer, where Michael pins him to the wall with a kitchen knife. Michael then poses as Bob in a ghost costume and confronts Lynda, who teases him to no effect. Annoyed, she calls Laurie to find out what happened to Annie, but Michael strangles her to death with the phone cord while Laurie listens on the other end. Meanwhile, Loomis discovers the stolen car and searches the streets.

Worried by the phone call, Laurie goes to the Wallace house and finds her friends' bodies, as well as Judith's headstone, in the upstairs bedroom. She runs to the hallway where Michael slashes her arm, causing her to fall over the banister. She manages to escape the house with Michael in pursuit.

Laurie makes it back to the Doyle house and tries to call for help, only to find the phone dead. Michael sneaks in through the window and attacks her again, but she stabs him in the neck with a knitting needle. Thinking he is dead, she staggers upstairs to check on the children, where Michael appears again. Hiding in a closet, Laurie stabs him in the eye with a coat hanger and then in the chest with his own knife. After she sends Tommy and Lindsey to a neighbor's house to call the police, Michael rises again. Seeing the children running from the house, Loomis goes to investigate and sees Michael strangling Laurie. She breaks free by pulling his mask off, revealing his face. Loomis shoots Michael, knocking him off the balcony. When he goes to check on the body, Loomis sees that Michael has vanished. Unsurprised, he stares off into the night as Laurie sobs in terror.

Cast

Analysis

Themes
Scholar Carol J. Clover has argued that the film, and its genre at large, links sexuality with danger, saying that killers in slasher films are fueled by a "psychosexual fury" and that all the killings are sexual in nature. She reinforces this idea by saying that "guns have no place in slasher films" and when examining the film I Spit on Your Grave she notes that "a hands-on killing answers a hands-on rape in a way that a shooting, even a shooting preceded by a humiliation, does not." Equating sex with violence is important in Halloween and the slasher genre according to film scholar Pat Gill, who made a note of this in her essay "The Monstrous Years: Teens, Slasher Films, and the Family". She remarks that Laurie's friends "think of their babysitting jobs as opportunities to share drinks and beds with their boyfriends. One by one they are killed ... by Michael Myers an asylum escapee who years ago at the age of six murdered his sister for preferring sex to taking care of him." Carpenter has distanced himself from these interpretations, saying "It has been suggested that I was making some kind of moral statement. Believe me, I'm not. In Halloween, I viewed the characters as simply normal teenagers." In another interview, Carpenter said that readings of the film as a morality play "completely missed the point," adding, "The one girl who is the most sexually uptight just keeps stabbing this guy with a long knife. She's the most sexually frustrated. She's the one that's killed him. Not because she's a virgin but because all that sexually repressed energy starts coming out. She uses all those phallic symbols on the guy."

Some feminist critics, according to historian Nicholas Rogers, "have seen the slasher movies since Halloween as debasing women in as decisive a manner as hard-core pornography." Critics such as John Kenneth Muir state that female characters such as Laurie Strode survive not because of "any good planning" or their own resourcefulness, but sheer luck. Although she manages to repel the killer several times, in the end, Strode is rescued in Halloween and Halloween II only when Dr. Loomis arrives to shoot Myers. However, Clover has argued that despite the violence against women, Halloween and other slasher films turned women into heroines. In many pre-Halloween horror films, women are depicted as helpless victims and are not safe until they are rescued by a strong masculine hero. Despite the fact that Loomis saves Strode, Clover asserts that Halloween initiates the role of the "final girl" who ultimately triumphs in the end. Strode fights back against Myers and severely wounds him. Had Myers been a normal man, Strode's attacks would have killed him; even Loomis, the male hero of the story, who shoots Michael repeatedly with a revolver, cannot kill him. Aviva Briefel argued that moments such as when Michael's face was temporarily revealed are meant to give pleasure to the male viewer. Briefel further argues that these moments are masochistic in nature and give pleasure to men because they are willingly submitting themselves to the women of the film; they submit themselves temporarily because it will make their return to authority even more powerful.

Critics, such as Gill, see Halloween as a critique of American social values. She remarks that parental figures are almost entirely absent throughout the film, noting that when Laurie is attacked by Michael while babysitting, "No parents, either of the teenagers or of the children left in their charge, call to check on their children or arrive to keen over them."

According to Gill, the dangers of suburbia is another major theme that runs throughout the film and the slasher genre at large: Gill states that slasher films "seem to mock white flight to gated communities, in particular the attempts of parents to shield their children from the dangerous influences represented by the city." Halloween and slasher films, generally, represent the underside of suburbia to Gill. Myers was raised in a suburban household and after he escapes the mental hospital he returns to his hometown to kill again; Myers is a product of the suburban environment, writes Gill.

Michael is thought by some to represent evil in the film. This is based on the common belief that evil never dies, nor does evil show remorse. This idea is demonstrated in the film when Dr. Loomis discusses Michael's history with the sheriff. Loomis states, "I spent eight years trying to reach him [Michael Myers], and then another seven trying to keep him locked up because I realized that what was living behind that boy's eyes was purely and simply ... evil." Loomis also refers to Michael as "evil" when he steals his car at the sanitarium.

Aesthetic elements

Historian Nicholas Rogers notes that film critics contend that Carpenter's direction and camera work made Halloween a "resounding success." Roger Ebert remarks, "It's easy to create violence on the screen, but it's hard to do it well. Carpenter is uncannily skilled, for example, at the use of foregrounds in his compositions, and everyone who likes thrillers knows that foregrounds are crucial . ... " The opening title, featuring a jack-o'-lantern placed against a black backdrop, sets the mood for the entire film. The camera slowly moves toward the jack-o'-lantern's left eye as the main title theme plays. After the camera fully closes in, the jack-o'-lantern's light dims and goes out. Film historian J.P. Telotte says that this scene "clearly announces that [the film's] primary concern will be with the way in which we see ourselves and others and the consequences that often attend our usual manner of perception." Carpenter's first-person point-of-view compositions were employed with steadicam; Telotte argues, "As a result of this shift in perspective from a disembodied, narrative camera to an actual character's eye ... we are forced into a deeper sense of participation in the ensuing action." Along with the 1974 Canadian horror film Black Christmas, Halloween made use of seeing events through the killer's eyes.

The first scene of the young Michael's voyeurism is followed by the murder of Judith seen through the eye holes of Michael's clown costume mask. According to scholar Nicholas Rogers, Carpenter's "frequent use of the unmounted first-person camera to represent the killer's point of view ... invited [viewers] to adopt the murderer's assaultive gaze and to hear his heavy breathing and plodding footsteps as he stalked his prey." Film analysts have noted its delayed or withheld representations of violence, characterized as the "false startle" or "the old tap-on-the-shoulder routine" in which the stalkers, murderers, or monsters "lunge into our field of vision or creep up on a person." Critic Susan Stark described the film's opening sequence in her 1978 review:

Production

Concept
After viewing Carpenter's film Assault on Precinct 13 (1976) at the Milan Film Festival, independent film producer Irwin Yablans and financier Moustapha Akkad sought out Carpenter to direct a film for them about a psychotic killer that stalked babysitters. In an interview with Fangoria magazine, Yablans stated: "I was thinking what would make sense in the horror genre, and what I wanted to do was make a picture that had the same impact as The Exorcist." Carpenter agreed to direct the film contingent on his having full creative control, and was paid $10,000 for his work, which included writing, directing, and scoring the film. He and his then-girlfriend Debra Hill began drafting the story of Halloween. There is an urban myth that the film at one point was supposed to be called The Babysitter Murders but Yablans has since debunked this stating that it was always intended to be called (and take place on) Halloween. Carpenter said of the basic concept: "Halloween night. It has never been the theme in a film. My idea was to do an old haunted house film."

Film director Bob Clark suggested in an interview released in 2005 that Carpenter had asked him for his own ideas for a sequel to his 1974 film Black Christmas (written by Roy Moore) that featured an unseen and motiveless killer murdering students in a university sorority house. As also stated in the 2009 documentary Clarkworld (written and directed by Clark's former production designer Deren Abram after Clark's tragic death in 2007), Carpenter directly asked Clark about his thoughts on developing the anonymous slasher in Black Christmas:

Screenplay
It took approximately 10 days to write the screenplay. Yablans and Akkad ceded most of the creative control to writers Carpenter and Hill (whom Carpenter wanted as producer), but Yablans did offer several suggestions. According to a Fangoria interview with Hill, "Yablans wanted the script written like a radio show, with 'boos' every 10 minutes." By Hill's recollection, the script took three weeks to write, and much of the inspiration behind the plot came from Celtic traditions of Halloween such as the festival of Samhain. Although Samhain is not mentioned in the plot of the first film, Hill asserts that:

Hill, who had worked as a babysitter during her teenage years, wrote most of the female characters' dialogue, while Carpenter drafted Loomis' speeches on the soullessness of Michael Myers. Many script details were drawn from Carpenter's and Hill's own backgrounds and early careers: The fictional town of Haddonfield, Illinois was derived from Haddonfield, New Jersey, where Hill was raised, while several of the street names were taken from Carpenter's hometown of Bowling Green, Kentucky. Laurie Strode was allegedly the name of one of Carpenter's old girlfriends, while Michael Myers was the name of an English producer who had previously entered, with Yablans, Assault on Precinct 13 in various European film festivals. Homage is paid to Alfred Hitchcock with two characters' names: Tommy Doyle is named after Lt. Det. Thomas J. Doyle (Wendell Corey) from Rear Window (1954), and Dr. Loomis' name was derived from Sam Loomis (John Gavin) from Psycho, the boyfriend of Marion Crane (Janet Leigh, who is the real-life mother of Jamie Lee Curtis). Sheriff Leigh Brackett shared the name of a Hollywood screenwriter and frequent collaborator of Howard Hawks.

In devising the backstory for the film's villain, Michael Myers, Carpenter drew on "haunted house" folklore that exists in many small American communities: "Most small towns have a kind of haunted house story of one kind or another," he stated. "At least that's what teenagers believe. There's always a house down the lane that somebody was killed in, or that somebody went crazy in." Carpenter also took inspiration from Westworld (1973) for Michael Myers. Carpenter's inspiration for the "evil" that Michael embodied came from a visit he had taken during college to a psychiatric institution in Kentucky. There, he visited a ward with his psychology classmates where "the most serious, mentally ill patients" were held. Among those patients was an adolescent boy, who possessed a blank, "schizophrenic stare." Carpenter's experience inspired the characterization that Loomis gave of Michael to Sheriff Brackett in the film. Debra Hill has stated the scene where Michael kills the Wallaces' German Shepherd was done to illustrate how he is "really evil and deadly".

The ending scene of Michael disappearing after being shot six times and falling off the balcony, was meant to terrify the imagination of the audience. Using a montage of the houses as Michael's breathing is heard, Carpenter tried to keep the audience guessing as to who Michael Myers really is—he is gone, and everywhere at the same time; he is more than human; he may be supernatural, and no one knows how he got that way. To Carpenter, keeping the audience guessing was better than explaining away the character with "he's cursed by some..."

Carpenter has described Halloween as: "True crass exploitation. I decided to make a film I would love to have seen as a kid, full of cheap tricks like a haunted house at a fair where you walk down the corridor and things jump out at you."

Casting

The cast of Halloween included veteran actor Donald Pleasence and then-unknown actress Jamie Lee Curtis. The low budget limited the number of big names that Carpenter could attract, and most of the actors received very little compensation for their roles. Pleasence was paid the highest amount at $20,000, Curtis received $8,000, and Nick Castle earned $25 a day. The role of Dr. Loomis was originally intended for Peter Cushing, who had recently appeared as Grand Moff Tarkin in Star Wars (1977); Cushing's agent rejected Carpenter's offer due to the low salary. Christopher Lee was approached for the role; he too turned it down, although the actor later told Carpenter and Hill that declining the role was the biggest mistake he made during his career. Yablans then suggested Pleasence, who agreed to star because his daughter Lucy, a guitarist, had enjoyed Assault on Precinct 13 for Carpenter's score.

In an interview, Carpenter admits that "Jamie Lee wasn't the first choice for Laurie. I had no idea who she was. She was 19 and in a TV show at the time, but I didn't watch TV." He originally wanted to cast Anne Lockhart, the daughter of June Lockhart from Lassie, as Laurie Strode. However, Lockhart had commitments to several other film and television projects. Hill says of learning that Jamie Lee was the daughter of Psycho actress Janet Leigh: "I knew casting Jamie Lee would be great publicity for the film because her mother was in Psycho." Curtis was cast in the part, though she initially had reservations as she felt she identified more with the other female characters: "I was very much a smart alec, and was a cheerleader in high school, so [I] felt very concerned that I was being considered for the quiet, repressed young woman when in fact I was very much like the other two girls."

Another relatively unknown actress, Nancy Kyes (credited in the film as Nancy Loomis), was cast as Laurie's outspoken friend Annie Brackett, daughter of Haddonfield sheriff Leigh Brackett (Charles Cyphers). Kyes had previously starred in Assault on Precinct 13 (as had Cyphers) and happened to be dating Halloweens art director Tommy Lee Wallace when filming began. Carpenter chose P. J. Soles to play Lynda Van Der Klok, another loquacious friend of Laurie's, best remembered in the film for dialogue peppered with the word "totally."  Soles was an actress known for her supporting role in Carrie (1976) and her minor part in The Boy in the Plastic Bubble (1976) and would subsequently play Riff Randall in the 1979 film Rock 'n Roll High School. According to Soles, she was told after being cast that Carpenter had written the role with her in mind. Soles's then-husband, actor Dennis Quaid, was considered for the role of Bob Simms, Lynda's boyfriend, but was unable to perform the role due to prior work commitments.

The role of "The Shape"—as the masked Michael Myers character was billed in the end credits—was played by Nick Castle, who befriended Carpenter while they attended the University of Southern California. After Halloween, Castle became a director, taking the helm of films such as The Last Starfighter (1984), The Boy Who Could Fly (1986), Dennis the Menace (1993), and Major Payne (1995). Tony Moran plays the unmasked Michael at the end of the film. Moran was a struggling actor before he got the role. At the time, he had a job on Hollywood and Vine dressed up as Frankenstein. Moran had the same agent as his sister, Erin, who played Joanie Cunningham on Happy Days. When Moran went to audition for the role of Michael, he met for an interview with Carpenter and Yablans. He later got a call back and was told he had got the part. Moran was paid $250 for his appearance. Will Sandin played the unmasked young Michael in the beginning of the film. Carpenter also provided uncredited voice work as Paul, Annie's boyfriend.

Filming
Akkad agreed to put up $300,000 ($1.4 million in 2022) for the film's budget, which was considered low at the time (Carpenter's previous film, Assault on Precinct 13, had an estimated budget of $100,000). Akkad worried over the tight, four-week schedule, low budget, and Carpenter's limited experience as a filmmaker, but told Fangoria: "Two things made me decide. One, Carpenter told me the story verbally and in a suspenseful way, almost frame for frame. Second, he told me he didn't want to take any fees, and that showed he had confidence in the project". Carpenter received $10,000 for directing, writing, and composing the music, retaining rights to 10 percent of the film's profits.

Because of the low budget, wardrobe and props were often crafted from items on hand or that could be purchased inexpensively. Carpenter hired Tommy Lee Wallace as production designer, art director, location scout and co-editor. Wallace created the trademark mask worn by Michael Myers throughout the film from a Captain Kirk mask purchased for $1.98 from a costume shop on Hollywood Boulevard. Carpenter recalled how Wallace "widened the eye holes and spray-painted the flesh a bluish white. In the script it said Michael Myers's mask had 'the pale features of a human face' and it truly was spooky looking. I can only imagine the result if they hadn't painted the mask white. Children would be checking their closet for William Shatner after Tommy got through with it." Hill adds that the "idea was to make him almost humorless, faceless—this sort of pale visage that could resemble a human or not." Many of the actors wore their own clothes, and Curtis' wardrobe was purchased at J.C. Penney for around $100. Wallace described the filming process as uniquely collaborative, with cast members often helping move equipment, cameras, and helping facilitate set-ups. The vehicle stolen by Michael Myers from Dr Loomis and Nurse Marion Chambers at the Smith Grove Sanitarium was an Illinois government-owned 1978 Ford LTD station wagon rented for two weeks of filming. When filming was complete, the car was returned to the rental company who put it up for auction. Its next owner left it in a barn for decades until selling it to its new owner who has completely restored both its interior and exterior.

Halloween was filmed in 20 days over a four-week period in May 1978. Much of the filming was completed using a Panaglide, a clone of the Steadicam, the then-new camera that allowed the filmmakers to move around spaces smoothly. Filming locations included South Pasadena, California; Garfield Elementary School in Alhambra, California; and the cemetery at Sierra Madre, California. An abandoned house owned by a church stood in as the Myers house. Two homes on Orange Grove Avenue (near Sunset Boulevard) in the Spaulding Square neighborhood of Hollywood were used for the film's climax, as the street had few palm trees, and thus closely resembled a Midwestern street. Some palm trees, however, are visible in the film's earlier establishing scenes. The crew had difficulty finding pumpkins in the spring, and artificial fall leaves had to be reused for multiple scenes. Local families dressed their children in Halloween costumes for trick-or-treat scenes.

Carpenter worked with the cast to create the desired effect of terror and suspense. According to Curtis, Carpenter created a "fear meter" because the film was shot out-of-sequence and she was not sure what her character's level of terror should be in certain scenes. "Here's about a 7, here's about a 6, and the scene we're going to shoot tonight is about a 9", remembered Curtis. She had different facial expressions and scream volumes for each level on the meter. Carpenter's direction for Castle in his role as Myers was minimal. For example, when Castle asked what Myers' motivation was for a particular scene, Carpenter replied that his motivation was to walk from one set marker to another and "not act." By Carpenter's account the only direction he gave Castle was during the murder sequence of Bob, in which he told Castle to tilt his head and examine the corpse as if it "were a butterfly collection."

Musical score

Carpenter did the score as he was told that the film "wasn't scary" after doing a test screening. Instead of utilizing a more traditional symphonic soundtrack, the film's score consists primarily of a piano melody played in a 10/8 or "complex 5/4" time signature, composed and performed by Carpenter. It took him three days to compose and record the entire score for the film. Following the film's critical and commercial success, the "Halloween Theme" became recognizable apart from the film. Carpenter said it was also done in a hour. Critic James Berardinelli calls the score "relatively simple and unsophisticated", but admits that "Halloweens music is one of its strongest assets". Carpenter once stated in an interview, "I can play just about any keyboard, but I can't read or write a note." In Halloweens end credits, Carpenter bills himself as the "Bowling Green Philharmonic Orchestra", but he also received assistance from composer Dan Wyman, a music professor at San José State University.

Some non-score songs can be heard in the film, one an untitled song performed by Carpenter and a group of his friends in a band called The Coupe De Villes. The song can be heard as Laurie steps into Annie's car on her way to babysit Tommy Doyle. Another song, "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" by classic rock band Blue Öyster Cult, also appears in the film. It plays on the car radio as Annie drives Laurie through Haddonfield with Myers in silent pursuit.

The soundtrack was first released in the United States in October 1983, by Varèse Sarabande/MCA. It was subsequently released on CD in 1985, re-released in 1990, and reissued again in 2000. On the film's 40th anniversary, coinciding with the release of Anthology: Movie Themes 1974–1998, a cover of the theme by Trent Reznor and Atticus Ross was released.

Release

Theatrical distribution
Halloween premiered on October 24, 1978, in downtown Kansas City, Missouri, at the AMC Empire theatre. Regional distribution in the Philadelphia and New York City metropolitan areas was acquired by Aquarius Releasing. It grossed $1,270,000 from 198 theatres across the U.S. (including 72 in New York City and 98 in Southern California) in it's opening week. The film grossed $47 million in the United States and an additional $23 million internationally, making the theatrical total $70 million, making it one of the most successful independent films of all time.

On September 7, 2012, the official Halloween Movies Facebook page announced that the original Halloween would be re-released starting October 25, 2013, in celebration of the film's 35th anniversary in 2013. A new documentary was screened before the film at all locations, titled You Can't Kill the Boogeyman: 35 Years of Halloween, written and directed by HalloweenMovies.com webmaster Justin Beahm.

Television rights
In 1980, the television rights to Halloween were sold to NBC for approximately $3 million. After a debate among Carpenter, Hill and NBC's Standards and Practices over censoring of certain scenes, Halloween appeared on television for the first time in October 1981. To fill the two-hour time slot, Carpenter filmed twelve minutes of additional material during the production of Halloween II. The newly filmed scenes include Dr. Loomis at a hospital board review of Michael Myers and Dr. Loomis talking to a then-6-year-old Michael at Smith's Grove, telling him, "You've fooled them, haven't you, Michael? But not me." Another extra scene features Dr. Loomis at Smith's Grove examining Michael's abandoned cell after his escape and seeing the word "Sister" scratched into the door. Finally, a scene was added in which Lynda comes over to Laurie's house to borrow a silk blouse before Laurie leaves to babysit, just as Annie telephones asking to borrow the same blouse. The new scene had Laurie's hair hidden by a towel, since Curtis was by then wearing a much shorter hairstyle than she had worn in 1978.

In August 2006, Fangoria reported that Synapse Films had discovered boxes of negatives containing footage cut from the film. One was labeled "1981" suggesting that it was additional footage for the television version of the film. Synapse owner Don May Jr. said, "What we've got is pretty much all the unused original camera negative from Carpenter's original Halloween. Luckily, Billy [Kirkus] was able to find this material before it was destroyed. The story on how we got the negative is a long one, but we'll save it for when we're able to showcase the materials in some way. Kirkus should be commended for pretty much saving the Holy Grail of horror films". He later claimed: "We just learned from Sean Clark, long time Halloween genius, that the footage found is just that: footage. There is no sound in any of the reels so far, since none of it was used in the final edit".

Critical response

Contemporaneous
Upon its initial release, Halloween performed well with little advertising, relying mostly on word-of-mouth, but many critics seemed uninterested or dismissive of the film. Pauline Kael wrote a scathing review in The New Yorker suggesting that "Carpenter doesn't seem to have had any life outside the movies: one can trace almost every idea on the screen to directors such as Hitchcock and Brian De Palma and to the Val Lewton productions" and musing that "Maybe when a horror film is stripped of everything but dumb scariness—when it isn't ashamed to revive the stalest device of the genre (the escaped lunatic)—it satisfies part of the audience in a more basic, childish way than sophisticated horror pictures do."

The Los Angeles Times deemed the film a "well-made but empty and morbid thriller", while Bill von Maurer of The Miami Times felt it was "surprisingly good", noting: "Taken on its own level, Halloween is a terrifying movie—if you are the right age and the right mood." Susan Stark of the Detroit Free Press branded Halloween a burgeoning cult film at the time of its release, describing it as "moody in the extreme"  and praising its direction and music.

Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune gave the film three and a half stars out of four and called it "a beautifully made thriller" that "works because director Carpenter knows how to shock while making us smile. He repeatedly sets up anticipation of a shock and delays the shock for varying lengths of time. The tension is considerable. More than once during the movie I looked around just to make sure that no one weird was sitting behind me." Gary Arnold of The Washington Post was negative, writing "Since there is precious little character or plot development to pass the time between stalking sequences, one tends to wish the killer would get on with it. Presumably, Carpenter imagines he's building up spine-tingling anticipation, but his techniques are so transparent and laborious that the result is attenuation rather than tension."

Lou Cedrone of The Baltimore Evening Sun referred to it as "tediously familiar" and whose only notable element is "Jamie Lee Curtis, whose performance as the intended fourth victim, is well above the rest of the film."

Tom Allen of The Village Voice praised the film in his November 1978 review, noting it as sociologically irrelevant but praising its Hitchcock-like technique as effective and "the most honest way to make a good schlock film". Allen pointed out the stylistic similarities to Psycho and George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968).

The following month, Voice lead critic Andrew Sarris wrote a follow-up feature on cult films, citing Allen's appraisal of Halloween and writing in the lead sentence that the film "bids fair to become the cult discovery of 1978. Audiences have been heard screaming at its horrifying climaxes". Roger Ebert gave the film similar praise in his 1979 review in the Chicago Sun-Times, referring to it as "a visceral experience—we aren't seeing the movie, we're having it happen to us. It's frightening. Maybe you don't like movies that are really scary: Then don't see this one." Ebert also selected it as one of his top 10 films of 1978. Once-dismissive critics became impressed by Carpenter's choice of camera angles and simple music and surprised by the lack of blood and graphic violence.

Retrospective
Years after its debut, Halloween is considered by many critics as one of the best films of 1978. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, which records both contemporaneous and more recent reviews, Halloween holds a 96% approval rating based on 84 critic reviews, with an average rating of 8.60/10. The consensus reads: "Scary, suspenseful, and viscerally thrilling, Halloween set the standard for modern horror films." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 87 out of 100 based on 21 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".

Many compared the film with the work of Alfred Hitchcock, although TV Guide calls comparisons made to Psycho "silly and groundless" and some critics in the late 1980s and early 1990s blamed the film for spawning the slasher subgenre, which they felt had rapidly descended into sadism and misogyny. Scholars such as Adam Rockoff dispute the recurring descriptions of Halloween as overtly violent or gory, commenting that the film is in fact "one of the most restrained horror films", showing very little onscreen violence. Almost a decade after its premiere, Mick Martin and Marsha Porter critiqued the first-person camera shots that earlier film reviewers had praised and later slasher-film directors used for their own films (for example, 1980's Friday the 13th). Claiming it encouraged audience identification with the killer, Martin and Porter pointed to the way "the camera moves in on the screaming, pleading victim, 'looks down' at the knife, and then plunges it into chest, ear, or eyeball. Now that's sick."

Home media
Since Halloweens premiere, it has been released in several home video formats. Early VHS versions were released by Media Home Entertainment. This release subsequently became a collectors' item, with one copy from 1979 selling on eBay for $13,220 in 2013. On August 3, 1995, Blockbuster Video issued a commemorative edition of the film on VHS.

As stated, the film was first released on VHS in 1979 and again in 1981 by Media Home Entertainment.  The synopsis on the back misspelled Myers as Meyers.  The film was also released on Betamax around that same time.  It was not released in CED format (capacitance electronic disc), unlike Halloween II and Halloween III, but it was released on Laser Disc.

The film was released for the first time on DVD in the United States by Anchor Bay Entertainment on October 28, 1997.  To date, that DVD release is the only one to feature the original mono audio track as heard in theaters in 1978 and on most home video releases that preceded it. Anchor Bay re-released the film on DVD in various other editions; among these were an "extended edition," which features the original theatrical release with the scenes that were shot for the broadcast TV version edited in at their proper places. In 1999, Anchor Bay issued a two-disc limited edition, which featured both the theatrical and "extended editions," as well as lenticular cover art and lobby cards. In 2003, Anchor Bay released a two-disc "25th Anniversary edition" with improved DiviMax picture and audio, along with an audio commentary by Carpenter, Curtis and Hill, among other features.

On October 2, 2007, the film was released for the first time on Blu-ray by Anchor Bay/Starz Home Entertainment. The following year, a "30th Anniversary Commemorative Set" was issued, containing DVD and Blu-ray versions of the film, the sequels Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers and Halloween 5: The Revenge of Michael Myers, and a replica Michael Myers mask. A 35th-anniversary Blu-ray was released in October 2013, featuring a new transfer supervised by cinematographer Dean Cundey. This release earned a Saturn Award for Best Classic Film Release. In September 2014, Scream Factory teamed with Anchor Bay Entertainment to release the film as part of a Blu-ray boxed set featuring every film in the series (up to 2009's Halloween II), made available in a standard and limited edition.

The film was released by Lionsgate Home Entertainment (Anchor Bay's successor) in an Ultra HD Blu-ray and Blu-ray edition for the film's 40th anniversary. It is also available online for computer and other devices viewing (streaming rentals) and downloadable files through Amazon.com, Apple's iTunes Store download application and Vudu.com computer servers.

In September 2021, Scream Factory released a new 4K Ultra HD Dolby Vision scan of the film, as well as its first four sequels.

Accolades
Halloween was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film by the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films in 1979, but lost to The Wicker Man (1973). In 2001, Halloween ranked #68 on the American Film Institute TV program 100 Years ... 100 Thrills. The film was #14 on Bravo's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments (2004). Similarly, the Chicago Film Critics Association named it the 3rd scariest film ever made. In 2006, Halloween was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant." In 2008, the film was selected by Empire magazine as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time. In 2010, Total Film selected the film as one of The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time. In 2017, Complex magazine named Halloween the best slasher film of all time. The following year, Paste listed it the best slasher film of all time, while Michael Myers was ranked the greatest slasher villain of all time by LA Weekly.American Film Institute lists'''
 AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – #68
 AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains:
 Michael Myers – Nominated Villain
 AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated

LegacyHalloween is a widely influential film within the horror genre; it was largely responsible for the popularization of slasher films in the 1980s and helped develop the slasher genre. Halloween popularized many tropes that have become completely synonymous with the slasher genre. Halloween helped to popularize the final girl trope, the killing off of characters who are substance abusers or sexually promiscuous, and the use of a theme song for the killer. Carpenter also shot many scenes from the perspective of the killer in order to build tension. These elements have become so established that many historians argue that Halloween is responsible for the new wave of horror that emerged during the 1980s. Due to its popularity, Halloween became a blueprint for success that many other horror films, such as Friday the 13th and A Nightmare on Elm Street, followed, and that others like Scream satirized.

The major themes present in Halloween also became common in the slasher films it inspired. Film scholar Pat Gill notes that in Halloween, there is a theme of absentee parents but films such as A Nightmare on Elm Street and Friday the 13th feature the parents becoming directly responsible for the creation of the killer.

There are slasher films that predated Halloween, such as Silent Night, Bloody Night (1972),  The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and Black Christmas (1974) which contained prominent elements of the slasher genre; both involving a group of teenagers being murdered by a stranger as well as having the final girl trope. Halloween, however, is considered by historians as being responsible for the new wave of horror films, because it not only used these tropes but also pioneered many others. Rockoff notes that it is "difficult to overestimate the importance of Halloween," noting its pioneering use of the final girl character, subjective point-of-view shots, and holiday setting. Rockoff considers the film "the blueprint for all slashers and the model against which all subsequent films are judged."

Related works

Novelization and video game
A mass market paperback novelization of the same name, written by Curtis Richards (a pseudonym that was used by author Richard Curtis), was published by Bantam Books in 1979. It was reissued in 1982. it later went out of print. The novelization adds aspects not featured in the film, such as the origins of the curse of Samhain and Michael Myers' life in Smith's Grove Sanatorium, which contradict its source material. For example, the novel's version of Michael speaks during his time at the sanitarium; in the film, Dr. Loomis states, "He hasn't spoken a word in fifteen years."

In 1983, Halloween was adapted as a video game for the Atari 2600 by Wizard Video. None of the main characters in the game were named. Players take on the role of a teenage babysitter who tries to save as many children as possible from an unnamed, knife-wielding killer. In another effort to save money, most versions of the game did not even have a label on the cartridge. It was simply a piece of tape with "Halloween" written in marker. The game contained more gore than the film, however. When the babysitter is killed, her head disappears and is replaced by blood pulsating from the neck as she runs around exaggeratedly. The game's primary similarity to the film is the theme music that plays when the killer appears onscreen.

Sequels and remakeHalloween spawned nine sequels, an unrelated spin-off film and two films in a remake series.

Of the subsequent films, only the first sequel was written by Carpenter and Hill. It begins exactly where Halloween ends and was intended to finish the story of Michael Myers and Laurie Strode. Carpenter did not direct any of the subsequent films in the Halloween series, although he did produce Halloween III: Season of the Witch, the plot of which is unrelated to the other films in the series due to the absence of Michael Myers. He, along with Alan Howarth, also composed the music for the second and third films. After the negative critical and commercial reception for Season of the Witch, the studio brought back Michael Myers in Halloween 4: The Return of Michael Myers. Financier Moustapha Akkad continued to work closely with the Halloween franchise, acting as executive producer of every sequel until his death in the 2005 Amman bombings.

With the exception of Halloween III, the sequels further develop the character of Michael Myers and the Samhain theme. Even without considering the third film, the Halloween series contains continuity issues, which some sources attribute to the different writers and directors involved in each film.

A remake was released in 2007, and was followed by a 2009 sequel.

An eleventh installment was released in 2018, as a direct sequel to the original film, disregarding the previous sequels, and retconning the ending of the first film. It was followed by two direct sequels: Halloween Kills (2021) and Halloween Ends (2022).

Notes

References

Works cited

External links

 Halloween essay by Murray Leeder on the National Film Registry website
 Halloween essay by Daniel Eagan in America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry, A&C Black, 2010 , pages 748–750 America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry
 Official website of the Halloween series

 Halloween'' at the TCM Movie Database

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1978 films
1978 horror films
1978 independent films
1970s American films
1970s English-language films
1970s exploitation films
1970s horror thriller films
1970s serial killer films
1970s slasher films
1970s teen horror films
American exploitation films
American films about Halloween
American horror thriller films
American independent films
American serial killer films
American slasher films
American teen horror films
Films about children
Films directed by John Carpenter
Films produced by Debra Hill
Films scored by John Carpenter
Films set in 1963
Films set in 1978
Films set in Illinois
Films set in psychiatric hospitals
Films shot from the first-person perspective
Films shot in California
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films with screenplays by Debra Hill
Films with screenplays by John Carpenter
Sororicide in fiction
Teen thriller films
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