São Tomé and Príncipe ( ;  (); English: "Saint Thomas and Prince"), officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (), is an island country in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Central Africa.

It consists of two archipelagos around the two main islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, about  apart and about  off the northwestern coast of Gabon. With a population of 201,800 (2018 official estimate), São Tomé and Príncipe is the second-smallest and second-least populous African sovereign state after Seychelles.

The islands were uninhabited until their discovery in 1470 by Portuguese explorers João de Santarém and Pedro Escobar. Gradually colonized and settled throughout the 16th century, they collectively served as a vital commercial and trade centre for the Atlantic slave trade. The rich volcanic soil and proximity to the equator made São Tomé and Príncipe ideal for sugar cultivation, followed later by cash crops such as coffee and cocoa; the lucrative plantation economy was heavily dependent upon enslaved Africans. Cycles of social unrest and economic instability throughout the 19th and 20th centuries culminated in peaceful independence in 1975. São Tomé and Príncipe has since remained one of Africa's most stable and democratic countries. São Tomé and Príncipe is a developing economy with a medium Human Development Index.

The people of São Tomé and Príncipe are predominantly of African and mestiço descent, with most practicing Christianity. The legacy of Portuguese rule is also visible in the country's culture, customs, and music, which fuse European and African influences. São Tomé and Príncipe is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.

History

Geological history
The islands making up São Tomé and Príncipe were formed around approximately 30 million years ago due to volcanic activity in deep water along the Cameroon Line. Over time, interactions with seawater and periods of eruption have engendered a wide variety of different igneous and volcanic rocks on the islands with complex assemblages of minerals.

Arrival of Europeans
The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived sometime around 1470. The first Europeans to put ashore were João de Santarém and Pêro Escobar. Portuguese navigators explored the islands and decided that they would be good locations for bases to trade with the mainland.

The dates of European arrival are sometimes given as 21 December (St Thomas's Day) 1471, for São Tomé; and 17 January (St Antony's Day) 1472, for Príncipe, though other sources cite different years around that time. Príncipe was initially named Santo Antão ("Saint Anthony"), changing its name in 1502 to Ilha do Príncipe ("Prince's Island"), in reference to the Prince of Portugal to whom duties on the island's sugar crop were paid.

The first successful settlement of São Tomé was established in 1493 by Álvaro Caminha, who received the land as a grant from the crown. Príncipe was settled in 1500 under a similar arrangement. Attracting settlers proved difficult, however, and most of the earliest inhabitants were "undesirables" sent from Portugal, mostly Sephardic Jews. 2,000 Jewish children, eight years old and under, were taken from the Iberian peninsula for work on the sugar plantations. In time, these settlers found the volcanic soil of the region suitable for agriculture, especially the growing of sugar.

Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe

By 1515, São Tomé and Príncipe had become slave depots for the coastal slave trade centered at Elmina.
The cultivation of sugar was a labour-intensive process and the Portuguese began to enslave large numbers of Africans from the continent. In the sugar boom's early stages, property on the islands had little value, with farming for local consumption while the economy relied mainly on the transit of slaves, though already many foodstuffs were imported. When the local landowner Álvaro Borges died in 1504, his cleared land and domesticated animals were sold for only 13,000 réis, about the price of three slaves. According to Valentim Fernandes around 1506, São Tomé had more sugarcane fields than Madeira "from which they already produce molasses," but the island lacked facilities for industrial sugar production.

Economic development in the 16th century
São Tomé would only become economically noteworthy with the introduction of a water-powered sugar mill in 1515, which soon led to the mass cultivation of sugar: "The fields are expanding and the sugar mills, too. At this time, only two sugar mills are here and another three are being built, counting the mill of the contractors, which is large. Similarly, the necessary conditions exist, such as streams and timber, to be able to build many more. And the [sugar] canes are the biggest I have ever seen in my life." Sugar plantations were organized with slave labor, and by the mid-16th century, the Portuguese settlers had turned the islands into Africa's foremost exporter of sugar.

Slaves in São Tomé were bought from the Slave Coast of West Africa, the Niger Delta, the island of Fernando Po, and later from the Kongo and Angola. In the 16th century, the enslaved were imported from and exported to Portugal, Elmina, the Kingdom of Kongo, Angola, and the Spanish Americas. In 1510, reportedly 10,000 to 12,000 slaves were imported by Portugal. In 1516, São Tomé received 4,072 slaves with the purpose of re-exportation. From 1519 to 1540, the island was the center of the slave trade between Elmina and the Niger Delta. Throughout the early to mid sixteenth century, São Tomé traded in slaves intermittently with Angola and the Kingdom of Kongo. In 1525 São Tomé began trafficking slaves to the Spanish Americas, mainly to the Caribbean and Brazil. From 1532 to 1536, São Tomé sent an annual average of 342 slaves to the Antilles. Prior to 1580, the island accounted for 75 percent of Brazil's imports, mainly slaves. The slave trade remained a cornerstone of São Tomé's economy until after 1600.

The power dynamics of São Tomé in the 16th century were surprisingly diverse with the participation of free mulatto[s] and black citizens in governance. Voluntary colonists shunned São Tomé for its disease and food shortages, so the Portuguese crown deported convicts to the island and encouraged interracial relationships to secure the colony. Slavery was also not permanent, as demonstrated through the 1515 royal decree granting the manumission of African wives of white settlers and their mixed-race children. In 1517,  another decree freed the male slaves who had originally arrived on the island with the first colonists. After 1520, a royal charter allowed for property-owning, married, free mulattos to hold public offices. This was followed by a decree in 1546 establishing civil equality between these qualified mulattos and the white settlers, allowing free mulattos and black citizens opportunities for upward mobility and participation in local politics and business. Social divisions led to frequent disputes within the colony's town councils and with the governor and bishop, with constant political unstability.

At first, slavery in São Tomé was less strict. In the mid-16th century, an anonymous Portuguese pilot noted that the slaves were employed as couples, built their own accommodations, and worked autonomously once a week on the cultivation of their own food supply. However, this more relaxed slave system did not last long following the introduction of plantations. Throughout, slaves frequently ran away to the inhospitable mountain forests of the island's interior. Between 1514 and 1527, five percent of slaves that were imported to São Tomé escaped, often to starve, though 1531–1535 saw major food shortages even in the plantations. Eventually, the Maroon people developed settlements in the interior known as macambos.

Slave rebellions
The first signs of slave rebellion began in the 1530s, when the maroon gangs organized to attack plantations, some of which were abandoned. A formal complaint was lodged by local Portuguese authorities in 1531 lamenting that too many settlers and black citizens were being killed in the attacks, and that the island would be lost if the problem remained unresolved. In a 1533 'bush war', a 'bush captain' led militia units to suppress the maroons. A significant event in the maroon fight for freedom occurred in 1549, when two men claiming to be free-born were taken in from the macambos by a wealthy mulatto planter named Ana de Chaves. With the support of de Chaves, the two men petitioned the king to be declared free, and the request was approved. The largest population of maroons coincided with the sugar boom of the mid-16th century, as the plantations teemed with slaves. Between 1587 and 1590, many of the runaway slaves were defeated in another bush war. By 1593, the governor declared the maroon forces almost completely extinguished. Nevertheless, maroon populations kept settlers away from the southern and western regions.

The greatest slave revolt occurred in July 1595, when the government was weakened by disputes between the bishop and the governor. A native slave named Amador recruited 5000 slaves to raid and destroy plantations, sugar mills, and settler houses. Amador's rebellion made three raids on the town and destroyed 60 of the island's 85 sugar mills, but they were defeated by the militia after three weeks. Two hundred slaves were killed in combat, and Amador and the other rebel leaders were executed, while the rest of the slaves were granted amnesty and returned to their plantation. Smaller slave rebellions followed in the 17th and 18th centuries.

São Tomé and Príncipe in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries
Eventually, competition from sugar-producing colonies in the Western Hemisphere began to hurt the islands. The large enslaved population also proved difficult to control, with Portugal unable to invest many resources in the effort. Sugar cultivation thus declined over the next 100 years, and by the mid-17th century, São Tomé had become primarily a transit point for ships engaged in the slave trade between continental Africa and the Americas.

In the early 19th century, two new cash crops, coffee and cocoa, were introduced. The rich volcanic soils proved well suited to the new crops, and soon extensive plantations (known as roças), owned by Portuguese companies or absentee landlords, occupied almost all of the good farmland. By 1908, São Tomé had become the world's largest producer of cocoa, which remains the country's most important crop.

The roças system, which gave the plantation managers a high degree of authority, led to abuses against the African farm workers. Although Portugal officially abolished slavery in 1876, the practice of forced paid labour continued. Scientific American documented in words and pictures the continued use of slaves in São Tomé in its 13 March 1897 issue.

Observations of the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919 in Príncipe by Sir Arthur Eddington provided one of the first successful tests of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity.

In the early 20th century, an internationally publicized controversy arose over charges that Angolan contract workers were being subjected to forced labour and unsatisfactory working conditions. Sporadic labor unrest and dissatisfaction continued well into the 20th century, culminating in an outbreak of riots in 1953 in which several hundred African laborers were killed in a clash with their Portuguese rulers. The anniversary of this "Batepá Massacre" remains officially observed by the government.

Independence (1975)

By the late 1950s, when other emerging nations across the African continent demanded their independence, a small group of São Toméans formed the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe (MLSTP), which eventually established its base in nearby Gabon. Picking up momentum in the 1960s, events moved quickly after the overthrow of the Caetano dictatorship in Portugal in April 1974.

The new Portuguese regime was committed to the dissolution of its overseas colonies. In November 1974, its representatives met with the MLSTP in Algiers and worked out an agreement for the transfer of sovereignty. After a period of transitional government, São Tomé and Príncipe achieved independence on 12 July 1975, choosing as the first president the MLSTP Secretary General Manuel Pinto da Costa.

In 1990, São Tomé became one of the first African countries to undergo democratic reform, and changes to the constitution—including the legalization of opposition political parties—led to elections in 1991 that were non-violent, free, and transparent. Miguel Trovoada, a former prime minister who had been in exile since 1986, returned as an independent candidate and was elected president. Trovoada was re-elected in São Tomé's second multiparty presidential election in 1996.

The Party of Democratic Convergence won a majority of seats in the National Assembly, with the MLSTP becoming an important and vocal minority party. Municipal elections followed in late 1992, in which the MLSTP won a majority of seats on five of seven regional councils. In early legislative elections in October 1994, the MLSTP won a plurality of seats in the assembly. It regained an outright majority of seats in the November 1998 elections.

21st century
In the 2001 presidential elections the candidate backed by the Independent Democratic Action party, Fradique de Menezes, was elected in the first round and inaugurated on 3 September. Parliamentary elections were held in March 2002. For the next four years, a series of short-lived opposition-led governments was formed.

In July 2003 the army seized power for one week, complaining of corruption and that forthcoming oil revenues would not be divided fairly. An accord was negotiated under which President de Menezes was returned to office. In March 2006, the cohabitation period ended, when a propresidential coalition won enough seats in National Assembly elections to form a new government.

In the 30 July 2006 presidential election, Fradique de Menezes easily won a second five-year term in office, defeating two other candidates Patrice Trovoada (son of former President Miguel Trovoada) and independent Nilo Guimarães. Local elections, the first since 1992, took place on 27 August 2006 and were dominated by members of the ruling coalition.On 12 February 2009, a coup d'état was attempted to overthrow President Fradique de Menezes. The plotters were imprisoned, but later received a pardon from President de Menezes.

Evaristo Carvalho was the President of São Tomé and Príncipe since 2016 elections, after winning over the incumbent President Manuel Pinto da Costa. President Carvalho is also vice president of the Independent Democratic Action party (ADI). Patrice Emery Trovoada was Prime Minister since 2014 and he is the leader of Independent Democratic Action party (ADI). In December 2018, Jorge Bom Jesus, the leader of the Movimento de Libertação de São Tomé e Príncipe-Partido Social Democráta (MLSTP-PSD), was sworn in as new prime minister.

In September 2021, the candidate of the centre-right opposition Independent Democratic Action (ADI), Carlos Vila Nova, won the presidential election.In September 2022, the opposition Independent Democratic Action (ADI), led by former Prime Minister Patrice Trovoada, won the election over the ruling Movement for the Liberation of Sao Tome and Principe/Social Democratic Party (MLSTP/PSD) of  Prime Minister Jorge Bom Jesus. In November of the same year, the government and military thwarted an attempted coup d'état. On 11 November 2022, Patrice Trovoada was appointed Prime Minister of São Tomé and Príncipe by the President of the Republic of São Tomé, Carlos Vila Nova. Weeks later there was a coup d'état attempt.

Geography

The two islands that make up what is called São Tomé and Príncipe were formed 30 million years ago during the Oligocene era, due to volcanic activity beneath deep water along the Cameroon Line. The volcanic soils of basalts and phonolites, dating to 3 million years, have been used for plantation crops since colonial times.

The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe, situated in the equatorial Atlantic and Gulf of Guinea about , respectively, off the northwest coast of Gabon, constitute Africa's second-smallest country. Both are part of the Cameroon volcanic mountain line, which also includes the islands of Annobón to the southwest, Bioko to the northeast (both part of Equatorial Guinea), and Mount Cameroon on the coast of Gulf of Guinea.
São Tomé is  long and  wide and the more mountainous of the two islands. Its peaks reach  – Pico de São Tomé. Príncipe is about  long and  wide. Its peaks reach  – Pico de Príncipe. Swift streams radiating down the mountains through lush forest and cropland to the sea cross both islands. The Equator lies immediately south of São Tomé Island, passing through the islet Ilhéu das Rolas.

The Pico Cão Grande (Great Dog Peak) is a landmark volcanic plug peak, at  in southern São Tomé. It rises over  above the surrounding terrain and the summit is  above sea level.

Climate
The climate of São Tomé and Príncipe is essentially conditioned by its geographic location, subject to the seasonal translation of low equatorial pressures, the monsoon winds from the south, the warm Guinea Current and the relief.

At sea level, the climate is tropical—hot and humid with average yearly temperatures of about  and little daily variation. The temperature rarely rises beyond . At the interior's higher elevations, the average yearly temperature is , and nights are generally cool. Annual rainfall varies from  in the highland cloud forests to  in the northern lowlands. The rainy season is from October to May.

Biodiversity

The country's territory is part of the São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests ecoregion. It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.64/10, ranking it 68th globally out of 172 countries.
São Tomé and Príncipe does not have a large number of native mammals (although the São Tomé shrew and several bat species are endemic). The islands are home to a larger number of endemic birds and plants, including the world's smallest ibis (the São Tomé ibis), the world's largest sunbird (the giant sunbird), the rare São Tomé fiscal, and several giant species of Begonia.
São Tomé and Príncipe is an important marine turtle-nesting site, including the hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata).

Politics

The president of the republic is elected to a five-year term by direct universal suffrage and a secret ballot, and must gain an outright majority to be elected. The president may hold up to two consecutive terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president, and the 14 members of cabinet are chosen by the prime minister.

The National Assembly, the supreme organ of the state and the highest legislative body, is made up of 55 members, who are elected for a four-year term and meet semiannually. Justice is administered at the highest level by the Supreme Court. The judiciary is independent under the current constitution.

Political culture
São Tomé and Príncipe has functioned under a multiparty system since 1990. With regard to human rights, there are guarantees on freedom of speech and the freedom to form opposition political parties.

São Tomé and Príncipe finished 11th out of the African countries measured by the Ibrahim Index of African Governance in 2010, a comprehensive reflection of the levels of governance in Africa.

São Tomé and Príncipe is considered a free country, with very high freedom of speech, high political freedom and average economic freedom. In terms of corruption, São Tomé and Príncipe is a country with average corruption, although in recent years this level has been decreasing. In tourism terms, the risk is low, equivalent to the risk of visiting France.

Foreign relations

São Tomé and Príncipe has embassies in Angola, Belgium, Gabon, Portugal, and the United States. It recognized the People's Republic of China in 2016. It also has a permanent mission to the UN in New York City and an International Diplomatic Correspondent Office.

São Tomé and Príncipe is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.

The countries with the best relations with São Tomé and Príncipe are Portugal and Angola.

Portugal

Portugal has historical ties with São Tomé and Príncipe, from the period of colonization by the Portuguese. Portugal is the largest investor in São Tomé and Príncipe, investing millions of euros in the economy of São Tomé and Príncipe. São Tomé and Príncipe maintains an embassy in Lisbon, a consulate in Porto and one in Coimbra. Portugal maintains an embassy in São Tomé. Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe signed an agreement, in which Portugal undertakes to patrol the coastal area of São Tomé and Príncipe, protecting it mainly from pirates. The Portuguese military ship NRP Zaire and some Portuguese patrol boats are permanently stationed on the coast of São Tomé and Príncipe. The economy of São Tomé and Príncipe is closely linked to that of Portugal, with Portugal accounting for more than 50% of exports from São Tomé and Príncipe. Portugal has also helped to develop education in São Tomé and Príncipe, financially helping to build and maintain the Public University of São Tomé and Príncipe. The Portuguese President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa visited São Tomé and Príncipe in 2018 to demonstrate the strong economic and cultural ties between Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe.

In September 2022, Portugal and São Tomé and Príncipe signed a new cooperation agreement for defence, bolstering training and maritime security.

Angola
Angola is a major business partner mainly in the area of natural energy resources; Angola is the major supplier of oil and natural gas to São Tomé and Príncipe. In addition, hundreds of Angolan tourists visit São Tomé and Príncipe every year, contributing to the local economy. There is a relatively large community of Angolans in São Tomé and Príncipe. São Tomé and Príncipe maintains an embassy in Luanda and Angola maintains an embassy in São Tomé.

United States

The United States has had relations with São Tomé and Príncipe since 1975, and has offered millions of dollars in financial aid packages to São Tomé and Príncipe. The financial aid packages were designed to develop the country's infrastructure and improve its fiscal, tax and customs administration. In addition, in recent years, some US Coast Guard ships have visited São Tomé and Príncipe, providing medical and military training to soldiers from São Tomé and Príncipe. In 2002, the US had plans to establish a small military base on the island of São Tomé. São Tomé and Príncipe accepted the construction of the base, but the plan was canceled due to US political and financial issues. In 1992, the US federal government broadcaster, Voice of America, and the government of São Tomé signed a long-term agreement to establish a relay broadcasting station in São Tomé. Voice of America currently broadcasts to much of Africa from this facility.

Others
Thousands of tourists from Cape Verde visit São Tomé and Príncipe, helping the local economy. Relations between Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe have improved over the years.

In recent years, Poland and Germany have been increasing commercial ties with São Tomé and Príncipe, buying more and more cocoa and other products from São Tomé and Príncipe.

India also has very good relations with São Tomé and Príncipe, investing thousands of euros annually in the agricultural sector.

Brazil has contributed to improving the health and education system in São Tomé and Príncipe. Brazilian television channels and films are the most watched in São Tomé and Príncipe.

Neighboring Gabon, Cameroon, and the Republic of Congo are important partners in São Tomé and Príncipe; many companies in these countries have establishments and businesses in São Tomé and Príncipe. Because these countries speak French, the language has become important in the business sector (together with Portuguese), in São Tomé and Príncipe.

Since 2013, China has invested in some road and seaport projects but investments have been stalling in recent years.

Military

São Tomé and Príncipe's military is small and consists of four branches: the Army (Exército), Coast Guard (Guarda Costeira also called "Navy"), Presidential Guard (Guarda Presidencial), and the National Guard.

In 2017, São Tomé and Príncipe signed the United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

Administrative divisions

In 1977, two years after independence, the country was divided into two provinces (São Tomé Province and Príncipe Province) and six districts. Since the new constitution was adopted in 1990, the provinces have been abolished, and the districts are the only administrative subdivisions. Since 29 April 1995, the island of Príncipe is an autonomous region, coterminous with the district of Pagué. The larger island of São Tomé is divided into six districts and Príncipe island into one:

São Tomé Island

Água Grande
Cantagalo
Caué
Lembá
Lobata
Mé-Zóchi

Príncipe Island

Pagué

Economy

Agriculture
Since the 19th century, the economy of São Tomé and Príncipe has been based on plantation agriculture. At the time of independence, Portuguese-owned plantations occupied 90% of the cultivated area. After independence, control of these plantations passed to various state-owned agricultural enterprises. The main crop on São Tomé is cocoa, representing about 95% of agricultural exports. Other export crops include copra, palm kernels, and coffee.

Domestic food-crop production is inadequate to meet local consumption, so the country imports most of its food. As of 1997, an estimated 90% of the country's food needs were met through imports. Efforts have been made by the government in recent years to expand food production, and several projects have been undertaken, largely financed by foreign donors.

Other than agriculture, the main economic activities are fishing and a small industrial sector engaged in processing local agricultural products and producing a few basic consumer goods. The scenic islands have potential for tourism, and the government is attempting to improve its rudimentary tourist industry infrastructure. The government sector accounts for about 11% of employment.

Following independence, the country had a centrally directed economy, with most means of production owned and controlled by the state. The original constitution guaranteed a mixed economy, with privately owned cooperatives combined with publicly owned property and means of production.

Government measures
In the 1980s and 1990s, the economy of São Tomé encountered major difficulties. Economic growth stagnated, and cocoa exports dropped in both value and volume, creating large balance-of-payments deficits. Plantation land was seized, resulting in the complete collapse of cocoa production. At the same time, the international price of cocoa slumped.

In response to its economic downturn, the government undertook a series of far-reaching economic reforms. In 1987, the government implemented an International Monetary Fund structural adjustment program, and invited greater private participation in management of the parastatals, as well as in the agricultural, commercial, banking, and tourism sectors. The focus of economic reform since the early 1990s has been widespread privatization, especially of the state-run agricultural and industrial sectors.

The São Toméan government has traditionally obtained foreign assistance from various donors, including the UN Development Programme, the World Bank, the European Union, Portugal, Taiwan, and the African Development Bank. In April 2000, in association with the Banco Central de São Tomé e Príncipe, the IMF approved a poverty-reduction and growth facility for São Tomé aimed at reducing inflation to 3% for 2001, raising ideal growth to 4%, and reducing the fiscal deficit.

In late 2000, São Tomé qualified for significant debt reduction under the IMF–World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative. The reduction is being reevaluated by the IMF, due to the attempted coup d'état in July 2003 and subsequent emergency spending. Following the truce, the IMF decided to send a mission to São Tomé to evaluate the macroeconomic state of the country. This evaluation is ongoing, reportedly pending oil legislation to determine how the government will manage incoming oil revenues, which are still poorly defined, but in any case expected to change the economic situation dramatically.

In parallel, some efforts have been made to incentivize private tourism initiatives, but their scope remains limited.

São Tomé also hosts a broadcasting station of the American International Broadcasting Bureau for the Voice of America at Pinheira.

Portugal remains one of São Tomé's major trading partners, particularly as a source of imports. Food, manufactured articles, machinery, and transportation equipment are imported primarily from the EU.

Economic challenges
In the past few years, the economy of São Tomé and Príncipe has grown, driven by agriculture, tourism and foreign investments, but mainly grew due to government spending driven by foreign loans. Gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average rate of 5.5% between 2009 and 2017, but has slowed since 2014. The slowdown in economic growth was caused by lower government spending due to decreased foreign loans and decreased revenue government tax.

The biggest challenges for the economy of São Tomé and Príncipe are limited workforce, the fact that São Tomé and Príncipe is an archipelago, a small domestic market, climatic fluctuations, global warming, scarce diplomatic resources and poverty.

For long-term economic growth, the government is trying to stimulate various sectors of the economy, diversify the economy, cut government spending and encourage private sector and foreign investment.

Positive aspects
São Tomé and Príncipe outperforms the sub-Saharan Africa average on the  Human Development Index and has made great progress on most social indicators. All children in São Tomé and Príncipe are enrolled in the education system, life expectancy has increased to 70 years, the infant mortality rate has decreased dramatically and the vast majority of the population already has access to piped water and access to electricity.

In terms of business, the government of São Tomé and Príncipe has passed several laws that facilitate the creation of private businesses and foreign investments. Between 2015 and 2019 the number of businesses and small businesses increased greatly. This has led to a decrease in unemployment, an increase in exports and the creation of several manufacturers. In the coming years significant economic improvements are expected.

Tourism
The tourism sector has great potential to be a way of diversifying the country's economy. This sector has been expanding with the increase of foreign investment. Large resorts have been built on the beaches of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Transport
The main ports in the country are in the city of São Tomé and Neves, both on the island of São Tomé, which were very degraded before being modernized in 2014. Close to the city of São Tomé, the international airport was expanded and modernized. The telephone system and the road network are good by African standards. Cellphones are widely used and improving. The Internet service is available and has been widely installed in urban areas.

Petroleum exploration
In 2001, São Tomé and Nigeria reached agreement on joint exploration for petroleum in waters claimed by the two countries of the Niger Delta geologic province. After a lengthy series of negotiations, in April 2003, the joint development zone (JDZ) was opened for bids by international oil firms. The JDZ was divided into nine blocks; the winning bids for block one, ChevronTexaco, ExxonMobil, and Dangote Group, were announced in April 2004, with São Tomé to take in 40% of the $123 million bid, and Nigeria the other 60%. Bids on other blocks were still under consideration in October 2004. São Tomé has received more than $2 million from the bank to develop its petroleum sector.

Banking

Banco Central de Sāo Tomé e Príncipe is the central bank, responsible for monetary policy and bank supervision. Six banks are in the country; the largest and oldest is Banco Internacional de São Tomé e Príncipe, which is a subsidiary of Portugal's government-owned Caixa Geral de Depósitos. It had a monopoly on commercial banking until a change in the banking law in 2003 led to the entry of several other banks.

Business partners

Exports
In 2018, exports from São Tomé and Príncipe totaled 24 million euros, an increase of 118% in 5 years, as in 2013 exports from São Tomé and Príncipe totaled only 11 million euros. Half of São Tomé and Príncipe's exports are cocoa beans. One fifth of exports are electrical machines. Other considerable exports are parts of airplanes, cars, iron, plastics, agricultural products (pepper, oils, nuts and beef).

The main destinations for exports from São Tomé and Príncipe are Europe, where the Netherlands (19%), Portugal (14%), Poland (13%), France (7%) and Germany (6%) stand out. Others important buyers are Singapore, Japan, Brazil and the United States.

In the last 10 years, the countries in which the value of exports increased the most were Portugal, Poland, Brazil and the Netherlands. There was a sharp decrease in exports from São Tomé and Príncipe to Angola, Mexico and India.

Imports
In 2018, imports to São Tomé and Príncipe totalled 161 million dollars. Since 2013, imports have been decreasing, albeit at a slow pace, since in 2013 imports totalled 167 million euros. A fifth of imports to São Tomé and Príncipe corresponded to refined oil (mainly from Angola). Other important imports, in order of importance, were cars, rice, cereals, wine, electronic equipment, chemicals, clothing, meat, medical equipment, and wood.

About 51%, more than half of the imports of São Tomé and Príncipe come from Portugal. A fifth of imports come from Angola, about 6% come from China, 4% from the United States, 4% from Brazil, 2% from Gabon and 2% from France.

In the last 10 years, the value of imports increased most from the countries of Portugal, Angola and China. There was a sharp decrease in imports from Thailand, Italy and Nigeria.

Portugal
São Tomé and Príncipe imports mostly machines, mainly electric generators and computers, and food, mainly wine, wheat, rice, milk, and soy oil, from Portugal. In addition, São Tomé and Príncipe also imports considerable quantities of cars, soap, and iron from Portugal. Portugal mainly buys scrap material, copper, cocoa, and clothing.

Society

Demographics

The total population is estimated at 201,800 in May 2018 by the government agency. About 193,380 people live on São Tomé and 8,420 on Príncipe. The natural population increase is about 4,000 people per year.

Nearly all citizens are descended from people from different countries taken to the islands by the Portuguese from 1470 onwards. In the 1970s, two significant population movements occurred — the exodus of most of the 4,000 Portuguese residents and the influx of several hundred São Tomé refugees from Angola.

Ethnic groups
Distinct ethnic groups on São Tomé and Príncipe include:

 Luso-Africans, or "mixed-blood", are descendants of Portuguese colonists and African slaves brought to the islands during the early years of settlement from Benin, Gabon, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola (these people also are known as filhos da terra or "children of the land").
 Angolares are reputedly descendants of Angolan slaves who survived a 1540 shipwreck and now earn their livelihood fishing.
 Forros are descendants of freed slaves when slavery was abolished.
 Serviçais are contract laborers from Angola, Mozambique, and Cape Verde, living temporarily on the islands.
 Tongas are children of serviçais born on the islands.
 Europeans, primarily Portuguese
 Asians, mostly Chinese, including Macanese people of mixed Portuguese and Chinese descent from Macau

Languages

Portuguese is the official and the de facto national language of São Tomé and Príncipe, with about 98.4% speaking it, a significant share as their native language, and it has been spoken in the islands since the end of the 15th century. Restructured variants of Portuguese or Portuguese creoles are also spoken: Forro, a creole language (36.2%), Cape Verdean Creole (8.5%), Angolar (6.6%), and Principense (1%). French (6.8%) and English (4.9%) are foreign languages taught in schools.

Religion

The majority of residents belongs to the local branch of the Roman Catholic Church, which in turn retains close ties with the church in Portugal. Sizeable Protestant minorities of Seventh-day Adventists and other Evangelical Protestants exist, as well as a small but growing Muslim population.

Health
See Health in São Tomé and Príncipe

Education
Among sub-Saharan African countries, São Tomé and Príncipe has one of the highest literacy rates. According to The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency as of 2018, 92.8% of the population age 15 and over can read and write in São Tomé and Príncipe were respectively literate. The Human Rights Measurement Initiative (HRMI) finds that Sao Tome and Principe is fulfilling only 83.8% of what it should be fulfilling for the right to education based on the country's level of income. HRMI breaks down the right to education by looking at the rights to both primary education and secondary education. While taking into consideration Sao Tome and Principe's income level, the nation is achieving 90.4% of what should be possible based on its resources (income) for primary education but only 77.2% for secondary education.

Education in São Tomé and Príncipe is compulsory for six years. Primary school enrollment and attendance rates were unavailable for São Tomé and Príncipe as of 2001.

The educational system has a shortage of classrooms, insufficiently trained and underpaid teachers, inadequate textbooks and materials, high rates of repetition, poor educational planning and management, and a lack of community involvement in school management. Domestic financing of the school system is lacking, leaving the system highly dependent on foreign financing.

Tertiary institutions are the National Lyceum and the University of São Tomé and Príncipe.

Culture
São Toméan culture is a mixture of African and Portuguese influences.

Music

São Toméans are known for ússua and socopé rhythms, while Príncipe is home to the dêxa beat. Portuguese ballroom may have played an integral part in the development of these rhythms and their associated dances.

Tchiloli is a musical dance performance that tells a dramatic story. The danço-Congo is similarly a combination of music, dance, and theatre. Morna is a music genre from the islands and Cesária Évora was known as the Queen of Morna.

Literature

São Tomé and Príncipe's Portuguese-language literature and poetry is considered some of the richest in Lusophone Africa. Other literature from the country has been written in Forro Creole, English and Caué Creole. Francisco José Tenreiro is considered one of the country's most influential writers. Other notable literary figures include Manuela Margarido, Alda Espirito Santo, Olinda Beja and Conceição Lima.

Cuisine

Staple foods include fish, seafood, beans, maize, and cooked banana. Tropical fruits, such as pineapple, avocado, and bananas, are  significant components of the cuisine. The use of hot spices is prominent in São Tomése cuisine. Coffee is used in various dishes as a spice or seasoning. Breakfast dishes are often reheated leftovers from the previous evening's meal, and omelettes are popular.

Sports
Football (soccer) is the most famous sport in São Tomé and Principe, the São Tomé and Príncipe national football team is the national association football team of São Tomé and Príncipe and is controlled by the São Toméan Football Federation. It is a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) and FIFA.

See also

 Outline of São Tomé and Príncipe
 List of São Tomé and Príncipe–related topics

References

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading
 Chabal, Patrick (ed.) 2002. A history of postcolonial Lusophone Africa. London: C. Hurst.  – Overview of the decolonization of Portugal's African colonies, and a chapter specifically about São Tomé and Príncipe's experience since the 1970s.
 Eyzaguirre, Pablo B. "The independence of São Tomé e Príncipe and agrarian reform." Journal of Modern African Studies 27.4 (1989): 671–678.
 Frynas, Jędrzej George, Geoffrey Wood, and Ricardo MS Soares de Oliveira. "Business and politics in São Tomé e Príncipe: from cocoa monoculture to petro‐state." African Affairs 102.406 (2003): 51–80. online
 Hodges, Tony, and Malyn Dudley Dunn Newitt. São Tomé and Príncipe: from plantation colony to microstate (Westview Press, 1988).
 Keese, Alexander. "Forced labour in the 'Gorgulho Years': Understanding reform and repression in Rural São Tomé e Príncipe, 1945–1953." Itinerario 38.1 (2014): 103–124.
 Tomás, Gil, et al. "The peopling of Sao Tome (Gulf of Guinea): origins of slave settlers and admixture with the Portuguese." Human biology 74.3 (2002): 397–411.
 Weszkalnys, Gisa. "Hope & oil: expectations in São Tomé e Príncipe." Review of African Political Economy 35.117 (2008): 473–482. online

External links

 Country Profile from BBC News
 São Tomé and Príncipe. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.

 São Tomé e Príncipe—Tourist information
 Key Development Forecasts for São Tomé and Príncipe from International Futures

Government
 Página Oficial do Governo de São Tomé e Príncipe – Official Page of the Government of São Tomé and Príncipe
 Presidência da República Democrática de São Tomé e Príncipe – President of the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (official site)
 Assembleia Nacional de São Tomé e Príncipe – National Assembly of São Tomé and Príncipe (official site)
 Instituto Nacional de Estatística – National statistics institute
 Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe
 Chief of State and Cabinet Members

1975 establishments in São Tomé and Príncipe
Central African countries
Countries in Africa
Former colonies in Africa
Former Portuguese colonies
Gulf of Guinea
Island countries
Least developed countries
Member states of the African Union
Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries
Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Member states of the United Nations
Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language
Portuguese colonisation in Africa
Republics
Small Island Developing States
States and territories established in 1975


The Poti class was the NATO reporting name for a group of anti-submarine warfare (ASW) corvettes built for the Soviet Navy. The Soviet designation was Project 204 small anti-submarine ships. These ships were the first Soviet warships powered by gas turbine engines; two propellers were mounted in tunnels to give a very shallow draught. A twin  gun mounting provided self-defence. Three ships of the class were exported to Romania and six to Bulgaria during the Cold War. By 2008, all ships of the class were no longer extant.

Design and description
Designated Maly Protivo Lodochny Korabl (Russian: Small Anti-submarine Ship) by the Soviet Navy, Project 204 (NATO reporting name Poti class) was the first class of corvettes not based on the traditional World War II anti-submarine (ASW) design constructed by the Soviets. The Poti class reversed a trend of smaller ships, being larger than the preceding  and es, which allowed the vessels to mount larger guns. The Poti class were also the first large Soviet warships to incorporate gas turbines and were the fastest ASW warships ever constructed by them.

Corvettes of Poti class measured  long with a beam of  and a draught of . They had a standard displacement of  and  fully loaded. The ships were powered by a two shaft combined diesel and gas propulsion system consisting of two M-2 gas turbines creating  and two M503A diesel engines creating . The two propellers were mounted in thrust tubes which extended the length of the prop. The gas turbines exhausted through ports in the transom and were also used to power air compressors which exhausted into the thrust tubes to create extra thrust. The power plant was similar to those found in the . This gave the ships a maximum speed of  and a range of  at  or  at .

In Soviet service, the corvettes were armed with a single turret mounted forward comprising twin /80 dual-purpose guns. Some of the earlier Soviet ships had open mounts, with later units having closed units. The guns had 85 degree elevation and could fire a  shell to a range of  up to 120 rounds per minute. They were also equipped with either twin-mounted or quad-mounted  torpedo tubes for Soviet Type 40 ASW torpedoes. The torpedoes had active/passive homing up to  and had a speed of  and carried a  warhead. The first units constructed mounted two 16-tubed RBU-2500 ASW rocket launchers, with later vessels receiving two 12-tubed RBU-6000 ASW models.

The Soviet Poti class were equipped with Don 2 surface search radar, Strut Curve air search radar, Muff Cobb fire control radar. They also had one hull-mounted high-frequency Herkules sonar and one Hormone dipping sonar. For electronic countermeasures, the corvettes had two Watch Dog units. The corvettes had a complement of 80 officers and ratings in Soviet service.

Ships

A total of 66 ships were built between 1960 and 1968. In the Soviet Union the Poti-class corvettes were decommissioned by the late 1980s and replaced in service by the s.
Builders were:

Kerch yard 24 ships
Zelenodolsk yard : 32 ships
Khabarovsk yard: 8 ships

Export

Bulgaria
Following World War II, Bulgaria entered the Soviet Union's sphere of influence. By the 1950s, the Bulgarian military had been re-organised along Soviet lines and equipped with Soviet armaments. In 1955, Bulgaria acquired Kronstahdt-class submarine chasers to outfit their ASW forces. Bulgaria required replacements for these ships as they became obsolete and six Poti-class ships were transferred between 1975 and 1990 to the Bulgarian Navy. The former Soviet numbers of most of the individual ships are not known, but it is known that MPK-59, MPK-77 and MPK-109 were among the ships given to Bulgaria. By 2008, all of Bulgaria's Poti-class corvettes had been discarded.

Romania
Post World War II, Romania fell into the Soviet Union's sphere of influence and joined the Warsaw Pact. However, by the beginning of 1964 Romania began to diverge from Soviet direction and as a result, saw limited military support afterwards, with the rift between the two countries widening in 1968 after the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Three ships were transferred to the Romanian Navy in 1970. The Romanian ships carried the older RBU-2500 ASW rocket launchers and twin  torpedo tubes using Soviet Type 53 torpedoes. All three ships were constructed at Zelenodolsk and were transferred upon completion. The former Soviet numbers of the individual ships are not known, but it is known that MPK-106 and MPK-125 were among the ships given to Romania.

See also
 List of ships of the Soviet Navy
 List of ships of Russia by project number

Notes

Citations

References

External links

 boinaslava.net

Corvette classes
Ships of the Soviet Navy
Corvettes of the Soviet Navy
Corvettes of the Bulgarian Navy
Corvettes of the Romanian Naval Forces


The Bacton Gas Terminal is a complex of six gas terminals within four sites located on the North Sea coast of North Norfolk in the United Kingdom. The sites are near Paston and between Bacton and Mundesley; the nearest town is North Walsham.

The other main UK gas terminals which receive gas from the UK continental shelf are at St Fergus, Aberdeenshire; Easington, East Riding of Yorkshire; Theddlethorpe, Lincolnshire; CATS Terminal, Teesside; and Rampside gas terminal, Barrow, Cumbria.

History
The Bacton complex which covers an area of about 180 acres (73 ha) opened during 1968. It has a frontage of 1 km (3200 feet) along the cliff top. It was initially built by Shell-Esso, Phillips Petroleum-Arpet Group, Amoco-Gas Council. Planning permission had been given on 16 June 1967 by Anthony Greenwood, Baron Greenwood of Rossendale. The Leman field began production on 13 August 1968 (joint Shell-Esso and joint Amoco-Gas Council), the Hewett field (Phillips Petroleum-Arpet Group) began operations in July 1969 and the Indefatigable field (joint Shell-Esso and joint Amoco-Gas Council) began production in October 1971. Construction of the £5 million Phillips-Arpet plant began in April 1968. Gas from the Shell-Esso part of the Leman field was delivered to Bacton via a 34-mile-long pipeline. A 36-inch diameter 140-mile-long pipeline (Number 2 feeder main) costing £17 million was built by Italsider from Bacton to the National Transmission System near Rugby. When initially completed in 1968 the terminal had a total gas throughput capacity of  per day at standard conditions. The Gas Council marketed the new North Sea gas as High Speed Gas.

Operation
The Bacton complex consists of six gas terminals. The terminals are:
 Shell
 Eni
 Perenco
 National Grid - feeding the National Transmission System (NTS)
 Interconnector UK (within the National Grid site)
 BBL (Bacton-Balgzand line) (within the Shell site)

Three of the terminals (Eni, Perenco and Shell) receive gas from Southern North Sea (SNS) and some Central North Sea (CNS) offshore gas fields. Initial gas processing, such as removal of free water, takes place on the offshore gas installations. At the terminals gas and condensate are received in slugcatchers (to separate gas and hydrocarbon liquids and condensed water), the gas is compressed if necessary, dehydrated using triethylene glycol, and chilled to achieve a specified hydrocarbon dewpoint. Sour gas (sulphurous) had previously been removed at the Eni site by amine gas treating, now decommissioned. Hydrocarbon condensate is stabilized and piped by the British Pipeline Agency along the route of the former North Walsham to Mundesley railway line to the North Walsham rail terminal and thence by rail to an oil refinery at Harwich Essex. Treated gas from the three terminals flows to the National Grid terminal located immediately to the south of the reception terminals. Two of the terminals (Interconnector and BBL) receive gas from, or deliver gas to, the gas networks of continental Europe. Manifolds within the National Grid terminal blend the gas and distribute it to the National Transmission System at around 1000 psig (69 bar).

The offshore reception terminals were originally run by Royal Dutch Shell-Esso, Phillips Petroleum-Arpet Group and Amoco-Gas Council. Amoco and BP announced they had merged in 1998 to form BP Amoco, the merged organisation changed its name to BP in 2001. Perenco took over the BP operations in September 2003. Tullow had begun operations in 2003 taking over the Phillips Petroleum terminal operations, ENI took over the Tullow Oil operations in December 2008.

Shell terminal
The Shell terminal, the most easterly of the three, receives gas and condensate from two offshore pipelines. These are a 55.7 km long 30-inch pipeline from the Leman 49/26AP offshore installation and a 73 km 24-inch pipeline from the Clipper PT installation. A mothballed 30-inch pipeline formally delivered gas from the Leman 49/26BT installation to Bacton. The terminal also receives gas from the  long 34-inch SEAL Pipeline, which transports gas from the Shearwater and Elgin-Franklin gas fields in the Central North Sea. The SEAL Pipeline is the longest on the UK Continental Shelf. The Shell plant has a gas treatment capacity of  per day at standard conditions and a condensate stabilization capacity of 8,000 barrels per day (1,270 m3/day). The gas hydrocarbon dewpoint is achieved by propane refrigeration. Truck loading facilities for condensate were originally provided. It employs 46 people and began operations in 1968. The BBL Pipeline terminal became operational in December 2006 and is located within the Shell terminal. The BBL terminal is operated, but not owned, by Shell.

Eni terminal
The most westerly of the terminals is owned by Eni of Italy. It receives gas from two 30-inch pipelines from the Hewett field (27.7 km and 32.8 km long) and a 62 km long 20-inch pipeline from Lancelot 48/17A offshore installation (LAPS complex). A decommissioned 24-inch pipeline formerly delivered gas from the Thames 49/28A offshore installation. Gas and liquid from each pipeline are received and processed separately. After gas and condensate are separated in vessel-type slugcatchers and filter-separators each gas stream is fiscally metered (for tax purposes). The two Hewett field gas streams are combined and increased in pressure through an eductor. The gas stream was formerly treated with amine to remove sulphur compounds, this facility was decommissioned in 2000 when production from the sour Hewett Upper Bunter reservoir was shut-in. The gas is comingled with the LAPS gas then compressed. It was formerly dehydrated using triethylene glycol and underwent hydrocarbon dew point reduction by chilling with propane. Finally it was fiscally metered (for sales) and transferred to the Bacton NTS plant. Formerly the terminal had pentane storage tanks and a truck loading facility. The terminal has two GE 11MW Frame 3 and one GE 3.7MW Frame 1 gas turbines, connected to three centrifugal compressors. In 2011 the Eni Terminal was split by segregating the reception and some of the compression facilities from the dehydration and dewpoint control plant, the latter was decommissioned. Now after compression the gas is sent to the Perenco site for dehydration and dewpoint control. The separated condensate is also sent to the Perenco site. During late 2013/2014 the redundant processing facilities were removed and now the majority of the Eni site is unused.

Perenco terminal
This terminal, located between the Shell terminal and the Eni terminal, processes gas from pipelines from the Leman, Indefatigable and Trent & Tyne fields. These include two  pipelines from the Leman 49/27AP and Leman 49/27B offshore installations (61.82 km and 64.9 km respectively) and a  pipeline from the Trent 43/24 offshore installation. The processing plant comprises two parallel trains (A1 plant and A2 plant) each with an initial processing capacity of  per day at standard conditions and a condensate stabilization capacity of 600 m3/day, stabilized condensate is stored in gasoline storage tanks prior being piped to the North Walsham rail terminal. Gas from the 'Leman' pipe-type slugcatcher is normally routed to dewpoint control plant streams 1, 2 and 3; gas from the 'Inde' pipe-type slugcatcher is routed to dewpoint control plant streams 4 & 5. Gas from the Tyne and Trent pipe-type slugcatcher can be routed to either dew point control plant. There is also a cross-connection to and from the Shell terminal.

The ENI terminal was integrated into the Perenco Terminal in 2011, thereby diverting the Hewett, LAPS and at one time Thames gas and condensate from the slug catchers and compression in the Eni terminal to the Perenco terminal upstream of the dehydration and dew point control plant.

National Grid terminal
Connections from the offshore reception terminals comprise two 30-inch lines from the Eni terminal (now disused), two 30-inch lines from the Perenco terminal, four 24-inch lines from the Shell terminal and a 36-inch line from the BBL pipeline. Gas from the Perenco and Shell terminals is filtered, measured through orifice plates and the flow regulated by volume into a manifold system. Facilities for heating the gas by pressurised hot water are provided should this be necessary if the pressure of the incoming gas has to be reduced appreciably. There are four 36-inch manifolds within the National Grid terminal, plus one spare, which can receive flow from any of the incoming lines, thus blending the gas. A 24-inch by-pass ringmain around the site perimeter enables the terminal to be completely by-passed in an emergency. The blended gases are odorised (1 kg odorant for 60,000 m3 of gas) and the flow rate is measured and distributed then to the National Transmission System via five outgoing feeders:
 Feeder No 2 to Brisley, Peterborough and Rugby, 36-inch
 Feeder No 3 to Roudham Heath, Cambridge and Hitchin, 36-inch
 Feeder No 4 to Great Ryburgh, King's Lynn and Alrewas, 36-inch
 Feeder No 5 to Yelverton, Diss, Chelmsford and Horndon-on-the-Hill, 36-inch
 Feeder No 27 to King's Lynn, 36-inch
From the National Grid terminal gas can also be sent to, or received from, Zeebrugge, Belgium via the Interconnector, received from the Netherlands via the 36-inch Balgzand Bacton Line BBL Pipeline. Gas is also distributed to the local area via a low pressure gas distribution system and sent via a 12-inch high pressure pipeline to Great Yarmouth power station

Interconnector UK terminal

The Interconnector terminal is located within the National Grid terminal. It can import gas from, or export gas to, Zeebrugge, Belgium via a 235 km pipeline operating at up to 147 bar. There is a 30-inch direct access line from the SEAL pipeline. It works via four GE LM2500 gas turbines and a Thermodyn centrifugal compressor in its compressor station, which was built by Kværner John Brown (now called McDermott). The Interconnector was commissioned in 1998.

BBL terminal
The BBL (Bacton–Balgzand line) terminal is located within the Shell terminal, it receives gas from the compressor station in Anna Paulowna in the Netherlands. The Bacton reception plant is owned by BBL Company and the plant is operated by Shell. Gas arrives at Bacton at approximately seabed temperature and a pressure of up to 135 bar but which varies depending on the amount of line pack. Bacton's role is to reduce the pressure for entry to the National Transmission System. As such, significant Joule–Thomson cooling may occur prior to gas injection into the NTS. Therefore, four identical parallel streams are installed at Bacton, each equipped with a direct-fired water bath heater on a slipstream and designed to operate as three duty and one standby at maximum flow conditions, in order to control the delivery temperature and pressure of the gas. The BBL Pipeline is 235 km long and was commissioned in December 2006.

Shell gas fields

Leman
The Leman field is 30 miles (48 km) north-east of Great Yarmouth. It is 800 ft (240 m) thick Rotliegendes sandstone reservoir at a depth of about 6,000 ft (1830 m). It is about 18 miles (29 km) long by 5 miles (8 km) wide. It was discovered in August 1966 is licensed to Shell (Block 49/26) and Perenco (Block 49/27). The Leman 49/26A (AD1, AD2, AP & AK) installation began production in August 1968. It had initial recoverable reserves of 292 billion m3. It is connected to the Shell terminal at Bacton. Leman 49/26B (BT & BH) and 49/26B (BP & BD) began production in November 1970. Leman 49/26C (CD & CP) began in February 1972. Leman 49/26D began in August 1974. Leman 49/26E started in August 1983. Leman 49/26F and 49/26G began in September 1987. The Leman complex of platforms connects to Bacton via Leman 49/26A, and is directly east of the Hewett complex. A decommissioned 36-inch pipeline formerly delivered gas from Leman 49/26BT to Bacton. The field is named after the Leman Sandbank upon which it is situated. Field gas is piped to Bacton via Leman 49/26A Complex (AK, AP, AD1 and AD2) where facilities consist of two RB211 (driving HP compression) and two Avon (driving LP compression) gas turbines.

In the mid-1990s the glycol dehydration facilities of several installations in the Inde and Leman fields was decommissioned. This enabled the installations to become normally unattended installations (NUIs) reducing manning costs and the risks to personnel.

Indefatigable and Indefatigable SW
The Indefatigable gas field is 60 miles (100 km) north-east of Great Yarmouth. It is a Rotliegendes sandstone reservoir 200–300 ft (60–90 m) thick at a depth of 8,000-9,000 ft (2440–2740 m). It is licensed to Shell (Blocks 49/24 and 49/19) and Perenco (Blocks 49/23 and 49/18). The field was discovered in June 1966 and production started in September 1971. It had initial recoverable reserves of 125 billion m3. The Inde 49/24J (JD & JP) installation started in September 1971, Inde 49/24K started in March 1973, Inde 49/24L started in October 1978 and the Inde 49/24M platform started in October 1985. Gas production was via the Amoco (now Perenco) Inde 49/23A installation, then via a joint line to the Leman 49/27B installation and thence to Bacton. The Inde 49/24 field ceased production on 5 July 2005. The Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike and November were removed by July 2011. Indefatigable SW was discovered in June 1967 and production started in October 1989. It is named after  World War I Royal Navy battlecruiser.

Corvette
Corvette (Block 49/24A) connects via a 20-inch pipeline to the Leman 49/26A complex. Run by Shell and owned equally by Shell and Esso. Discovered in January 1996 and production started in January 1999. It is named after the corvette ship.

Brigantine
Brigantine (Block 49/19) is owned by Shell and Esso and run by Shell. Brigantine A began was discovered in 1986; B was discovered in 1997; and C was discovered in 1998.  All three fields began production in October 2001 via the 49/19BR and 49/19BG platforms.  Gas is piped to the Bacton terminal via the Corvette and Leman A complex. It is named after the brigantine ship. Caravel 49/20 production is via the Brigantine to Corvette pipeline. Shamrock production is via Caravel 49/20

Sean
Sean (Blocks 49/24, 49/25 and 49/30) consist of the Sean P (PD and PP) and the (smaller) Sean RD platforms. The Sean North field was discovered in May 1969 and Sean South was discovered in January 1970, and production started in October 1986. It is owned equally by Shell, Esso Exploration & Production UK Ltd, Union Texas and Britoil (BP) but run by Shell. Sean East was discovered in June 1983, with production starting in November 1994.

Clipper
Clipper (48/19) is part of the Sole Pit field. It was discovered in March 1968. Production started in October 1990. It is owned by Shell and Esso and run by Shell. The Clipper complex has been developed as a nodal platform Clipper P (PW, PT, PM, PC, PR, PH) for the Galleon, Barque, Skiff and Carrack Fields. It is named after the clipper type of ship

Barque
Barque PB and Barque PL (48/13 and 48/14) are part of the Sole Pit complex. It was discovered in 1971. Production started in October 1990. It is owned by Shell and Esso and run by Shell. It is furthest north of the fields connected to Bacton, being further north of many of the Lincolnshire-connected gas fields.  Piped to Bacton via Clipper complex. It is named after the barque design of ship.

Galleon
Galleon PG and Galleon PN (48/20) are part of the Sole Pit complex. Production started in October 1994 and was discovered in September 1969. It is owned by Shell and Esso and run by Shell. Piped to Bacton via Clipper complex. It is named after the galleon type of ship.

Carrack and Cutter
Carrack QA and Carrack West (49/9, 49/14 and 49/15) are located approximately 120 km North East of Bacton Terminal. Production started in 2003. It is owned by Shell and Esso and run by Shell. Cutter QC exports gas via Carrack QA. Piped to Bacton via Clipper complex.

Shearwater
Run by Shell but owned by 28% by Shell UK Ltd, 28% by Esso Exploration & Production UK Ltd, 28% by ARCO British Ltd, 12% by Superior Oil (UK) Ltd, and 4% by Canadian Superior Oil UK Ltd. Discovered in September 1988 with production starting in September 2000. Connects to Bacton via the SEAL pipeline (Shearwater Elgin Area Line). The 474 km SEAL pipeline also connects to the Elgin-Franklin gas field.

Tullow and Eni fields

Hewett
The Hewett field (Blocks 48/29, 48/30, 52/4 and 52/5) has several reservoirs at relatively shallow depths: 3,000-4,200 ft (910–1280 m). The structure is a north-west to south-east anticline about 18 miles (29 km) long by three miles (4.8 km) wide. It is operated by Eni UK and comprises the complexes: Dawn, Big Dotty, and Deborah, and Delilah, Della and Little Dotty. It is owned 89.31% by Eni UK with Perenco owning the remaining 10.69%. It was discovered in October 1966 and production started in July 1969. It had initial recoverable reserves of 97 billion m3. The Hewett field produced gas from four subsea reservoirs: Permian Rotliegendes sandstone, Permian Zechstein magnesian limestone, and Lower Triassic Lower Bunter shale and Upper Bunter sandstone. The Upper Bunter formation comprised sour (high sulphur) gas. This required the provision of sour gas treatment facilities at Bacton, before production from the Upper Bunter was suspended in 2000. Hewett has two 30-inch pipelines to Bacton (27.7 km and 32.8 km). It is the set of fields nearest to Bacton being  east of Great Yarmouth. It was run by Phillips Petroleum, which became ConocoPhillips, and then largely owned and run by Tullow Oil before being purchased by Eni UK.

Fizzy
Situated east of the Thames complex and is not yet a producing field.

Perenco gas fields

Leman
Block 49/27 of the Leman field is licensed to, and operated by, Perenco UK Ltd, originally by the Gas Council-Amoco. It was discovered in August 1966 and production started in August 1968. It had initial recoverable reserves of 292 billion m3. It comprises the following installations, platforms and complexes: Leman 49/27A (AD, AP, AC, AQ, AX); 49/27B (BD, BP, BT); 49/27C (CD, CP); 49/27D (DD, DP); 49/27E (ED, EP); 49/27F (FD, FP); 49/27G; 49/27H; and 49/27J. Gas is routed to Bacton via two 30-inch pipelines from Leman 49/27A and Leman 49/27B.

Indefatigable
Blocks 49/23 and 49/18 of the Indefatigable field are licensed to, and operated by, Perenco, originally by the Gas Council-Amoco. The field was discovered in June 1966 and production started in September 1971. It had initial recoverable reserves of 125 billion m3. It comprises the following installations, platforms and complex: Indefatigable 49/23A (AT, AC, AQ); 49/23C (CD, CP); 49/23D (including the Baird field); 49/23E (Bessemer) and the subsea installation N.W.Bell (49/23-9); Inde 49/18A; and 49/18B. The decommissioned Shell Indefatigable field 49/24 formerly produced gas via the Inde 49/23A complex. Gas from Indefatigable 49/24AT is routed to Bacton via the Leman 49/27B complex.

Lancelot
The Lancelot complex (48/17A) is connected to the Eni Bacton terminal via the LAPS pipeline (Lancelot Area Pipeline System). It is run by the Anglo-French Perenco UK Ltd.

Galahad & Mordred
Galahad & Mordred (48/12BA) are operated by Perenco UK Limited. It is owned 72.23% by Perenco Gas UK Ltd, 15% by Chieftain Exploration UK Ltd, 10% by Premier Pict Petroleum Ltd, and 3% by Chieftain International North Sea Ltd. Discovered in December 1975 and production started in November 1995.

Guinevere
Guinevere (48/17B) is operated by Perenco UK Limited. It is owned 49.5% by Perenco Gas UK Ltd, 25.5% Perenco UK Limited and 25% Nobel Energy Inc. Discovered in May 1988 and production started in June 1993. Connects to the Eni plant at Bacton via the Lancelot 48/17A platform. Situated west of the (central) Lancelot field.

Excalibur
Excaliber EA (48/17A) is owned and operated by Perenco, production is via Lancelot 48/17A. The northernmost Arthurian gas field in the Lancelot complex.

Davy, Bessemer, Beaufort and Brown
Davy (49/30A) and Bessemer (49/23E) were developed by Amoco in 1995. Both are monopod installations. Both produce gas to Inde 49/23A.

Davy East
Production started in 2008. Connects to Perenco Gas Terminal at Bacton via the Indefatigable field.

ENGIE E&P gas fields

Cygnus
The Cygnus gas field (44/11 and 44/12) was discovered in 1988. gas is produced via the Cygnus Alpha and Cygnus Bravo platforms.
 Gas first flowed to the UK on 13 December 2016. In 2017 it became the UK's largest gas field, providing 5% of the UK's natural gas, enough for 1.5 million homes. The platforms were built in Hartlepool and Fife, each weighing 4,400 tonnes. The gas is transported to the Perenco terminal via the 550-km pipeline on the Eagles Transmission System (ETS). The field is in the Permian Leman Sandstone Formation and Carboniferous Ketch Formation. The field is operated by Engie E&P UK Limited (former GDF Suez), which is 48% owned by Centrica.

Iona gas fields

Trent
Trent (Block 43/24) is owned by Iona UK Developments Co. It was previously owned and operated by ARCO (Atlantic Richfield Company), and then Perenco UK Ltd. It was discovered in March 1991 and production started in November 1996. It connects to the Perenco Bacton terminal via the Eagles pipeline. Has two Solar Mars gas turbines for the compressor.

Tyne South & Tyne North
Furthest north of the Bacton gas fields, Tyne (Block 44/18) is around the same latitude north as Teesside. Owned by Iona UK Developments Co. It was run by ARCO, and then Perenco. Discovered in January 1992 and November 1996. Connects to Bacton via the Interfield pipeline and Eagles pipeline.

Decommissioned gas fields

Esmond, Forbes and Gordon
The Esmond (43/8a), Forbes (43/13a) and Gordon (43/20a) fields reservoir is in the Lower Triassic Bunter Sandstone and was discovered by well 43/13-1 in 1969 by Hamilton Brothers Oil and Gas. First gas was produced in July 1985 from four installations operated by BHP Petroleum Ltd. Peak production rate was  per day at standard conditions. Gas was exported by a  pipeline to the Amoco (now Perenco) terminal at Bacton. These fields and their platforms were decommissioned in 1995. In 1995 the export pipeline system (Esmond Transmission System, ETS) was renamed EAGLES (East Anglia Gas and Liquid Evacuation System) and operatorship was taken over by ARCO (then BP, later Perenco, now Iona) for production from the Trent and Tyne fields.

Welland NW & Welland S
Welland (53/4) was operated initially by Arco, ExxonMobil and lastly Perenco and owned 34% by Tullow Exploration Ltd, 55% by Esso, and 11% by Consort EU Ltd. Welland NW was discovered in January 1984 and Welland S in June 1984. Production started in September 1990. Situated south-east of the Thames complex to which it was connected to Bacton. Named after the River Welland. The Welland proved uneconomical by 2005 and was decommissioned and removed in 2010.

Camelot N and Camelot C & S
Camelot (53/1 and 53/2) was run by Petrofac, and owned by ERT. Camelot N discovered in November 1967 and Camelot C & S discovered in June 1987. Production started in October 1989. Connected to Bacton via the Leman 49/27A complex. Field decommissioned in 2011, Camelot platforms CA and CB removed in 2012.

Thames, Yare, Bure, Thurne, Wensum and Deben
These were operated by Perenco, controlled from the Thames complex, formerly operated by Arco British Limited and then ExxonMobil. The field comprised the Thames 49/28A installation and the subsea installations all producing via Thames: Yare C (49/28), Gawain (49/29A), Bure O (49/28-8), Bure West (49/28-18) and Thurne (49/28) owned by Tullow/Eni. The Thames installation comprised three platforms, a wellhead AW, a reception AR and process AP platform. Cessation of all remaining production feeding to the Thames complex was declared in 2014 and decommissioning commenced.

Owned 43% by Tullow Exploration Ltd, 23% by AGIP (UK) Ltd, 23% by Superior Oil (UK) Ltd, and 10% by Centrica Resources Ltd. Production from all fields began in October 1986. Thames was discovered in December 1973; Yare in May 1969; Bure in May 1983; and Wensum in October 1985. They were run by Tullow Oil as the Thames complex. Connected to the Tullow/Eni Bacton terminal via the Thames pipeline. Bought from Agip (of Italy) by Tullow in 2003. The fields were named after the River Thames, the Yare, Bure, Wensum of Norfolk, and the Deben of Suffolk.

The Thames complex had one Solar Mars, and one Ruston Tornado and TB5 gas turbines for its compressor.

Arthur
Arthur (53/2) is situated between the Hewett (to the west) and Thames (to the east) complexes. Connected to Bacton via the Thames complex. Production started in January 2005. Formerly owned by Tullow and run by Esso. Named after King Arthur. Decommissioned as part of Thames field decommissioning.

Horne and Wren
Horne and Wren (53/3) was south of, and producing to, the Thames complex. Production started in June 2005. Bought by Tullow from BP in 2004, then 50% sold to Centrica. Operated before 2004 by Shell. Decommissioned as part of Thames field decommissioning.

Wissey
Wissey (53/4) was south-west of the Thames complex, directly south of the Welland gas field. Named after the River Wissey in Norfolk. Decommissioned as part of Thames field decommissioning.

Orwell
Orwell (49/26A) was owned by Tullow Oil Ltd. It was run by ARCO, and was later run by Perenco. It was discovered in February 1990 with production starting in August 1993. East of the Thames complex, to which it connected, and furthest east of the Bacton gas fields. Bought by Tullow from ChevronTexaco (ChevTex, since May 2005 known as Chevron) in 2004. Named after the River Orwell in Suffolk. Decommissioned as part of Thames field decommissioning.

Gawain
Gawain (49/29A) was operated by Perenco UK Limited. It was owned by Perenco Gas UK Ltd 50% and Tullow Oil Ltd 50%. Discovered in December 1988 with production starting in October 1995. It was connected to Bacton via the Thames complex. Situated north-east of the Thames field, completely separate (to the east) of the other Arthurian-named fields. Decommissioned as part of Thames field decommissioning.

Tristan
Tristan (49/29) was owned and operated by Perenco Gas UK Ltd. Discovered in May 1976 and production started in November 1992. It was connected to Bacton via the Welland and Thames platforms, the Welland platform having been removed in 2010, and situated east of the Thames complex. Named after Tristan of the Arthurian legend.

Baird and Deborah gas storage
Until its closure to new injections in 2017, the Rough facility was the only depleted UK offshore gas field reservoir that was used for gas storage and retrieval. Several projects have been developed to use other depleted gas fields but none have proved to be economically viable. Two examples associated with Bacton are the Baird and the Deborah Gas Storage Projects.

Baird gas storage project
Perenco’s Baird field is located in Block 49/23, 86 km off the coast of Norfolk. It is located adjacent to Perenco's Indefatigable field through which it exports gas via Inde 49/23D.

The Baird gas storage project was to have been built by Centrica Storage and Perenco (UK) Ltd. Centrica acquired 70% interest in the project from Perenco in February 2009. The companies formed a 70/30% joint venture called Bacton Storage Company to operate the facility when completed.

The project involved the transport of gas from the National Transmission System (NTS) through the Perenco onshore terminal at Bacton and then by pipeline offshore to be injected and stored in the Baird reservoir. Gas injection would take place during the Summer and be reversed during the Winter drawing gas from the reservoir for processing at Bacton and delivery into the NTS.

The onshore facilities included three gas turbine driven compressors, a gas dehydration plant, reception heaters, a mono ethylene glycol (MEG) storage and regeneration plant, additional gas fiscal metering systems and a vent stack. These facilities would be built on Perenco's terminal at Bacton. Planning permission was given by North Norfolk District Council on 27 July 2010.

The offshore facilities were a single four-legged normally unattended installation (NUI). The installation would have 18 well slots with up to 14 development wells. The NUI would be connected to Bacton through a 100 km long 38-inch diameter bidirectional pipeline. A 4.5-inch MEG line was to run in parallel delivering MEG from Bacton to the NUI.

The field would have a storage capacity of 81 billion cubic feet (2.3 billion cubic metres) making it the second largest gas storage facility in the UK. The facility would have a 50-year design life.

The project was expected to be completed in 2013 but was put on hold in 2012 with no construction work taking place. On 23 September 2013 Centrica announced that they would not proceed with the Baird project in light of weak economics for gas storage projects and the announcement by the Government on 4 September 2013 ruling out intervention in the market to encourage additional gas storage capacity in the UK.

Deborah gas storage project
Eni’s Deborah field lies in Blocks 48/28, 48/29, 48/30 and 52/03 about 40 km from the Norfolk coast. It is adjacent to the Hewett field through which it has produced gas since 1970.

The project was developed by Eni Hewett Limited. As with the Baird project gas would have been injected into the offshore reservoir during Summer months and withdrawn during the Winter and treated onshore at Bacton for delivery into the NTS.

The onshore facilities would include new reception facilities for the pipelines, two compressor houses for four new compressor, water treatment works, glycol storage and two vent stacks. Planning permission for the onshore facilities was given by North Norfolk District Council on 24 November 2010.

The offshore facilities would be two NUI platforms about 2 km apart located above the Deborah reservoir. There would be a total of 33 injection/withdrawal wells plus two monitoring wells spread between the two platforms. Each platform would be connected to Bacton by one of two 41-km-long 32-inch diameter bidirectional pipelines. A 2 km long 32-inch pipeline would connect the two platforms. A 41 km glycol pipeline would be piggybacked to one of the gas lines. A 41-km power and fibre optic control monitoring and communication cable from Bacton to one of the platforms and 2-km cables between the platforms would be provided.

The Deborah field was to have a storage capacity of 4.6 billion cubic metres. The facility was to have a 40-year design life. A gas storage licence was granted by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC) on 22 October 2010. Start up was planned for April 2015. The project was mothballed in Autumn 2013.

Installation identification
An offshore installation on the UK Continental Shelf may comprise a single integrated platform or two or more bridge-linked platforms. Installations are identified by a large black-on-yellow sign on the installation. This may give the name of the original or current owner or operator, the field name, and a set of numbers and letters, e.g. Shell/Esso Leman 49/26A. The numbers identify the Quadrant and Block where the installation is located, e.g. 49/26 is in Quadrant 49 Block 26. The first letter is a sequential letter (A, B, C, D, etc.) identifying each installation within a field. The second and subsequent letters may designate a platform's function, e.g. the Leman 49/26A complex comprises four bridge-linked platforms 49/26AP (Production), 49/26AD1 (Drilling 1), 49/26AD2 (Drilling 2), and 49/26AK (Compression). Common designations are:

Note: Drilling refers to the original function of the platform to support well drilling operations. No Southern North Sea installation has permanent drilling facilities.

On some installations the letters simply provide a unique two letter identity, e.g.Tethys TN, Viscount VO.

Accidents and incidents
On 13 August 1981, 11 gas workers lost their lives in the G-ASWI North Sea ditching, in a Wessex helicopter. At 6pm on 28 February 2008, there was an explosion and fire at the Shell UK terminal, for which Shell was fined £1 million.

Coastal erosion
When the terminal was first built in the 1960s, it was  from the sea. By 2019 coastal erosion had reduced this to . In July 2019 a scheme commenced to place almost two million cubic metres of sand along a  stretch of beach. Costing £20 million, the scheme will protect the villages of Bacton and Walcott as well as the gas terminal. The sea defences, designed by Dutch engineering company Royal HaskoningDHV, are expected to protect the site for between 15 and 20 years. The enhanced beach will be  high and extend up to  out to sea. The scheme was inspired by an experiment in the Netherlands called the Zandmotor. £14.5 million of the cost of the scheme will be covered by the Bacton gas terminal operators, with £5 million being contributed by the Environment Agency and £0.5 million from North Norfolk District Council.  In October 2021 the BBC reported that a sand bar had formed offshore which the sand at the base of the cliff had formed a ledge with a drop of 3m: the bar was breaking the energy of the waves and erosion of cliffs halted with improvements also noted at nearby Walcott.

See also
 National Transmission System
 Easington Gas Terminal
 St Fergus Gas Terminal
 Rampside Gas Terminal
 Theddlethorpe Gas Terminal
 CATS Gas Terminal

References

External links

 Tullow Oil
 Interconnector(UK) Ltd
 Perenco gas fields in the North Sea
 Dismantling of Eni terminal
 BBL Company

News items
 Emergency procedures in January 2011
 Protestors arrested in April 2008
 Police protection in January 2007
 Interconnector starts in December 2006
 Arthur field starts in January 2005
 New company BBL formed in July 2004
 Carrack field in February 2003
 Helicopter crash in July 2002

Natural gas terminals
Natural gas plants
Natural gas infrastructure in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures completed in 1968
North Sea energy
North Norfolk
Buildings and structures in Norfolk
Shell plc buildings and structures
Eni


Polish–Romanian relations are foreign relations between Poland and Romania.

Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 June 1919.
In recent years government representatives of Poland and Romania regularly exchange high-level visits, a reflection of the mutual interest in bilateral cooperation between the two countries.

Both are full members of NATO and of the European Union and are the two most populous nations to join either bloc since the end of the Cold War. Both are also members of the Bucharest Nine, the Three Seas Initiative, the OSCE and the Council of Europe.

Poland has given full support to Romania's membership in the European Union and NATO.

History

Beginnings
The beginnings of Polish influence in Romania can be traced back to the 14th century with the founding of the Principality of Moldavia. Trade between the Baltic and Black Seas between the two neighboring countries facilitated their growing bond. During this era Moldavia was a vassal state of first the Kingdom of Poland and later the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth several times.

During World War I, on 18–23 January 1915, the Battle of Cârlibaba was fought in present-day northern Romania between the Polish Legions and Russian troops, won by the Poles. There is a memorial at the site. Poles from the Russian Partition of Poland conscripted to the Russian Army and Romanians were among Allied prisoners of war held by the Germans in a POW camp in Stargard in modern northwestern Poland.

Polish–Romanian alliance

Beginning in 1921, a series of treaties were signed in the interwar period by the Second Polish Republic and the Kingdom of Romania which created the Polish–Romanian alliance. The treaties formed a basis for good foreign relations between the two countries that lasted until World War II began in 1939. Both countries shared a common border in the interbellum, before the Soviet Union invaded and eventually annexed eastern Poland and northeastern Romania following the German-Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.

Romanian Bridgehead

After the invasion of Poland which started the Second World War, up to 120,000 Polish troops withdrew through the Romanian Bridgehead area to neutral Romania and Hungary. The majority of those troops joined the newly formed Polish Armed Forces in the West in France and the United Kingdom in 1939 and 1940. Because of their escape through Romania, the Polish army was one of the largest forces of the Allies prior to the United States entering the war and Germany's attack on the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa). Also 25,000 civilian refugees fled from Poland to Romania.

In mid-September 1939, despite German and Soviet pressure and Romania's declared neutrality, the Romanians agreed to transport evacuated Polish gold through Romanian territory to the port of Constanța, from where it was further evacuated via Turkey to Polish-allied France. When the German ambassador to Romania, Wilhelm Fabricius, protested Romania's violation of neutrality, Romanian Foreign Minister Grigore Gafencu pretended to know nothing about the transport of Polish gold, only promising to "carry out a proper investigation." The evacuation was successful. Romania's stance infuriated the Germans, and Fabricius threatened Minister Gafencu that Romania had "committed a grave breach of neutrality, which should never happen again."

During the war, ten Polish elementary schools and seven high schools were established for Polish refugee children in Romania, including in Călimănești, Ploiești and Târgoviște. Some young Poles then left Romania for France in 1940 to join the Polish Army in France and continue the fight against Germany. In the second half of 1940, because of the German danger, some Polish refugees were evacuated from Romania to Cyprus.

In 1940, the Soviets deported some 30,000 people from Soviet-occupied eastern Poland to Soviet-occupied eastern Romania.

In 1942, Polish Prime Minister-in-Exile Władysław Sikorski's intervention to British and American authorities thwarted Soviet attempts to obtain Allied approval for the planned annexation of eastern Poland and Romania.

From 1944, Romanian prisoners of war were held by the Germans, alongside Polish and other Allied POWs, in the Oflag 73, Stalag VIII-B and Stalag VIII-C POW camps, located in Beniaminów, Łambinowice and Żagań, respectively.

After the war, many Poles from the sizeable Polish communities in Bukovina and Lupeni were repatriated to Poland.

Modern relations

Since 2017, a Polish military contingent has been stationed in Romania and a Romanian military contingent has been stationed in Poland as part of the NATO Tailored Forward Presence and Enhanced Forward Presence defense forces, respectively.

In October 2021, Poland sent medical equipment and medics to help fight the COVID-19 pandemic in Romania.

Commercial ties
Trade between Romania and Poland in 2016 reached a record value of €4.86 billion according to statistics issued by the Polish Ministry of Economic Development.

The 2020 Women Leadership Forum (WLF) was held in Warsaw on March 4–5 with the goal of strengthening bilateral cooperation between Poland and Romania, emphasizing the role of women in politics, economy, and education.  Organized by the Embassy of Romania in Poland, the Polish–Romanian Bilateral Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Romanian Institute of Culture, the event was held under the honorary patronage of Her Royal Highness Margaret, the Guardian of the Crown of Romania, who at the invitation of the Romanian Embassy came to Warsaw for the event with her husband - His Royal Highness Radu, Prince of Romania.

European Union
Poland joined the EU in 2004. Romania joined the EU in 2007.

Resident diplomatic missions
 Poland has an embassy in Bucharest.
 Romania has an embassy in Warsaw.

Polish diaspora in Romania

Poles in Romania form an officially recognised national minority, having one seat in the Chamber of Deputies of Romania, currently held by the Union of Poles of Romania (, ). Poles in Romania have access to Polish elementary schools and cultural centers which are referred to as "Polish Homes".

See also
 Foreign relations of Poland
 Foreign relations of Romania
 Bucharest Nine
 Polish–Romanian alliance
 Poles in Romania
 Romanians in Poland
 Poland in the European Union

References

External links
 Polish embassy in Bucharest
 Romanian embassy in Warsaw

Romania
Bilateral relations of Romania


is a former Japanese football player.

Playing career
Sunakawa was born in Narashino on August 10, 1977. After graduating from high school, he joined his local club Kashiwa Reysol in 1996. On June 1, he debuted in J.League Cup against Urawa Reds. However he could only play this match until 1998. From 1999, he played many matches as offensive midfielder and the club won the champions 1999 J.League Cup. The club also won the 3rd place in 1999 and 2000 J1 League. However his opportunity to play decreased in 2002. In 2003, he moved to newly was relegated to J2 League club, Consadole Sapporo. He became a regular player as offensive midfielder and the club won the champions in 2007. In 2008, although the club played in J1 League, finished at bottom place and was relegated to J2 in a year. From 2009, he lost his regular position behind young player Seiya Fujita and Hiroki Miyazawa. However he played many matches and the club was promoted to J1 in 2012. He also became a first player who played for more than 10 years in club history. Although the club was relegated to J2 in a year, he played many matches until 2014. In 2015, he could not play at all in the match for injury. In July 2015, he moved to FC Gifu and he retired end of 2015 season.

Club statistics

References

External links

1977 births
Living people
People from Narashino
Association football people from Chiba Prefecture
Japanese men's footballers
J1 League players
J2 League players
Kashiwa Reysol players
Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo players
FC Gifu players
Men's association football midfielders


Rudolf Zehetgruber (16 September 1926 – 2 July 2023) was an Austrian film director and producer, screenwriter and actor who directed 17 films between 1960 and 1985. He was most known for writing and directing the Superbug/Dudu film series that featured his wife Kathrin Oginski (Barbara Kathrin Zehetgruber) and two entries in the Kommissar X film series.

Zehetgruber died on 2 July 2023, at the age of 96.

Selected filmography

 The Congress Dances (directed by Franz Antel, 1955)
 The Bashful Elephant (1961)
 The Black Cobra (1963)
 Piccadilly Zero Hour 12 (1963)
  (1964)
 The Secret of the Chinese Carnation (1964)
 Seven Vengeful Women (1966)
 Kommissar X: Three Yellow Cats (Death is Nimble, Death is Quick, 1966)
 Kommissar X – Drei grüne Hunde (1967)
The Love Bug Rally (the first Superbug film, 1971)
Superbug, Super Agent (1972)
The Superbug on Extratour (1973)
The Maddest Car in the World (1975)
Son of Superbug (1979)
 (1985)

References

External links

1926 births
2023 deaths
Austrian film directors
Austrian screenwriters
Austrian male screenwriters
Austrian male film actors
Austrian film producers
German-language film directors
Male actors from Vienna
Writers from Vienna


Silverling is a common name for several plants and may refer to:

 Baccharis glomeruliflora, native to North America
 Baccharis halimifolia, native to North America
 Paronychia argyrocoma, native to the Eastern United States


The Harry Smith House is a Queen Anne-style frame dwelling, built in 1890.  It stands on one of the original streets platted in the 1889 railroad suburb subdivision of Riverdale Park, Prince George's County, Maryland located northeast of Washington, D.C. The home is representative of the transition in domestic architecture between the Queen Anne style of the 1880s and the popular plan of the turn of the 20th century. Its owners were a middle class, government worker family, the Smiths, who owned it from the time when the developer sold it until the middle of the 20th century.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1993.

References

External links
, including photo in 1992, at Maryland Historical Trust website

Houses completed in 1890
Houses in Prince George's County, Maryland
Queen Anne architecture in Maryland
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland
1890 establishments in Maryland


Foreign relations exist between Austria and Montenegro. Austria recognized Montenegro on 12 June 2006. Both countries established diplomatic relations with each other on the same day. Austria has an embassy in Podgorica and an honorary consulate in Budva. Montenegro has an embassy in Vienna. Austria is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate. Austria supports Montenegro's European Union membership.

See also
 Foreign relations of Austria
 Foreign relations of Montenegro
 1995 enlargement of the European Union
 Accession of Montenegro to the European Union
 Austria–Yugoslavia relations

External links
 Austrian Foreign Ministry: list of bilateral treaties with Montenegro (in German only)

Montenegro
Austria


is a Japanese footballer who currently plays for Nankatsu SC.

Club statistics
Updated to 30 November 2017.

References

External links

Profile at Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo

1986 births
Living people
Association football people from Hokkaido
Japanese men's footballers
J1 League players
J2 League players
Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo players
Ehime FC players
Men's association football midfielders


was an author in Taishō and Shōwa period Japan.

Sonoike was born in Hirakawachō, Tokyo. His father was in the service of the Imperial Household Agency, and his grandfather was the appointive governor of Nara prefecture in the Meiji period. He left the Gakushuin Peers’ School to pursue a literary career and was one of the early members of the Shirakaba Society. His 1919 short story, Hitori Sumō influenced the writings of Kazuo Hirotsu. In his later years, he was considered a member of a conservative group, which included Tetsuro Watsuji, Saneatsu Mushanokōji and Michio Takeyama.

References
 Mortimer, Maya. Meeting the Sensei: The Role of the Master in Shirakaba Writers. Brill Academic Publishers (2000).

20th-century Japanese novelists
Japanese male short story writers
Writers from Tokyo
1886 births
1974 deaths
20th-century Japanese short story writers
20th-century Japanese male writers


Ralph Arthur "Doc" Carroll (December 28, 1891 – June 27, 1983), was a Major League Baseball catcher who played in  with the Philadelphia Athletics. He batted and threw right-handed. Carroll had a .091 batting average in ten games, two hits in 22 at-bats, in his one-year career. Carroll graduated from Worcester Academy.

Carroll played college baseball for Holy Cross and Tufts before coaching at Worcester Polytechnic Institute.

He was born and died in Worcester, Massachusetts.

References

External links

1891 births
1983 deaths
American dentists
Baseball players from Worcester, Massachusetts
Holy Cross Crusaders baseball players
Major League Baseball catchers
Milwaukee Braves scouts
Philadelphia Athletics players
Tufts Jumbos baseball players
Worcester Academy alumni
WPI Engineers baseball coaches


German-Montenegrin relations are foreign relations between Germany and Montenegro.  Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 June 2006. Germany has an embassy in Podgorica.  Montenegro has an embassy in Berlin and a general consulate in Frankfurt.
Both countries are members of Council of Europe and NATO. Also Germany is an EU member and Montenegro is an EU candidate.
In 1997 the German Bundeswehr used the Podgorica Airport for the Operation Libelle, which led to the first skirmish involving German forces since World War II.

See also
 Foreign relations of Germany
 Foreign relations of Montenegro
 Accession of Montenegro to the European Union
 Germany–Yugoslavia relations
 East Germany–Yugoslavia relations

References

External links
  German Federal Foreign Office about relations with Montenegro
  German embassy in Podgorica (in German and Serbian only)
  Montenegro embassy in Berlin

Montenegro
Bilateral relations of Montenegro


Gary Grant Hendrix (born May 14, 1948) is an American businessman who founded Symantec Corporation, an international corporation which produces computer software, particularly in the fields of information management and antivirus software.

Education
Hendrix obtained his undergraduate degree at the University of Texas in May 1970 and then received his master's degree from the same institution in December 1970. Hendrix decided to study in the artificial intelligence field as Advanced Research Projects Agency announced a series of funding for six projects in natural language understanding in 1970. In January 1971, Hendrix enrolled in the PhD program at the University of Texas and was assigned Robert Simmons as his adviser. He completed his dissertation in 1975.

Career
While at the University of Texas, Hendrix published several papers on robotics and planning, which several people from SRI International read. This led to an invitation for him to work at SRI, which he accepted and subsequently moved to Menlo Park, California. After several years at SRI, he left with fifteen SRI employees to form Machine Intelligence Corporation, which ultimately failed.

Afterward, Hendrix founded Symantec Corporation in 1982 with the help of a National Science Foundation grant. The company was originally focused on artificial intelligence-related projects, and Hendrix hired several Stanford University natural language processing researchers as the company's first employees. To finance the company, Hendrix went to an American Electronics Association financial conference in Monterey, California in May 1983. After demonstrating their product on an early Apple computer, businesses became interested in obtaining their product. Hendrix left the company in 1991 and moved to Dripping Springs, Texas.

References

Living people
Businesspeople in software
Gen Digital people
University of Texas at Austin alumni
People from Menlo Park, California
SRI International people
1948 births


Naka River may refer to:

中川
Naka River (Saitama Tokyo) which flows through Saitama prefecture and Tokyo prefecture
Naka River (Chiba) which flows through Chiba prefecture

那珂川
Naka River (Tochigi Ibaraki) which flows through Tochigi prefecture and Ibaraki prefecture
Naka River (Fukuoka) which flows through Fukuoka prefecture

那賀川
Naka River (Tokushima) which flows through Tokushima prefecture

See also
 Naka (disambiguation)