Shake, Rattle & Roll X is a 2008 Filipino fantasy horror anthology film produced by Regal Entertainment and directed by Micheal Tuviera and Topel Lee. It is the tenth installment of the Shake, Rattle & Roll film series, and the highest-grossing film in the series. The film is an official entry to the 34th Metro Manila Film Festival. The film was a box office success, and Robert Villar won the MMFF Award for Best Child Performer.

The eleventh installment, Shake, Rattle & Roll XI, was released in 2009.

Plot

"Emergency"
At night, Jay and Dennis travel along a dark highway, accidentally running over a pregnant woman crossing the street. They immediately rush her to the hospital.

Other people in the ER are: a gay man named Julius who thinks he has a fever, an English-speaker named Eric who keeps complaining about the hospital's defective apparatus and a badly injured man who immediately recognizes the woman. He attempts to swipe her with his whip but soon dies.

Hospital radiologist Sarah examines the woman using an ultrasound scanner. During the examination, an eerie sound wails through the air. They discover that the infant died while inside the woman's womb. Meanwhile, Sarah goes to the bathroom where it is revealed that she is pregnant.

The woman is transferred into an isolation room. The hospital's administrator, Dr. Ignacio becomes skeptical about the true nature of the woman. They speculate that she might not be human, so he promotes this idea which enrages Sarah.

Back in the isolation room, the woman dreams of the man who tried to kill her. She gives out a very shrill cry that proves she is not human but an aswang. Together with her husband, who is also an aswang, and their race, they invade the hospital. Dr. Ignacio is the first to be killed by the aswang husband.

Jay, Sarah and the others evacuate to the upper floors as the aswangs, break in, killing patients including Julius and Erick. The others hide in the stock room while Jay rescues a young girl from the aswang wife.

Sarah and Jay are trapped in a locked corridor, with the beasts in pursuit. They use a defibrillator to electrocute the aswangs. Meanwhile, the hospital chaplain, Father Miguel and Dennis are running for the water tank. Jay confesses to Sarah he still loves her and Sarah reveals that she is pregnant.

The monsters turn into more powerful creatures and launch their final attack. Father Miguel, meanwhile, blesses the water in the tank, tainting it with holy water. While Jay is being attacked by the creatures, Sarah uses a fire-lit boom to activate the fire sprinkler system to destroy the aswangs. At the end, it is revealed that the baby was on the hospital's rooftop, thus avoiding getting soaked in holy water. It opens its eyes and jumps.

"Class Picture"
A terrified young woman running through the halls of San Selino College at night sees horrific visions of a dead student wearing an old school uniform. When she finds herself clad in the same uniform, she is scourged by an unseen force while a diabolical female laughter is heard. The young woman dies after being stoned and having her forehead sliced by a razor being held by an unknown female hand with a sleeve of a nun's habit.

Joy, Lui and their friends are graduating college students of San Selino who spend their weekend in the campus, being assigned to prepare an exhibit in exchange for lifting their organization's suspension and their clearance for graduation. On their first night, one of their classmates, Nicole, presumably the young woman in the opening, disappears without a trace.

Waking up from a nightmare, Joy confesses to her friends of what happened the previous night; hours before midnight, she picked a mysterious class picture named "Rubi 1898" in the school's storage room. The picture shows an all-female class with a nun seated at the center. The picture is seen again by Blue and Pinky when they dump garbage. Blue looks at the nun in the picture wherein the nun smiled. Suddenly, she is unknowingly captured by the same unknown force and vanishes. She finds herself clad in the old school uniform seen in the nightmare at the beginning. The spirit then kills Blue by tearing her arms apart.

Joy discovers sinister Chavacano writing in a classroom window, written in blood, stating "No me mires fijamente". When the group goes to the library, they try to translate the graffiti only to fail at first. Scanning the yearbooks for information, they find "Rubi" was a class section supervised by Sister Maria Belonia. They also discover a similar class picture of the same section with a male teacher standing at the middle in place of Belonia, revealed as Virgilio, who became the substitute adviser during Belonia's absence. In the same yearbook, Joy discovers three students, namely Crisel, Sabel, and Adela, who were the missing students of the "Rubi" section.

The group finally discovers from the computer translator that the Chavacano words mean "Do not Stare". They realize that the picture is a possessed photograph and that the bloody writing was a warning, stating that anyone who looks at the nun, through the cursed picture will disappear and die.

It is then revealed that Belonia must seek three students from them. Lui looks at the picture and spots their group mates in the photo; Nicole and Blue. Joy reveals that she is the next to be taken for accidentally looking at the nun before she is abducted by the same unknown force, now revealed to be Maria Belonia herself, an evil nun teacher who haunts the school after she was deemed responsible for the death of the institution's students in the Spanish Colonial Period.

Joy runs through the school's hallways in order to escape the wrath of Belonia. She sees the three missing students in a room being scourged by Belonia but fails to free the trio when she is glanced at by Belonia. It is revealed that Sister Belonia tortured students either for being disobedient or making the smallest of mistakes. Crisel, Sabel, and Adela, in retaliation, wrote a letter to the headmistress nun, Mother Agnes, to report Belonia's actions. Mother Agnes, upon learning this, reprimanded Sis. Belonia for her brutal and torturous manners of disciplining the three girls and her class. When the day for the class picture arrived, the headmistress realizes that their class had the aforementioned three girls missing. She then suspended Belonia from San Selino (this later explains why she utters the words often) and tells her that she cannot come back until the three students are found. In return, she committed suicide but not before swearing that she will complete her class' picture. Later on, she finds herself now clad in the old school uniform from the opening scene and when Blue was abducted by the evil nun.

Lui and Greg chase Joy but arrive too late at the school's auditorium as the doors are tightly shut and locked by the angry spirit of Belonia, who is ready to take Joy. Lui's attempts to tear the picture fail as the nun's curse remains in the picture.

Realizing this, Joy asks the help from the spirits of the three missing students. The ghosts of Crisel, Sabel and Adela reappear and tear the picture apart, banishing Belonia to hell as the trio departs for the afterlife. The group finishes and inaugurates the exhibit, but are suspended for the unexplained disappearance of their classmates. The episode ends when the camera slowly moves toward the class picture with Sr. Belonia smiling.

"Nieves the Engkanto Slayer"
Nieves, a happy-go-lucky but a fierce engkantolarya (an Engkanto slayer) lives with her husband Adonis, an engkanto heartthrob who is kidnapped one night by an engkanto, causing Nieves to quit her job.

Meanwhile, a family from Manila moves to a house bound by a large tree. The matriarch's sister Celso, however, is brainwashed and cuts down the tree, causing him to fall ill with in unexplainable condition. Junie, Celso's nephew, goes to see Nieves, along with a young girl named Kaysee after gaining information from a resident. Nieves hesitates, but after Junie begs, offers to train them.

Kaysee and Junie trek back to Nieves's home where they are welcomed by the townsfolk, complaining about the new attacks of ‘’engkantos’’. The engkantolarya finally agrees to continue her post.

Junie's parents seek help from Nieves when Celso's illness worsens. Nieves explains that the tree he cut in the backyard was the home of ‘’engkanto’’ couple Hagnaya and his wife, Wai Lana. It is also revealed that the voice that brainwashed Celso was the engkanto queen herself, Acacia.

Nieves negotiates with Wai Lana and Hagnaya, explaining that Celso did not mean to cut down the tree and offers them help to find a new home. Kaysee, who goes to walk with Junie, reveals herself as Acacia, who knocks down Junie with a fireball.

Upon waking up, Junie runs to Nieves and tells her what he saw. The engkanto slayer is given a special suit blessed by Hagnaya's clan. As they speak, Acacia ensnares the townsfolk to her lair.

Nieves confronts Acacia while Junie snaps the townsfolk out of the trance. As the two ladies fight, it is revealed that Acacia had Adonis held hostage under a hill. The engkanto queen tortures the engkantolarya mercilessly. Enraged, the Nieves throws a repellent in the air while Junie hits it with his sling-stone, killing Acacia in the process.

With Adonis back, Nieves and the townsfolk rejoice.

Cast

Emergency
Roxanne Guinoo as Dr. Sarah
JC De Vera as Jay
Mylene Dizon as Aswang Wife
Wendell Ramos as Aswang Husband
John Lapus as Julius
Janus Del Prado as Dennis
Denise Laurel as Emily
Julia Chua as Yumi
Eri Neeman as Ehrick
Cris Dalus as Fr. Miguel
Dido dela Paz as Dr. Ignacio
Therese Carlos as Yumi's mother
Johnny Samson as Ehrick's cousin

Class Picture
Kim Chiu as Joy
Gerald Anderson as Lui
Jean Garcia as Sister Maria Belonia
IC Mendoza as Pinky
Erich Gonzales as Anna
Stef Prescott as Pam
Charles Christianson as Tupak
Eda Nolan as Blue
Prince Stefan as Greg
Andrea Torres as Issa
Niña Jose as Nicole
Ysa Villar as Sabel Mercado
Cristine Joy Velasco as Crisel de Vera
Czarina Gonzales as Adela Villafar
Lollie Mara as Mother Agnes
Carmen del Rosario as Manang/Janitress
Rosette Alanganan as Sister Maria Belonia's Double
Raymond Firmo Narag as Security Guard 1
Carlito Casas as Security Guard 2

Nieves the Engkanto Slayer
Marian Rivera as Nieves
Diana Zubiri as Acacia
Jennica Garcia as Kaysee
Mart Escudero as Celso
Luis Alandy as Dario
Desiree Del Valle as May Ann
Iwa Moto as Wai Lana
Marco Alcaraz as Hagnaya
Robert Villar as Junie
Pekto as Adonis
Malou Crisologo as Aling Tasing
Raul Dillio as Kapre
Kristel Fulgar as Jennylyn
Antonette Garcia as Agnes/Tindera
Rowena Vargas as Tindera
Sabrina Man as Kid 1
Thalia Delos Reyes as Kid 2

Reception

Critical response
Shake, Rattle and Roll X was viewed as a "mixed bag of stories that range in quality from poor to somewhat okay." The first story, "Emergency" lacked narrative, and had unnecessary character details that affected the pace. "Class Picture" was viewed as having strong Asian horror elements although its script failed to keep pace with the direction. The last entry, "Nieves" is described to be entertaining due to its solid script, carefully blended mythology with humor and an unforgettable performance from Marian Rivera. What made it unique was its use of comedy, which made it comparable to Buffy The Vampire Slayer.

Box office
₱13,100,000 (December 25, 2008)
₱22,900,000 (December 26, 2008)
₱35,400,000 (December 28, 2008
₱40,500,000 (December 29, 2008)
₱45,700,000 (December 31, 2008)
₱68,000,000 (January 7, 2009)

Accolades
Robert Villar was awarded for Best Child Performer for playing the role of Junie in the film.

See also
Shake, Rattle & Roll (film series)
List of ghost films

References

External links

2008 films
2008 comedy films
2008 comedy horror films
2008 horror films
Filipino-language films
Philippine comedy horror films
Philippine horror films
Regal Entertainment films
10
2000s Tagalog-language films
2000s English-language films
Films directed by Mike Tuviera
Films directed by Topel Lee


Veli Gërra (1870 - 1945) was a leading member of the Albanian independence movement and one of the delegates of Albanian Declaration of Independence, representing the region of Chameria.

Born in Igoumenitsa, Ottoman Empire, now in modern Greece, Gërra was a teacher and a benefactor for Albanian schools. After the proclamation of the Albanian independence, Gërra gave an important contribution to the consolidation of the newly formed Ismail Qemali government, and to the defense of the Albanian territories during the Greek Occupation of Albania. He was between the Albanian representatives of the Vlore Kuvend to protest against the Great Powers' decision to award Southern Epirus to Greece in 1913. His family moved to Sarandë in 1944.

References

19th-century Albanian politicians
20th-century Albanian politicians
1870 births
20th-century deaths
Cham Albanian people
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
People from Janina vilayet
People from Igoumenitsa
All-Albanian Congress delegates


Zhenming was a Chinese era name used by several emperors of China. It may refer to:

Zhenming (禎明, 587–589), era name used by Chen Shubao, emperor of the Chen dynasty
Zhenming (貞明, 915–921), era name used by Zhu Youzhen, emperor of Later Liang (also used by concurrent rulers of Wuyue and Min Kingdom)

See also
Rectification of names or Zhengming, a Confucian concept


Jakup Veseli (aka Vejsel Margëllëçi) was a leading figure in the Albanian independence movement one of the delegates of Albanian Declaration of Independence, representing the region of Chameria.

He was born in Margariti, (), modern-day Greece, then Ottoman Empire.

References

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
Cham Albanian people
All-Albanian Congress delegates
People from Thesprotia


Agora () is a 2009 English-language Spanish historical drama film directed by Alejandro Amenábar and written by Amenábar and Mateo Gil. The biopic stars Rachel Weisz as Hypatia, a mathematician, philosopher and astronomer in late 4th-century Roman Egypt, who investigates the flaws of the geocentric Ptolemaic system and the heliocentric model that challenges it. Surrounded by religious turmoil and social unrest, Hypatia struggles to save the knowledge of classical antiquity from destruction. Max Minghella co-stars as Davus, Hypatia's father's slave, and Oscar Isaac as Hypatia's student, and later prefect of Alexandria, Orestes.

The story uses historical fiction to highlight the relationship between religion and science at the time amidst the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism and the Christianization of Egypt, Lebanon and the Middle East. The title of the film takes its name from the agora, a public gathering place in ancient Greece, similar to the Roman forum. The film was produced by Fernando Bovaira and shot on the island of Malta from March to June 2008. Justin Pollard, co-author of The Rise and Fall of Alexandria (2007), was the historical adviser for the film.

Agora was screened out of competition at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival in May, and opened in Spain on 9 October 2009 becoming the highest-grossing film of the year for that country. Although the film had difficulty finding distribution, it was released country by country throughout late 2009 and early 2010. The film received a 53% overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes and seven Goya Awards in Spain, including Best Original Screenplay. It was awarded the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Feature Film Prize at the Hamptons International Film Festival.

Plot
In 391 AD, Alexandria is part of the Roman Empire, and Greek philosopher Hypatia is a teacher at the Platonic school, where future leaders are educated. Hypatia is the daughter of Theon, the director of the Musaeum of Alexandria. Hypatia, her father's slave, Davus, and two of her pupils, Orestes and Synesius, are immersed in the changing political and social landscape. She rejects Orestes's love as she prefers to devote herself to science. Davus assists Hypatia in her classes and is interested in science. He is also secretly in love with her.

Meanwhile, social unrest begins challenging the Roman rule of the city as Pagans and Christians come into conflict. When the Christians start verbally insulting the statues of the pagan gods, the pagans, including Orestes and Theon, ambush the Christians. However, in the ensuing battle, the pagans unexpectedly find themselves outnumbered by a large Christian mob. Theon is gravely injured, and Hypatia and the pagans take refuge in the Library of the Serapeum. The Christian siege of the library ends when an envoy of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I declares that the pagans are pardoned, but the Christians shall be allowed to take possession of the library. Hypatia and the pagans flee while trying to save the most important scrolls before the Christians overtake the library and destroy its contents. Davus chooses to join the Christian forces. He later returns with a gladius and sexually assaults Hypatia, but he begins to sob and offers his sword to her. However, she removes his slave collar and tells him that he is free.

Several years later, Orestes, now converted to Christianity, is prefect of Alexandria. Hypatia continues to investigate the motions of the Sun, the Moon, the five known "wanderers" (planets), and the stars. Some Christians ridicule the thinking that the Earth is a sphere by arguing that people far from the top would fall off the Earth. When they ask Davus what his opinion is, he avoids conflict by saying that only God knows these things.

Hypatia also investigates the heliocentric model of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos by having an object dropped from the mast of a moving ship, which demonstrates that a possible motion of the Earth would not affect the motion, relative to Earth, of a falling object on Earth. However, due to religious objections against heliocentrism, the Christians have now forbidden Hypatia to teach at the school. The Christians and the Jews come into violent conflict.

The leader of the Christians, Cyril, views Hypatia as having too much influence over Orestes and stages a public ceremony intended to force Orestes to subjugate her. Hypatia's former pupil, Synesius, now the Bishop of Cyrene, comes to her rescue as a religious authority counterweight but says he cannot help her unless she accepts Christianity; she refuses. Hypatia theorizes that the Earth orbits around the Sun in an elliptic orbit, not a circular orbit, with the Sun at one of the foci. Cyril convinces a mob of Christians that Hypatia is a witch, and they vow to kill her. Davus tries to run ahead to warn Hypatia, but she is captured. They strip Hypatia and are about to skin her alive until Davus persuades the mob otherwise, and they decide to stone her instead. When the mob goes outside to collect stones, Davus suffocates her to spare her the pain of being stoned and tells the mob that she fainted. Davus leaves as they begin to stone her.

Cast
Rachel Weisz as Hypatia of Alexandria. Weisz was already a fan of Amenábar's work when she received the script, and was very interested in the role. Although she had not heard of Hypatia before, she felt that her history was still relevant to the contemporary world: "Really, nothing has changed. I mean, we have huge technological advances and medical advances, but in terms of people killing each other in the name of God, fundamentalism still abounds. And in certain cultures, women are still second-class citizens, and they’re denied education." Weisz wanted to delve more into Hypatia's sexuality and her desires, but Amenábar disagreed. She also received science lessons to help inform her depiction of the character. At the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, Weisz spoke about her style and approach: "There's no way we could know how people behave in the 4th century. I imagine they were still human beings with the same emotions as we have now. There are cultural customs, I guess, which were different. We approach the acting style to make the people flesh and blood and to make the acting incredibly naturalistic."
Max Minghella as Davus, Hypatia's father's slave. Davus is in love with Hypatia, but it is an unrequited love, and Davus turns towards Christianity instead. When Hypatia is about to be stoned to death at the end of the film, he decides to suffocate her because he still loves her and doesn't want her to suffer any physical pain. The character of Davus was invented as "eyes for the audience" and is not based on any historical account.
Oscar Isaac as Orestes. Student of Hypatia, Orestes is an aristocrat, who like Davus, falls in love with her, and has a strong friendship with Hypatia. Isaac was familiar with the history of early Christianity during the period represented in the film, but like Weisz, he had not heard of Hypatia before joining the project.
Sami Samir as Saint Cyril of Alexandria
Manuel Cauchi as Theophilus of Alexandria, uncle of Cyril
Ashraf Barhom as Ammonius, a parabalani monk
Michael Lonsdale as Theon of Alexandria, father of Hypatia
Rupert Evans as Synesius of Cyrene
Homayoun Ershadi as Aspasius the old slave. He acts as Hypatia's research assistant.

Production

Development

After Amenábar completed The Sea Inside (2004), he took a break and traveled to the island of Malta, where he used his free time to explore the night sky. Seeing the Milky Way galaxy, Amenábar began to discuss astronomy with his friends, speculating about extraterrestrial life on other planets. He started to research astronomy and came across Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, by American astronomer Carl Sagan. Amenábar also studied historical figures such as Ptolemy, Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Galileo, but found himself most interested in the story of Hypatia, a 4th-century Greek astronomer whose history, he felt, was still relevant in the 21st century: "We realized that this particular time in the world had a lot of connections with our contemporary reality. Then the project became really, really intriguing, because we realized that we could make a movie about the past while actually making a movie about the present."

To prepare for the task of recreating the ancient city of Alexandria without relying on computer generated imagery, Amenábar reviewed older sword-and-sandal films such as The Ten Commandments (1956), Ben-Hur (1959), and Pharaoh (1966). A year before the start of pre-production, designer Guy Hendrix Dyas spent three weeks with Amenábar in Madrid to do some preliminary work on the set designs and the recreation of the ancient city of Alexandria so that previous animations could be generated.

The film was produced by Fernando Bovaira, with Telecinco Cinema as the primary producer alongside MOD Producciones and Himenóptero and it had the participation of Canal+ España.

Filming
Principal photography began on March 17, 2008, on the island of Malta, and was scheduled to last 15 weeks. Production designer Guy Hendrix Dyas used large sets on location instead of computer generated imagery at Amenábar's direction. The construction of the set employed almost 400 people, and was the largest ever designed on the island. Actor Charles Thake (Hesiquius) suffered minor facial injuries on the set when he collided with extras running during a scene. Filming ended in June.

Release
Agora premiered at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival, but the film was initially unable to find a domestic distributor due to its large budget and length. The film also had trouble finding a distributor in both the United States and Italy, although it eventually found distributors in both countries. The North America premiere was held at the Toronto International Film Festival in September, 2009. Agora opened in Spain on October 9, 2009, breaking box office records for that country. A limited release in the United States began on May 28, 2010, opening on two screens at the Paris Theatre and the Sunshine Cinema in New York City. The film opened on the West Coast of the United States on June 4, playing only two screens: at The Landmark theatre in Los Angeles and at Regal's Westpark 8 in Irvine.

Home media
In March 2010, Agora was released in Region 2-locked DVD and Blu-ray formats. A Region 1-locked DVD was released October 2010.

Reception

Critical response

British writer and film critic Peter Bradshaw, of The Guardian, praised Alejandro Amenábar and his film, describing Agora as "an ambitious, cerebral and complex movie.... Unlike most toga movies, it doesn't rely on CGI spectacle, but real drama and ideas." Bradshaw also applauded Rachel Weisz's role as Hypatia, calling it "an outstanding performance".
American screenwriter and critic Roger Ebert liked the film and gave it three stars out of four. He said: "I went to see Agora expecting an epic with swords, sandals and sex. I found swords and sandals, some unexpected opinions about sex, and a great deal more."

The film holds a 53% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 93 reviews with an average score of 5.7/10. The website's critics' consensus reads, "Noble goals and a gripping performance from Rachel Weisz can't save Agora from its muddled script, uneven acting, and choppy editing."

Response from Christians
Before its release, the distribution company insisted on screening the film at the Vatican. No objections were reported, and Vatican officials assisted in some of the religious depictions. According to Amenábar, "There’s one scene in which Cyril reads from St. Paul and [the Vatican] tried to look for the softest version. In the English version, [it is] taken from the King James version of the Bible." The line is excerpted from .

The Religious Anti-Defamation Observatory (Observatorio Antidifamación Religiosa), a Spanish Catholic group, claimed that the film was responsible for "promoting hatred of Christians and reinforcing false clichés about the Catholic Church." Michael Ordoña of the Los Angeles Times acknowledges that the film has been criticized for "perceived slights against Christians" but that "its lack of condemnation of specific dogma makes the film's target seem to be fundamentalism in general".

In contrast, the New York-based Rev. Philip Grey wrote a positive review of the film and strongly recommended it: "Christians who see themselves in the fanatic, murderous monks of the film and feel offended need to do some serious soul-searching. (...) Hypatia as depicted in the film is firmly opposed to what, in her time and at her city, is offered—or rather, imposed by brute force—under the name of 'Christianity'. Nevertheless, she seems to me far more a follower of the precepts of Christianity than are her persecutors and tormentors. (...) In particular, in watching the deeply moving final scene, her going calmly to her death amidst the jeering mob, I could not help but strongly recall Jesus Christ on his own way to Golgotha".

Box office
Agora was Spain's highest-grossing film of 2009, earning over $10.3 million within four days of its release on October 9.

Based on North American theatre tracking data from Rentrak Theatrical, indieWIRE reported that Agora "scored the highest per-theater-average of any film in the marketplace" during the Memorial Day holiday weekend from May 28 through May 31, just after its U.S. limited release. Despite this very high per-theater average, Agora was never widely released in the United States. According to Box Office Mojo, its widest release in the United States was just 17 theaters.

The film grossed over $32.3 million (€21.4 million) by 1 December 2009, and about $35 million by 1 February 2010. As of 10 January 2011, Agora'''s worldwide box office earnings were approximately $39 million. DVD and Blu-ray sales numbers are not publicly available.

AccoladesAgora was nominated for 13 Goya Awards, winning 7. The film won the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Feature Film Prize (US$25,000) in 2009 at the Hamptons International Film Festival.

Historical accuracyThe Cambridge History of Science has described the film as "spectacularly anachronistic", singling out the film's portrayal of Hypatia's fictional discovery the law of free fall and heliocentric orbits for criticism.

Antonio Mampaso, a Spanish astrophysicist and one of Agora's scientific advisors, stated in an interview that "We know that Hypatia lived in Alexandria in the IV and V centuries CE, until her death in 415. Only three primary sources mention Hypatia of Alexandria, apart from other secondary ones". He added that none of Hypatia's work has survived but it is thought, from secondary sources, that her main fields of study and work were geometry and astronomy. Mampaso dubiously claimed that Hypatia invented the hydrometer, an instrument still in use today, and that probably her father Theon of Alexandria, together with Hypatia, invented the astrolabe. However, it is generally accepted that the astrolabe had already been invented a couple of centuries earlier, and that the instrument was known to the Greeks before the Christian era.'The invention of the astrolabe is usually attributed to Hipparchus of the second century BC. But there is no firm evidence to support this view. It is however certain that the instrument was well known to the Greeks before the beginning of the Christian era.', Sarma, ‘The Archaic and the Exotic: studies in the history of Indian astronomical instruments’, p. 241 (2008). Similarly, the hydrometer was invented before Hypatia, and already known in her time. In this regard, Pappus of Alexandria was recorded as using the hydrometer before Hypatia was even born. Synesius sent Hypatia a letter describing a hydrometer, and requesting her to have one constructed for him.'For the sake of completeness we must mention that fact that SYNESIOS in his letter to HYPATIA mentions a hydrometer, which according to some was already known in the fourth century AD to PRISCIANUS, that is a century before SYNESIOS and HYPATIA.', Forbes, 'A Short History of the Art of Distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal', p. 25 (1970). There is no evidence that the historical Hypatia ever studied the heliocentric model proposed by Aristarchus of Samos or that she ever found any evidence to support it.

The set used in the film is meticulously historically authentic, showing a blend of Greek, Roman, and Egyptian architectural styles that would have been fitting to the time period, but the costumes are anachronistic. The Roman soldiers are shown wearing generic armor and weapons resembling the type used in the first century AD, but the film is actually set in the fifth century AD, by which time Roman troops no longer wore segmented armor and would have instead worn scale armor or chain mail.

The film contains conflicting information regarding the fate of the Library of Alexandria and Hypatia's life. In one scene, inspired by the final episode of Carl Sagan's Cosmos, Christian rioters, under the decree of Pope Theophilus, appeared to burn the "Great Library"; however, no records of the historical Library of Alexandria existed anymore at the time Hypatia was born. The last references to anyone having held membership in the Mouseion, the larger research community associated with the Library, date to the 260s AD. Theon was the head of a school called the "mouseion", but it was probably another school named after the Hellenistic cult of the Muses. There is, however, one very brief mention in the film that the library where most of the action happens is the "daughter" library. Although the Serapeum of Alexandria did at some point house scrolls from the Great Library, it is uncertain whether there were any scrolls at the time of its destruction in 391 AD (some sources prior to that date speak of them in the past tense). In the film, Christians rioters merely knock over all the statues and burn the scrolls, whereas in reality they completely demolished the Serapeum to the ground, leaving no part of its structure intact.Judith S. McKenzie, Sheila Gibson and A. T. Reyes, "Reconstructing the Serapeum in Alexandria from the Archaeological Evidence", The Journal of Roman Studies, volume 94 (2004), 73-121. Agora also strongly implies that Hypatia was an atheist, which directly contradicts the historical fact that she was a Neoplatonist follower of the teachings of Plotinus, who believed that the goal of philosophy was "a mystical union with the divine.""Agora", in The Encyclopedia of Epic Films, Scarecrow Press (2014), 6, notes that it is a "historical embellishment" without evidence, but upholds it as a "narrative device".

Robert Barron, an American Catholic priest, writes in an article: "Hypatia was indeed a philosopher and she was indeed killed by a mob in 415, but practically everything else about the story that Gibbon and Sagan and Amenábar tell is false". Irene A. Artemi, a doctor of theology at Athens University, states that "The movie—albeit seemingly not turning against the Christian religion—is in fact portraying the Christians as fundamentalist, obscurantist, ignorant and fanatic". Similarly, atheist blogger Tim O'Neill remarks: "Over and over again, elements are added to the story that are not in the source material: the destruction of the library, the stoning of the Jews in the theatre, Cyril condemning Hypatia's teaching because she is a woman, the heliocentric "breakthrough" and Hypatia's supposed irreligiosity." Edward J. Watts, though recognising the emotive power of the film, is critical of the film's historical distortions, such as changing philosophical insights into scientific inventions and discoveries to cater to a modern audience, fictional gender-based threats to Hypatia and visually lumping the monks together with the Taliban, that devalue Hypatia's own life and mischaracterise later centuries.

See alsoHypatia – an 1853 novel by Charles Kingsley
Serapeum of Alexandria
List of films about mathematicians
List of historical drama films
List of films set in ancient RomeThe Name of the Rose, also about destruction of classical writings
 List of Spanish films of 2009
 New Atheism

References

Further reading

Hart, David B. "The Perniciously Persistent Myths of Hypatia and the Great Library," First Things, June 4, 2010.

Viney, Donald Wayne"Remembering and Misremembering Hypatia: The Lessons of Agora" The Midwest Quarterly A Journal of Contemporary Thought'', Summer 2013, volume 54, number 4, pages 352–369.

External links

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Rexhep Demi (1864-1929) was a leading member of the Albanian independence movement and one of the delegates of Albanian Declaration of Independence, representing the region of Çamëria. He was a minister in the Provisional Government of Albania.

He was born in Filiates () in 1864  to a Muslim Albanian family, and he died in 1929.

References

1864 births
1929 deaths
19th-century Albanian people
Cham Albanian people
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Members of the Parliament of Albania
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
People from Filiates
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire


Azis Tahir Ajdonati was a leading figure in the Albanian movement of Independence and one of the delegates of the Albanian Declaration of Independence, representing the region of Çamëria.

References

See also

Albanian politicians
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
All-Albanian Congress delegates


Avni bej Delvina was one of the delegates of the Albanian Declaration of Independence.

References

20th-century Albanian politicians
19th-century Albanian politicians
Year of birth missing
All-Albanian Congress delegates
People from Delvinë
People from Janina vilayet


Thanas Floqi (14 January 1884  – 8 February 1945) was an Albanian educator and patriot, and one of the signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence.

He was born in Korçë, at the time in the Ottoman Empire in 1884. He was the son of Vasil Floqi, a merchant. Thanas was the younger brother of Albanian patriot, politician, and writer Kristo Floqi.

Thanas Floqi finished his early education in his home town, then went to Messolongi, where he finished high school. After that he went to Athens to study law, but did not graduate and returned home. He emigrated later to US, where he got in touch with patriotic movements of the Albanian diaspora. He was a contributor in the establishment of "Malli i Mëmëdheut" (Homeland's yearning) which a few years later would become one of the sources for "Vatra Federation". His brother Kristo would become one of the Vatra founders. Thanas would return to Albania in 1912, and settle in Vlorë, where he contributes in the expansion of Albanian education. He also focused in arts and music studies. Floqi opened the first Albanian school in Cakran, near Fier.

Thanas Floqi was one of the signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence on November 28, 1912. After that, he worked in the newly created Albanian administration, and as an interpreter for the International Commission of Control, and as first secretary of the Ministry of Justice. In 1913, he settled in Elbasan, where he cooperated with Aqif Pashë Elbasani and worked as a teacher in the Shkolla Normale e Elbasanit. He distinguished himself in musical activities' organizations.

References

Sources
"History of Albanian People" Albanian Academy of Science.

1884 births
1945 deaths
People from Korçë
People from Manastir vilayet
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire
Expatriates from the Ottoman Empire in Greece
Emigrants from the Ottoman Empire to the United States
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
All-Albanian Congress delegates
20th-century Albanian educators
19th-century Albanian educators
Albanian educators
Academic staff of the University of Elbasan


Spiridon Ilo (30 September 1876 – 7 November 1950) was one of the founding fathers of Albania as a signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence.

Ilo was born in Korçë, in the Manastir Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire (present-day Albania) in 1876.
He worked as a teacher in the girls' school of his home town founded by the Kyrias family. He later emigrated to Bucharest where he was part and active member of the Albanian colony. In December 1909, he participate in the theatrical play "Besa" (English: Faith) together with Dhimitër Beratti.
Ilo is said to have brought the Albanian flag to Albania in the Declaration of Independence in 1912, one of the versions of the non well-clarified origin of the Albanian flag of the 28 November 1912. The mostly accepted version so far is that the flag was embroidered by his relative Marigo Posio.
In 1913, he returned to Romania and in 1916 emigrated to New York where he continued his patriotic work.

In 1923 he founded the first Albanian recording company, Albanian Phonograf Records, and recorded the Albanian national anthem written by Asdreni and music from Porumbescu. In 1946, he donated to his native city the technology and equipment of the recording studio, which unfortunately was destroyed later for reusing some parts for building the antenna of Radio Korça. In 1926, he returned to Korçë where he lived the rest of his life. During these years, he published and sold patriotic postcards. He also published the comedy "Vërtet ëndërr" (Really a dream) and also a song collection "Dëshirat e zemrës" (Desires of the heart). He died in Korçë in 1950.

References

"History of Albanian People" Albanian Academy of Science.

1876 births
1950 deaths
People from Korçë
People from Manastir vilayet
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Albania
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
Albanian expatriates in the United States
Albanian expatriates in Romania
All-Albanian Congress delegates


Hajdar Hysen Blloshmi (24 April 1844 – 9 December 1936) was one of the delegates of Albanian Declaration of Independence and a deputy of Pogradec in the Albanian parliament. His son, Salahydin was a member of the constitutional court of Albania and a deputy of the Albanian parliament in 1925–8.

Blloshmi was born in Bërzeshtë, Librazhd District, Ottoman Empire, in the present-day municipality of Prrenjas.

References

1844 births
1936 deaths
People from Prrenjas
19th-century Albanian people
20th-century Albanian people
People from Manastir vilayet
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Second Congress of Manastir delegates
Members of the Parliament of Albania


Bedri Pejani (or Bedri bej Ipeku; 10 October 1885 – 6 July 1946) was 20th century Albanian politician. During World War II, he was one of the founders of the Second League of Prizren.

Biography

Pejani was born in the city of İpek (now Peja) in the Kosovo Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire on 10 October 1885 with the name Bedri Thaçi, son of Abdi Thaçi (Pejani). To refer to his family origin he used the last name Pejani (from Ipek) as was custom for that period.

Pejani was active in the Nationalist Movement of Albanians in the Skopje region against the Young Turk administration in 1908. He was condemned to death by the Ottoman military court, and according to Sejfi Vllamasi's memories he passed a psychological shock which would affect him later. He was a delegate at the Congress of Monastir of 1908, and President of the Second Congress of Manastir. At the age of 27 Pejani became a signatory of the Albanian Declaration of Independence. He represented there the regions of Plav, Gusinje, Gjakova, and İpek, and signed under the name "Bedri Pejani". Elected at the first Albanian senate, he represented Kosovo at the Conference of Versailles in 1919.

Pejani was one of the founding members of the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo, founded in Shkodër in November 1918.

In 1920 he became editor-in-chief of Populli ("The people") after the assassination of Sali Nivica, a newspaper based in Shkodër. During the 1921-1923 period he was head of the People's Party () formed by Fan Noli and other liberal-nationalists and member of the Albanian Parliament.

In 1922, after failing to become Minister of the Interior, his relationship with Ahmet Zogu would aggravate. Pejani feared an assassination attempt from Zog's side and had another psychological breakdown. He was sent in a psychiatric hospital in Naples, returning shortly after being recovered.
Pejani was one of the main participants of the June Revolution in 1924, fleeing Albania after the Conservative forces overthrew Noli's government. When Ahmet Zogu came to power, he was condemned again to death in absentia by Zogu's regime, which subsequently amnestied him. Pejani joined KONARE founded by Fan Noli in Vienna. While in exile, Pejani moved up as Head of the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo, together with Ibrahim Gjakova and Qamil Bala. During this time the Committee would receive some financial support from Comintern, same as did KONARE due to Noli's and Kosta Boshnjaku's connections. Pejani was a member of Comintern and kept continuous correspondence with it under the nickname Emoraj.

The Italian Invasion of Albania in April 1939 would find Pejani as part of the Albanian exile community in Paris. Though an old opponent of Zogu, Pejani together with other Albanian activists and French politicians (such as Justin Godart) organized a protest meeting in Paris on April 8, 1939. The meeting strongly opposed the invasion of Albania and called for western democracies to react. He had previously forwarded a memorandum to Neville Chamberlain, British Prime Minister of the time through the French authorities as leader of the Popular Party () and the Albanian community of France on April 5.

Pejani came back to Albania where he was arrested for anti-fascist and bolshevist activity and imprisoned in Porto-Romano near Durrës. He was released after Italy's capitulation.

During the Nazi Occupation, Mustafa Kruja and Shefqet Vërlaci would encourage him of taking a more active role. Assisted by the German emissary of Nazi Germany, Franz von Schweiger, and along with Xhafer Deva, Pejani created in 1943 the Second League of Prizren in order to protect Greater Albania, which, created in May 1941, was now in danger, because of political vacuum. Pejani's idea was that "the Albanians should be armed, so the end of the war, which was near, didn't find them unprepared and with hands up". In a document sent to the Führer from the position of the President of the Second League of Prizren, he took over to mobilize 120,000 - 150,000 Albanians under Nazi command. The German side would call the numbers "demographically impossible" and Pejani as "abnormal".

In 1946, Pejani was captured by the Albanian partisans and handed over to the Yugoslav side after having confessed in 13 pages his actions and beliefs and handed over to Petro Marko. Due to health issues he was hospitalized in Prizren, where allegedly he was poisoned, and died on July 6, 1946.

Notes and references
Notes:

References:

Further reading
"History of Albanian People" Albanian Academy of Science.

1885 births
1946 deaths
Politicians from Peja
People from Kosovo vilayet
Albanian politicians
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
Albanian journalists
Albanian anti-communists
Albanian people of World War II
Albanian military personnel
People executed by Yugoslavia
Executed Albanian collaborators with Nazi Germany
Executed Kosovan people
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
Second Congress of Manastir delegates
20th-century journalists


Salih Gjuka (1876-1925) was an Albanian teacher and activist of the Albanian National Awakening. The first teacher of Albanian in the Ottoman gymnasium of Uskub, in 1912 he became one of the signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence and member of the assembly of the Independent Albania as representative of Pejë. During its session held on 4 December 1912 the Assembly of Vlorë elected Gjuka to be a member of the Senate of Albania. In 1913 he served as the head of the education department of the district of Berat, where he died in 1925.

References

19th-century Albanian educators
20th-century Albanian educators
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Peja
People from Kosovo vilayet
1876 births
1925 deaths
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
People from Berat
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Tuberculosis deaths in Albania
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire


Jérôme Potier (born 18 July 1962) is a French former tennis player. He is currently Josselin Ouanna's coach and has coached Marc Gicquel and Thierry Ascione.

Career finals

Singles (2 runner-ups)

Doubles (1 runner-up)

External links

1962 births
Living people
French male tennis players
French tennis coaches
Sportspeople from Rennes


Mehmet Pashë Deralla (, 1843 - 1918) was an Ottoman Albanian military officer and civil servant, and one of the delegates of the Albanian Declaration of Independence. Deralla served as Minister of War in the Provisional Government of Albania. He was a major figure of anti-Ottoman uprisings, and also opposed Serbian and Montenegrin encroachments.

Biography

Early life
Mehmet Deralla was born in 1843, the year of the Uprising of Dervish Cara, in Gradec, Gostivar. He was the son of noted Albanian patriot, Hasan Deralla. He went to maktab in Tetovo and completed secondary education in Skopje and Manastir. Deralla did his tertiary education at the Military Academy of Istanbul. After graduating with top marks, Deralla served in the infantry regiment in Anatolia. After serving for several years, Deralla was promoted to the General Staff and was given the title of Pasha.

Ottoman duty
Deralla served as the general of the gendarmerie and exercised high military functions in Baghdad, later in Aleppo and than finally Selanik. After serving in Salonika, Deralla moved to Uskub where he commanded the Prizren Vilayet. Shortly after, Deralla ended his career as General in the Ottoman army.

The Albanian uprising
Deralla changed allegiance when using his influence, lifted protests in Kosovo and joined the
Volunteer Army of the League of Prizren. Mehmet Deralla was appointed adviser to Sulejman Vokshi, who was the Defence minister of the cabinet.

The Prizren League had 16,000 armed members under its control, who launched a revolution against the Ottoman Empire after the debacle at the Congress of Berlin and the official dissolution of the League ordered by the Ottomans who feared the League would seek total independence from the empire. The Albanian rebels were able to kill Mehmed Ali Pasha, the Turkish emissary, in Yakova in August 1878. The Ottoman Empire sought to suppress the League and they dispatched an army led by Turkish commander Dervish Pasha, that by April 1881 had captured Prizren and crushed the resistance at Ulcinj.

After escaping arrest by the Ottoman authority, Deralla went to contribute his services to the League of Peja, a political organization established in 1899 in the city of Peja. It was led by Haxhi Zeka, a former member of the League of Prizren. However, like the League of Prizren, the League of Peja was stopped by Ottoman forces. During the crisis, Deralla was detained by government forces and was exiled to the deserts of Iraq. Deralla returned to Kosovo due to receiving amnesty after the Young Turks uprising.

With the Ottoman empire deteriorating, the Ottomans offered Deralla a position again in the Ottoman army.
However, Deralla refused stating that he already belongs to another cause. Deralla ran major uprisings in Kosovo from 1910 to 1912, where the battles that culminated in the summer of 1912, marked the taking of Skopje, the former Kosovo vilayet center. The focus of their movement in this period was decided by disregarding the hegemony of neighboring states Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, which already invested their strategy, was to deny the existence of the Albanian nation. Deralla was one of the main protagonists of resistance attacks against Serbia and Montenegro, who aimed at conquering northern Albania. Under Deralla's command, the Albanian rebels, managed to push back Serb forces in the space between the White Drin and Black Drin.

Albanian Declaration of Independence

Deralla was one of eighty-three leaders meeting in Vlora in November 1912 to declare Albania an independent country and set up a provisional government. Deralla was a member of the Kosovo delegation. Isa Boletini suggested that Deralla serve as Minister of War in the Provisional Government of Albania in which Deralla accepted.

World War I and death
World War I interrupted all government activities in Albania, and the country was split into a number of regional governments. Political chaos engulfed Albania after the outbreak of World War I. Deralla was involved with the Kachak guerrilla movement against Serbia. He was captured by Serbian forces in 1916 and was imprisoned for a year and a half in Belgrade and Podgorica where he was poisoned.

References

19th-century Albanian people
20th-century Albanian people
People from Kosovo vilayet
1918 deaths
1843 births
Albanian Pashas
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Albanian Sufis
19th-century Ottoman military personnel
Albanian military personnel
20th-century Ottoman military personnel
Ottoman military personnel of the Balkan Wars


Riza Kryeziu (1847-1917), known as Riza Bey Gjakova (, ), was an Albanian nationalist figure and guerrilla fighter, an influential bey in the Gjakova region, then part of the Vilayet of Kosovo, Ottoman Empire, and one of the activists of Albanian national movements of early 20th century.

Life
Riza Bey was a member of the League of Prizren. According to Ekrem Vlora's memories, Riza Bey was the involved in the Attack against Mehmed Ali Pasha, performed by the Gjakova Committee of the League of Prizren, which resulted in the assassination of Abdullah Pasha Dreni-Kyeziu (his distant cousin), and Marshal Mehmed Ali Pasha. The Ottoman marshal had been sent to overview the cession of Plav-Gusinje to the Principality of Montenegro, which had caused the ensuing Battle of Novšiće. On September 5, 1878, Riza Bey approached the house of Abdullah Pasha and gave him a 24-hour ultimatum to leave the area and get back to Istanbul. The other part refused, and the next day the Gjakova Committee Albanians attacked and killed Mehmed Ali Pasha, Abdullah Pasha, as well as 20 of his house members. Riza Bey would be later arrested and exiled for 12 years in Sinop, northern edge of the Turkish side of the Black Sea coast. Between 1885 and 1886, he got into a feud with Bajram Curri that lasted for a decade and was only ended through an envoy sent by the sultan who conferred upon each man a military command and rank with Riza Bey becoming a major of the gendarmerie in Shkodër. To govern, Sultan Abdulhamid II used patronage networks by awarding privileges and government positions to co opt local leaders such as Riza Bey into the Ottoman system.

In November 1897, a rebellion led by Riza Bey and Haxhi Zeka occurred in Kosovo aiming to reduce taxes and for the allowance of Albanian schools. The uprising lasted until January 1898 when Riza was invited to Istanbul to discuss terms.

In 1912, due to the deteriorating situation between Albanians and Ottoman authorities, Riza Bey alongside other Albanian leaders were present at a meeting in Junik on 20 May where a besa (pledge) was given to wage war on the Young Turk government. Riza Bey was a guerrilla leader during the Albanian Revolt of 1912, and was one of the main figures of the League of Junik. During the 1912 uprising, while waiting for an Ottoman response to the demands of the rebels, Riza Bey and other leaders of the rebellion ordered their forces to advance toward Üsküb (modern Skopje) which was captured during August 12–15. On August 18, the moderate faction led by Prishtina managed to convince Riza Bey, and other leaders Idriz Seferi, Bajram Curri and Isa Boletini of the conservative group to accept the agreement with the Ottomans for Albanian sociopolitical and cultural rights.

Riza was the father of Ceno Bey, Gani Bey, Said Bey, Ali, Rada, and Hasan Bey Kryeziu. Hasan Prishtina, in his memoirs of 1921, mentions him as a "religious fanatic" who was obsessed with the idea of liberating Sultan Hamid from prison. Riza Bey died in Shkodra in 1917.

See also
Kryeziu Brothers

References

Kosovo Albanians
Ottoman Albanian nobility
Military personnel from Gjakova
19th-century Albanian military personnel
20th-century Albanian military personnel
People from Kosovo vilayet
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
1917 deaths
All-Albanian Congress delegates
1847 births
Politicians from Gjakova
Riza


Ajdin Draga (1864–1914) was an Albanian politician. In 1912, he was a representative of Kosovo in the Albanian Declaration of Independence and a member of the Albanian Senate.

Life

Ajdin Draga was born in Mojstir, in the Vilayet of Kosovo, Ottoman Empire, today's Tutin, Serbia in 1864 to the Draga family. His father Ali Pasha Draga was a notable landowner of the region. His brothers, Nexhip and Ferhat, also activists of the Albanian National Awakening, led the Xhemijet party of Yugoslavia in the interwar period. In November 1912 he participated in the Assembly of Vlorë, in which the independence of Albania was declared and a national congress was formed. The deputies of the national congress also elected eighteen delegates of the assembly to form the Albanian Senate, of which Ajdin Draga was a member as a senator of Kosovo along with Salih Gjuka and Bedri Pejani. He died in June 1914 in a battle against Essadist forces in Rashbull, Durrës.

References

20th-century Albanian politicians
People from Tutin, Serbia
1864 births
1914 deaths
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire


The Vana Parva, also known as the "Book of the Forest", is the third of eighteen parvas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. Vana Parva traditionally has 21 parts and 324 chapters. The critical edition of Vana Parva is the longest of the 18 books in the epic, containing 16 parts and 299 chapters.

The parva is a chronicle of the twelve-year journey of the Pandavas in a forest, where they learn life lessons and build character.

Vana Parva contains discourses on virtues and ethics; myths of  Arjuna, Yudhishthara, and Bhima; and the tales of "Nahusha the Snake and Yudhishthira" and "Ushinara and the Hawk". It also includes the love stories of "Nala and Damayanti" and "Savitri and Satyavan".

Structure and chapters
This book traditionally has 21 sub-parvas (parts) and 324 chapters. The following are the sub-parvas:

 1. Aranyaka Parva (Chapters: 1–10)
 The Pandavas are exiled to the forest of Kamyaka. A group of Brahmanas follows the Pandavas to the forest, Yudhisthira prays to Surya, who grants him the boon of supplying food for thirteen years. A sage named Saunaka consoles Yudhisthira. Vidura advises Dhritarashtra to recall Yudhishthira and give him back his kingdom. Dhritarashtra refuses, so Vidura leaves and joins the Pandava brothers. On request, Vidura again returns to Hastinapur. Vyasa counsels Dhritarashtra to make peace with the Pandavas; Maitreya comes to counsel Duryodhana, but he turns deaf-ear; Maitreya curses him to die at the hand of Bhima.

 2. Kirmira-vadha Parva (Chapter: 11)
 There is a battle between the man-eating demon Kirmira and the giant Pandava brother, Bhima. Kirmira is killed.

 3. Arjunabhigamana Parva (Chapters: 12–37)
 The Parva introduces Krishna and talks about his past accomplishments. Krishna criticizes gambling as one of four sins that ruin a man and laments being absent when Yudhishthira accepted a game of dice, because of dealing with the army of King Salwa. Yudhishthira expresses remorse and anguish for his gambling habit. Krishna suggests persuasion, followed by force if necessary, is appropriate to prevent one's friend before he commits a sinful act such as gambling. Draupadi appeals to Yudhishthira to wreak vengeance on the Kaurava (Kuru) brothers. The theory of forgiveness (e.g., when to forgive) is debated between various characters. The chapters also discuss anger and how it is destructive to a person and society. Draupadi and Yudhishthira debate over the cause and effect of actions (karma), free will, and destiny. Bhima and Yudhishthira argue over the definition of virtue(Dharma), wealth(Artha), and pleasure(Kama). The arguments are left open-ended with no definite conclusion and the characters retire from the debate. Maharishi Vyasa arrives and shares the theory and knowledge of Pratismriti with the Pandavas. The Pandavas shift from Dwaitvana to the bank of river Saraswati. Arjuna leaves alone towards North, where he meets Indra, in the guise of a Brahmana who advises him to pray to Lord Shiva to obtain the celestial weapons.

 4. Kairata Parva  Kirata Parva (Chapters: 38–41)
 Arjuna meditates and lives like an austere Rishi in the forest to gain knowledge. Due to his fierce penances, all Rishis went to the god Sthanu. Knowing Arjuna's desire, the god of Pinaka, disguised as Kirata, visit Arjuna, and is accompanied by Uma (his wife), spirits, and thousands of women. A boar attacks Arjuna but is struck down by two arrows. Arjuna and Kirata argue over who killed the boar. They battle each other, with Kirata remaining unharmed due to his divinity. After being depleted of arrows, Arjuna fights with his bow, which is snatched by Kirata. Arjuna's golden hilt sword breaks when he uses it to strike Kirata's head. They wrestle and Arjuna is deprived of his senses; when he awakens, Arjuna starts to worship Mahadeva by offering floral garlands. Sthanu reveals his true identity and blesses Arjuna with the knowledge of the Pasupata weapon. Indra and other deities visit Arjuna and provide him their weapons: Yama (lord of death) gives his mace, Varuna (lord of water) his divine noose, and Kubera (lord of treasures) his favorite weapon called "Antarddhana" (lit. "sleeping weapon").

 5. Indralokagamana Parva (Chapters: 42–51)
 Arjuna visits heaven and the Parva describes the city of Indra. Gods furnish celestial weapons to Arjuna and goddess Urvasi attempts to seduce Arjuna. Arjuna refuses her advances, which infuriates Urvasi and causes her to curse him. Indra converts the curse into a boon.

 6. Nalopakhyana Parva (Chapters: 52–79)
 Yudhishthira regrets his gambling problem and declares himself the most wretched person on earth. Vrihadashwa consoles him with the story of Nala, another prince who erred by gambling and recovered from his mistake. Nalopakhyana Parva recites the love story of the prince Nala and princess Damayanti, who fell in love with each other without having met after learning about each other through a hansa (lit. "swan"). Damayanti's father announces a Swayamvaraa contest between eligible bachelors so that Damayanti can watch and choose the man she wants to marry. The gods arrive to win over Damayanti and pick Nala as their representative and messenger. Nala is conflicted but tries to convince Damayanti that she marry Indra or one of the deities. Damayanti picks Nala instead. One of the gods gets upset at Damayanti's choice, so he challenges Nala to a game of dice. Nala loses the game and the kingdom to Pushkara. He goes into exile, Nala and Damayanti are separated. Damayanti runs away from her father's kingdom. Several chapters describe their tribulations and adventures. Damayanti's father finds her and she returns to the kingdom. A second Swayamvara is announced. Nala comes to the kingdom disguised as Vahuka. Damayanti discovers Vahuka and knows his true identity; they meet and talk. Nala reclaims his kingdom from Pushkara. Damayanti and Nala take over the kingdom and live happily ever after. The story inspires Yudhishthira to focus on the future.

 7. Tirtha-yatra Parva (Chapters: 80–157)
 Sage Narada visits the Pandava brothers. He suggests tirthas to the Pandava brothersa pilgrimage to holy places in India. The Parva provides the benefits, directions, and a list of tirthas, including Kurukshetra, Ganga, Yamuna, Prayaga, Pratisthana, and Brahmasara. The Pandavas start the Narada-recommended tirthas and the history of various gods is described. The Parva includes the story of Ushinara, the pigeon, and the hawk: a story that explores the concept of dharma and conflicting virtues. Other stories include king Janaka's sacrifice; king Somaka and his liberation from hell; how Bhagiratha brought the Ganges river to earth from heaven; the births of Ashtavakra, Mandhata and Rishyasringa; and Bhima's for celestial lotuses.

 8. Yaksha-yudha Parva (Chapters: 158–164)
 A demon kidnaps Yudhishthira, Draupadi, and the twins; Bhima finds and slays the demon. The Pandavas arrive at the hermitage of Arshtishena. Arjuna returns from heaven.

 9. Nivata-kavacha-yudha Parva (Chapters: 165–175)
 Arjuna describes his travel, why he left, where he was, and what he did. Arjuna shows the celestial weapons he now possessed. He demonstrates their effectiveness by destroying the aerial city of Hiranyapura before demonstrating more of his power to Yudhishthira. Sage Narada appears in chapter 175 and advises that war and weapons should not be unleashed unless there is necessary and compelling cause, that rash violence is destructive and wrong. Arjuna stops committing acts of violence.

 10. Ajagara Parva (Chapters: 176–181)
 The Pandavas arrive at Kailaca. A mighty snake, Nahusha, ties up Bhima. Yudhishthira finds him in the snake's grip. The snake offers to free Bhima if Yudhishthira answers his questions. The snake and Yudhishthira ask each other questions on dharma, the theory of birth-rebirth, transmigration, the theory of varnas, the relative merit of four virtues (charity, kind speech, truthfulness, and unenviousness), universal spirit, and how to achieve moksha in Chapters 180 to 181. The snake is freed from its curse and releases Bhima. The snake is revealed to be Nahusha and achieves salvation.

 11. Markandeya-Samasya Parva (Chapters: 182–231)
 Markandeya presents the story of yugas (Kreta, Treta, Dapara and Kali yugas), and of Vami horses. Through Chapters 200 to 206, the Parva offers contrasting views on traditions and rituals, knowledge and personal development, and vice and virtues. The Parva, in Chapters 207–211, presents one of the many discussions on the doctrine of karma in Mahabharata. Chapters 211 to 215 explain the relationship between self-discipline, virtues, and qualities (sattva, rajas and tamas), how these qualities enable one to achieve knowledge of the supreme spirit. Markandeya-Samasya Parva recites the story of Vrihaspati and Skanda.

 12. Draupadi-Satyabhama Samvada Parva (Chapters: 232–234)
 Satyabhama asks Draupadi for advice on how to win Krishna's affections. Draupadi outlines the duties of a wife.

 13. Ghosha-yatra Parva (Chapters: 235–256)
 Sakuni advises Duryodhana to confront the Pandavas in exile, but Dhritarashtra dissuades Duryodhana. After being granted permission from the king, Duryodhana is accompanied by Karna, Sakuni, and many of his brothers to the Dwaitavana (lake). They meet the Gandharvas there and ask them to leave; the Gandharvas refuse. Duryodhana enters with his armed forces but is pushed back by Chitrasena. Duryodhana is captured and the fleeing soldiers approached the Pandavas for help. Arjuna vows to rescue Duryodhana and defeats Chitrasena and the Gandharvas. Yudhishthira's act of kindness makes Duryodhana, who refuses to return to his kingdom, despondent. Karna and Shakuni try to soothe Duryodhana but fail. Inside his mind, Duryodhana sees a demon that asks him to stop despairing. As long as Bhisma, Drona, and Karna are by his side he should not fear. Regaining consciousness, he declares that he will defeat the Pandavas in battle and returned to the kingdom.

 14. Mriga Sapnovbhava Parva (Chapter: 257)
 Yudhishthira has a dream about a deer, who complains that the Pandavas living in the forest have invited many people to live there. The residents hunt indiscriminately and the deer fear they will be exterminated. The deer pleads with Yudhishthira to move to another location, which will protect them from extinction. Yudhishthira concludes that it is his dharma to ensure the welfare of all creatures. The Pandava brothers agree that the wildlife deserves their compassion and decide to move. The Pandavas move from Dwaita Aranya forest to Kamyaka forest.

 15. Vrihi Drounika Parva (Chapters: 258–260)
 Chapter 258 describes the 11th year of the Pandavas' exile. Sage Vyasa visits the Pandavas and instructs them on morality. Vyasa recites the story of Rishi Mudgala, who after his death refused to be taken to heaven. The story then describes Parabrahma, a place of contemplation, and Jnana yoga, which is the path Mudgala chose for his eternal emancipation.

 16. Draupadi-harana Parva (Chapters: 261–270)
 Draupadi is kidnapped by Jayadratha and the Pandavas go to rescue her. The story describes the battle and death of Jayadratha's followers and his capture. Jayadratha is not killed but is questioned by Yudhishthira.

 17. Jayadhratha Vimokshana Parva (Chapter: 271)
 Yudhishthira sets Jayadratha free, who returns to his house in anger, planning ways to take revenge against the Pandavas.

 18. Rama Upakhyana Parva (Chapters: 272–291)
 The Parva recites a short summary of Ramayana to comfort Yudhishthira who laments the long exile his brothers have suffered.

 19. Pativrata-mahatmya Parva (Chapters: 292–298)
 Pativrata-mahatmya parva describes the love story of princess Savitri and the hermit Satyavan. They meet and fall in love. Sage Narada informs Savitri that Satyayan is certain to die within a year; Savitri accepts and weds Satyayan anyway. Savitri, who knows Satyavan will die soon, stays with him all the time. One day Satyavan and Savitri head into the forest to collect wood when Satyavan dies. Yama, the lord of death, appears before Savitri. Yama carries away Satyavan's soul and Savitri follows. Yama tries to persuade her to move on, but she refuses to relent. She obtains four boons from Yama, which allows Satyavan to be resurrected. Savitri and Satyavan live happily together.

 20. Kundalaharana Parva (Chapters: 299–309)
 The parva recites the story of Karna. The chapters describe how Karna grows up and learns to be an expert bowman. Yudhishthira fears and respects Karna. In the Pandavas' 13th year of exile, Indra asks Karna for his earrings to benefit his son. Surya warns Karna in his dream to refuse Indra's request for the earrings, saying that by doing so he will die. Karna refuses to do so due to his vow and says he wishes for eternal fame than his life. Surya then convinces him to ask Indra for the dart that is capable of slaying all foes. The following day, Indra disguises himself as Brahmana and exchanges Karna's earrings for his Vasavi dart, on the condition that it could be used only on a single person. Karna takes the dart and gives Indra his mail. Indra warns Karna that the dart's target is protected by Narayana (Krishna). Hearing that Karna had been tricked, all of Dhritarashtra's sons became distressed. This introduction to Karna sets the stage for future chapters, as Karna plays a major role in later books of the Mahabharata.

 21. Aranya Parva  Araneya Parva (Chapters: 310–324)
 The Pandavas return to Dwaita Aranya forest. They chase and fail to capture a deer who has carried away the firesticks of a priest. The Pandava brothers rest from exhaustion and thirst. Each one (except Yudhishthira) goes to a lake to fetch water and disregards the words of a disembodied voice. They drop dead after drinking the water. Yudhishthira goes to the lake and laments the death of his brothers. Yaksha appears and interrogates Yudhishthira with 124 questions about the nature of human life, the necessary virtues for a happy life, ethics, and morality, which Yudhishthira answers correctly. Yaksha then asks him to choose one of his brothers to be revived as a reward. He asks that his step-brother Nakula be revived so that, for the sake of virtue, one son of each of his father's two wives remain. Yaksha is impressed by Yudhishthira's morality, revives all the Pandava brothers, and reveals himself to be Dharma (Lord of justice and Yudhishthira's father). He awards Yudhishthira several boons that help the Pandavas in their 13th year of exile for a concealed life, and returns the priest's firesticks.

English translations

Several translations of the Sanskrit book Vana Parva in English are available. Two translations from 19th century, now in public domain, are by Kisari Mohan Ganguli and Manmatha Nath Dutt. The translations vary with each translator's interpretations. Compare:

The original Sanskrit:

Kisari Mohan Ganguli's translation:

and Manmatha Nath Dutt's translation:

J. A. B. van Buitenen completed an annotated edition of Vana Parva, based on the critically edited and least corrupted version of Mahabharata known in 1975. In 2011, Debroy notes that the updated critical edition of Vana Parva, with spurious and corrupted text removed, has 16 parts, 299 adhyayas (chapters) and 10,239 shlokas (verses). Debroy published a translated version of a critical edition of Vana Parva in Volume 2 and 3 of his series.

Clay Sanskrit Library has published a 15 volume set of the Mahabharata which includes a translation of Vana Parva by William Johnson. This translation is modern and uses an old manuscript of the epic. The translation does not remove verses and chapters now widely believed to be spurious.

Inspiration for later works
The Kirata sub-parva of Aranya Parva has inspired several major poems and expanded works, such as the Kirātārjunīya by Bhāravi.

See also
Previous book of Mahabharata: Sabha Parva
Next book of Mahabharata: Virata Parva

References

External links

 English Translation of Vana Parva by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
 Vana Parva, Translation in English, by Manmatha Nath Dutt
 Le Mahabharata, Translation in French, by H. Fauche (Paris, 1868)
 English Translation, readable; Translation by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
 Vana Parva in Sanskrit by Vyasadeva and commentary by Nilakantha (Editor: Kinjawadekar, 1929)

Parvas in the Mahabharata


The following species in the genus Salix are recognised by Plants of the World Online:

Extant species

Salix abscondita
Salix acmophylla
Salix acutifolia  – violet willow
Salix aegyptiaca
Salix aeruginosa
Salix alatavica
Salix alaxensis  – Alaska willow
Salix alba  – white willow
Salix alexii-skvortzovii
Salix alpina  – alpine willow
Salix amplexicaulis
Salix amygdaloides  – peachleaf willow
Salix anatolica
Salix annulifera
Salix anticecrenata
Salix apennina
Salix apoda
Salix appendiculata
Salix arbuscula  – mountain willow
Salix arbusculoides  – littletree willow
Salix arbutifolia
Salix arctica  – Arctic willow
Salix arctophila
Salix argyracea
Salix argyrocarpa
Salix arizonica
Salix armeno-rossica
Salix arrigonii
Salix athabascensis
Salix atopantha
Salix atrocinerea  – grey willow
Salix aurita  – eared willow
Salix austrotibetica
Salix babylonica  – Babylon willow, Peking willow
Salix baileyi
Salix balansae
Salix balfouriana
Salix ballii
Salix bangongensis
Salix barclayi  – Barclay's willow
Salix barrattiana  – Barratt's willow
Salix bebbiana  – beaked willow
Salix berberifolia
Salix bhutanensis
Salix bicolor
Salix bikouensis
Salix blakii
Salix blinii
Salix bonplandiana  – Bonpland willow, ahuejote
Salix boothii  – Booth's willow
Salix borealis
Salix boseensis
Salix brachycarpa  – barren-ground willow
Salix brachypoda
Salix breviserrata
Salix breweri  – Brewer's willow
Salix brutia
Salix cacuminis
Salix caesia
Salix calcicola  – limestone willow
Salix calyculata
Salix cana
Salix candida  – sage willow
Salix caprea  – goat willow
Salix capusii
Salix cardiophylla
Salix carmanica
Salix caroliniana  – coastal plain willow
Salix cascadensis
Salix caspica
Salix cathayana
Salix caucasica
Salix cavaleriei
Salix chaenomeloides
Salix chamissonis
Salix characta
Salix chevalieri
Salix cheilophila
Salix chienii
Salix chikungensis
Salix chilensis
Salix chlorolepis
Salix cinerea  – grey sallow
Salix clathrata
Salix coggygria
Salix columbiana  – Columbia River willow
Salix coluteoides
Salix commutata  – undergreen willow
Salix contortiapiculata
Salix cordata  – heartleaf, sand dune willow
Salix crataegifolia
Salix cupularis
Salix daguanensis
Salix daliensis
Salix daltoniana
Salix dalungensis
Salix daphnoides
Salix delavayana
Salix delnortensis  – del Norte willow
Salix denticulata
Salix dibapha
Salix discolor  – American willow, pussy willow
Salix disperma
Salix dissa
Salix divergentistyla
Salix divaricata
Salix doii
Salix dolichostachya
Salix donggouxianica
Salix driophila
Salix drummondiana  – Drummond's willow
Salix dshugdshurica
Salix eastwoodiae  – Eastwood's willow
Salix eleagnos
Salix eriocephala  – heartleaf willow
Salix erioclada
Salix eriostachya
Salix ernestii
Salix erythrocarpa
Salix euxina
Salix excelsa
Salix exigua  – sandbar willow
Salix famelica
Salix fargesii
Salix farriae
Salix fedtschenkoi
Salix flabellaris
Salix floccosa
Salix floridana
Salix foetida
Salix fruticulosa
Salix fulvopubescens
Salix fuscescens  – Alaska bog willow
Salix futura
Salix geyeriana
Salix gilgiana
Salix glabra
Salix glauca  – northern willow
Salix glaucosericea  Flod.
Salix gmelinii
Salix gonggashanica
Salix gooddingii  – Goodding willow
Salix gracilior
Salix gracilistyla
Salix guinieri
Salix gussonei
Salix hartwegii
Salix hastata
Salix hegetschweileri
Salix helvetica  – Swiss willow
Salix herbacea  – dwarf willow
Salix hookeriana  – Hooker's willow
Salix hukaoana
Salix humboldtiana – Chile willow
Salix humilis  – upland willow
Salix iliensis
Salix interior
Salix ionica
Salix irrorata
Salix jaliscana
Salix japonica
Salix jejuna  – barrens willow
Salix jenisseensis
Salix jepsonii  – Jepson's willow
Salix juparica
Salix jurtzevii
Salix kalarica
Salix kangensis
Salix karelinii
Salix khokhriakovii
Salix kirilowiana
Salix kitaibeliana
Salix kochiana
Salix koeieana
Salix koriyanagi
Salix krylovii
Salix kusanoi
Salix kuznetzowii
Salix laevigata  – red willow
Salix laggeri
Salix lanata  – woolly willow
Salix lapponum  – downy willow
Salix lasiandra
Salix lasiolepis  – arroyo willow
Salix ledebouriana
Salix ledermannii
Salix lemmonii  – Lemmon's willow
Salix ligulifolia  – strapleaf willow
Salix lindleyana
Salix longiflora
Salix longistamina
Salix lucida  – shining willow
Salix luctuosa
Salix ludlowiana
Salix lutea  – yellow willow
Salix maccalliana
Salix magnifica
Salix martiana
Salix melanopsis  – dusky willow
Salix mesnyi
Salix mexicana
Salix michelsonii
Salix microphylla
Salix microstachya
Salix mielichhoferi
Salix miyabeana
Salix monochroma
Salix monticola
Salix moupinensis
Salix mucronata
Salix muliensis
Salix myricoides
Salix myrsinifolia  – dark-leaved willow
Salix myrsinites  – whortle-leaved willow
Salix myrtillacea
Salix myrtillifolia
Salix myrtilloides  – swamp willow
Salix nakamurana
Salix nasarovii
Salix niedzwieckii
Salix nigra  – black willow
Salix niphoclada
Salix nipponica
Salix nivalis
Salix nummularia
Salix nuristanica
Salix obscura
Salix olgae
Salix opsimantha
Salix oreinoma
Salix oreophila
Salix orestera  – Sierra willow
Salix oritrepha
Salix oropotamica
Salix ovalifolia
Salix pantosericea
Salix paradoxa
Salix paraflabellaris
Salix paraplesia
Salix pedicellaris  – bog willow
Salix pedicellata
Salix pellita
Salix pentandra  – bay willow
Salix pentandrifolia
Salix petiolaris  – slender willow
Salix petrophila
Salix phlebophylla
Salix phylicifolia  – tea-leaved willow
Salix pierotii
Salix planifolia  – planeleaf willow
Salix plocotricha
Salix polaris  – polar willow
Salix prolixa  – MacKenzie's willow
Salix pseudocalyculata
Salix pseudodepressa
Salix pseudomedemii
Salix pseudomonticola
Salix pseudomyrsinites
Salix pseudopentandra
Salix pseudospissa
Salix pseudowallichiana
Salix psilostigma
Salix pulchra
Salix purpurea  – purple willow
Salix pycnostachya
Salix pyrenaica
Salix pyrifolia  – balsam willow
Salix pyrolifolia
Salix qinghaiensis
Salix radinostachya
Salix raupii
Salix rectijulis
Salix recurvigemmata
Salix rehderiana
Salix reinii
Salix repens  – creeping willow
Salix reptans
Salix reticulata  – net-leaved willow
Salix retusa
Salix rhamnifolia
Salix rhododendroides
Salix richardsonii  – possible synonym of Salix lanata
Salix riskindii
Salix rockii
Salix rorida
Salix rosmarinifolia  – rosemary-leaved willow
Salix rotundifolia
Salix rupifraga
Salix sajanensis
Salix salviifolia
Salix salwinensis
Salix saposhnikovii
Salix saxatilis
Salix schwerinii
Salix sclerophylla
Salix scouleriana  – Scouler's willow
Salix sericea  – silky willow
Salix sericocarpa
Salix serissima  – autumn willow
Salix serpillifolia
Salix sessilifolia
Salix setchelliana
Salix shiraii
Salix sieboldiana
Salix sikkimensis
Salix silesiaca
Salix silicicola
Salix sitchensis  – Sitka willow
Salix songarica
Salix spathulifolia
Salix sphaeronymphe
Salix sphenophylla
Salix staintoniana
Salix starkeana
Salix stolonifera
Salix stomatophora
Salix subopposita
Salix suchowensis
Salix sumiyosensis
Salix taiwanalpina
Salix taraikensis
Salix tarraconensis
Salix taxifolia  – yewleaf willow
Salix tengchongensis
Salix tenuijulis
Salix tetrasperma
Salix thomsoniana
Salix thorelii
Salix thurberi
Salix tianschanica
Salix tibetica
Salix tonkinensis
Salix tracyi
Salix triandra  – almond willow
Salix triandroides
Salix tschujensis
Salix tschuktschorum
Salix turanica
Salix turczaninowii
Salix turnorii
Salix tweedyi
Salix tyrrellii
Salix tyrrhenica
Salix udensis
Salix uralicola
Salix uva-ursi  – bearberry willow
Salix variegata
Salix vestita  – silky willow
Salix viminalis  – common osier
Salix vinogradovii
Salix vulpina
Salix waldsteiniana
Salix wilhelmsiana
Salix wolfii
Salix wuxuhaiensis
Salix xanthicola
Salix zangica

Hybrid species

Salix × aberrans
Salix × algista
Salix × altobracensis
Salix × ambigua
Salix × amoena
Salix × ampherista
Salix × angusensis
Salix × arakiana
Salix × argusii
Salix × aschersoniana
Salix × austriaca
Salix × balfourii
Salix × beckiana
Salix × boettcheri
Salix × boulayi
Salix × brachypurpurea
Salix × buseri
Salix × calliantha
Salix × canescens
Salix × capreola
Salix × cernua
Salix × charrieri
Salix × coerulescens
Salix × confinis
Salix × conifera
Salix × cottetii
Salix × cremnophila
Salix × devestita
Salix × dichroa
Salix × digenea
Salix × doniana
Salix × dutillyi
Salix × ehrhartiana
Salix × erdingeri
Salix × eriocataphylla
Salix × eriocataphylloides
Salix × erythroclados
Salix × euerata
Salix × euryadenia
Salix × finnmarchica
Salix × flueggeana
Salix × forbesiana
Salix × forbyana
Salix × fragilis
Salix × friesiana
Salix × fruticosa
Salix × gaspensis
Salix × gillotii
Salix × glatfelterii
Salix × grahamii
Salix × grayi
Salix × hapala
Salix × hatusimae
Salix × hayatana
Salix × hebecarpa
Salix × hermaphroditica
Salix × hiraoana
Salix × hirsutophylla
Salix × hirtii
Salix × hisauchiana
Salix × hostii
Salix × hudsonensis
Salix × ikenoana
Salix × intermedia
Salix × inticensis
Salix × iwahisana
Salix × jamesensis
Salix × japopina
Salix × jesupii
Salix × kamikotica
Salix × kawamurana
Salix × koidzumii
Salix × koiei
Salix × krausei
Salix × kudoi
Salix × lambertiana
Salix × latifolia
Salix × laurentiana
Salix × laurina
Salix × leiophylla
Salix × leucopithecia
Salix × lintonii
Salix × litigiosa
Salix × lochsiensis
Salix × ludibunda
Salix × ludificans
Salix × lyonensis
Salix × margaretae
Salix × margarita
Salix × mariana
Salix × maritima
Salix × matsumurae
Salix × meikleana
Salix × meyeriana
Salix × microstemon
Salix × mollissima
Salix × montana
Salix × multinervis
Salix × myrtoides
Salix × nasuensis
Salix × neuburgensis
Salix × notha
Salix × obtusifolia
Salix × oleifolia
Salix × onychiophylla
Salix × peasei
Salix × pedionoma
Salix × pedunculata
Salix × peloritana
Salix × pendulina
Salix × permixta
Salix × perthensis
Salix × phaeophylla
Salix × pithoensis
Salix × pseudodoniana
Salix × pseudoglauca
Salix × pseudopaludicola
Salix × punctata
Salix × quercifolia
Salix × reichardtii
Salix × retusoides
Salix × rubella
Salix × rubra
Salix × rubriformis
Salix × rugulosa
Salix × sadleri
Salix × saxetana
Salix × schaburovii
Salix × schatilowii
Salix × schatzii
Salix × schneideri
Salix × scholzii
Salix × schumanniana
Salix × secerneta
Salix × semimyrtilloides
Salix × seminigricans
Salix × semireticulata
Salix × semiviminalis
Salix × sendaica
Salix × sepulcralis group – hybrid willows
Salix × sepulcralis 'Chrysocoma' – golden weeping willow
Salix × seringeana
Salix × sesquitertia
Salix × sibyllina
Salix × sigemitui
Salix × simulatrix
Salix × sirakawensis
Salix × sobrina
Salix × speciosa
Salix × straehleri
Salix × strepida
Salix × subglabra
Salix × subsericea
Salix × sugayana
Salix × tambaensis
Salix × taoensis
Salix × taylorii
Salix × teplouchovii
Salix × tetrapla
Salix × thaymasta
Salix × tomentella
Salix × turfosa
Salix × turumatii
Salix × viciosorum
Salix × waghornei
Salix × wiegandii
Salix × wimmeri
Salix × woloszczakii
Salix × wrightii
Salix × wyomingensis

Fossil species
In addition to the living species and hybrids, a number of fossil species have been ascribed to Salix:

†Salix abbreviata
†Salix acutissima
†Salix akitaensis
†Salix alaskana
†Salix albiformis
†Salix amygdalifolia
†Salix andromedae
†Salix angusta
†Salix angustifolia
†Salix angustissima
†Salix apollinis
†Salix aquensis
†Salix aquitanica
†Salix arcinervea
†Salix arcuata
†Salix arguta
†Salix arnaudii
†Salix assimilis
†Salix attenuata
†Salix axonensis
†Salix baikovskajae
†Salix bebbianiformis
†Salix bienensis
†Salix bilinica
†Salix boisiensis
†Salix brevipes
†Salix bruckmannii
†Salix bryanii
†Salix californica
†Salix cappsensis
†Salix capreiformis
†Salix castaneifolia
†Salix chuitensis
†Salix cinereiformis
†Salix coalingensis
†Salix cockerellii
†Salix coloradica
†Salix confirmata
†Salix cookensis
†Salix cordato-lanceolata
†Salix coriacea
†Salix cormickii
†Salix crebrinervia
†Salix crenatoserrulata
†Salix cumberlandensis
†Salix cuneata
†Salix dayana
†Salix deleta
†Salix delicata
†Salix demersa
†Salix densinervis
†Salix dentata
†Salix denticulata
†Salix deperdita
†Salix dianae
†Salix discoloripites
†Salix dodonaeiformis
†Salix dornacencis
†Salix elliptica
†Salix elongata
†Salix enbekshiensis
†Salix engelhardtii
†Salix etolonensis
†Salix eutawensis
†Salix evanstoniana
†Salix falcifolia
†Salix finlayi
†Salix flexuosa
†Salix foliosa
†Salix fragiliformis
†Salix frontierensis
†Salix gardneri
†Salix glaucifolia
†Salix goetziana
†Salix gracilis
†Salix grandifolia
†Salix groenlandica
†Salix haidingeri
†Salix hartigii
†Salix hausruckensis
†Salix hayei
†Salix hilberi
†Salix hokiensis
†Salix hokkaidoensis
†Salix holzeri
†Salix holzhausensis
†Salix inaequalis
†Salix inaequilatera
†Salix infracretacica
†Salix inouei
†Salix inquirenda
†Salix integra
†Salix ionensis
†Salix islandica
†Salix itelmenensis
†Salix kachemakensis
†Salix kamloopsiana
†Salix kamtschatica
†Salix kattitauca
†Salix keijisuzukii
†Salix kempffii
†Salix kenaiana
†Salix kernensis
†Salix kicktonii
†Salix kitamiensis
†Salix knowltonii
†Salix lamottei
†Salix lamottii
†Salix lancifolia
†Salix laramiana
†Salix laramina
†Salix latifolia
†Salix lavateri
†Salix leopoldae
†Salix lesquereuxii
†Salix libbeyi
†Salix linearifolia
†Salix linearis
†Salix lingulata
†Salix longa
†Salix longinqua
†Salix longissima
†Salix lowei
†Salix macrophylla
†Salix malaisei
†Salix maritima
†Salix masamunei
†Salix mattewanensis
†Salix media
†Salix meekii
†Salix membranacea
†Salix merriamii
†Salix microserrata
†Salix minuta
†Salix minutissima
†Salix miosinica
†Salix misaotatewakii
†Salix mixta
†Salix molesta
†Salix moravica
†Salix muraii
†Salix myricoides
†Salix myrtifolia
†Salix nereifolia
†Salix nervillosa
†Salix newberryana
†Salix ninilchikensis
†Salix nympharum
†Salix ocoteifolia
†Salix ovalis
†Salix ovatior
†Salix owyheeana
†Salix pacifica
†Salix palaeocaprea
†Salix palaeopurpurea
†Salix palaeorepens
†Salix palibinii
†Salix paradisensis
†Salix parasachalinensis
†Salix paucidentata
†Salix paucinervis
†Salix pelviga
†Salix pentandra-miocenica
†Salix perplexa
†Salix perucensis
†Salix picroides
†Salix pilosula
†Salix pitulosa
†Salix plicata
†Salix pliocaenica
†Salix pliomaritima
†Salix preobrajenskyi
†Salix primaeva
†Salix protogracilistyla
†Salix protopaniculata
†Salix protophylla
†Salix pseudohaeyi
†Salix purpuroides
†Salix putivlensis
†Salix raeana
†Salix ramaleyi
†Salix raritanensis
†Salix remotidens
†Salix retinenda
†Salix retinervis
†Salix rivularis
†Salix rosmariniformis
†Salix rottensis
†Salix rugosa
†Salix samylinae
†Salix sanzugawaensis
†Salix sapindifolia
†Salix schimperi
†Salix schoenae
†Salix semihausruckensis
†Salix siouxiana
†Salix socia
†Salix spokanensis
†Salix squamiformis
†Salix stantonii
†Salix stefanescui
†Salix stipulata
†Salix stupenda
†Salix subaurita
†Salix subrepens
†Salix subtilis
†Salix succorensis
†Salix tabellaris
†Salix takaminensis
†Salix taxifolioides
†Salix teilhardii
†Salix tenera
†Salix tongcheonensis
†Salix trachytica
†Salix triandroides
†Salix tyonekana
†Salix uglensis
†Salix vaccinifolia
†Salix varians
†Salix vasseurii
†Salix venosiuscula
†Salix vimenoides
†Salix viminalifolia
†Salix vivianii
†Salix volkana
†Salix wahlbergii
†Salix wildcatensis
†Salix williamsii
†Salix wimmeriana
†Salix wyomingensis

References

Salix
Salix


John Hayman Packer (12 March 1730 – 16 September 1806) was an actor for David Garrick's company at Drury Lane.  Originally a saddler, he created the character Freeman in James Townley's High Life Below Stairs (1759).  His parts were usually minor and, late in life, "as a rule" old men in tragedies and sentimental comedies.

Selected roles
 Freeman in High Life Below Stairs by James Townley (1759)
 Lucius in The Siege of Aquileia by John Home (1760)
 Don Roderigo in Elvira by David Mallet (1763)
 Sir John Lambert in The Hypocrite by Isaac Bickerstaffe (1768)
 Aunac in Zingis by Alexander Dow (1768)
 Zopiron in Zenobia by Arthur Murphy (1768)
 Greek Herald in The Grecian Daughter by Arthur Murphy (1772)
 Otanes in Sethona by Alexander Dow (1774)
 Ramirez in Braganza by Robert Jephson (1775)
 Rinaldo in The Law of Lombardy by Robert Jephson (1779)
 Ali in The Fair Circassian by Samuel Jackson Pratt (1781)
 Thestor in The Royal Suppliants by John Delap (1781)
 Marlow in The Metamorphosis by William Jackson (1783)
 Duke of Genoa in Julia by Robert Jephson (1787)
 Medley in The New Peerage by Harriet Lee (1787)
 David Duncan in The Last of the Family by Richard Cumberland (1797)
 Allan in The Castle Spectre by Matthew Gregory Lewis (1797)
 Blaise in The Castle of Montval by Thomas Sedgwick Whalley (1799)

References
Hughes, Alan. "Packer, John Hayman." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. 22 October 2008.  (accessed 22 October 2008; subscriiption required).
The Literary panorama

Notes

1730 births
1806 deaths
English male stage actors
18th-century English male actors


Zihni Abas Kanina Hamzaraj (18 January 1885 in Kanina, Ottoman Empire – 1959 in Tirana, Albania) was a prominent Albanian diplomat and politician. He was one of the signatories of Albanian Declaration of Independence. He was born in a notable Albanian family in Kanina, near Vlora, and was active during the National Renaissance of Albania. After the declaration of independence, he was Director General in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Provisional Government of Albania, a post he would regain during the Kingdom of Ahmet Zogu. During the Second World War he worked as a teacher of the Albanian language in his hometown, becoming a prominent activist of Balli Kombetar against occupants and communist forces. After the war, the established communist regime jailed him in 1951 on political motives and he died in 1959 in the jail of Tirana.

Further reading

20th-century Albanian politicians
1885 births
1959 deaths
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
People from Vlorë
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Balli Kombëtar
People from Janina vilayet


Qerim Begolli (born 1874 in İpek, Ottoman Empire, died 1945 in Peć, Yugoslavia) was an activist of both National Renaissance of Albania and the resistance of Albania during the Second World War.

Begolli was one of the delegates of Albanian Declaration of Independence.
Begolli participated as well in the Albanian Congress of Trieste in 1913.
He died in his birthplace, Peja, on 1945, killed by Yugoslav Partisans, at the end of World War II.

References
"History of Albanian People" Albanian Academy of Science.

1874 births
1945 deaths
Politicians from Peja
Kosovo Albanians
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Yugoslav civilians killed in World War II
People killed by Yugoslav Partisans
Albanian people from the Ottoman Empire