The Center for the History of Family Medicine (CHFM) is a historical research center which is part of the non-profit American Academy of Family Physicians Foundation (AAFP Foundation), a non-profit, charitable 501(c)(3) organization located in Leawood, Kansas. The CHFM serves as the primary repository of information and resources on the history and evolution of general practice, family practice, the discipline of family medicine and the family medicine organizations within the United States. Its mission is to document, organize and preserve organizational records, personal papers, books and artifacts in all formats and disseminate information about them in both printed and electronic form. It also serves as an informational link to all other family medicine organizations and to all who are interested in the history of the specialty.

History and background

The first move to begin an historical center within the specialty of family medicine came in 1987, when Claudene Clinton, then Director of the Division of Research and Information Services for the American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), suggested the need for the establishment of a repository within the AAFP to house the growing body of material relating to the founding, growth and development of the academy and of the specialty of family medicine. At its meeting in February of that year, the board of directors of the academy moved to establish “a task force on the history of the American Academy of Family Physicians to determine the best way to preserve materials and documents related to the growth of the specialty.” A consultant was obtained, and after lengthy study in which detailed space, equipment and budgetary requirements were determined, the board of directors approved the establishment of an “AAFP Archives” within the Academy. Following her retirement as Director of the Division of Research and Information Services, Ms. Clinton served as the first Archivist for the archives (later renamed “the Archives for Family Practice”) on a contract basis with the academy.

On January 1, 1992, administrative responsibility for the archives was transferred from the academy to the AAFP Foundation. Following its transfer to the foundation, a board of curators was created to serve in an advisory capacity to the foundation’s board of trustees on the operations of the Archives. Initially the Board was made up of 7 members (now 15) “who have made significant contributions to family practice; who possess a broad perspective of the discipline; who have a strong interest in its historical development; and who are familiar with all the organizations in the discipline.” In 1998, an endowment was also created for the center, to help realize the Board of Curator’s vision of a “self-sustaining and self-supporting” entity operating within the foundation.

By 2003, the Archives for Family Practice had evolved into the principal resource center for the collection, conservation, exhibition and study of materials relating to the history of family medicine. Besides the academy and the foundation, other family medicine organizations that contribute by placing their records into its holdings, donating to its endowment and having their members serve on its advisory board include the American Board of Family Medicine (ABFM); the Association of Departments of Family Medicine (ADFM); the Association of Family Medicine Residency Directors (AFMRD); the North American Primary Care Research Group (NAPCRG); and the Society of Teachers of Family Medicine (STFM). The collections had also evolved, growing into four separate and distinct areas:

 a corporate, or organizational archives for the holdings of the seven family medicine organizations;
 manuscript collections of prominent family physicians and family medicine educators and staff;
 an historical research library containing books written by and about family physicians and reference materials on family medicine; and
 a museum collection of medical artifacts relating to the specialty for exhibition.

This rapid expansion of the Archives for Family Practice’s collections, coupled with some confusion generated by its name (which was similar to several medicine journals bearing the title “Archives”), gave rise to the need for a name change for the archives. Consequently, in November 2003, the Board of Curators and the AAFP/F Board of Trustees approved a new name for the facility, and on January 1, 2004, the Archives for Family Practice became the Center for the History of Family Medicine.

The Center for the History of Family Medicine is the only institution dedicated exclusively to preserving and sharing the history of family medicine in the United States. It serves to document all aspects of the profession in all of its spheres, including education, leadership development, advocacy, and in the continuing care of patients from birth to death.

Collections, programs and exhibits

An interdisciplinary study center consisting of an historical research library, archives and museum center, the CHFM actively documents, collects, organizes, preserves and exhibits organizational records, personal papers, books, artifacts and other materials in all formats relating to the history of general practice, family practice and family medicine in America. The Center’s programs include an active acquisitions and oral history program in which personal and professional papers and oral histories are collected from prominent leaders in the specialty, and a traveling exhibit program. Reference services are also provided.

References

External links
 Center for the History of Family Medicine (CHFM)

Family medicine in the United States
Medical and health organizations based in Kansas
History of medicine in the United States
American Academy of Family Physicians


The Ato Institucional Número Cinco – AI-5 () was the fifth of seventeen major decrees issued by the military dictatorship in the years following the 1964 coup d'état in Brazil.  Institutional Acts were the highest form of legislation during the military regime, given that they overruled even the highly authoritarian Constitution, and were enforced without the possibility of judicial review. They were issued on behalf of the "Supreme Command of the Revolution" (the regime's leadership). By suspending habeas corpus, the AI-5 enabled worst of the human rights abuses of the military dictatorship.

AI-5, the most infamous of all Institutional Acts and sometimes called  ('the coup within the coup'), was issued by dictator Artur da Costa e Silva, president at the time on December 13, 1968. It resulted in the forfeiture of mandates, interventions ordered by the President in municipalities and states and also in the suspension of any constitutional guarantees which eventually resulted in the institutionalization of the torture commonly used as a tool by the State.

Written by then Minister of Justice, Luís Antônio da Gama e Silva, it came as a response to earlier events such as a march of over fifty thousand people in Rio de Janeiro to protest against the murder of student Edson Luís de Lima Souto by a member of the Military Police of Rio de Janeiro, the March of the One Hundred Thousand, and the decision of the Chamber of Deputies denying authorization to prosecute Congressman Márcio Moreira Alves, which called Brazilians to boycott the celebrations of September 7 (Independence of Brazil). It also aimed to consolidate the ambitions of a group inside the military, known as "hardline", unwilling to give the power back to the civilians anytime soon.

Consequences
The immediate consequences of the AI-5 were:

 The President of the Republic was given authority to order the National Congress and the State Legislative Assemblies into forced recess.  This Unclassified document shows how AI-5 forced Municipal Councils to recess.  This document, which was declassified, discusses how a powerful military General thought that the Congress being closed was a "blessing." Costa e Silva used this power almost as soon as AI-5 was signed, resulting in the closure of the National Congress and all state legislatures except that of São Paulo for almost a year. The power to order the National Congress into recess would be used again in 1977.
 The assumption by the President of the Republic and the Governors of the States, during the periods of forced recess of the federal and state Legislatures, respectively, of the fullness of the legislative power, enabling the President and the Governors to legislate by decrees with the same force and effect as statutes passed by the legislative Chambers. This power included the power to legislate constitutional amendments. A sweeping amendment of Brazil's 1967 Constitution (already adopted under the Military Regime) was promulgated in 1969 (Constitutional Amendment number 1, also known as the 1969 Constitution, because the entire altered and consolidated text of the Constitution was re-published as part of the Amendment), under the authority transferred to the Executive Branch by the AI-5.
 the permission for the federal government, under the pretext of "national security", to intervene in states and municipalities, suspending the local authorities and appointing federal interventors to run the states and the municipalities;
 the preliminary censorship of music, films, theater and television (a work could be censored if it was understood as subverting the political and moral values) and the censorship of the press and of other means of mass communication;
 the illegality of political meetings not authorized by the police;
 the suspension of habeas corpus for crimes of political motivation.
 the assumption by the President of the Republic of the power of sacking summarily any public servant, including elected political officers and judges, if they were found to be subversive or un-cooperative with the regime. This power was widely used to vacate the seats of Opposition members in the Legislative branch, so that elections would be held as usual, but the composition of the Legislature resulting from the elections would be dramatically changed by the deprivation of office of Opposition legislators, effectively transforming the Federal, State and even municipal legislatures in rubber-stamp bodies. The deprivation of office of Opposition legislators also affected the makeup of the Electoral College of the President of the Republic (under the 1967 and 1969 Constitutions, adopted under the military regime, the President was chosen by an Electoral College made up of the entire National Congress, and of delegates chosen by the State Assemblies). Thus, not only elections for the Executive Branch were indirect, but the vacancies created in the composition of the Legislative bodies affected the makeup of the Electoral College, so that it also became a rubber-stamp body of the military regime.
  By passing AI-5 the dictatorship could take away anyone's political rights for up to ten years, and put the death penalty back into effect
 the instant legitimacy of certain types of decrees issued by the President, that were made not liable to judicial review. Under those provisions, the Institutional Acts themselves, and any action based on an Institutional Act (such as a decree suspending political rights or removing someone from office), were not subject to judicial review.

Rebel ARENA
The AI-5 did not silence a group of Senators from ARENA, the political party created to give support for the dictatorship. Under the leadership of Daniel Krieger, the following Senators signed a disagreement message addressed to the president: Gilberto Marinho, Miltom Campos, Carvalho Pinto, Eurico Resende, Manoel Villaça, Wilson Gonçalves, Aloisio de Carvalho Filho, Antonio Carlos Konder Reis, Ney Braga, Mem de Sá, Rui Palmeira, Teotônio Vilela, José Cândido Ferraz, Leandro Maciel, Vitorino Freire, Arnon de Melo, Clodomir Milet, José Guiomard, Valdemar Alcântara and Júlio Leite. And this unclassified document gives more background into how the ARENA political party was discriminated by the dictatorship and the AI-5 decree.

The end of AI-5

In October 13, 1978, President Ernesto Geisel allowed Congress to pass a constitutional amendment putting an end to AI-5 and restoring habeas corpus, as part of his policy of distensão (détente) and abertura política (political opening). The constitutional amendment came into force on January 1, 1979.

In 2004, the celebrated television documentary titled AI-5 – O Dia Que Não Existiu (AI-5 – The Day That Never Existed), was released. The documentary analyzes the events prior to the decree and its consequences.

Gallery
Pages of the Institutional Act Number Five. National Archives of Brazil

References

External links

 Official text of Institutional Act #5, from the Brazilian Civil House site (in Portuguese).
 Text of Institutional Act #5, from Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (in Portuguese).

Modern history of Brazil
Political history of Brazil
1968 in Brazil
Constitution of Brazil
Far-right politics in Brazil
Political repression in Brazil
Censorship in Brazil
1968 documents
political and cultural purges
Military law


Extinction is the last of Thomas Bernhard’s novels. It was originally published in German in 1986.

Plot summary
Extinction takes the form of the autobiographical testimony of Franz-Josef Murau, the intellectual black sheep of a powerful Austrian land-owning family. Murau lives in Rome in self-exile, obsessed and angry with his identity as an Austrian, and resolves never to return to the family estate of Wolfsegg. He is surrounded by a group of artistic and intellectual friends, and intends to continue living what he calls the Italianate way.  When he hears of his parents' deaths, he finds himself master of Wolfsegg and must decide its fate.

Murau has cut himself off from his family and sought to establish an intellectual life as a tutor in Rome. In the first half of the novel, he reflects on the spiritual, intellectual, and moral impoverishment of his family to his Roman student Gambetti. He only has respect for his Uncle Georg, who similarly cut himself off from the family and helped Murau to save himself. In the second section, he returns to his family’s estate, Wolfsegg, for the funeral, as well as to determine the disposal of the estate, which is now in his hands.

Throughout the novel, Murau talks about the void that he has created for himself via exaggeration combined with understatement. Murau then incriminates all of art in this role of unjustified absolution. To Gambetti, the "great" of "great art" was just that; when he thinks on his villa in Wolfsegg, "great" comes to mean something new: criminal art that has the power to make people pardon themselves for mortal sins.

Gambetti is Murau’s collaborator. His presence provides the mirror to the society of his parents, and reveals that Murau too has established an audience for himself that unknowingly endorses his obscure tactics. He stops speaking to Gambetti in the second half of the novel because Gambetti has been an agent in Murau’s self-deception. This in turn allows Murau to write his Extinction.

Imagery, style and themes
In this last of his novels, Bernhard uses repetition to achieve a cathartic effect while delivering himself of a parthian shot at the very language without which his own literary achievements would have been inconceivable.

There’s something utopian in this novel, underscored by the ending, where Wolfsegg’s entire estate is donated to the Jewish community of Vienna. It’s a radical and destructive utopia, a utopia that annihilates Murau himself, and which is at any rate overwhelmed by resentment and hate for his birthplace. But Bernhard wouldn’t be Bernhard if such a denigration, so relentless and ruthless, didn’t mutate in a vertiginous cascade of words with compulsive musical pitches of extraordinary beauty (and beautifully rendered by translator David McLintock) – a melodic aria whose lightness sharply contrasts with the gloomy character of Murau’s proclamations. It’s this very rhythm – an inexorable, spiralling mechanism of hyperboles and superlatives – which confers to the narrative the specific "vis comica" so characteristic of Bernhard’s work. Exaggeration changes into grotesque, tragedy into comedy. And often within the text, one hears a long liberating laughter. "Everything is ridiculous when one thinks of death," Bernhard wrote, and very few other contemporary authors have demonstrated how thin the line is that separates the tragic from the comic.

Excerpts
In a remarkable passage, the narrator Murau, an expatriate professor based in Rome, talks about the search for his childhood in an Austrian country estate, Wolfsegg:
"In Rome I sometimes think of Wolfsegg and tell myself that I have only to go back there in order to rediscover my childhood. This has always proved to be a gross error, I thought. You’re going to see your parents, I have often told myself, the parents of your childhood, but all I’ve ever found is a gaping void. You can’t revisit your childhood, because it no longer exists, I told myself. The Children’s Villa affords the most brutal evidence that childhood is no longer possible. You have to accept this. All you see when you look back is this gaping void. Not only your childhood, but the whole of your past, is a gaping void. This is why it’s best not to look back. You have to understand that you mustn’t look back, if only for reasons of self-protection, I thought. Whenever you look back into the past, you’re looking into a gaping void. Even yesterday is a gaping void, even the moment that’s just passed."

This then prompts Murau to remember a reflection he made to his student Gambetti on the subject of exaggeration:
"We’re often led to exaggerate, I said later, to such an extent that we take our exaggeration to be the only logical fact, with the result that we don’t perceive the real facts at all, only the monstrous exaggeration. I’ve always found gratification in my fanatical faith in exaggeration, I told Gambetti. On occasion I transform this fanatical faith in exaggeration into an art, when it offers the only way out of my mental misery, my spiritual malaise…With some, of course, the art of exaggeration consists in understating everything, in which case we have to say that they exaggerate understatement, that exaggerated understatement is their particular version of the art of exaggeration, Gambetti. Exaggeration is the secret of great art, I said, and of great philosophy. The art of exaggeration is in fact the secret of all mental endeavor. I now left the Huntsman’s Lodge without pursuing this undoubtedly absurd idea, which would assuredly have proved correct had I developed it. On my way to the Farm, I went up to the Children’s Villa, reflecting that it was the Children’s Villa that had prompted these absurd speculations (sic)."

Book's Epigraph:
I feel death ever pinching me by the throat, or pulling me by the back. --Montaigne

Notes

References
The Nihilism of Thomas Bernhard, by Charles W. Martin (1995)
Bernhardiana, a Critical Anthology of Bernhard's works
Understanding Thomas Bernhard, by Stephen D. Dowden (1995)
"An Introduction to Thomas Bernhard", by Thomas Cousineau (2001)
The Novels of Thomas Bernhard by J.J. Long (2001)
“Thomas Bernhard: Failing To Go Under: An essay on the 10th anniversary of his death”, critical review by S. Mitchelmore (SpikeMagazine 1999)
Review of Extinction on Waggish.org (2005)

1986 novels
Novels by Thomas Bernhard
Novels set in Rome
Alfred A. Knopf books


Didlington is a village in the Breckland district of mid-Norfolk, East Anglia, England in the United Kingdom. It has an area of  with a population of 48. At the 2011 Census the minimal population was included in the civil parish of Ickburgh.

The villages name possibly means 'farm/settlement of Duddel's people' or perhaps, 'farm/settlement connected with Duddel'.

The village is served by St Michael's Church in the Benefice of Cockley Cley.

Didlington Hall was a country house, which at one point housed the Egyptological collections of William Tyssen-Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst of Hackney. Apart from the stables and a clock tower, it was demolished in the 1950s. A new house was built on the site in 2007.

References

http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Norfolk/Didlington

Villages in Norfolk
Civil parishes in Norfolk
Breckland District


Captain William Schaffner (September 11, 1941 – September 8, 1970) was a pilot in the United States Air Force. He disappeared, presumed dead, flying a BAC Lightning over the North Sea while on exchange with the Royal Air Force.

September 1970 incident
In September 1970, Captain Schaffner was an American exchange pilot flying BAC Lightnings with No. 5 Squadron RAF at RAF Binbrook in north-east Lincolnshire, England. Binbrook was one of the bases, along with RAF Coningsby (which flew Phantoms), that was on Quick Reaction Alert. On the evening of September 8, 1970, an object was spotted over the North Sea by radar and he was on duty so he took off to follow the object. His callsign was 'Foxtrot 94'.

The object was then tracked by the early warning station at RAF Fylingdales and by the USAF radar station at Thule Air Base in Greenland and the Cheyenne Mountain Complex radar base in Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA. The Lightning planes were asked to return to their base in Leuchars, and the Phantom planes patrolled the area. At 21.30, the object was picked up on radar again heading south-west over the north of Denmark.

Two Lightning planes were scrambled from RAF Leuchars, to patrol to the north-east of Aberdeen, and two Lightning planes were scrambled from RAF Coltishall. The Strategic Air Command headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base near Omaha, Nebraska was informed of the incident as well as NORAD at Cheyenne Mountain. A Shackleton maritime plane that had been patrolling the Firth of Forth then circled the area around Flamborough Head.

Captain Schaffner took off from Binbrook in the Lightning plane XS894 at 22.06. He had boarded the plane whilst its fuel tanks were still being filled. The plane was armed with two Red Top  air-to-air missiles. The object was flying east of Whitby and parallel to the coast. It was tracked by RAF Staxton Wold in North Yorkshire.

Removal of the crashed Lightning
On October 7, 1970, Royal Navy divers located the plane on the sea bed. The plane was recovered from the sea three months later and was remarkably intact. The canopy was closed but the body of Captain Schaffner was not found. The wreckage was taken back to RAF Binbrook for investigation. Normally this would have happened at the MOD Crash Investigation Branch, part of the Royal Aircraft Establishment (now the Air Accidents Investigation Branch) at Farnborough.

September 2014 magazine contribution

In a letter to the aviation magazine FlyPast a retired RAF Sqn Ldr states that his aircraft (Avro Shackleton Mk.III WR981) was the 'Object' tracked by the various radar stations, and the incident was part of a much larger TACEVAL (station TACtical EVALuation) exercise. Two Lightnings were involved. The first made four approaches on the Shackleton, before departing the area while the second started an approach (flown by Capt Schaffner), before breaking off to Starboard. It never re-established contact and the Shackleton crew assumed that it had returned to base, until they were alerted by Uxbridge Centre on the guard frequency, requesting that they begin a search and rescue operation using the call sign Playmate 51.

References

External links
 BBC Inside Out September 2002

1941 births
1970 deaths
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United Kingdom
United States Air Force officers
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1970


Matunuck is a village in South Kingstown, Rhode Island near Charlestown, Rhode Island.  It is located on a point along the southern Atlantic coast of Rhode Island off U.S. Route 1.  The village takes its name from an Indian word meaning "lookout". The Narragansett tribe made a summer encampment at this location before the land was sold to colonists as part of the Pettaquamscutt purchase.

Geography and attractions

The area is home to several notable beaches, including Moonstone Beach, South Kingstown Town Beach at Matunuck, East Matunuck State Beach, and Roy Carpenter's Beach and cottages. The Theatre-by-the-Sea playhouse is also in Matunuck and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

External links

 "Perry good time" by Paul E. Kandarian, The Boston Globe, March 18, 2008

Villages in Washington County, Rhode Island
Villages in Rhode Island


Praetorians is the fifth full length studio album, and eighth album overall, released by the black metal band Naer Mataron. It was released on the Season of Mist label in 2008, the first album by Naer Mataron on this label.

Track listing
Anti-Celestial Campaign – 1:09
Ostara – 5:52
Sun Wheel – 7:50
Death Cast a Shadow over You – 5:46
Secret Heritage – 7:20
Astral Anthology – 0:43
Sol Invictus – 4:59
Incarcerating Gallantry – 4:44
The Eternal Pest – 6:51
Eagle's Nest – 4:44
Praetorians – 9:18

External links
Official homepage
Metal Archives
Discogs page

2008 albums
Naer Mataron albums
Season of Mist albums


The Nashville Sounds Minor League Baseball team has played in Nashville, Tennessee, since being established in 1978 as an expansion team of the Double-A Southern League. They moved up to Triple-A in 1985 as members of the American Association before joining the Pacific Coast League in 1998. With the restructuring of the minor leagues in 2021, they were placed in the Triple-A East, which became the International League in 2022. The first game of the new baseball season for a team is played on Opening Day, and being named the Opening Day starting pitcher is an honor which is given to the player who is expected to lead the pitching staff that season, though there are various strategic reasons why a team's best pitcher might not start on Opening Day. The Sounds have used 42 different Opening Day starters in their 45 seasons.

Nashville's first Opening Day game was played against the Memphis Chicks at Tim McCarver Stadium in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 15, 1978. Bill Dawley was their starting pitcher that day; he took the decision in a game the Sounds lost, 4–2. Their first Opening Day game held at home was an 8–7 win against the Birmingham Barons at Herschel Greer Stadium on April 9, 1981. Starter Jamie Werly, who went on to win the Southern League Most Outstanding Pitcher Award that season, did not figure in the decision.

On April 4, 2013, starter Tyler Thornburg took a no decision in the final Opening Day game at Greer Stadium, a 5–4 Sounds win. The team left Greer after the 2014 season, but did not play their first Opening Day game at First Horizon Park, their new facility then known as First Tennessee Park, until two years later. In that game, held on April 7, 2016, Sounds starting pitcher Chris Smith was charged with the loss in a 5–0 shutout by the Oklahoma City Dodgers. The 2020 Opening Day game, scheduled to be played at First Horizon Park on April 9, was postponed and ultimately cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Nashville's Opening Day starting pitchers have a combined Opening Day record of 11 wins, 15 losses, and 19 no decisions. At Greer Stadium, they had a record of 5 wins, 4 losses, and 8 no decisions in 17 Opening Day starts. At First Horizon Park, they have 0 wins, 2 losses, and 2 no decisions in 4 Opening Day starts. They have an aggregate record of 5 wins, 6 losses, and 10 no decisions in 21 Opening Day starts at home. Nashville starters have a record of 6 wins, 9 losses, and 9 no decisions in 24 Opening Day starts on the road.

The only Sounds pitchers with more than one Opening Day start are Bill Dawley (1978 and 1979), Rodney Imes (1990 and 1991), and Zach Jackson (2007 and 2008), each with two starts. Three Sounds Opening Day starters have also started Opening Day games in Major League Baseball: Bob Milacki for the Baltimore Orioles in 1990, Wily Peralta for the Milwaukee Brewers in 2016, and Chris Bassitt for the Oakland Athletics in 2021.

Pitchers

References

Opening Day starting pitchers


Wesley A. Ward (born March 3, 1968, in Selah, Washington) is a retired American Champion jockey and a current trainer in Thoroughbred horse racing.

Background
Ward grew up in the horse racing industry, being the son of trainer Dennis Ward.

Riding career
In 1984,  Wesley Ward was voted the Eclipse Award for Outstanding Apprentice Jockey following a season in which he won riding championships at Aqueduct Racetrack, Belmont Park, and the Meadowlands Racetrack and rode 335 winners. He went on to compete at racetracks in Italy, Malaysia and Singapore before his battles with weight gain led to retirement in 1989.

Ward was represented by agent Lenny Goodman.

Training career
Wesley Ward turned to training, first as an assistant to his father before going out on his own in 1991. He earned his first stakes win as a trainer in 1994 at Hollywood Park, winning the Cinema Handicap. Based in California, he also races at Gulfstream Park in Florida during the winter months. He has had 3 children, Riley Ward, Denae Ward, and Jackson Ward.

On June 16, 2009, Ward became the first U.S.-based conditioner to ship a horse to England and win a stakes race at the prestigious Royal Ascot meeting. Strike the Tiger, a 2-year-old gelding co-bred and co-owned by Ward, shocked the meet by taking the Windsor Castle Stakes at odds of 33-1. The following day, Ward sent out a 2-year-old filly named Jealous Again to claim an even bigger Ascot victory. She took the Group 2 Queen Mary Stakes by a comfortable five lengths.

Ward also suffered setbacks at that Ascot meeting—4-year-old Cannonball was sixth in the Group 1 King's Stand Stakes, and juveniles Yogaroo (Norfolk Stakes-G2), Aegean (Albany Stakes-G3) and Honor in Peace (Chesham Stakes) were also-rans in their events. But Cannonball was wheeled back on four days' rest, almost unheard of in American racing circles, and ran second in the Golden Jubilee Stakes (Gr. 1). In 2013 Ward scored a further Royal Ascot success when No Nay Never won the Group 2 Norfolk Stakes, and a first European Group 1 win when the same horse won the Prix Morny  at Deauville in August. In 2014, Ward scored his fourth Royal Ascot victory with Hootenanny, in the Windsor Castle stakes over 23 other horses by four lengths. At the 2014 Breeders Cup, Ward scored his first victory with Hootenanny in the Breeders' Cup Juvenile Turf. One day later, Ward scored his second victory with Judy the Beauty in the Breeders' Cup Filly & Mare Sprint. 2015 brought a fifth Royal Ascot success when Ryan Moore rode Acapulco to win the Queen Mary Stakes, giving Ward his second victory in that race.

In 2015, Wesley Ward was inducted into the Washington Thoroughbred Hall of Fame.

At the 2017 Royal Ascot meeting, Ward trainee Con Te Partiro took the Sandringham Handicap at odds of 20-1 ridden by Jamie Spencer.

References

1968 births
American jockeys
American horse trainers
Eclipse Award winners
People from Selah, Washington
Living people


Samuel Buck (1696 – 17 August 1779) and his brother Nathaniel Buck (died  1759/1774) were English  engravers and printmakers, best known for their Buck's Antiquities, depictions of ancient castles and monasteries. Samuel produced much work on his own but when the brothers worked together, they were usually known as the Buck Brothers.  More is known about Samuel than Nathaniel.

Careers

Samuel Buck was born in Yorkshire in 1696.  After publishing some prints in that county he moved to London.  With Nathaniel he embarked on making a number of series of prints of "antiquities", which consisted of ancient castles and former religious buildings in England and Wales.  Starting in 1724, they travelled around these countries, and completed sets of prints for the regions of England by 1738 and for Wales between 1739 and 1742.  These are commonly known as Buck's Antiquities.  During this time they also worked on a series of townscapes in England and Wales entitled Cities, Sea-ports and Capital Towns, often providing prospects from multiple directions.

Deaths and burials
Nathaniel was the first to die, sometime between 1759 and 1774.  Samuel died on 17 August 1779 in London and was buried in the churchyard of St. Clement Danes. Samuel's later years were spent in poverty.

References

Further reading
"The brothers Buck", Alice Rylance-Watson, British Library

English engravers
English printmakers
Sibling duos
People from Richmond, North Yorkshire


No. 275 Squadron RAF was a Royal Air Force air-sea rescue squadron that served between 1941 and 1959.

History
No. 275 Squadron RAF was formed at RAF Valley on 15 October 1941 for air-sea rescue duties in the Irish sea and was 9 Group's Air Sea Rescue Unit.

Following the Squadron's formation the first aircraft to be operated were Lysanders Mk.IIIa's. Later in the year Walruses were added to the Squadron followed by Defiants, Spitfires and Ansons.

Part of the Squadron's operation saw a detachment based at RAF Andreas. The detachment's Walrus amphibian Mk.I's were often to be seen flying around the Isle of Man in addition to which Blackburn Skuas were also operated.

In April 1944 the Squadron moved to RAF Warmwell to cover the sea area between England and Normandy. Air-sea rescue missions continued until 15 February 1945 when the Squadron was disbanded at RAF Harrowbeer.

No. 275 squadron was reformed at RAF Linton-on-Ouse as a sea and rescue Squadron to provide cover over the North Sea in March 1953 equipped with Sycamore HR.13 and HR.14 Helicopters, later relocating to RAF Thornaby on 18 November 1954 and remaining at Thornaby until October 1957 when the Squadron moved to RAF Leconfield. In March 1959 the unit converted to the Whirlwind HAR.4 helicopter, but on 1 September 1959 the Squadron was renumbered to No. 228 Squadron RAF and No. 275 ceased to exist.

Aircraft operated

Squadron bases

Notes

References

External links
 squadron histories Nos. 271-275 Squadrons

Aircraft squadrons of the Royal Air Force in World War II
275 Squadron
Rescue aviation units and formations
Military units and formations established in 1941
Military units and formations disestablished in 1959


Jacobus Gerardus Weber (4 August 1901 – 30 September 1979) was a Dutch footballer who earned 14 caps for the Netherlands national side between 1927 and 1928, scoring one goal. Weber also  participated at the 1928 Summer Olympics, and played club football with Feyenoord and Sparta Rotterdam.

References

External links
  Player profile at VoetbalStats.nl

1901 births
1979 deaths
Dutch men's footballers
Netherlands men's international footballers
Olympic footballers for the Netherlands
Footballers at the 1928 Summer Olympics
Feyenoord players
Sparta Rotterdam players
Footballers from Rotterdam
Men's association football forwards


Polish Jews were the primary victims of the Nazi Germany-organized Holocaust in Poland. Throughout the German occupation of Poland, Jews were rescued from the Holocaust by Polish people, at risk to their lives and the lives of their families. According to Yad Vashem, Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, Poles were, by nationality, the most numerous persons identified as rescuing Jews during the Holocaust. By January 2022, 7,232 people in Poland have been recognized by the State of Israel as Righteous among the Nations.

The Polish government-in-exile informed the world of the extermination of the Jews on June 9, 1942, following a report from the Jewish Labour Bund leadership smuggled out of the occupied Poland by Home Army couriers. The Polish government-in-exile, together with Jewish groups, pleaded for American and British forces to bomb train tracks leading to the Auschwitz concentration camp, although, for debated reasons, the Allies did not do so. The rescue efforts were aided by one of the largest resistance movements in Europe, the Polish Underground State and its military arm, the Home Army. Supported by the Government Delegation for Poland, the most notable effort dedicated to helping Jews was spearheaded by the Żegota Council, based in Warsaw, with branches in Kraków, Wilno, and Lwów.

Polish rescuers were hampered by the German occupation as well as frequent betrayal by the local population. Any kind of help to Jews was punishable by death, for the rescuer and their family, and would-be rescuers moved in an environment hostile to Jews and their protection, exposed to the risk of blackmail and denunciation by neighbours. According to Mordecai Paldiel, "The threats faced by would-be rescuers, both from the Germans and blackmailers alike, make us place Polish rescuers of Jews in a special category, for they exemplified a courage, fortitude, and lofty humanitarianism unequalled in other occupied countries."

Background

Before World War II, 3,300,000 Jewish people lived in Poland – ten percent of the general population of some 33 million. Poland was the center of the European Jewish world.

The Second World War began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939; and, on 17 September, in accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east. By October 1939, the Second Polish Republic was split in half between two totalitarian powers. Germany occupied 48.4 percent of western and central Poland. Racial policy of Nazi Germany regarded Poles as "sub-human" and Polish Jews beneath that category, validating a campaign of unrestricted violence. One aspect of German foreign policy in conquered Poland was to prevent its ethnically diverse population from uniting against Germany. The Nazi plan for Polish Jews was one of concentration, isolation, and eventually total annihilation in the Holocaust also known as the Shoah. Similar policy measures toward the Polish Catholic majority focused on the murder or suppression of political, religious, and intellectual leaders as well as the Germanization of the annexed lands which included a program to resettle ethnic Germans from the Baltic states and other regions onto farms, ventures and homes formerly owned by the expelled Poles including Polish Jews.

The response of the Polish majority to the Jewish Holocaust covered an extremely wide spectrum, often ranging from acts of altruism at the risk of endangering their own and their families lives, through compassion, to passivity, indifference, blackmail, and denunciation. That response has been the subject of intense historical and political controversy since the 1980s, when the received notion of the Polish people standing united and unwavering against the German occupier was criticised by Israeli historians, such as Israel Gutman and Shmuel Krakowski, and by Polish intellectuals and historians, such as Jan Błoński and in 2000 Jan T. Gross's book, Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedwabne, Poland. New trends in historical research challenged widely shared assumptions about wartime Polish behaviour and highlighted the contribution of home-grown antisemitism and the local police to the extermination of Polish Jews. Polish rescuers faced threats from unsympathetic neighbours, Polish-German Volksdeutsche, ethnic Ukrainian pro-Nazis, blackmailers called szmalcowniks, the Blue Police, and Jewish collaborators, Żagiew and Group 13.

In 1941, at the onset of Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, the main architect of the Holocaust, Reinhard Heydrich, issued his operational guidelines for the mass anti-Jewish actions carried out with the participation of local gentiles. Massacres of Polish Jews by the Ukrainian and Lithuanian auxiliary police battalions followed. Deadly pogroms were committed in over 30 locations across formerly Soviet-occupied parts of Poland, including in Brześć, Tarnopol, Białystok, Łuck, Lwów, Stanisławów, and in Wilno where the Jews were murdered along with the Poles in the Ponary massacre at a ratio of 3-to-1. National minorities routinely participated in pogroms led by OUN-UPA, YB, TDA and BKA. Local participation in the Nazi German "cleansing" operations included the Jedwabne pogrom of 1941. The Einsatzkommandos were ordered to organize them in all eastern territories occupied by Germany.

Ethnic Poles assisted Jews by organized as well as by individual efforts. Food was offered to Polish Jews or left in places Jews would pass on their way to forced labor. Other Poles directed Jewish ghetto escapees to Poles who could help them. Some Poles sheltered Jews for only one or a few nights; others assumed full responsibility for their survival, fully aware that the Germans punished by summary execution those (as well as their families) who helped Jews.

A special role fell to Polish physicians who saved thousands of Jews. Dr. Eugeniusz Łazowski, known as the "Polish Schindler", saved 8,000 Polish Jews in Rozwadów from deportation to death camps by simulating a typhus epidemic. Dr. Tadeusz Pankiewicz gave out free medicines in the Kraków Ghetto, saving an unspecified number of Jews. Professor Rudolf Weigl, inventor of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus, employed and protected Jews in his Weigl Institute in Lwów; his vaccines were smuggled into the Lwów and Warsaw Ghettos, saving countless lives. Dr. Tadeusz Kosibowicz, director of the state hospital in Będzin, was sentenced to death for rescuing Jewish fugitives (but the sentence was commuted to camp imprisonment, and he survived the war).

Those who took full responsibility for Jews' survival, perhaps especially, merit recognition as Righteous among the Nations. 6,066 Poles have been recognized by Israel's Yad Vashem as Polish Righteous among the Nations for saving Jews during the Jewish Holocaust, making Poland the country with the highest number of such Righteous.

Statistics
The number of Poles who rescued Jews from the Nazi German persecution would be hard to determine in black-and-white terms and is still the subject of scholarly debate. According to Gunnar S. Paulsson, the number of rescuers that meet Yad Vashem's criteria is perhaps 100,000 and there may have been two or three times as many who offered minor help; the majority "were passively protective." In an article published in the Journal of Genocide Research, Hans G. Furth estimated that there may have been as many as 1,200,000 Polish rescuers. Władysław Bartoszewski estimated that between 1 and 3 percent of the Polish population was actively involved in rescue efforts; Marcin Urynowicz estimates that a minimum of from 500,000 to over a million Poles actively tried to help Jews. The lower number was proposed by Teresa Prekerowa who claimed that between 160,000 and 360,000 Poles assisted in hiding Jews, amounting to between 1% and 2.5% of the 15 million adult Poles she categorized as "those who could offer help." Her estimation counts only those who were involved in hiding Jews directly. It also assumes that each Jew who hid among the non-Jewish populace stayed throughout the war in only one hiding place and as such had only one set of helpers. However, other historians indicate that a much higher number was involved. Paulsson wrote that, according to his research, an average Jew in hiding stayed in seven different places throughout the war.

An average Jew who survived in occupied Poland depended on many acts of assistance and tolerance, wrote Paulsson. "Nearly every Jew that was rescued, was rescued by the cooperative efforts of dozen or more people," as confirmed also by the Polish-Jewish historian Szymon Datner. Paulsson notes that during the six years of wartime and occupation, the average Jew sheltered by the Poles had three or four sets of false documents and faced recognition as a Jew multiple times. Datner explains also that hiding a Jew lasted often for several years thus increasing the risk involved for each Christian family exponentially. Polish-Jewish writer and Holocaust survivor Hanna Krall has identified 45 Poles who helped to shelter her from the Nazis and Władysław Szpilman, the Jewish Polish musician whose wartime experiences were chronicled in his memoir The Pianist and the film of the same title identified 30 Poles who helped him to survive the Holocaust.

Meanwhile, Father John T. Pawlikowski from Chicago, referring to work by other historians, speculated that claims of hundreds of thousands of rescuers struck him as inflated. Likewise, Martin Gilbert has written that under Nazi regime, rescuers were an exception, albeit one that could be found in towns and villages throughout Poland.

Difficulties

Efforts at rescue were encumbered by several factors. The threat of the death penalty for aiding Jews and the limited ability to provide for the escapees were often responsible for the fact that many Poles were unwilling to provide direct help to a person of Jewish origin. This was exacerbated by the fact that the people who were in hiding did not have official ration cards and hence food for them had to be purchased on the black market at high prices. According to Emmanuel Ringelblum in most cases the money that Poles accepted from Jews they helped to hide, was taken not out of greed, but out of poverty which Poles had to endure during the German occupation. Israel Gutman has written that the majority of Jews who were sheltered by Poles paid for their own up-keep, but thousands of Polish protectors perished along with the people they were hiding.

Several scholars have stated that, unlike in Western Europe, Polish collaboration with the Nazi Germans was insignificant. However, Nazi terror combined with the inadequacy of food rations, as well as German greed, along with the system of corruption as the only "one language the Germans understood well," wrecked traditional values. Poles helping Jews faced unparalleled dangers not only from the German occupiers but also from their own ethnically diverse countrymen including Polish-German Volksdeutsche, and Polish Ukrainians, many of whom were anti-Semitic and morally disoriented by the war. There were people, the so-called szmalcownicy ("shmalts people" from shmalts or szmalec, slang term for money), who blackmailed the hiding Jews and Poles helping them, or who turned the Jews to the Germans for a reward. Outside the cities there were peasants of various ethnic backgrounds looking for Jews hiding in the forests, to demand money from them. There were also Jews turning in other Jews and ethnic Poles in order to alleviate hunger with the awarded prize. The vast majority of these individuals joined the criminal underworld after the German occupation and were responsible for the deaths of tens of thousands of people, both Jews and the Poles who were trying to save them.

According to one reviewer of Paulsson, with regard to the extortionists, "a single hooligan or blackmailer could wreak severe damage on Jews in hiding, but it took the silent passivity of a whole crowd to maintain their cover." He also notes that "hunters" were outnumbered by "helpers" by a ratio of one to 20 or 30.

Michael C. Steinlauf writes that not only the fear of the death penalty was an obstacle limiting Polish aid to Jews, but also antisemitism, which made many individuals uncertain of their neighbors' reaction to their attempts at rescue. Number of authors have noted the negative consequences of the hostility towards Jews by extremists advocating their eventual removal from Poland. Meanwhile, Alina Cala in her study of Jews in Polish folk culture argued also for the persistence of traditional religious antisemitism and anti-Jewish propaganda before and during the war both leading to indifference. Steinlauf however notes that despite these uncertainties, Jews were helped by countless thousands of individual Poles throughout the country. He writes that "not the informing or the indifference, but the existence of such individuals is one of the most remarkable features of Polish-Jewish relations during the Holocaust." Nechama Tec, who herself survived the war aided by a group of Catholic Poles, noted that Polish rescuers worked within an environment that was hostile to Jews and unfavorable to their protection, in which rescuers feared both the disapproval of their neighbors and reprisals that such disapproval might bring. Tec also noted that Jews, for many complex and practical reasons, were not always prepared to accept assistance that was available to them. Some Jews were pleasantly surprised to have been aided by people whom they thought to have expressed antisemitic attitudes before the invasion of Poland.

Former Director of the Department of the Righteous at Yad Vashem, Mordecai Paldiel, wrote that the widespread revulsion among the Polish people at the murders being committed by the Nazis was sometimes accompanied by an alleged feeling of relief at the disappearance of Jews. Israeli historian Joseph Kermish (born 1907) who left Poland in 1950, had claimed at the Yad Vashem conference in 1977, that the Polish researchers overstate the achievements of the Żegota organization (including members of Żegota themselves, along with venerable historians like Prof. Madajczyk), but his assertions are not supported by the listed evidence. Paulsson and Pawlikowski wrote that wartime attitudes among some of the populace were not a major factor impeding the survival of sheltered Jews, or the work of the Żegota organization.

The fact that the Polish Jewish community was destroyed during World War II, coupled with stories about Polish collaborators, has contributed, especially among Israelis and American Jews, to a lingering stereotype that the Polish population has been passive in regard to, or even supportive of, Jewish suffering. However, modern scholarship has not validated the claim that Polish antisemitism was irredeemable or different from contemporary Western antisemitism; it has also found that such claims are among the stereotypes that comprise anti-Polonism. The presenting of selective evidence in support of preconceived notions have led some popular press to draw overly simplistic and often misleading conclusions regarding the role played by Poles at the time of the Holocaust.

Punishment for aiding the Jews

In an attempt to discourage Poles from helping the Jews and to destroy any efforts of the resistance, the Germans applied a ruthless retaliation policy. On 15 October 1941, the death penalty was introduced by Hans Frank, governor of the General Government, to apply to Jews who attempted to leave the ghettos without proper authorization, and all those who "deliberately offer a hiding place to such Jews". The law was made public by posters distributed in all cities and towns, to instill fear. The death penalty was also imposed for helping Jews in Polish territories that became part of Reichskommisariat Ukraine and Reichskommisariat Ost, but without issuing any legal act. Similarly, in the territories incorporated directly into the German Reich, the death penalty for helping Jews was not introduced, but it was imposed locally during the liquidation of the ghettos.

Initially, the death penalty was imposed sporadically and only on Jews. Until the summer of 1942, Poles who helped them were fined or imprisoned. The situation changed during the liquidation of the ghettos, when the caught Jews were immediately killed, and the Poles who helped them were killed, sent to camps, punished with imprisonment or a fine, and sometimes released. There was no rule in punishing, and Poles who helped Jews were not sure whether the punishment would be only imprisonment or execution of them and their entire family, they had to assume the worst.

For example, the Ulma family (father, mother and six children) of the village of Markowa near Łańcut – where many families concealed their Jewish neighbors – were executed jointly by the Nazis with the eight Jews they hid. The entire Wołyniec family in Romaszkańce was massacred for sheltering three Jewish refugees from a ghetto. In Maciuńce, for hiding Jews, the Germans shot eight members of Józef Borowski's family along with him and four guests who happened to be there. Nazi death squads carried out mass executions of the entire villages that were discovered to be aiding Jews on a communal level.

In November 1942, the Ukrainian Auxiliary Police executed 20 villagers from Berecz in Wołyń Voivodeship for giving aid to Jewish escapees from the ghetto in Povorsk. According to postwar investigations,
568 Poles and Ukrainians from the town Przemyśl and its environs were murdered for attempting to help Jews. For example, Michał Gierula from the village of Łodzinka Górna was hanged for offering shelter to three Jews and three partisans. In Przemyśl Michał Kruk and several other people in were executed on September 6, 1943 for the assistance they had rendered to the Jews. For helping Jews, Father Adam Sztark and the CSIC Marta Wołowska and Ewa Noiszewska were murdered on 19 December 1942 in a mass execution near Slonim. In Huta Stara near Buczacz, Polish Christians and the Jewish countrymen they protected were herded into a church by the Nazis and burned alive on 4 March 1944.

Entire communities that helped to shelter Jews were annihilated, such as the now-extinct village of Huta Werchobuska near Złoczów, Zahorze near Łachwa, Huta Pieniacka near Brody.

Jews in Polish villages
A number of Polish villages in their entirety provided shelter from Nazi apprehension, offering protection for their Jewish neighbors as well as the aid for refugees from other villages and escapees from the ghettos. Postwar research has confirmed that communal protection occurred in Głuchów near Łańcut with everyone engaged, as well as in the villages of Główne, Ozorków, Borkowo near Sierpc, Dąbrowica near Ulanów, in Głupianka near Otwock, and Teresin near Chełm. In Cisie near Warsaw, 25 Poles were caught hiding Jews; all were killed and the village was burned to the ground as punishment.

The forms of protection varied from village to village. In Gołąbki, the farm of Jerzy and Irena Krępeć provided a hiding place for as many as 30 Jews; years after the war, the couple's son recalled in an interview with the Montreal Gazette that their actions were "an open secret in the village [that] everyone knew they had to keep quiet" and that the other villagers helped, "if only to provide a meal." Another farm couple, Alfreda and Bolesław Pietraszek, provided shelter for Jewish families consisting of 18 people in Ceranów near Sokołów Podlaski, and their neighbors brought food to those being rescued.

Two decades after the end of the war, a Jewish partisan named Gustaw Alef-Bolkowiak identified the following villages in the Parczew-Ostrów Lubelski area where "almost the entire population" assisted Jews: Rudka, Jedlanka, Makoszka, Tyśmienica, and Bójki. Historians have documented that a dozen villagers of Mętów near Głusk outside Lublin sheltered Polish Jews. In some well-confirmed cases, Polish Jews who were hidden, were circulated between homes in the village. Farmers in Zdziebórz near Wyszków sheltered two Jewish men by taking turns. Both of them later joined the Polish underground Home Army. The entire village of Mulawicze near Bielsk Podlaski took responsibility for the survival of an orphaned nine-year-old Jewish boy. Different families took turns hiding a Jewish girl at various homes in Wola Przybysławska near Lublin, and around Jabłoń near Parczew many Polish Jews successfully sought refuge.

Impoverished Polish Jews, unable to offer any money in return, were nonetheless provided with food, clothing, shelter and money by some small communities; historians have confirmed this took place in the villages of Czajków near Staszów as well as several villages near Łowicz, in Korzeniówka near Grójec, near Żyrardów, in Łaskarzew, and across Kielce Voivodship.

In tiny villages where there was no permanent Nazi military presence, such as Dąbrowa Rzeczycka, Kępa Rzeczycka and Wola Rzeczycka near Stalowa Wola, some Jews were able to openly participate in the lives of their communities. Olga Lilien, recalling her wartime experience in the 2000 book To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue, was sheltered by a Polish family in a village near Tarnobrzeg, where she survived the war despite the posting of a 200 deutsche mark reward by the Nazi occupiers for information on Jews in hiding. Chava Grinberg-Brown from Gmina Wiskitki recalled in a postwar interview that some farmers used the threat of violence against a fellow villager who intimated the desire to betray her safety. Polish-born Israeli writer and Holocaust survivor Natan Gross, in his 2001 book Who Are You, Mr. Grymek?, told of a village near Warsaw where a local Nazi collaborator was forced to flee when it became known he reported the location of a hidden Jew.

Nonetheless, there were cases where Poles who saved Jews were met with a different response after the war. Antonina Wyrzykowska from Janczewko village near Jedwabne managed to successfully shelter seven Jews for twenty-six months from November 1942 until liberation. Sometime earlier, during the Jedwabne pogrom close by, a minimum of 300 Polish Jews were burned alive in a barn set on fire by a group of Polish men under the German command. Wyrzykowska was honored as Righteous Among the Nations for her heroism, but left her hometown after liberation for fear of retribution.

Jews in Polish cities

In Poland's cities and larger towns, the Nazi occupiers created ghettos that were designed to imprison the local Jewish populations. The food rations allocated by the Germans to the ghettos condemned their inhabitants to starvation. Smuggling of food into the ghettos and smuggling of goods out of the ghettos, organized by Jews and Poles, was the only means of subsistence of the Jewish population in the ghettos. The price difference between the Aryan and Jewish sides was large, reaching as much as 100%, but the penalty for aiding Jews was death. Hundreds of Polish and Jewish smugglers would come in and out the ghettos, usually at night or at dawn, through openings in the walls, tunnels and sewers or through the guardposts by paying bribes.

The Polish Underground urged the Poles to support smuggling. The punishment for smuggling was death, carried out on the spot. Among the Jewish smuggler victims were scores of Jewish children aged five or six, whom the German shot at the ghetto exits and near the walls. While communal rescue was impossible under these circumstances, many Polish Christians concealed their Jewish neighbors. For example, Zofia Baniecka and her mother rescued over 50 Jews in their home between 1941 and 1944. Paulsson, in his research on the Jews of Warsaw, documented that Warsaw's Polish residents managed to support and conceal the same percentage of Jews as did residents in other European cities under Nazi occupation.

Ten percent of Warsaw's Polish population was actively engaged in sheltering their Jewish neighbors. It is estimated that the number of Jews living in hiding on the Aryan side of the capital city in 1944 was at least 15,000 to 30,000 and relied on the network of 50,000–60,000 Poles who provided shelter, and about half as many assisting in other ways.

Jews outside Poland
Poles living in Lithuania supported Chiune Sugihara producing false Japanese visas. The refugees arriving to Japan were helped by Polish ambassador Tadeusz Romer.
Henryk Sławik issued false Polish passports to about 5000 Jews in Hungary. He was killed by Germans in 1944.

Ładoś Group
The Ładoś Group also called the Bernese Group (Aleksander Ładoś, Konstanty Rokicki, Stefan Ryniewicz, Juliusz Kühl, Abraham Silberschein, Chaim Eiss) was a group of Polish diplomats and Jewish activists who elaborated in Switzerland a system of illegal production of Latin American passports aimed at saving European Jews from Holocaust. Ca 10.000 Jews received such passports, of which over 3000 have been saved. The group efforts are documented in the Eiss Archive.

Organizations dedicated to saving Jews

Several organizations dedicated to saving Jews were created and run by Christian Poles with the help of the Polish Jewish underground. Among those, Żegota, the Council to Aid Jews, was the most prominent. It was unique not only in Poland, but in all of Nazi-occupied Europe, as there was no other organization dedicated solely to that goal. Żegota concentrated its efforts on saving Jewish children toward whom the Germans were especially cruel. Tadeusz Piotrowski (1998) gives several wide-range estimates of a number of survivors including those who might have received assistance from Żegota in some form including financial, legal, medical, child care, and other help in times of trouble. The subject is shrouded in controversy according to Szymon Datner, but in Lukas' estimate about half of those who survived within the changing borders of Poland were helped by Żegota. The number of Jews receiving assistance who did not survive the Holocaust is not known.

Perhaps the most famous member of Żegota was Irena Sendler, who managed to successfully smuggle 2,500 Jewish children out of the Warsaw Ghetto. Żegota was granted over 5 million dollars or nearly 29 million zł by the government-in-exile (see below), for the relief payments to Jewish families in Poland. Besides Żegota, there were smaller organizations such as KZ-LNPŻ, ZSP, SOS and others (along the Polish Red Cross), whose action agendas included help to the Jews. Some were associated with Żegota.

Jews and the Church

The Roman Catholic Church in Poland provided many persecuted Jews with food and shelter during the war, even though monasteries gave no immunity to Polish priests and monks against the death penalty. Nearly every Catholic institution in Poland looked after a few Jews, usually children with forged Christian birth certificates and an assumed or vague identity. In particular, convents of Catholic nuns in Poland (see Sister Bertranda), played a major role in the effort to rescue and shelter Polish Jews, with the Franciscan Sisters credited with the largest number of Jewish children saved. Two thirds of all nunneries in Poland took part in the rescue, in all likelihood with the support and encouragement of the church hierarchy. These efforts were supported by local Polish bishops and the Vatican itself. The convent leaders never disclosed the exact number of children saved in their institutions, and for security reasons the rescued children were never registered. Jewish institutions have no statistics that could clarify the matter. Systematic recording of testimonies did not begin until the early 1970s. In the villages of Ożarów, Ignaców, Szymanów, and Grodzisko near Leżajsk, the Jewish children were cared for by Catholic convents and by the surrounding communities. In these villages, Christian parents did not remove their children from schools where Jewish children were in attendance.

Irena Sendler head of children's section Żegota (the Council to Aid Jews) organisation cooperated very closely in saving Jewish children from the Warsaw Ghetto with social worker and Catholic nun, mother provincial of Franciscan Sisters of the Family of Mary - Matylda Getter. The children were placed with Polish families, the Warsaw orphanage of the Sisters of the Family of Mary, or Roman Catholic convents such as the Little Sister Servants of the Blessed Virgin Mary Conceived Immaculate at Turkowice and Chotomów. Sister Matylda Getter rescued between 250 and 550 Jewish children in different education and care facilities for children in Anin, Białołęka, Chotomów, Międzylesie, Płudy, Sejny, Vilnius and others. Getter's convent was located at the entrance to the Warsaw Ghetto. When the Nazis commenced the clearing of the ghetto in 1941, Getter took in many orphans and dispersed them among Family of Mary homes. As the Nazis began sending orphans to the gas chambers, Getter issued fake baptismal certificates, providing the children with false identities. The sisters lived in daily fear of the Germans. Michael Phayer credits Getter and the Family of Mary with rescuing more than 750 Jews.

Historians have shown that in numerous villages, Jewish families survived the Holocaust by living under assumed identities as Christians with full knowledge of the local inhabitants who did not betray their identities. This has been confirmed in the settlements of Bielsko (Upper Silesia), in Dziurków near Radom, in  near Częstochowa, in Korzeniówka near Grójec, in Łaskarzew, Sobolew, and Wilga triangle, and in several villages near Łowicz.

Some officials in the senior Polish priesthood maintained the same theological attitude of hostility toward the Jews which was known from before the invasion of Poland. After the war ended, some convents were unwilling to return Jewish children to postwar institutions that asked for them, and at times refused to disclose the adoptive parents' identities, forcing government agencies and courts to intervene.

Jews and the Polish government

Lack of international effort to aid Jews resulted in political uproar on the part of the Polish government in exile residing in Great Britain. The government often publicly expressed outrage at German mass murders of Jews. In 1942, the Directorate of Civil Resistance, part of the Polish Underground State, issued the following declaration based on reports by the Polish underground:

The Polish government was the first to inform the Western Allies about the Holocaust, although early reports were often met with disbelief, even by Jewish leaders themselves, and then, for much longer, by Western powers.

Witold Pilecki was a member of the Polish Armia Krajowa (AK) resistance, and the only person who volunteered to be imprisoned in Auschwitz. As an agent of the underground intelligence, he began sending numerous reports about the camp and genocide to the Polish resistance headquarters in Warsaw through the resistance network he organized in Auschwitz. In March 1941, Pilecki's reports were being forwarded via the Polish resistance to the British government in London, but the British government refused AK reports on atrocities as being gross exaggerations and propaganda of the Polish government.

Similarly, in 1942, Jan Karski, who had been serving as a courier between the Polish underground and the Polish government in exile, was smuggled into the Warsaw Ghetto and reported to the Polish, British and American governments on the terrible situation of the Jews in Poland, in particular the destruction of the ghetto. He met with Polish politicians in exile, including the prime minister, as well as members of political parties such as the Polish Socialist Party, National Party, Labor Party, People's Party, Jewish Bund, and Poalei Zion. He also spoke to Anthony Eden, the British foreign secretary, and included a detailed statement on what he had seen in Warsaw and Bełżec.

In 1943 in London, Karski met the well-known journalist Arthur Koestler. He then traveled to the United States and reported to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In July 1943, Jan Karski again personally reported to Roosevelt about the plight of Polish Jews, but the president "interrupted and asked the Polish emissary about the situation of... horses" in Poland. He also met with many other government and civic leaders in the United States, including Felix Frankfurter, Cordell Hull, William J. Donovan, and Stephen Wise. Karski also presented his report to the news media, bishops of various denominations (including Cardinal Samuel Stritch), members of the Hollywood film industry, and artists, but without success. Many of those he spoke to did not believe him and again supposed that his testimony was much exaggerated or was propaganda from the Polish government in exile.

The supreme political body of the underground government within Poland was the Delegatura. There were no Jewish representatives in it. Delegatura financed and sponsored Żegota, the organization for help to the Polish Jews – run jointly by Jews and non-Jews. Since 1942 Żegota was granted by Delegatura nearly 29 million zlotys (over $5 million; or, 13.56 times as much, in today's funds) for the relief payments to thousands of extended Jewish families in Poland. The Home Army also provided assistance including arms, explosives and other supplies to Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB), particularly from 1942 onwards. The interim government transmitted messages to the West from the Jewish underground, and gave support to their requests for retaliation on German targets if the atrocities are not stopped – a request that was dismissed by the Allied governments. The Polish government also tried, without much success, to increase the chances of Polish refugees finding a safe haven in neutral countries and to prevent deportations of escaping Jews back to Nazi-occupied Poland.

Polish Delegate of the Government in Exile residing in Hungary, diplomat Henryk Sławik known as the Polish Wallenberg, helped rescue over 30,000 refugees including 5,000 Polish Jews in Budapest, by giving them false Polish passports as Christians. He founded an orphanage for Jewish children officially named School for Children of Polish Officers in Vác.

Polish Jews were represented, as the only minority, by two members on the National Council, a 20-30 member body that served as a quasi-parliament to the government in exile: Ignacy Schwarzbart and Szmul Zygielbojm. Also, in 1943 a Jewish affairs section of the Underground State was set up by the Government Delegation for Poland; it was headed by Witold Bieńkowski and Władysław Bartoszewski. Its purpose was to organize efforts concerning the Polish Jewish population, to coordinate with Żegota, and to prepare documentation about the fate of the Jews for the government in London. Regrettably, the great number of Polish Jews had been killed already even before the Government-in-exile fully realized the totality of the Final Solution. According to David Engel and Dariusz Stola, the government-in-exile concerned itself with the fate of Polish people in general, the re-recreation of the independent Polish state, and with establishing itself as an equal partner amongst the Allied forces. On top of its relative weakness, the government in exile was subject to the scrutiny of the West, in particular, American and British Jews reluctant to criticize their own governments for inaction in regard to saving their fellow Jews.

The Polish government and its underground representatives at home issued declarations that people acting against the Jews (blackmailers and others) would be punished by death. General Władysław Sikorski, the Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces, signed a decree calling upon the Polish population to extend aid to the persecuted Jews; including the following stern warning.

According to Michael C. Steinlauf, before the Warsaw Ghetto uprising in 1943, Sikorski's appeals to Poles to help Jews accompanied his communiques only on rare occasions. Steinlauf points out that in one speech made in London, he was promising equal rights for Jews after the war, but the promise was omitted from the printed version of the speech for no reason. According to David Engel, the loyalty of Polish Jews to Poland and Polish interests was held in doubt by some members of the exiled government, leading to political tensions. For example, the Jewish Agency refused to give support to Polish demand for the return of Lwów and Wilno to Poland. Overall, as Stola notes, Polish government was just as unprepared to deal with the Holocaust as were the other Allied governments, and that the government's hesitancy in appeals to the general population to aid the Jews diminished only after reports of the Holocaust became more wide spread.

Szmul Zygielbojm, a Jewish member of the National Council of the Polish government in exile, committed suicide in May 1943, in London, in protest against the indifference of the Allied governments toward the destruction of the Jewish people, and the failure of the Polish government to rouse public opinion commensurate with the scale of the tragedy befalling Polish Jews.

Poland, with its unique underground state, was the only country in occupied Europe to have an extensive, underground justice system. These clandestine courts operated with attention to due process (although limited by circumstances), so it could take months to get a death sentence passed. However, Prekerowa notes that the death sentences by non-military courts only began to be issued in September 1943, which meant that blackmailers were able to operate for some time already since the first Nazi anti-Jewish measures of 1940. Overall, it took the Polish underground until late 1942 to legislate and organize non-military courts which were authorized to pass death sentences for civilian crimes, such as non-treasonous collaboration, extortion and blackmail. According to Joseph Kermish from Israel, among the thousands of collaborators sentenced to death by the underground courts and executed by the Polish resistance fighters who risked death carrying out these verdicts, few were explicitly blackmailers or informers who had persecuted Jews. This, according to Kermish, led to increasing boldness of some of the blackmailers in their criminal activities. Marek Jan Chodakiewicz writes that a number of Polish Jews were executed for denouncing other Jews. He notes that since Nazi informers often denounced members of the underground as well as Jews in hiding, the charge of collaboration was a general one and sentences passed were for cumulative crimes.

The Home Army units under the command of officers from left-wing Sanacja, the Polish Socialist Party as well as the centrist Democratic Party welcomed Jewish fighters to serve with Poles without problems stemming from their ethnic identity. However, some rightist units of the Armia Krajowa excluded Jews. Similarly, some members of the Delegate's Bureau saw Jews and ethnic Poles as separate entities. Historian Israel Gutman has noted that AK leader Stefan Rowecki advocated the abandonment of the long-range considerations of the underground and the launch of an all-out uprising should the Germans undertake a campaign of extermination against ethnic Poles, but that no such plan existed while the extermination of Jewish Polish citizens was under way. On the other hand, the pre-war Polish government armed and trained Jewish paramilitary groups such as Lehi and – while in exile – accepted thousands of Polish Jewish fighters into Anders Army including leaders such as Menachem Begin. The policy of support continued throughout the war with the Jewish Combat Organization and the Jewish Military Union forming an integral part of the Polish resistance.

See also
 List of individuals and groups assisting Jews during the Holocaust
 Rescue of Jews by Catholics during the Holocaust
 Irena's Vow, stage play recounting the story of Irena Gut
 Kastner's Train of 1,684 Jews freed from Nazi-controlled Hungary
 Schindler's List biographical drama film about Oskar Schindler
Ładoś Group that saved over 3000 Jews

Notes

References

Bibliography

</ref>

The Holocaust in Poland
Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust
Rescue of Jews by Poles in occupied Poland in 1939-1945


In computer programming, a magic string is an input that a programmer believes will never come externally and which activates otherwise hidden functionality. A user of this program would likely provide input that gives an expected response in most situations. However, if the user does in fact innocently provide the pre-defined input, invoking the internal functionality, the program response is often quite unexpected to the user (thus appearing "magical").

Background
Typically, the implementation of magic strings is due to time constraints. A developer must find a fast solution instead of delving more deeply into a problem and finding a better solution.

For example, when testing a program that takes a user's personal details and verifies their credit card number, a developer may decide to add a magic string shortcut whereby entering the unlikely input of "***" as a credit card number would cause the program to automatically proceed as if the card were valid, without spending time verifying it. If the developer forgets to remove the magic string, and a user of the final program happens to enter "***" as a placeholder credit card number while filling in the form, the user would inadvertently trigger the hidden functionality.

Resolution

Situations/issues of cause

Often there are significant time constraints out of the developer's control right from the beginning of their involvement in a project. Common issues that might lead to this anti-pattern as a result:

 Null != null or any variation where a data type doesn't compare bitwise to a supposedly identical type. This is an issue that can even occur within the same development environment (same programming language and compiler). This problem has a long history for numerical and boolean types and most compilers handle this well (with applicable warnings and errors, default resolution, etc...). Nullable types such as strings have the difficulty of historically different definitions for NULL. The errors/warnings produced are often general or a 'best fit' default error whose message does not actually describe what's going on. If the developer can't get enough clues to track the issue down through debugging, taking a short cut, and coding in a 'default' string, may be the only way to keep the project on schedule. One solution to this may be the application of the Null Object pattern.
 Programmed into a corner. Sometimes a design seems straightforward and even simple but turns out to have a logical flaw, dependent upon the possible user inputs, due to an often unforeseen circumstance towards the end of planned development. Thus a developer might feel the need to implement a user input with special security/operational allowances to deal with such circumstances. This can be particularly ironic since it will sometimes become obvious that a more robust design from the beginning would likely have left room to handle the flaw. However this would perhaps have taken too much time to implement and it might  have conflicted with the fundamental engineering concept of KISS, keeping a design and implementation simple and meeting only the initial necessary requirements.
 Allowing external access to a global flag. Over-confidence that a global flag can never be set accidentally or maliciously (often a quite reasonable assumption) justifies such implementation for testing and debug purposes, especially for small applications with simple interfaces. If the distribution of the program is considerable however, it is usually just a matter of time before somebody sets the flag. An obvious solution is to never use a global variable in such a manner. A developer might also make the flag circumstantially accessible. So the magic string by itself would be dealt with by the program as any other input. The user has to then reproduce the setting as well as produce some collection of other events, that the user interface discreetly allows, for the flag to accept the setting; a far more unlikely scenario, though still possible.

Strict formatting

Restricting the format of the input is a possible maintenance (bug fixing) solution.  Essentially, this means validating input information to check that it is in the correct format, in order to reduce the possibility of the magic string being discovered by the user.  Examples include validating a telephone number to ensure that it contains only digits (and possibly spaces and punctuation to a limited extent) or checking that a person's name has a forename and a surname (and is appropriately capitalised).  An exception is made for the magic string in the validation code so that it will not be rejected by validation. It is expected that, since a user would likely quickly notice the strict enforcement of formatting, it would likely not occur to the user to try inputting a string not conforming to the format. Therefore, it is very unlikely for the user to try the magic string.

As with any input validation process, it is important to ensure that the format is not restrictive in a way that unintentionally restricts the use of the application by some users. An example of this is restricting telephone number or postal code input based on one country's system (e.g. requiring every user to give a five-digit ZIP code), causing problems for legitimate users who are based in other countries.

Purposeful implementation
As is often the case with anti-patterns, there exists specific scenarios where magic strings are a correct solution for an implementation. Examples include cheat codes and Easter eggs. Furthermore, there are cases when users invent magic strings, and systems that have not coded to accept them can produce unexpected results such as missing license plates.

Incidents

The following is a list of some known incidents where use of a magic string has caused problems.

 In several different cases, motorists with personalized strings on their vehicle registration plates have received incorrect traffic tickets. In affected ticketing systems, when police officers would fill out a traffic ticket for a car with no registration plate, they would write "NOPLATE", "NOTAG", "MISSING", or similar. This caused issues when motorists were granted actual registration plates with these values, and thus began receiving numerous traffic tickets intended for these plateless vehicles.
 In 1999, hackers revealed a security flaw in Hotmail that permitted anybody to log in to any Hotmail account using the password 'eh'. At the time it was called "the most widespread security incident in the history of the Web".
 People with the last name Null have reported a variety of problems using online systems, such as being unable to book plane tickets, use government tax websites, or pay utility bills. The issue stems from these systems confusing their name for a null pointer. Depending on the system, this may cause the system to not show their name, to ask the user to enter a different name (sometimes with a message claiming that the name field had been left blank), or to show an error message.

See also
 Magic number (programming)
 Time formatting and storage bugs, for problems that can be caused by magics
 Sentinel value (aka flag value, trip value, rogue value, signal value, dummy data)
 Canary value, special value to detect buffer overflows
 Video games cheat codes which have the same origin
 XYZZY (command)

References

Anti-patterns


Rafael Carmona (October 2, 1972 – August 2, 2021) was a former Major League Baseball pitcher for the Seattle Mariners. He played for them from - with his best season being . He appeared in 53 games, mostly relief, and went 8–3 with a 4.28 ERA and 62 strikeouts.
On November 30, 1997, Carmona was in a car accident in Puerto Rico. He broke two bones in his right arm. The injury largely ended his career.

Carmona died on August 2, 2021, aged 48.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico

References

External links
Baseball-Reference

1972 births
2021 deaths
Seattle Mariners players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Major League Baseball players from Puerto Rico
Bellingham Mariners players
Riverside Pilots players
Tacoma Rainiers players
Port City Roosters players
Lancaster JetHawks players
Orlando Rays players
Sportspeople from Río Piedras, Puerto Rico
Baseball players from San Juan, Puerto Rico


This is a comprehensive list of songs by English folk singer Jack Savoretti.

Original songs
All songs written by Jack Savoretti.

Covers

Notes
  Live Performance

Unreleased songs

Savoretti, Jack


The Strengthen the Arm of Liberty Monument is a replica of the Statue of Liberty (Liberty Enlightening the World) in Pine Bluff Memorial Gardens, on the south side of 10th Avenue between Georgia and State Street in Pine Bluff, Arkansas.  It was placed by the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) as part of its 1950s era campaign, "Strengthen the Arm of Liberty."  The statue is  in height, made of copper, and is mounted on concrete base  tall.  The statue faces north, toward the Pine Bluff Civic Center, and there is a bronze commemorative plaque on the north face of the base.  It is one of two BSA-placed statues in the state; the other is in Fayetteville.

The statue was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, Arkansas
Replicas of the Statue of Liberty
Scouting memorials
Scouting museums

References

External links

Replica Statue of Liberty Search

1950 sculptures
Monuments and memorials on the National Register of Historic Places in Arkansas
National Register of Historic Places in Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Outdoor sculptures in Arkansas
Sculptures of women in Arkansas
Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Statues in Arkansas
1950 establishments in Arkansas


Michael Denis Lett (December 8, 1938 – January 28, 2013) was a politician from the island of Grenada.  He represented the constituency of Saint David in the lower house of the parliament from 2003 until his death, and since 2008 served as that nation's Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.  He was also a Land Surveyor. He raised 6 of his children after the death of his wife, Dawne Lett (née Sylvester). He died in 2013 of prostate cancer at the age of 74.

References

2013 deaths
Government ministers of Grenada
Members of the House of Representatives of Grenada
1938 births

External links

 Campaign bio (2003)


Elegy for Sam Emerson is a novel by the American writer Hilary Masters set in pre-9/11 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

The novel tells the story of Sam Emerson, proprietor of an upscale Mount Washington restaurant with stunning views of the three rivers below. Emerson, at midlife and nostalgic, ruminates on his strange childhood as he faces the prospect of life without his much younger lover, and at the same time, deals with disposing of his mother's ashes and traveling to France to look for his father's unmarked grave.

Sources
Contemporary Authors Online. The Gale Group, 2004. PEN (Permanent Entry Number): 0000065011.

External links
 Review of Elegy for Sam Emerson in The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette
 Review of Elegy for Sam Emerson in The New York Times Book Review

2006 American novels

Novels set in Pittsburgh
Books published by university presses