Education economics or the economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education, the financing and provision of education, and the comparative efficiency of various educational programs and policies. From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to education.

Education as an investment

Economics distinguishes in addition to physical capital another form of capital that is no less critical as a means of production – human capital. With investments in human capital, such as education, three major economic effects can be expected:
 increased expenses as the accumulation of human capital requires investments just as physical capital does,
 increased productivity as people gain characteristics that enable them to produce more output and hence
 return on investment in the form of higher incomes.

Investment costs
Investments in human capital entail an investment cost, just as any investment does. Typically in European countries, most education expenditure takes the form of government consumption, although some costs are also borne by individuals. These investments can be rather costly. EU governments spent between 3% and 8% of GDP on education in 2005, the average being 5%. However, measuring the spending this way alone greatly underestimates the costs because a more subtle form of costs is completely overlooked: the opportunity cost of forgone wages as students cannot work while they study. It has been estimated that the total costs, including opportunity costs, of education are as much as double the direct costs.
Including opportunity costs investments in education can be estimated to have been around 10% of GDP in the EU countries in 2005. In comparison, investments in physical capital were 20% of GDP. Thus, the two are of similar magnitude.

K-12 public education in the United States is primarily funded by state and local governments, while the federal government provides a smaller percentage of funding through grant programs for at-risk youth. In 2018, the US spent approximately 5% of its GDP on K-12 public education, placing the US as the 7th highest spender per student compared to other OECD nations. Schools in the US spend approximately $17,000 per student, but public education spending varies significantly at the state level. At the college level, increasing tuition and out-of-pocket costs have increased the cost of attending college. The opportunity cost of college also increased due to the higher wages of high school graduates. Over the past decade, the cost of in-state tuition for a 4-year education increased by one-third, with tuition inflation rates decreasing in the recent decade. A 2014 study by economists Jaison Abel and Richard Deitz found that the opportunity cost of attending college amounts to $120,000 due to forgone wages, with the total cost of college amounting to an estimated $150,000 when also factoring in out-of-pocket expenses.

Returns on investment
Human capital in the form of education shares many characteristics with physical capital. Both require an investment to create and, once created, both have economic value. Physical capital earns a return because people are willing to pay to use a piece of physical capital in work as it allows them to produce more output. To measure the productive value of physical capital, we can simply measure how much of a return it commands in the market. In the case of human capital calculating returns is more complicated – after all, we cannot separate education from the person to see how much it rents for.
To get around this problem, the returns to human capital are generally inferred from differences in wages among people with different levels of education. Hall and Jones have calculated from international data that on average the returns on education are 13.4% per year for first four years of schooling (grades 1–4), 10.1% per year for the next four years (grades 5–8) and 6.8% for each year beyond eight years. Thus someone with 12 years of schooling can be expected to earn, on average, 1.1344 × 1.1014 × 1.0684 = 3.161 times as much as someone with no schooling at all.

Higher levels of educational attainment can increase lifetime earnings, impacting the return on investment (ROI) of education. In the US at the college and university level, each level of degree attainment significantly increases lifetime earnings as more education is achieved. Lifetime ROI is significantly higher at lower levels of educational attainment than at higher levels (1,200.8% for an Associate's degree vs. 287.7% for a Bachelor's degree). While higher levels of degree attainment can increase lifetime earnings, the ROI decreases at the doctoral level compared to a master's degree. In higher education, ROI also varies significantly depending on the degree concentration. Degree concentration matters when examining the ROI of Bachelor's degrees, with choice of major accounting for half of the variation in ROI between majors. College degrees with the highest ROI are in engineering, medicine, business, and other sciences. While nearly 40% of degree programs do not deliver a financial return, a bachelor's degree can also have social benefits that can increase ROI, which is often not accounted for in typical ROI calculations.

Effects on productivity
Economy-wide, the effect of human capital on incomes has been estimated to be rather significant: 65% of wages paid in developed countries is payments to human capital and only 35% to raw labor. The higher productivity of well-educated workers is one of the factors that explain higher GDPs and, therefore, higher incomes in developed countries. A strong correlation between GDP and education is clearly visible among the countries of the world, as is shown by the upper left figure.

Of course, correlation does not imply causation:  It's possible that richer countries choose to spend more on education.  However, Hanushek found that scores on internationally standardized tests of student achievement do better in explaining economic growth than years of schooling, as discussed further below.

Multiple studies have found that investing in the education of poor children on average substantially reduces their risk of poverty as adults and increases their life expectancy. Children in the 1962 Perry Preschool program and matched controls have been followed for decades since. The Perry Preschool participants had substantially fewer teenage pregnancies, fewer high school dropouts, less crime and higher incomes on average as adults.  And the results have been intergenerational:  The children of the Perry Preschool children have similarly had fewer school suspensions, higher levels of education and employment, and lower levels of participation in crime, compared with the children of those in the control group.

To distinguish the part of GDP explained with education from other causes, Weil has calculated how much one would expect each country's GDP to be higher based on the data on average schooling. This was based on the above-mentioned calculations of Hall and Jones on the returns on education. GDPs predicted by Weil's calculations can be plotted against actual GDPs, as is done in the figure on the left, demonstrating that the variation in education explains some, but not all, of the variation in GDP.

Finally, the matter of externalities should be considered. Usually when speaking of externalities one thinks of the negative effects of economic activities that are not included in market prices, such as pollution. These are negative externalities. However, there are also positive externalities – that is, positive effects of which someone can benefit without having to pay for it.

Education bears with it major positive externalities: giving one person more education raises not only his or her output but also the output of those around him or her. Educated workers can bring new technologies, methods and information to the consideration of others. They can teach things to others and act as an example. The positive externalities of education include the effects of personal networks and the roles educated workers play in them.

Positive externalities from human capital are one explanation for why governments are involved in education. If people were left on their own, they would not take into account the full social benefit of education – in other words, the rise in the output and wages of others – so the amount they would choose to obtain would be lower than the social optimum.

Demand for education

Liberal approaches
The dominant model of the demand for education is based on human capital theory. The central idea is that undertaking education is investment in the acquisition of skills and knowledge which will increase earnings, or provide long-term benefits such as an appreciation of literature (sometimes referred to as cultural capital). An increase in human capital can follow technological progress as knowledgeable employees are in demand due to the need for their skills, whether it be in understanding the production process or in operating machines. Studies from 1958 attempted to calculate the returns from additional schooling (the percent increase in income acquired through an additional year of schooling). Later results attempted to allow for different returns across persons or by level of education.

Statistics have shown that countries with high enrollment/graduation rates have grown faster than countries without.  The United States has been the world leader in educational advances, beginning with the high school movement (1910–1950). There also seems to be a correlation between gender differences in education with the level of growth; more development is observed in countries that have an equal distribution of the percentage of women versus men who graduated from high school. When looking at correlations in the data, education seems to generate economic growth; however, it could be that we have this causality relationship backwards. For example, if education is seen as a luxury good, it may be that richer households are seeking out educational attainment as a symbol of status, rather than the relationship of education leading to wealth.

Educational advance is not the only variable for economic growth, though, as it only explains about 14% of the average annual increase in labor productivity over the period 1915-2005.  From lack of a more significant correlation between formal educational achievement and productivity growth, some economists see reason to believe that in today's world many skills and capabilities come by way of learning outside of traditional education, or outside of schooling altogether.

An alternative model of the demand for education, commonly referred to as screening, is based on the economic theory of signalling. The central idea is that the successful completion of education is a signal of ability.

Marxist critique
Although Marx and Engels did not write widely about the social functions of education, their concepts and methods are theorized and criticized by the influence of Marx as education being used in reproduction of capitalist societies. Marx and Engels approached scholarship as "revolutionary scholarship" where education should serve as a propaganda for the struggle of the working class. The classical Marxian paradigm sees education as serving the interest of capital and is seeking alternative modes of education that would prepare students and citizens for more progressive socialist mode of social organizations. Marx and Engels understood education and free time as essential to developing free individuals and creating many-sided human beings, thus for them education should become a more essential part of the life of people unlike capitalist society which is organized mainly around work and the production of commodities.

Financing and provision
In most countries school education is predominantly financed and provided by governments. Public funding and provision also plays a major role in higher education. Although there is wide agreement on the principle that education, at least at school level, should be financed mainly by governments, there is considerable debate over the desirable extent of public provision of education. Supporters of public education argue that universal public provision promotes equality of opportunity and social cohesion. Opponents of public provision advocate alternatives such as vouchers.

Inequalities in education financing
Since the 1960s, government expenditure on education for low and middle-income countries generally increased while spending on education for high-income countries remained relatively constant. Based on educational funding in OECD countries, compensation for teachers drives education spending at all education levels. At the college and university level, spending on instruction decreases but still consumes the majority of education expenditures. Since a majority of public education is funded through local taxes in the US, the wealth of a community affects school district funding. Wealthier communities are able to afford to pay more in income and property taxes, while poorer communities cannot, causing inequalities in public education. One notable inequality that arises from differences in funding is the ability of wealthier schools to afford more qualified educators who are more experienced and can improve student test results. Since many European countries finance education primarily through federal taxes, there is less inequality among schools compared to the US as education spending is more uniform. Equal distribution of education resources has the ability to reduce variation in income by creating a more uniform educational system, which can benefit human capital in the long term.

Pre-primary education financing
Compared to other areas of basic education, globally comparable data on pre-primary education financing remain scarce. While much of existing non-formal and private programmes may not be fully accounted for, it can be deduced from the level of provision that pre-primary financing remains inadequate, especially when considered against expected benefits. Globally, pre-primary education accounts for the lowest proportion of the total public expenditure on education, in spite of the much-documented positive impact of quality early childhood care and education on later learning and other social outcomes.

Education production function

An education production function is an application of the economic concept of a production function to the field of education. It relates various inputs affecting a student's learning (schools, families, peers, neighborhoods, etc.) to measured outputs including subsequent labor market success, college attendance, graduation rates, and, most frequently, standardized test scores. The original study that eventually prompted interest in the idea of education production functions was by a sociologist, James S. Coleman.  The Coleman Report, published in 1966, concluded that the marginal effect of various school inputs on student achievement was small compared to the impact of families and friends. Later work, by Eric A. Hanushek, Richard Murnane, and other economists introduced the structure of "production" to the consideration of student learning outcomes.  Hanushek et al. (2008, 2015) reported a very high correlation between "adjusted growth rate" and "adjusted test scores".

A large number of successive studies, increasingly involving economists, produced inconsistent results about the impact of school resources on student performance, leading to considerable controversy in policy discussions.  The interpretation of the various studies has been very controversial, in part because the findings have directly influenced policy debates.  Two separate lines of study have been particularly widely debated.  The overall question of whether added funds to schools are likely to produce higher achievement (the “money doesn’t matter” debate) has entered into legislative debates and court consideration of school finance systems.  Additionally, policy discussions about class size reduction heightened academic study of the relationship of class size and achievement.

Notable education economists

 Eric Hanushek
 Lawrence F. Katz
 Stephen Machin
 Douglas Staiger
 Ludger Wößmann
 Karthik Muralidharan
 Costas Meghir
 Thomas Kane
 Caroline Hoxby
 Bruce Sacerdote
 Victor Lavy
 Philip Oreopoulos
 Brian Jacob
 Morton O. Schapiro
 Paul Glewwe
 Jere Behrman
 Bridget Terry Long
 Parag Pathak
 Jesse Rothstein
 Joshua Angrist
 Charles Clotfelter
 David Card
 Claudia Goldin
 Richard Murnane
 James Heckman
 Alan Krueger
 Sarah E. Turner

See also
 Academic inflation
 Education policy
 Educational devaluation
The Case Against Education

Sources

Notes

References
 Roland Bénabou, 1996."Heterogeneity, Stratification, and Growth: Macroeconomic Implications of Community Structure and School Finance,"  American Economic Review,86(3) p p. 584- 609.
 Mark Blaug, 1985. "Where Are We Now in the Economics of Education?" Economics of Education Review, 4(1), pp. 17–28. Abstract.
 Clive R. Belfield, ed., 2006.Modern Classics In The Economics Of Education, Elgar.  Description.
 Eric A. Hanushek, 1986. "The economics of schooling:  Production and efficiency in public schools." Journal of Economic Literature 24, no. 3 (September): 1141-1177.
 Eric A. Hanushek, 1992. "The Trade-off between Child Quantity and Quality,"  Journal of Political Economy, 100(1), p p. 84-117.

 Stephen A. Hoenack, 1996. "The Economics of Education in Developing Countries: An Assessment of the State of the Art," Economics of Education Review,  15(4), pp. 327–338. Abstract.
 Caroline M. Hoxby, 1999. "The Productivity of Schools and Other Local Public Goods Producers," Journal of Public Economics, 74(1), pp. 1–30 Abstract.
 _, 2000. "Does Competition among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers?" American Economic Review, 90(5), p p. 1209- 1238.
 Geraint Johnes and Jill Johnes, ed., 2004. International Handbook on the Economics of Education, Elgar.
  George Psacharopoulos and Harry A. Patrinos, 2004. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Further Update," Education Economics, 12(2), pp. 111–134.
 Steven G. Rivkin, Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain, 2005. "Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement," Econometrica, 73(2), pp. 417–458.
 Sherwin Rosen, 1987. "human capital," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 2, pp. 681–90.
Selected entries on education from The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2008), 2nd Edition:
 "education in developing countries" by Paul Glewwe. Abstract.
 "human capital, fertility and growth" by Oded Galor.  Abstract.
 "intergenerational transmission" by Lance Lochner.Abstract.
 "local public finance" by John M. Quigley.  Abstract.
 "population health, economic implications of" by David Canning and David E. Bloom.  Abstract.

Further reading

External links
 World Bank,  "Economics of Education"
 OECD's Education GPS: a review of education policy analysis and statistics.


Justin Kennedy (born 17 May 1972) is an actor, writer, voice-over artist and comedian from Melbourne, Australia. He started his performing career in 2002, after making his first stand-up appearance in the national Raw Comedy competition.

Career
In 2003, Kennedy teamed up with fellow comedians Gavin Baskerville and Dwight Bandy to write and perform the show Successful Losing: How to be a Spectacular Failure in both the WA Fringe Festival (winning 'Best Comedy') and the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. In 2004, Kennedy performed his first solo stand-up show in the Melbourne International Comedy Festival, Simple Pleasures, which he followed over the next four years with I'm With Stupid, Beelzebuzz (nominated for a Golden Gibbo Award), Ladies...? and Passionista.

In 2009, Kennedy teamed up with Sarah Collins to write and perform, Donna and Damo: An Asexual Love Story for the Melbourne Fringe before performing it at the Arts Centre in the 2010 Melbourne Comedy Festival. He proposed to Collins onstage during the curtain call of a performance in April 2010.

In 2008, Kennedy wrote and performed as a cast member of Foxtel's The Mansion with Michael Chamberlin and Charlie Pickering. He appeared three times on Foxtel's Stand Up Australia. He was a regular writer for Rove from 2007 until its final episode, appearing in numerous sketches during this time.

Kennedy has appeared as an actor in numerous television shows including The Time of Our Lives, The Secret, It's a Date and Utopia, as well as voiced characters for the animated series' Sumo Mouse, Flea-Bitten and SheZow.

Kennedy was formerly Head Writer at The Project and now writes for Hard Quiz and The Weekly with Charlie Pickering.

Select filmography
 Rove
 The Mansion
 Stand Up Australia
 The Secret
 Neighbours
 Stingers
 Reverse Runner

References

External links

 Official website

1972 births
Living people
Australian stand-up comedians


The Irish Experiment is the popular name for the interest, primarily from VFL/AFL clubs, in bringing Irish sportspeople, particularly Gaelic footballers, to Australia to play Australian rules football professionally. The AFL's focus on Gaelic footballers is due to the similarities between the sports.

The Irish Experiment began in the mid-1980s as an informal project of the Melbourne Football Club. Despite its initial success, enthusiasm for the project lapsed until the 2000s, when it again became ongoing, reaching a record level due to globalisation and professionalism in sport; however, it also faced significant challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The highest-profile product of the experiment to date has been Medal of the Order of Australia and 1991 Brownlow Medal recipient Jim Stynes, who was an early recruit in 1984, during his highly successful career he played more AFL games than any other Irish player. Tadhg Kennelly was the first to win a premiership in 2005.

Over the years, the Irish experiment has attracted media and public interest in both Ireland and Australia. As of 2022, five men recruited from Ireland reached 100 AFL games, though the majority have returned having experienced minimal success in Australia. Since 2018 Irish women have become a major source of talent for the professional AFL Women's competition, with almost an entire team's worth of players participating in the 2020 season. To date, a handful of these recruits have experienced accolades, including first premiership player Ailish Considine, first Irish All-Australian Orla O'Dwyer and notable goalkicker Cora Staunton.

History
One of the first gaelic footballers to convert to Australian rules was Eugene King, who arrived in Australia in 1956 and was invited to train with the Footscray Football Club however he had difficulty with the shape of the ball and did not make the grade.

Australian Football World Tour
In 1967, Harry Beitzel drew inspiration from watching the 1966 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship final on television and formed an Australian side, nicknamed "The Galahs", to play the game against an Irish side. The next year he organised The Australian Football World Tour, a six-match series with games played against Irish teams in Ireland, the United Kingdom and United States of America. What followed was the beginning of regular interaction between the two codes which was to become the hybrid code of International Rules Football.

Beginnings of the Irish Experiment
Ron Barassi, drawing comparisons between Australian rules football and Gaelic football was of the opinion that Gaelic Footballers could provide a previously untapped pool of potential Australian Rules players. At the time, Australian Rules was, with the introduction of the Sydney Swans, increasing its national focus and emerging from a semi-professional sport to a fully professional one. As a result, wealthy Victorian clubs were scouting the country far and wide for new talent to gain an advantage in the sport's premier competition. In 1982, Barassi (then the Melbourne VFL club coach) and his recruiting team (including Melbourne's Barry Richardson) travelled to Ireland, looking for young, tall, and talented players.

The first recruit was Sean Wight. Wight was part of an Under-19 VFL premiership side just weeks after his arrival from Ireland in 1983 and was widely hailed for his rapid conversion, though others who joined him had much less success. Further advertising resulted in the recruitment of a "tall, skinny lad", Jim Stynes. Both Wight and Stynes, still very much learning the game, played together in the club's 1987 night premiership. While Stynes captured the Melbourne reserves best and fairest that year, he also involved in an embarrassing event which cast doubts on the Irish experiment. His lack of understanding of the rules arguably cost Melbourne a berth in the 1987 VFL Grand Final. The infamous Preliminary Final incident in which he ran over the mark before the siren made him and the Irish experiment the focus of Melbourne media. The mistake awarded Hawthorn's Gary Buckenara a 15-metre penalty which resulted in a winning goal to qualify for the Grand Final. Despite the setback, Stynes and Wight were both to improve in the following seasons and become regular senior players.

Wight and Stynes both featured in the 1988 VFL Grand Final. However, despite high expectations, Melbourne was convincingly thrashed by Hawthorn, then the dominant club of the era. However, Stynes was voted best on field for the Demons.

At the end of the 1988 season, Victoria Football Association (VFA) club Prahran enticed Dermot McNicholl, who had starred in two previous International rules series, to move to Melbourne. Two weeks later, St Kilda drafted him with the 99th selection in the 1988 VFL draft. In the same draft, Melbourne recruited two more Irish players, Jim Stynes' brother Brian and Tom Grehan. McNicholl spent the 1989 season playing for Prahran, before injury forced him to miss the first half of the 1990 season, after which he recovered and made his senior debut for St Kilda. He played three senior games before returning to Ireland to complete his university studies.

A much-improved Jim Stynes won the Brownlow Medal in 1991, cementing his place as a future Melbourne and AFL Hall of Famer. However, the rare successes were increasingly seen as "one-offs", and other clubs showed little enthusiasm with the "hit-and-miss" strategy. Melbourne, the trailblazer club, was not translating recruitment into on-field success and was fast losing financial resources that were required to sustain international recruitment. As a result, only a few AFL clubs recruited Gaelic footballers who played at the highest level in the 1990s. It was later Stynes' post-playing career as Melbourne president that helped the club eliminate A$5 million in debt in two years, leaving the club A$400,000 in surplus. The Demons had been in debt for thirty years.

Despite the Melbourne Football Club's enthusiasm for the Irish experiment and early success with some Irish players, the majority of players from the Irish Experiment did not fare as well. Most failed to meet expectations, not make VFL level, and many instead returned home to Ireland. Even the recruitment of Jim Stynes' brother Brian yielded just a handful of unimpressive senior games, and McNicholl returned home after only 3 matches.

With the increasing professionalism of the AFL competition, some clubs continued to speculate about the overseas talent pool. Kevin Sheedy in particular conducted a series of his own experiments with overseas players from various sporting backgrounds but did not include Ireland or Gaelic football. Despite generating media publicity, none of these experiments were ultimately successful, and increasingly sections of the Australian media began to mock the idea of international recruitment.

2000s revival
The Irish experiment lay dormant for many years until Melbourne once again began to take an interest in it. The Sydney Swans followed with the recruitment of Tadhg Kennelly through its rookie list. Kennelly was an almost overnight success, being nominated for the AFL Rising Star award in his first season and widely hailed by the media. As a result, other clubs began to show a much keener interest in Irish talent.

With access to additional resources, AFL clubs began to spend more time and effort in identifying and training athletic and talented rookies. Collingwood, Carlton and Brisbane in particular began to show an interest and held scouting sessions and tryouts for Irish players.

Carlton soon followed, and its experiments with Setanta and Aisake Ó hAilpín began to bear fruit and attract significant media interest in both Australia and Ireland. These experiments were of particular note, as for the first time a club was looking to other sports than Gaelic football, by identifying talented hurling athletes with the right ingredients to become AFL players.

With Gaelic footballer Colm Begley's rapid conversion at Brisbane and Martin Clarke's successful AFL debut, media commentators hailed a new era for the Irish experiment. During the 2007 AFL season, several AFL clubs began sending talent scouts to Ireland.

In March 2008, it was revealed by the media that the AFL had considered a radical proposal to launch an Irish-dominated team in Sydney's western suburbs, which would perform before an international audience under the Celtic brand name. The "Sydney Celtics" plan was first put to AFL chief executive Andrew Demetriou in early 2007 by Gaelic Players Association executive Donal O'Neill. It was said that the proposal originated at the International Rules Series in Ireland in late 2006, where O'Neill put forward a plan to purchase an AFL licence in Sydney. However, the AFL later dismissed it as simple speculation.

By mid-2008, the interest of clubs reached a peak, and Tadhg Kennelly and Jim Stynes spoke out about the increasing recruitment activity. AFL player manager Ricky Nixon set up recruitment networks in Ireland to complement those already in place by clubs such as Collingwood, Carlton and Brisbane. Nickey Brennan, the GAA boss, spoke out against the recruitment activity in June 2008. The AFL and GAA had ongoing discussions about putting limits on the recruitment of players.

Despite the rise of former hurler Setanta Ó hAilpín in the AFL, recruitment interest in Ireland began to wane in mid-2010. Several Irish players cancelled their rookie contracts to return home; others were delisted after brief bouts in the various state leagues.

2010–2015: AFL turns to other sources of talent
With a media circus surrounding the conversion of professional Australian rugby league players Karmichael Hunt to the Gold Coast Football Club and Israel Folau to the Greater Western Sydney Giants, focus began to shift to other sports, particularly rugby football as a potential source of talent. With the success of Canadian rugby union player Mike Pyke's conversion and many other players transitioning at the junior level, the AFL and commentators began to speculate that professional rugby league players might make an easier transition to the AFL due to coming from a heavy-contact professional sport involving an oval ball. The transition of two highly publicised rugby league players has since proved to be of little success, and the cross-code focus of AFL recruiters has returned to the GAA and expanded to include American professional sportsmen.

In particular, the first AFL International Combine was held in the United States targeting college basketballers and college footballers was particularly successful, eventually producing such AFL-listed Americans as Eric Wallace, Jason Holmes and Mason Cox.

Revival and European Combine 2015–2020
In 2015, the AFL appointed Tadhg Kennelly, a former player for the Sydney Swans, as its International Talent Manager; and, in addition to the US Combine, Kennelly organised a special European Combine to be held in Dublin. As expected, the large proportion of the turn-out were Gaelic footballers. The two best-performing participants at the combine are then given the opportunity to attend the AFL National Combine. Sean Hurley, Paddy Brophy, Daniel Flynn, Ciarán Byrne, Ciarán Sheehan and Cian Hanley are some notable people who have previously attended the combine.

In 2018, the Irish contingent in the AFL consisted of five senior-listed players and six rookie-listed players.

The 2020 AFL Grand Final featured two players: Zach Tuohy and Mark O'Connor. Both were playing for Geelong but the team lost the game to Richmond.

Damage inflicted by the 2020 Conor McKenna coverage
On 20 June 2020, Conor McKenna of Essendon tested positive for the highly infectious novel coronavirus disease COVID-19. This resulted in the postponement of the match scheduled for the following day between Essendon and Melbourne. One other player was quarantined due to close contact during training. McKenna had another COVID-19 test on 22 June which was confirmed as negative in the evening of 23 June. He remained in quarantine pending a further test later in the week. During this time McKenna was subjected to an intense trial by media, abuse on social media and became a public villain in the country, treatment which provoked much criticism. On 8 September 2020, McKenna announced his retirement and return to Ireland after 79 games played. Geelong footballer Zach Tuohy described the official and media abuse directed at McKenna as "disgraceful" and "outrageous". In Ireland, it was also suggested "stars of the future that may being tempted to pursue a life in the AFL Down Under, may reconsider".

List of Irish sportsmen linked with the VFL/AFL
This list includes any player who at minimum (regardless of whether he ever went to Australia or played actual VFL/AFL matches) meets any one of the following criteria:

a) brought to Australia by an AFL club
b) spent time training with an AFL club
c) played in an AFL club's affiliated state league club or AFL practice match
d) offered an AFL contract by a club
e) listed on an AFL rookie or senior list

Notable players
The following players from the Irish experiment have either played a VFL/AFL game, or are currently on an AFL list.

Other
The following players have been connected with a VFL/AFL club, but never played a senior game.

AFLW
As of 2018/2019 the AFLW was actively recruiting ladies Gaelic footballers primarily due to the success of Laura Duryea who originally found success in the sport while travelling in Australia, and recent increase in the success rate of the men's programs.

References

See also
 List of players who have converted from one football code to another
 Comparison of Australian rules football and Gaelic football
 Australian rules football in Ireland

Comparison of Gaelic football and Australian rules football
History of Australian rules football
Gaelic football
Lists of players of Australian rules football
Lists of Gaelic football players


Hurricane Baker was a Category 2 hurricane that affected the Leeward Islands, Greater Antilles, and the Gulf Coast of the United States. The tropical cyclone was the second tropical storm and second hurricane of the 1950 Atlantic hurricane season. Originating as a tropical depression east of the Windward Islands on August 18, Baker became a tropical storm on August 19, and further intensified into a hurricane on August 21. It attained an initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of  on August 22 before weakening to a tropical storm as it made landfall on the island of Antigua. Baker weakened to a tropical depression late on August 23 while southwest of Puerto Rico. By the following morning, it had restrengthened into a tropical storm, though a landfall in Cuba caused it to weaken once again. Entering the Gulf of Mexico, Baker began to strengthen once more, regaining hurricane strength on August 29 and reaching its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of  early the following day. The cyclone weakened before making its final landfall in the United States near Gulf Shores, Alabama, with winds of . Hurricane Baker produced extensive damage in the Lesser Antilles and Cuba, but impacts were minimal in the United States.

Meteorological history
On the morning of August 20, a strong tropical storm developed about  east of Basse-Terre, Guadeloupe. The tropical storm deepened to hurricane intensity. On August 21, it rapidly attained maximum sustained winds of , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane. The hurricane passed over Antigua during the evening, while still producing winds of . On August 22, it lost intensity and weakened to a tropical storm. On August 23, Baker made landfall near the Puerto Rican town of Guánica as a minimal tropical storm. The highest winds on the island of Puerto Rico were . The storm then degenerated into an easterly tropical wave, and moved west-northwestward over northeastern Hispaniola. On August 24, it re-entered the Atlantic Ocean, and Tropical Depression Baker crossed the coast of eastern Cuba early on the next day.

On August 25, Baker redeveloped a center over the Caribbean Sea off southern Cuba, and re-intensified to tropical storm status. On August 27, Baker affected the Pinar del Río Province with  winds, and then turned northward over the southern Gulf of Mexico. On August 28, Baker re-strengthened to hurricane intensity; reconnaissance and ship reports suggest the hurricane attained a second peak intensity of  on August 30. The minimum central pressure was  on this date. The cyclone diminished in intensity prior to landfall. On August 31, the hurricane struck Gulf Shores, Alabama as a Category 1 hurricane with sustained winds estimated near . The estimated central pressure at landfall was . Baker moved inland over Alabama and dissipated over southeastern Missouri on September 1.

Impact

On Antigua, the Pan American Airways station's power failed when winds reached  around midnight on August 22. Unofficial estimates placed winds between  at the location, although damages and casualties were unknown. Subsequent reports indicated light damage occurred on the island; later, information from the island indicated extensive damage. More than 100 homes were destroyed or damaged in the Willkie and Piggott areas, and large homes were destroyed in Prestown. Additionally, a manse was also demolished in Prestown. Electronic communications were dismantled, and thousands of homeless people sheltered in churches and schools. No deaths occurred on the island, but damages were expected to reach several thousand dollars. In Cuba, 37 people died, and the property losses reached several million dollars.

In the United States, the greatest property and crop damage occurred from Mobile, Alabama to Saint Marks, Florida, where losses approached $2,550,000 (1950 USD); high tides and winds inflicted minimal damage in both cities. Panama City, Florida incurred heavy damage to homes and businesses from high tides and rainfall, which peaked at . The highest rainfall total was  at Caryville, Florida. Peak gusts exceeded  on Santa Rosa Island, Florida. 200 to 300 cottages received damage in Panama City, and homes were flooded near the bay. Losses reached $200,000 (1950 USD) in Gulf Shores, Alabama. Hurricane Baker spawned two tornadoes. On August 30, a F1 tornado touched down in Apalachicola, Florida, destroying four dwellings and a store building and damaging another eleven buildings. On August 31, a F0 tornado demolished one building near Marianna, Florida, in Jackson County. Inland, Birmingham International Airport recorded  wind gusts; higher gusts were estimated near  in elevated, mountainous locations. Hundreds of trees were prostrated as far north as the Birmingham, Alabama area, and one person was killed and two more injured by live wires falling from utility poles.

See also

List of Category 2 Atlantic hurricanes
List of Florida hurricanes
List of United States hurricanes
List of Atlantic hurricanes

Notes

Further reading
Barnes, Jay (1998). Florida's Hurricane History. Chapel Hill Press. .

1950 Atlantic hurricane season
Category 3 Atlantic hurricanes
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Baker
Hurricane Baker
Hurricane Baker
1950 in the Caribbean
1950 in Saint Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla


Papyrus 34 (in the Gregory-Aland numbering), designated by 𝔓34, is a copy of the New Testament in Greek. It is a papyrus manuscript of the Pauline epistles, it contains 1 Cor 16:4-7.10; 2 Cor 5:18-21; 10:13-14; 11:2.4.6-7. The manuscript paleographically has been assigned to the 7th century.

The Greek text of this codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text-type. Aland placed it in Category II.

It is currently housed at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek (P. Vindob. G. 39784) in Vienna.

See also

 List of New Testament papyri

References

Further reading

 Carl Wessely, Studien zur Paläographie und Papyruskunde XII, (Leipzig 1912), p. 246.
 Ellwood M. Schofield, The Papyrus Fragments of the Greek New Testament, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, 1936, pp. 246–252.

External links
 GA Papyrus 34. Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts

New Testament papyri
7th-century biblical manuscripts
Biblical manuscripts of the Austrian National Library
First Epistle to the Corinthians papyri
Second Epistle to the Corinthians papyri


Alotus is the thirteenth album by the Finnish experimental rock band Circle.

The album cemented Circle's relationship with Hans Joachim Irmler, a founder member of the krautrock band Faust. The CD was released on Irmler's label Klangbad, and Irmler is credited as producer and co-arranger. In concerts around the time, the vocalist Mika Rättö often wore a T-shirt with the cover art from Faust's eponymous first album. "Northern Sky" was also included on the 2002 compilation album Klangbad First Steps.

Although current members Tomi Leppänen and Janne Westerlund are not credited as playing on the album, they do appear in the band photograph in the sleevenotes.

Track listing
 Työläisten laulu (11:45)
 Alotus (11:26)
 Northern Sky (2:37)
 Lopetus (11:10)
 Potto (10:12)

Personnel
Teemu Elo
Jyrki Laiho
Jussi Lehtisalo
Janne Peltomäki
Mika Rättö

References

Circle (band) albums
2002 albums


Walter Grundmann (21 October 1906, in Chemnitz – 30 August 1976, in Eisenach) was a German Protestant theologian and antisemitic Nazi and Stasi collaborateur during the Third Reich and GDR. Grundmann served both German dictatorships. He was a member of the Nazi party from 1930 onwards, and from 1933 onwards an active member of the German Christians and prospered as a state-antisemitism supporting theologian and professor for ethnic theology.  In 1939, he was made head of the newly founded Instituts zur Erforschung jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben in Jena, which was meant to serve state antisemitism by the "Entjudung" (dejudifying) of the Bible and giving antisemitic theological training and arguments for Nazi propaganda.  Despite his past Nazi activities, Grundmann regained some prestige as an evangelic theologian in East Germany; in 1959 he published his comments on the Gospels, which by the 1980s had become standard popular literature. However, Grundmann also prospered as a "Secret Informer" ("Geheimer Informator") to the Ministry for State Security ("Stasi"). He spied on (high ranking) theologians in Eastern and Western Germany. His cover name was GM Berg ("GM Mountain") after the Sermon on the Mount ("Bergrede") to which he referred in his inaugural speech 1939 at the Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life, set up under him in Jena.

Life

Training and theological development to 1939

Head of the Institute (1939-1945)

Post-war life

References

Sources
 Susannah Heschel: The theological Faculty at the university of Jena as a Stronghold of national Socialism. In: Feingold, Mordechai: History of Universities, Oxford 2003, S. 143–169.
 Susannah Heschel: The Aryan Jesus. Christian Theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press, 2008,  (Online-Informationen).
  Susannah Heschel: Deutsche Theologen für Hitler. Walter Grundmann und das Eisenacher "Institut zur Erforschung und Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben“. In: Jahrbuch 1998/99 zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust, Darmstadt 1999, S. 147–167.
  Matthias Wolfes: Protestantische Theologie und moderne Welt – Studien zur Geschichte der liberalen Theologie nach 1918, Berlin/New York 1999 (Theologische Bibliothek Töpelmann, Band 102), S. 366–380.
  Roland Deines, Volker Leppin, Karl-Wilhelm Niebuhr (Hrsg.): Walter Grundmann – ein Neutestamentler im Dritten Reich. Leipzig 2007
 Max Weinreich: Hitler's Professors: The Part of Scholarship in Germany's Crimes against the Jewish People. 1. Auflage, New York 1946
  Kurt Meier: Kreuz und Hakenkreuz: Die evangelische Kirche im Dritten Reich. DTB, München 1992
  Birgit Jerke: Wie wurde das Neue Testament zu einem sogenannten Volkstestament "entjudet“? – Aus der Arbeit des Eisenacher "Instituts zur Erforschung und Beseitung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben“. In: Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz (Hg.): Christlicher Antijudaismus und Antisemitismus. Theologische und kirchliche Programme Deutscher Christen, Frankfurt am Main 1994, S. 201–234
  Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz (Hrsg.): Christlicher Antijudaismus und Antisemitismus. Theologische und kirchliche Programme Deutscher Christen.'' Arnoldshainer Texte, Band 85, Haag + Herchen Verlag,

External links

1906 births
1976 deaths
Christian fascists
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the Soviet Union
20th-century German Protestant theologians
People from Chemnitz
People from the Kingdom of Saxony
German male non-fiction writers
People of the Stasi


Thomas Henry Parry, DSO, DL (1881 – 8 October 1939) was a Welsh Liberal politician, lawyer and soldier.

Date of birth
One usually reliable source shows Parry's date of birth as 21 April 1878, however The Times newspaper in its obituary of Parry reported he was aged 58 at death making his date of birth 1881. This is also the date given in the publication Who was Who. This date seems the more likely as it was reported at the time Parry was adopted as the Liberal candidate for the 1913 Flint Boroughs by-election that he was aged 32 years. His age at death was also given as 58 years in the Law Journal.

Birth and education
Parry was born in Mold in Flintshire the son of Thomas Parry JP. He was educated at University College, Aberystwyth and Christ's College, Cambridge where he received his MA and LL.B degrees with honours.

Law and the Army
Parry was called to the Bar at the Inner Temple and practised as a member of Chester and North Wales Circuit. At the outbreak of the First World War, Parry enlisted and was a subaltern in the 5th Royal Welch Fusiliers, Territorials. He served in the European theatre, Gallipoli, Egypt and Palestine between 1914 and 1919. He was wounded at Suvla Bay and hospitalised in Cairo. By the time of his injury at Suvla, where he also contracted frostbite, Parry had risen to the rank of captain. He was also wounded three times in action in Gaza, by which time he had risen to the rank of major, in which conflict he won the Distinguished Service Order in 1917. For his bravery in other actions Parry was mentioned in dispatches and won the Order of the Nile.

After the war, Parry continued to be associated with the Royal Welch Fusiliers. By November 1918 he had achieved the rank of major, by May 1919 he had risen to the rank of colonel, and by August 1919 he was lieutenant-colonel. He ended up lieutenant-colonel commanding the 5/6 Royal Welch Fusiliers and was Military Member of the Flintshire Territorial Force Association.

Politics
Parry entered Parliament at a by-election in January 1913 following the death of the sitting Liberal member for Flint Burghs, James Woolley Summers. The constituency included Parry's home town of Mold where he was a prominent lawyer and he was elected with a majority of 211 votes over the Unionist, J H Roberts – as usual in these contests a reduced majority from the previous election when Summers had a majority of 509. The constituency disappeared in boundary changes in 1918 so Parry transferred to the county seat of Flintshire. Parry received the coalition government coupon at the 1918 general election and was returned unopposed At the 1922 general election Parry faced Labour and Unionist opponents but held the seat. Labour did not contest the seat at the 1923 election but again Parry held off a challenge from the Tories. He was unable to campaign in Flintshire at the 1924 general election through illness brought on as a result of his war wounds and the seat passed into Conservative hands.

In 1922, Parry had been appointed as deputy lieutenant of Flintshire. One of his other duties was as a member of the Regional Pension Advisory Committee for Wales.

Death
Parry died at his home in Mold on 8 October 1939 having been ill with pneumonia.

References

External links

1881 births
1939 deaths
Alumni of Aberystwyth University
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for Welsh constituencies
British Army personnel of World War I
Royal Welch Fusiliers officers
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
UK MPs 1910–1918
UK MPs 1918–1922
UK MPs 1922–1923
UK MPs 1923–1924
Deputy Lieutenants of Flintshire
Members of the Inner Temple
National Liberal Party (UK, 1922) politicians


Godongsan is a mountain in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Its area extends across Gapyeong County and Yangpyeong County. Godongsan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


Weerde is a village in Flemish Brabant, Belgium. It is part of the municipality of Zemst. A train station is located in Weerde, connecting the two largest cities of the country, Brussels and Antwerp.

The location of Weerde today is between two branches of the river Zenne. The old branch flows to the east, past the Weerde fish pond, while the new branch was built to the west of the town between the world wars to protect Weerde from flooding.

To the south of Weerde, the remains of a medieval sluice tower and gateway can be seen in the fields, on the course of the old branch of the Zenne. The sluice was used to control the flow of water past the neighbouring watermill.

History: While  World War I, after the Battle of Marne the Belgian Army launched an attack, by September 13 1914, hoping to force the Germans back, the attack finally failed.

References

Populated places in Flemish Brabant


Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz (27 June 1944, Belgard/Pommern – 17 December 1999, Frankfurt am Main) was a German church historian and director of the Evangelische Akademie Arnoldshain.  She was co-editor of the journal Kirche und Israel (during 1986–1993) and of the issue Arbeiten zur kirchlichen Zeitgeschichte.  She was known for her work on anti-Jewish tendencies in Christian theology.

Life

Research areas

Works
Nationalsozialismus und Kirchen. Religionspolitik von Partei und Staat bis 1935 (Tübinger Schriften zur Sozial- und Zeitgeschichte 5), Düsseldorf 1974 (bearbeitete Fassung der Dissertation: Partei, Staat und Kirchen im Dritten Reich. Materialien zur nationalsozialistischen Religionspolitik bis 1935, Tübingen 1972).
"Wurzeln des Antisemitismus in Luthers theologischem Antijudaismus," in: Heinz Kremers (Hrsg.) in Zusammenarbeit mit Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz und Bertold Klappert, Die Juden und Martin Luther – Martin Luther und die Juden. Geschichte, Wirkungsgeschichte, Herausforderung, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1985, 21987, 351–367.
"Das Verhältnis von protestantischer Theologie und Wissenschaft des Judentums während der Weimarer Republik," in: Walter Grab, Julius H. Schoeps (Hg.), Juden in der Weimarer Republik (Studien zur Geistesgeschichte 6), Stuttgart und Bonn 1986, 153–178; in English under the title: "The Relationship between Protestant Theology and Jewish Studies during the Weimar Republic," in: Otto Dov Kulka, Paul R. Mendes-Flohr (Hg.), Judaism and Christianity under the Impact of National Socialism, Jerusalem 1987, 133–150.
Verdrängte Vergangenheit, die uns bedrängt. Feministische Theologie in der Verantwortung für die Geschichte, München 1988 (mit Aufsätzen von Jutta Flatters, Dieter Georgi, Eveline Goodman-Thau, Susannah Heschel, Katharina von Kellenbach, Luise Schottroff, Bernd und Marie-Theres Wacker; von Leonore Siegele Wenschkewitz darin der eröffnende Beitrag: Feministische Theologie ohne Antijudaismus, 12–53).
"Protestantische Universitätstheologie und Rassenideologie in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus. Gerhard Kittels Vortrag 'Die Entstehung des Judentums und die Entstehung der Judenfrage' von 1936," in: Günter Brakelmann, Martin Rosowski (Hg.), Antisemitismus. Von religiöser Judenfeindschaft zur Rassenideologie, Göttingen 1989, 52–75.
with  Gerda Stuchlik, ed.: Frauen und Faschismus in Europa. Der faschistische Körper (Frauen in Geschichte und Gesellschaft 6), Pfaffenweiler 1990.
with Gerda Stuchlik, ed.: Hochschule und Nationalsozialismus. Wissenschaftsgeschichte und Wissenschaftsbetrieb als Thema der Zeitgeschichte (Arnoldshainer Texte 66), Frankfurt a. M. 1990.
"Josel von Rosheim: Juden und Christen im Zeitalter der Reformation," in: Kirche und Israel 6, 1991, 3–16 (Habilitationsvortrag am 9. Mai 1990).
ed., Die evangelischen Kirchen und der SED-Staat – ein Thema Kirchlicher Zeitgeschichte (Arnoldshainer Texte 77), Frankfurt a. M. 1993.
with Carsten Nicolaisen, ed.: Theologische Fakultäten im Nationalsozialismus, Arbeiten zur Kirchlichen Zeitgeschichte B 18, Göttingen 1993.
Christlicher Antijudaismus und Antisemitismus. Theologische und kirchliche Programme Deutscher Christen (Arnoldshainer Texte 85), Frankfurt a. M. 1994.
"Die Rezeption und Diskussion der Genus-Kategorie in der theologischen Wissenschaft," in: Hadumod Bußmann, Renate Hof (Hrsg.), Genus. Zur Geschlechterdifferenz in den Kulturwissenschaften, Stuttgart 1995, 60–112.
with Doron Kiesel, ed.: Der Aufklärung zum Trotz. Antisemitismus und politische Kultur in Deutschland (Arnoldshainer Texte 100), Frankfurt a. M. 1998.

External links

 Die Namensgeberin des Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz-Preises - Internetseite des Vereins zur Förderung feminstischer Theologie in Forschung und Lehre e. V.

1944 births
1999 deaths
People from Białogard
People from the Province of Pomerania
Christian writers
German historians of religion
20th-century German Protestant theologians
Women Christian theologians
20th-century German historians
German women historians
20th-century German women writers


Mario Marinică (born 13 December 1964) is a Romanian football manager and former player who is currently the Head Coach of the Malawi national football team.

He holds the UEFA Pro Licence, the highest football coaching qualification. He has coached at Romanian clubs Rapid București, Gloria Buzău, Sportul Studenţesc, Argeş Piteşti, Rocar București, and Cimentul Fieni. He has also coached at Kerala Blasters in India, Azam F.C. in Tanzania, Black Leopards in South Africa, Zakho FC in Iraq, and Kaposvári Rákóczi FC in Hungary. In England, he has worked at Crystal Palace FC and Arsenal FC's Academies as well as Leyton Orient FC's School of Excellence. His playing career included spells at Rocar București, Dinamo București and Steaua București.

Playing career

Mario Marinică featured most notably in the youth and reserve teams at Rocar București, Dinamo București and Steaua București, eventually retiring from playing in 1993. In a 2009 interview with Sport Magazine he commented "I started at Dinamo, then I moved to Steaua. I played as a central midfielder. I also played for Rocar, Mecon and Girueta"

Coaching career

His coaching career commenced in 1993 at Leyton Orient FC.  In a varied coaching role, he directed "Football in the Community" courses, and developed players both at the School of Excellence and first team; working closely with Grant Cornwell, John Sitton and Chris Ramsey.

During the 1998–1999 season he coached Haringey Borough FC. He was both Head of Youth Development and First Team Coach as well as the club's Fitness Trainer. He would later return to the club as first team Manager for a brief spell at the end of the 2005–2006 season. Winning 6 out of the last 7 games, he saved the club from relegation together with his assistant Ged Searson.

From 1999 to 2001, Marinică was a coach at the Arsenal F.C. Academy, primarily in charge of the under-15 team. During this period, as part of an exchange programme he spent a short time assisting Massimo Pedrazzini within the technical department of Internazionale.

In the 2001–2002 season he returned to Rocar București as Assistant Manager. Here he helped to develop a number of players including Cristian Neamtu, Cristian Silvasan, Ionut Rada, and Silviu Balace, that have since been capped by their country.

During 2002–2003, he became a development coach at the Crystal Palace FC Academy. He managed the U15 side, and coached from U14 to U19 levels.  He worked with a number of players who have since turned professional and received International honours: Wayne Routledge, Gary Borrowdale, Ben Watson, Tom Soares, Sam Togwell, Lewis Grabban, Rhoys Wiggins, Andrew Julius, David Hunt, Gavin Heeroo, Teerathep Winothai, Will Antwi and Craig Dobson.

At the start of 2003, he was appointed First Team Coach at Argeş Piteşti, working with players such as Nicolae Dică, Andrei Prepeliţă, Raul Marincău, Marius Bilaşco, and Adrian Iordache.

His progress at Argeş Piteşti brought him to the attention of Romanian Serie B club, Cimentul Fieni. He was appointed Caretaker Manager of the club, towards the end of 2003. In a limited time, and with scarce playing and financial resources, he managed to save Fieni from relegation and help restore pride to the team.

In recent years he has been a member of the Technical Support Staff of the Romanian Football Federation. His coaching and Coach-Educator expertise have been used to help develop their UEFA-A and UEFA-B licence coaching courses. He has also consulted on player development programmes for the U16 through U21 teams. He co-ordinated the 2006 visit to Romania of Howard Wilkinson. The former Technical Director of The Football Association was brought over by Marinica to conduct a session of the Romanian Football Federation's UEFA Pro Licence course.

"I have known Mario for a long time. He is an intellectual coach; methodical, a statistician, and an excellent personality."
Mircea Rădulescu, Technical Director of the Romanian Football Federation.

He has been employed by Hertha Berlin, Watford FC, Stockport County FC and Notts County FC for scouting and technical analysis of forthcoming adversaries. He has also been employed to assist Romanian clubs Steaua București and Dinamo București in preparation to face English opposition in European competition. His unsurpassed tactical analysis provided the basis for Steaua București's defeat of Middlesbrough FC and Dinamo București's 5–1 defeat of Everton F.C. in the UEFA Cup. It was the first time Everton F.C. had conceded five goals in European competition.

During the 2006 FIFA World Cup, he assisted the Paraguay national football team, providing technical analysis of their group B rivals: England, Sweden and Trinidad & Tobago.

From 2005 to 2007, he completed the UEFA Pro Licence with the Irish Football Association, graduating alongside him were Chris Coleman, Jim Gannon and Bernard McNally; amongst others.

In the 2008–9 season, he was the interim manager of Romanian Liga I (Premier Division) side FC Gloria Buzău. He had been initially employed as Technical Director, and developed young players such as Eric Bicfalvi, Alexandru Tudose, and Alin Litu, all of whom became members of the Romania national under-21 football team. He took over the Head Coach role in late 2008, and helped turn around a club that had made the worst ever start to a season in the Romanian League. He secured a notable draw, away to traditional powerhouse Steaua București.

In June 2009, he was appointed Manager of South Africa National First Division side Black Leopards. Fans heralded Marinica as 'the messiah' upon his appointment, but after just over a month in the hotseat he had to return to Bucharest due to family problems. Former South Africa national team and then Mamelodi Sundowns coach Ted Dumitru commented at the time; "Mario is a very tactical coach and I'm convinced that he would have turned the team around. He has very strong scientific aspects of hard performance in football."

In July 2010 he was employed as Technical Director at Romanian Premier League side Sportul Studenţesc, following speculation linking him with the Zambia national football team job.
Marinica then took on a role as assistant manager of Hungarian premier league club Kaposvári Rákóczi FC, he then left the position to take on a similar role with Romanian giants Rapid București.

In December 2014, he was linked with the vacant manager's job at English Conference National side AFC Telford United.

Marinica left his advisory technical role at Rapid București in March 2015, he released a short statement saying " it was a pleasure to work at one of the greatest names in Romanian football, unfortunately financial constraints at the club have forced me to leave from my role, I wish the club the fans and the owners all the best at helping to return this magnificent football club where they belong".

June 2015 saw Marinica take up the Director of Football role alongside Stewart Hall as Azam F.C. made a major overhaul of their technical staff with an eye on a successful campaign on the Confederation of Africa Federations (CAF) competition. Marinica was able to help alongside Stewart Hall in leading the club to securing their first Kegame Interclub cup title without conceding a single goal, the trophy is contested among the best teams in central and eastern Africa. September 2016 saw him take up the Assistant Manager role at Zakho FC working with Marian Mihail.

In February 2017, he was initially announced as Head Coach of Forest Rangers. Forest chairperson Benhail Mukuka said the club was excited to have signed Marinica, who comes with success from his stint in Tanzania. However shortly afterwards, Perry Mutapa was announced instead, with the club not elaborating over the reversal of the appointment.

September 2017 saw him join Ion Moldovan's technical staff at Romanian premier division team Concordia Chiajna.

In 2019, he joined as the Technical Director of the Indian Super League club Kerala Blasters FC and its youth academy and their reserve squad. He spoke about the programme and his vision for developing football from the grassroots level. Under the new Technical Director, all youth teams as well as the reserve teams are training under the same philosophy. This approach will make the player transition smoother and easier during promotions to higher teams. On 7 March 2020, Kerala Blasters Reserves beat Gokulam FC in the final of Kerala Premier League (KPL) at Calicut Corporation Stadium to lift the first trophy in their short history. Marinica was also appointed by the All India Football Federation as a Grassroots Football Technical Panel Member through to the end of 2021.

Malawi
November 2021 saw Marinica appointed as Technical Director of the Football Association of Malawi on a three-year contract. Speaking at the appointment, Football Association of Malawi President Walter Nyamilandu commented "He is here to develop Malawi football and to correct some shortfalls that are there. As an association, we want to play football the right way. We need to produce quality coaches who will take Malawian football to another level. There has always been a gap especially when playing international games so Mario is here to bridge the gap. We don't want shortcuts and we want to be better organized as he champions the agenda of football development. I want to live behind a football philosophy that will suit our nation. We need to embrace change. With him, I expect technical issues to be the number one priority by paying more attention to grassroots football and youth football before bringing everything together for the betterment of our game. Mario comes into this position with lots of experience and is not new in this environment. He has worked in Africa and his profile on the continent is well documented," said Nyamilandu.

Marinica said it's a huge challenge working for a nation with lots of potential and is very optimistic that within three years, he will achieve what he has been employed for. "Huge challenge to have a small nation with huge talent. My first task is to build structures, scouting network and to receive help and support from all relevant stakeholders to develop the game starting with grassroots football because that's the basis of football.It won't be easy because every job has a challenge and I am ready for it. I have once worked with a few Malawian players notably Robert Ng'ambi at Black Leopards and from the onset, you could tell that we have talent in Malawi. I want to help in nurturing the talent not only for the national team but as Ambassadors ready for international market," he said.

African Cup of Nations 2021
Having only just been appointed Technical Director, on 6 December it was then announced that he will lead Malawi at the Africa Cup of Nations after the country's football association (Fam) re-organised its technical set-up. The previous manager, Meck Mwase would stay on as First Assistant Coach before resuming his former role after the tournament, when Marinica would return to his Technical Director role.

Ahead of the tournament the team held a 10-day camp in Saudi Arabia, as part of a technical partnership with the Saudi Arabian Football Federation.  The camp was affected by Covid, with some players unable to travel, others joining later, and more infected during the camp. Friendlies against Mali and local teams had to be cancelled, although the friendly against Comoros went ahead on 31 December 2021. In Marinica's first game in charge, Malawi beat Comoros 2–1 with goals from Gabadinho Mhango and Khuda Muyaba

Marinica named his 28-man squad for the tournament, with 23 in the main squad for the tournament and five as reserves. He called up three uncapped players in goalkeeper Charles Thomu, defender Lawrence Chaziya and midfielder Zebron Kalima, and omitted experienced midfielder Gerald Phiri Jr. from the main squad. Phiri subsequently retired from international football. Commenting on his selection, Marinica said "it was very tough particularly because of the COVID-19 situation. We had quite a number of players who would have made it in the 28-man squad but unfortunately COVID has ruled them out"  He outlined his philosophy and approach "of playing fast and very fast, thinking fast, acting fast and moving fast, being well prepared and organised."

Group B (Guinea, Zimbabwe, Senegal)
Ahead of their first Group B game against Guinea, Malawi were hit hard by positive Covid tests in the camp. On 9 January, six players and three technical staff including Marinica tested positive. In addition, key players Mark Fodya and Charles Petro had remained in Saudi Arabia having tested positive there.

Due to the Covid outbreak, Malawi were only able to name a matchday squad of 15 for the match against Guinea, with just two outfield players on the bench. Meck Mwase lead the team from the bench with Marinica in isolation. Issiaga Sylla scored the only goal to help Guinea to a narrow 1–0 victory. The Syli National had to dig deep against the brilliant Flames who were competitive throughout the contest at the Stade de Kouekong in Baffousam. Depleted Malawi were left to rue missed opportunities - they had the lion's share of the chances and found Guinea goalkeeper Aly Keita in inspired form.

On 10 January, FAM announced that it had recalled the five players that were on the reserve list to join the team in Cameroon with Gerald Phiri Jr. convinced to rescind his retirement. Initially CAF had indicated that only 23 players in the final squad will be eligible to take part in the competition while the other extra five, that were registered at the discretion of participating teams, will be on reserve and would only be replaced in case of serious injury. CAF specified that the injury had to  be certified through MRI Scan by the CAF Medical Committee and COVID-19 was not regarded as a serious injury. With increased cases of COVID-19 being experienced across the participating teams, the rule was relaxed.

As per the CAF 2021 AFCON pre-match protocols the Flames players and officials underwent a COVID-19 PCR test, 48 hours before the team's second group B match against Zimbabwe. All the 28 players tested negative, though unfortunately Mario Marinica continued to test positive and remained in isolation for the fixture. Once again first assistant coach, Meck Mwase lead from the bench. In an open and entertaining game, Zimbabwe went ahead through a superb header from Ishmael Wadi but Gabadinho Mhango equalised five minutes later with a controlled half-volley. Mhango then added his second after 58 minutes as he took advantage of some hesitant defending and supplied a poacher's finish. Malawi beat Zimbabwe 2–1 to boost their hopes of a first-ever appearance in the last 16 at the Africa Cup of Nations

The team received a boost ahead of their final group B game against Senegal, with all players and coaching staff including Marinica testing COVID negative. He made three changes to the side that defeated Zimbabwe a few days prior, with Charles Thomu making his full debut in goal in place of Ernest Kakhobwe who was ill with malaria, Micium Mhone returned for Richard Mbulu whilst Lawrence Chaziya replaced Limbikani Mzava who sustained a hamstring injury during the Zimbabwe game. Marinica chose to start with four attacking players against a full strength Senegal side featuring stars Sadio Mane, Edouard Mendy, Idrissa Gueye and Kalidou Koulibaly who struggled to convince in a goalless draw. Malawi just needed a goal to win the game and the group, and were initially awarded a penalty in the 75th minute, which was subsequently overturned by VAR. Debutant goalie Charles Thomu won the Man of the Match award for some sharp saves.
 BBC Sport Africa's Salim Masoud Said wrote "Mario Marinica only had a few weeks to prepare his Malawi team. Based on their first half you may think Aliou Cisse is the one who has had weeks, not years, to prepare Senegal." The result was sufficient for Malawi to reach the last 16 for the first time, where they would face Group C winners Morocco on 25 January in Yaounde.

Last 16 (Morocco)
Morocco came into the game ranked 28th in the world, 101 places above the Flames, and unbeaten in 30 matches, including 21 clean sheets. Marinica named an unchanged starting line-up against a Morocco side replete with European-based players. Malawi took a shock lead thanks to a 7th minute wonderstrike from Gabadinho Mhango. The Guardian described the goal thus "A goal for the ages! Chirwa plays a ball down the left channel for Mhango, who has his back to goal, 30 to 35 yards out. He turns infield, spots the keeper off his line, and whips a huge dipping curler into the top right from silly distance! Bono wasn't even too far out; he was on the edge of his six-yard box when he was beaten. Unstoppable! Unstoppable from 35 yards!"  With two minutes of added time to the break Youssef En-Nesyri equalised when he nodded in a well taken Sofiane Boufal corner kick. Malawi cushioned a lot of pressure as the Atlas Lions dominated most of the play in the first half with seven shots on target against Malawi's one. After a lot of pressure on the Malawian defending line, Morocco scored to make it 2-1 after 70 minutes. Achraf Hakimi beautifully curled in a free kick that beat goalkeeper Charles Thomu, prompting Kylian Mbappé to post on Twitter "Achraf Hakimi, Best RB in the World" about his Paris Saint-Germain teammate. In the post match press conference, Vahid Halilhodzic commented "It was not an easy game. When we conceded the goal, it made my team react and it was very complex. In the second half we didn't lose concentration and managed to organize ourselves and take control of the game". Mario Marinica commented "We worked and were very close. Personally, I tried to exploit the opportunities I had. We played against a very good team. However, I am proud of the performance of my players. Gabadinho is a good player and, as you saw, each player gave his best. I believe Gaba has the potential to play at the highest level. Our game plan happened as we wanted, but I have to admit that we played against a fantastic opponent".

Summary
In summary, Peter Kanjere writing in the New Frame  wrote "From being underwhelming underdogs going into the tournament to reaching the round of 16, the Flames have shown discipline, flair and dedication, to the utter delight of their fans. Reaching the last 16 is a remarkable achievement for the Flames considering that they are a modest squad with no big-name players. The squad were drawn mainly from the Malawian domestic league as well as the two tiers of top-flight football in South Africa. Marinica hit the ground running and wasted no time in diagnosing the flaws of the Flames and Malawian football in general." In his report, Marinica observed that "the players’ recruitment system is done ... haphazardly and very sentimentally. Physically, most players are short in key positions such as central defence and goalkeeping."
Marinica then set about on his own scouting mission, which resulted in little-known players such as Civil Sporting Club defender Lawrence Chaziya, Silver Strikers midfielder Zebron Kalima and goalkeeper Charles Thomu getting call-ups. The Romanian also discarded the Flames’ short-pass game and asked his charges to adopt a more direct, fast-attacking football. In addition, he dismantled the starting 11 that had clinched the Afcon berth. The inexperienced players brought a positive work ethic and healthy competition in the squad. It became clear that there were no longer invincibles in the team, who displayed remarkable defensive discipline to hold Senegal. Back home, Malawians’ support of the Flames, ranked 129th in the world, grew with each game. Fans filled the streets on 14 January after the 2–1 win over Zimbabwe chanting “Siine koma Gabadinho”, telling those who cared to listen that they cannot be faulted for the overnight celebrations because it was Mhango and his two goals that caused it. The Afcon has helped ignite a spark in Gabadinho Mhango, who has struggled at his club Orlando Pirates but shone in the Afcon for the Flames. “It is history in the making,” Mhango said. “My ambition is to see Malawian players, including myself, playing overseas. At the end of the tournament, I can foresee four or five players playing in Europe. I have been telling my teammates that in every game we have to show a fighting spirit, whether we win or lose, because the whole world is watching. We need to prove that we have talent in Malawi."

On 1 April 2023, a statement released by the Football Association of Malawi announced that, "by mutual consent, it has been agreed with Mr Mario Marinica not to enter into negotiations for renewal of his contract when it expires on 30 April 2023." It also revealed that the 58-year-old will be "on scheduled annual leave" up until that date and thanked him for "bringing great joy and pride" to Malawi for their historic Afcon run in Cameroon.

References

1964 births
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Romanian men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
AFC Rocar București players
FC Dinamo București players
FC Steaua București players
Liga I players
Romanian football managers
FC Argeș Pitești managers
FC Gloria Buzău managers
Black Leopards F.C. managers
FC Sportul Studențesc București managers
Kerala Blasters FC non-playing staff
Liga I managers
Malawi national football team managers
2021 Africa Cup of Nations managers
Romanian expatriate football managers
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in South Africa
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Hungary
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Tanzania
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Iraq
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in India
Romanian expatriate sportspeople in Malawi
Expatriate soccer managers in South Africa
Expatriate football managers in Malawi


Gokdalsan is a mountain in the county of Gapyeong County in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Gokdalsan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province

zh:鹄达山


The British Motorcycle Racing Club (BMCRC), informally Bemsee, is the largest motorcycle racing club of its type in the UK and organises a range of championships including Clubman and Supersport 600, Thunderbikes, Superstock 1000, Formula 400s and sidecars.

History
Founded in 1909, it was originally based at the classic Brooklands circuit near Weybridge in Surrey. During the 1960s the offices were at Kingston, Surrey and are now located in Romford, Essex. It is the oldest motorcycle racing club in the world.

Many champions have emerged from starting out in the homemade Aprilia Superteens championship
for example:

Two Time world superbike champion James Toseland
Double MotoGP champion Casey Stoner
Moto2 Racer Bradley Smith
Moto3 Racer Danny Webb
MotoGP Racer and 2009 Supersport Champion Cal Crutchlow

Racing Classes (2019)
In 2019, the BMCRC had classes available, based on machine type and rider age. Some classes also had sub-classes determined by various factors such as rider licence level (such as Clubman and National) or machine configuration:
 BMZRC 250 MZ
"Blue Haze" GP 2-Strokes
 RKB-F1/BMCRC F1 & F2 Sidecars
 BMCRC Formula 400
 MRO 600
 MRO Minitwins
 MRO Powerbikes & Clubman 1000
 ACU Team Green Junior Cup/Senior Ninja Series
 BMCRC Rookie 600 & Rookie 1000 Open
 BMCRC Thunderbike Sport, Thunderbike Extreme & Thunderbike Ultra
 Yamaha Past Masters
 Junior Supersport

Circuits
BMCRC leased the Lydden Hill circuit from 1993 to 2007.
The 2022 season uses the following circuits:
 Brands Hatch (Indy and GP circuits)
 Snetterton
 Silverstone
 Oulton Park
 Donington Park
 Cadwell Park

References

External links
 Bemsee.net Official site

Motorcycle racing organizations
Motorcycle racing in the United Kingdom


The Siuru literary movement, named after a fire-bird in Finnic mythology, was founded in 1917 in Estonia. It was an expressionistic and neo-romantic movement that ran counter to the Young Estonia formalist tradition.

Members
Along with the founder August Gailit, the movement included the following young poets and writers: Marie Under, Henrik Visnapuu, Johannes Semper, Friedebert Tuglas, Peet Aren, Otto Krusten, and Artur Adson.
Between 1917 and 1919, Siuru published three volumes of poetry. 1919 led to conflicts within the group.  Visnapuu and Gailit left, while Johannes Barbarus and August Alle joined as new members.

Program
The members of Siuru had an affinity with futurism and Impressionism. Their poetry was often seen as scandalous due to their erotic nature. Siuru's philosophy stressed the freedom of the human spirit.  Mottos of the group included Carpe diem!, and May the joy of creation be our only moving force, the latter suggested by Friedebert Tuglas.  The group's symbol was white chrysanthemum.

Significance

A major result of Siuru's activities was popularisation of literature among Estonian people, leading to the active development of original Estonian literature in the young Republic of Estonia. While the movement itself was short-lived, cut short by Estonian independence and the ensuing movement of national literature, its members rose to be major figures in Estonian literature through Estonia's first period of independence and in the exile Estonian literary community  during Soviet occupation.

Marie Under (1883–1980) was the leader of the movement, publishing her first book, Sonnets, in 1917. While her expressions of nature found a wide audience, her frank eroticism shocked conservatives, a motif she carried on in her subsequent works. Under went on to a long and distinguished literary career, publishing her last book in 1963.

Artur Adson (1889–1977) published his first collection of poems, The Burning Soul, in 1917. Both this and his next collection, Old Lantern (1919), consisted of juvenile love poems. Adson went on to widely expand his genre, including dealing with social issues in a classical form. Adson wrote numerous plays. His Four Kings, a drama on the Estonian uprising of 1343, is considered his most thrilling work. He continued to write in exile, also publishing several books of memoirs, the last in 1953. Adson was Marie Under's second husband.

References

Estonian literature
Expressionism
Neo-romanticism
1917 establishments in Estonia
Literary circles


Goraesan is a mountain in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Its area extends across Gapyeong County and Yeoju County. Goraesan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


The Institute for the Study and Elimination of Jewish Influence on German Church Life (German: Institut zur Erforschung und Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben) was a cross-church establishment by eleven German Protestant churches in Nazi Germany, founded at the instigation of the German Christian movement. It was set up in Eisenach under Siegfried Leffler and Walter Grundmann. Georg Bertram, professor of New Testament at the University of Giessen, who led the Institute from 1943 until the Institute's dissolution in May 1945, wrote about its goals in March 1944: "'This war is Jewry's war against Europe.' This sentence contains a truth which is again and again confirmed by the research of the Institute. This research work is not only adjusted to the frontal attack, but also to the strengthening of the inner front for attack and defence against all the covert Jewry and Jewish being, which has oozed into the Occidental Culture in the course of centuries, ... thus the Institute, in addition to the study and elimination of the Jewish influence, also has the positive task of understanding the own Christian German being and the organisation of a pious German life based on this knowledge."

The Institute produced a Bible without the Old Testament and remade the New Testament, removing the genealogies of Jesus that showed his Davidic descent. It removed Jewish names and places, quotations from the Old Testament (unless they showed Jews in a bad light), and any mentions of fulfilled Old Testament prophecies. It remade Jesus into a militaristic, heroic figure fighting the Jews using Nazified language.

In 1942, the Institute produced a hymn book, Grosser Gott wir loben Dich, which likewise removed any references to Zion, Jehovah, Jerusalem, Temple and Psalm. Words were substantially rewritten and many 19th- and 20th-century authors were represented who were previously not. It was about half the size of previous hymn books.

The Lutherhaus Eisenach has been showing the special exhibition Study and Eradication. The Church’s ‘Dejudaization Institute’, 1939–1945, which examines the institute’s historical background, origins, work and impact, since 2019. The exhibition will remain on display until the end of 2022.

Founding churches
The Evangelical Church in Central Germany, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany, Evangelical Lutheran Regional Church of Saxony, Evangelical Regional Church of Anhalt, Evangelical Church in Hesse and Nassau, Evangelical Lutheran Church in Oldenburg, Evangelical Church of the Palatinate (Protestant Regional Church) and Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Austria and Helvetic Confessions in Austria. The Union of Evangelical Churches was composed of individual member churches.

Bibliography
 Jochen Birkenmeier, Michael Weise: Study and Eradication. The Church’s „Dejudaization Institute“, 1939–1945. Companion Volume to the Exhibition, Eisenach: Stiftung Lutherhaus Eisenach 2020;

 Heschel, Susannah: The theological Faculty at the university of Jena as a Stronghold of national Socialism; in: Mordechai Feingold: History of Universities; Oxford 2003; S. 143–169;
  Susannah Heschel: Theologen für Hitler. Walter Grundmann und das „Institut zur Erforschung und Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben“; S. 125–170
  Fritz-Bauer-Institut (Hrsg.): „Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses …“ Antisemitische Forschung, Eliten und Karrieren im Nationalsozialismus; Jahrbuch 1998/99 zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust; Darmstadt 1999
  Hans Prolingheuer: Wir sind in die Irre gegangen. Die Schuld der Kirche unterm Hakenkreuz, nach dem Bekenntnis des "Darmstädter Wortes" von 1947, Köln: Pahl-Rugenstein 1987; .
  Eberhard Röhm, Jörg Thierfelder: Juden-Christen-Deutsche, Vol 3/II: 1938-1941; Calwer Taschenbibliothek 51; Stuttgart: Calwer Verlag 1995; ; S. 43–54
  Thomas A. Seidel (Hrsg.): Thüringer Gratwanderungen. Beiträge zur 75jährigen Geschichte der evangelischen Landeskirche Thüringens; Reihe: Herbergen der Christenheit. Jahrbuch für deutsche Kirchengeschichte, Sonderband 3; Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 1998;
  Erich Stegmann: Der Kirchenkampf in der Thüringer Evangelischen Kirche 1933-1945; Berlin: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt; Jena: Wartburg-Verlag Kessler, 1984;
  Leonore Siegele-Wenschkewitz (ed.): Christlicher Antijudaismus und Antisemitismus. Theologische und kirchliche Programme Deutscher Christen; Arnoldshainer Texte 85; Frankfurt am Main: Haag und Herchen, 1994; ; darin:
  Birgit Jerke: Wie wurde das Neue Testament zu einem sogenannten Volkstestament „entjudet“? Aus der Arbeit des Eisenacher „Instituts zur Erforschung und Beseitigung des jüdischen Einflusses auf das deutsche kirchliche Leben“;
  Birgit Gregor (=Jerke): Zum protestantischen Antisemitismus. Evangelische Kirchen und Theologen in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus; in: Jahrbuch 1998/99 zur Geschichte und Wirkung des Holocaust; Darmstadt 1999; S. 171–200
  Matthias Wolfes: Protestantische Theologie und moderne Welt – Studien zur Geschichte der liberalen Theologie nach 1918; Theologische Bibliothek Töpelmann 102; Berlin/New York 1999; S. 366–380;
  Peter von der Osten-Sacken (Hg.): Das mißbrauchte Evangelium. Studien zu Theologie und Praxis der Thüringer Deutschen Christen; Berlin: Institut Kirche und Judentum, 2002;
  Jan Björn Potthast: Das jüdische Zentralmuseum der SS in Prag. Gegnerforschung und Völkermord im Nationalsozialismus Frankfurt/Main, New York: 2002; S. 32f.

References

Nazi Party organizations
Nazi Germany and Protestantism
Biblical criticism


Gunamusan is a mountain in Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. Its area extends across Gapyeong County. Gunamusan has an elevation of .

See also
 List of mountains in Korea

Notes

References

Mountains of South Korea
Mountains of Gyeonggi Province


Landscape photography (often shortened to Landscape photos) shows the spaces within the world, sometimes vast and unending, but other times microscopic. Landscape photographs typically capture the presence of nature but can also focus on human-made features or disturbances of landscapes. Landscape photography is done for a variety of reasons. Perhaps the most common is to recall a personal observation or experience while in the outdoors, especially when traveling. Others pursue it particularly as an outdoor lifestyle, to be involved with nature and the elements, some as an escape from the artificial world.

Many landscape photographs show little or no human activity and are created in the pursuit of a pure, unsullied depiction of nature, devoid of human influence—instead featuring subjects such as strongly defined landforms, weather, and ambient light. As with most forms of art, the definition of a landscape photograph is broad and may include rural or urban settings, industrial areas or nature photography.

Environmentalism

Some of the most important and celebrated landscape photographers have been motivated by an appreciation of the beauty of the natural environment and a desire to see it preserved. The work of William Henry Jackson in the mid-19th century was instrumental in convincing Congress in 1872 to create Yellowstone, the first national park in the United States. Photography produced by Philip Hyde for the Sierra Club found extensive use in promoting the preservation of natural places in the Western United States during the 20th century. Renowned landscape photographer Ansel Adams received both a Conservation Service Award and a Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of the influence of his work on the preservation of wilderness and fostering of environmental consciousness.

Subjects

Landscape photography commonly involves daylight photography of natural features of land, sky and waters, at a distance—though some landscapes may involve subjects in a scenic setting nearby, even close-up, and sometimes at night.

Photography of artificial scenery, such as farm fields, orchards, gardens and architecture, may be considered "landscape" photography as well. Even the presence of human-made structures (buildings, roads and bridges, etc.) or art (such as sculpture) may be considered "landscape" if presented in artistic settings or appearing (or photographed) in artistic style.

Further, landscape photography is typically of relatively stationary subjects—arguably a form of "still life." This tends to simplify the task, as opposed to photography of kinetic or live subjects. However, landscape photography often overlaps the activity of wildlife photography and the two terms are used somewhat interchangeably; both wildlife and landscapes may be elements of the same picture or body of work.

Tourism
Landscape photography has become a big part of local economies throughout the world. Countries such as Scotland, Iceland, Faroe Islands, New Zealand, USA, Canada and countries in the European Alpine region are very popular with photography tourists and welcome people from all over the world. As a result of this, landscape photography workshops and tours have become big business in these countries. Apps have formed part of this experience telling users how to find the most popular locations and how to photograph them once there.

Methods (technical)
Landscape photography typically requires relatively simple photographic equipment, though more sophisticated equipment can give a wider range of possibilities to the art. An artist's eye for the subject can yield attractive and impressive results even with modest equipment.

Camera

Any ordinary (or sophisticated) camera—film camera or digital camera—can be readily used for common landscape photography. Higher-resolution and larger-format digital cameras (or larger-format film cameras) permit a greater amount of detail and a wider range of artistic presentation.

However, a larger-format camera yields a more limited depth of field (range of the scene that is in focus) for a given aperture value, requiring greater care in focusing (see: "Shutter Speed and Aperture", below).

A camera with "panorama" function or frame can permit very wide images suitable for capturing a panoramic view.

Lens

For "wide open spaces," a wide-angle lens is generally the preferred lens, allowing a broad angle of view. However, medium-range to telephoto lenses can achieve satisfying imagery, as well, and can enable the capture of detailed scenery of smaller areas at greater distances. Telephoto lenses can also facilitate limited ranges of focus, to enable the photographer to emphasize a specific area, at a fairly specific distance, in sharp focus, with the foreground and background blurred (see: depth of field). A big difference between a wide-angles lens and a telephoto lens is the compression of the landscape; the wider the angle the more distance will appear between the foreground and background elements; however, a telephoto lens will make the same elements appear closer to each other. Other lenses that can help include the fisheye lens for extremely wide angles and dramatic effect, and the macro/micro lens for extreme close-up work. While variable-range zoom lenses are widely used, some landscape photographers prefer fixed-range prime lenses to provide higher clarity and quality in the image.

Medium: film or digital sensor
The sensitivity to light, of the medium—the film or the digital camera sensor—is important in landscape photography, especially where great detail is required. In bright daylight, a "slow film" (low-ISO film), or low-ISO digital camera sensor sensitivity setting (typically ISO 100, or perhaps 200), is generally preferred, allowing maximum precision and evenness of image.

However, if there is movement in the scene, and the scene is in lower light—as with cloudy days, twilight, night, or in shaded areas—a higher ISO (up to the limits of the film or camera sensor, depending upon the shortage of light) may be desirable, to ensure that fast shutter speeds can be used to "freeze" the motion.

Lighting and flash

Normally, landscape photography—being focused primarily on natural beauty—tends to be done with only naturally occurring ambient light.

In some cases, however, artificial light is recommended or unavoidable. Careful use of flash, continuous artificial lighting or reflective surfaces (e.g.: reflectors) for "fill" in shadowy areas is often used in close-up landscape photography (e.g.: garden spaces, small areas of dark forests, etc.).

However, given the broad expanses of open space that tend to dominate in landscape photography, artificial lighting is typically ineffective, or even destructive (causing the foreground to be wildly over-lit, and the background to become overly dark).

Light at dawn or dusk, or just before or after those times (especially at sunrise, or during the "golden hour" just before sunset), is often considered the best for capturing detail, showing scenes in the best colors of light, or otherwise generating impressive and attractive images.

Shutter speed and aperture

With cameras that allow a variety of shutter speeds and lens apertures, landscape photographers tend to prefer settings that allow all of the viewed area to be in sharp focus. This typically requires a small aperture (a high f-stop, usually between 11 and 13 is best for clarity and depth of field), which creates only a small hole for the light to come into the camera from the lens, ensuring that as much of the field of view is in focus as possible (see: depth of field).

With a small aperture, however, a slower shutter speed (longer exposure) may be required to compensate for the limited amount of light squeezing in through the small aperture. This can be a problem if there are kinetic elements in the picture, such as moving animals (especially birds), people or vehicles. It can also be a problem if the environment is kinetic (in motion), such as wind blowing and shaking all the trees and plants in the scene, or if water is flowing. Slow shutter speeds can also be a problem if the photographer is in motion (such as shooting a scene from a moving vehicle).

Consequently, some compromise between shutter speed and aperture may be necessary, or advisable. To some extent, a higher-ISO film or digital camera setting can compensate without the need to alter shutter speed or aperture. However, higher ISO settings ("fast film") can result in grainy pictures and poor capture of details, especially at a distance.

In some cases, a slow shutter speed is desired to show movement of the subjects, particularly moving water or the effects of wind.

Filters

Filters can serve a wide range of purposes in landscape photography.

For instance, a polarizing filter can darken the sky, while allowing surface features to be shown in relatively sharper clarity. Polarizing filters also help with cutting glare from water reducing reflections, snow and ice—even facilitating greater transparency of water and ice.

Neutral density filters are darkened with a neutral (colorless) gray tint which reduces the amount of light entering the camera lens. These filters are used to lengthen shutter speeds without the need to alter aperture or film/sensor sensitivity, or alternatively, to use large apertures without exceeding the maximum shutter speed of a camera. A variation of this filter, termed the graduated neutral density filter or simply 'ND grad', transitions from dark, neutral gray on one side to clear on the opposite side. Photographers use these filters to lower natural contrasts by reducing light transmission from the brightest portion of the subject landscape, while letting light from the darker portion of the landscape enter the lens unobstructed.

UV-Zero haze filters reduce "purple fringing" caused by ultraviolet light, especially in digital situations. They are also recommended by some professional photographers as protection for the vulnerable lens, especially when outdoors or in dynamic situations.

Color filters can create other effects, or compensate for the appearance of unnatural lighting due to camera characteristics.

Other accommodations

In order to mitigate shaking associated with hand-holding a camera, landscape photography oftentimes requires a firm camera footing which affords the potential for sharper imagery. Tripods are specifically designed for stabilizing cameras and are widely regarded as essential equipment for landscape photography. However, any firm surface unaffected by vibration, wind or human contact may offer similar benefits. The use of a timer, remote control or cable release allows the shutter to be tripped without the introduction of vibration that might result from manually depressing the shutter button.

Some modern, high-quality cameras also provide image stabilization, which compensates for vibration by moving inner workings of the camera, or electronically correcting the photograph.

Because landscape photography is normally outdoors photography, protection from the elements can be helpful. Shooting from inside a sheltering structure or stationary vehicle (engine off, occupants stationary) can be helpful. Use of an umbrella or other shield to keep camera and photographer dry can also be helpful. A waterproof container for the camera, with drying agent inside (e.g.: dry cloth) may be advised, and experts advise that the camera should be shielded from blowing dust, snow, and rain, and extremely harsh direct sunlight.

See also

Nature photographers
Aerial photography
Landscape painting
North American Nature Photography Association
Underwater photography

References

Further reading

 The Four (4) Principles of Fine Art Photography Creation Fine art photography creation process consists of four principles: Conception or Vision, Composition, Style and the use of technics or tools.