The nematodes (  or ; ; ) roundworms or eelworms, constitute the phylum Nematoda. They are a diverse animal phylum inhabiting a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but there are many that are parasitic. The parasitic worms (helminths) are the cause of soil-transmitted helminthiases.

They are taxonomically classified along with arthropods, tardigrades and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa. Unlike the vaguely similar flatworms, nematodes have a tubular digestive system, with openings at both ends. Like tardigrades, they have a reduced number of Hox genes, but their sister phylum Nematomorpha has kept the ancestral protostome Hox genotype, which shows that the reduction has occurred within the nematode phylum.

Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species are uncertain. A 2013 survey of animal biodiversity published in the mega journal Zootaxa puts this figure at over 25,000. Estimates of the total number of extant species are subject to even greater variation. A widely referenced article published in 1993 estimated there may be over 1 million species of nematode. A subsequent publication challenged this claim, estimating the figure to be at least 40,000 species. Although the highest estimates (up to 100 million species) have since been deprecated, estimates supported by rarefaction curves, together with the use of DNA barcoding and the increasing acknowledgment of widespread cryptic species among nematodes, have placed the figure closer to 1 million species.

Nematodes have successfully adapted to nearly every ecosystem: from marine (salt) to fresh water, soils, from the polar regions to the tropics, as well as the highest to the lowest of elevations. They are ubiquitous in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial environments, where they often outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts, and are found in locations as diverse as mountains, deserts, and oceanic trenches. They are found in every part of the earth's lithosphere, even at great depths,  below the surface of the Earth in gold mines in South Africa. They represent 90% of all animals on the ocean floor.
In total, 4.4 × 1020 nematodes inhabit the Earth's topsoil, or approximately 60 billion for each human, with the highest densities observed in tundra and boreal forests.
Their numerical dominance, often exceeding a million individuals per square meter and accounting for about 80% of all individual animals on earth, their diversity of lifecycles, and their presence at various trophic levels point to an important role in many ecosystems.
They have been shown to play crucial roles in polar ecosystems.
The roughly 2,271 genera are placed in 256 families.
The many parasitic forms include pathogens in most plants and animals. A third of the genera occur as parasites of vertebrates; about 35 nematode species occur in humans.

Nathan Cobb, a nematologist, described the ubiquity of nematodes on Earth thus:In short, if all the matter in the universe except the nematodes were swept away, our world would still be dimly recognizable, and if, as disembodied spirits, we could then investigate it, we should find its mountains, hills, vales, rivers, lakes, and oceans represented by a film of nematodes. The location of towns would be decipherable since, for every massing of human beings, there would be a corresponding massing of certain nematodes. Trees would still stand in ghostly rows representing our streets and highways. The location of the various plants and animals would still be decipherable, and, had we sufficient knowledge, in many cases even their species could be determined by an examination of their erstwhile nematode parasites.

Etymology
The word nematode comes from the Modern Latin compound of nemat- "thread" (from Greek nema, genitive nematos "thread," from stem of nein "to spin"; see needle) + -odes "like, of the nature of" (see -oid).

Taxonomy and systematics

History
In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera (e.g., Ascaris), then included in the Vermes.

The name of the group Nematoda, informally called "nematodes", came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi (1808), from Ancient Greek νῆμα (nêma, nêmatos, 'thread') and -eiδἠς (-eidēs, 'species'). It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister (1837).

At its origin, the "Nematoidea" erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda, and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa, created by Rudolphi (1808). They were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete phylum Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur (1859).

In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda. In 1877, the taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. The first clear distinction between the nemas and gordiids was realized by Vejdovsky when he named a group to contain the horsehair worms the order Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum. He argued they should be called "nema" in English rather than "nematodes" and defined the taxon Nemates (later emended as Nemata, Latin plural of nema), listing Nematoidea sensu restricto as a synonym.

However, in 1910, Grobben proposed the phylum Aschelminthes and the nematodes were included as class Nematoda along with class Rotifera, class Gastrotricha, class Kinorhyncha, class Priapulida, and class Nematomorpha (The phylum was later revived and modified by Libbie Henrietta Hyman in 1951 as Pseudoceolomata, but remained similar). In 1932, Potts elevated the class Nematoda to the level of phylum, leaving the name the same. Despite Potts' classification being equivalent to Cobbs', both names have been used (and are still used today) and Nematode became a popular term in zoological science.

Since Cobb was the first to include nematodes in a particular phylum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda, because of the zoological rule that gives priority to the first used term in case of synonyms.

Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a sister taxon to the parasitic Nematomorpha; together, they make up the Nematoida. Along with the Scalidophora (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the clade Cycloneuralia, but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum.

For an up-to-date view (as of 2022), see https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fevo.2021.769565/full.

Nematode systematics
Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An early and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood—later revised by Chitwood—who divided the phylum into two classes—Aphasmidia and Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea (gland bearers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively. The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not in a uniform group.

Initial studies of incomplete DNA sequences suggested the existence of five clades:
 Dorylaimida
 Enoplia
 Spirurina
 Tylenchina
 Rhabditina

The Secernentea seem to be a natural group of close relatives, while the "Adenophorea" appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms that retain a good number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia do not seem to be monophyletic, either, but do contain two distinct lineages. The old group "Chromadoria" seems to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the Monhysterida representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the Diplogasteria may need to be united with the Rhabditia, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia.

The understanding of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below:

Phylum Nematoda
 Basal order Monhysterida
 Class Dorylaimida
 Class Enoplea
 Class Secernentea
 Subclass Diplogasteria (disputed)
 Subclass Rhabditia (paraphyletic?)
 Subclass Spiruria
 Subclass Tylenchia (disputed)
 "Chromadorea" assemblage

Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades. The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea.

In 2019, a study identified one conserved signature indel (CSI) found exclusively in members of the phylum Nematoda through comparative genetic analyses. The CSI consists of a single amino acid insertion within a conserved region of a Na(+)/H(+) exchange regulatory factor protein NRFL-1 and is a molecular marker that distinguishes the phylum from other species.

A major effort by a collaborative wiki called 959 Nematode Genomes is underway to improve the systematics of this phylum.

An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid
 subclass Dorylaimia
 orders Rhabditida, Trichinellida and Mermithida
 suborder Rhabditina
 infraorders Spiruromorpha and Oxyuridomorpha

In 2022 a new classification of the entire phylum Nematoda was presented by M. Hodda. It was based on current molecular, developmental and morphological evidence.

Anatomy

Nematodes are very small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100 µm thick, and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as , and some parasitic species are larger still, reaching over  in length. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other distinctive structures.

The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid 'head-shields' radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner edges. An adhesive 'caudal gland' is often found at the tip of the tail.

The epidermis is either a syncytium or a single layer of cells, and is covered by a thick collagenous cuticle. The cuticle is often of a complex structure and may have two or three distinct layers. Underneath the epidermis lies a layer of longitudinal muscle cells. The relatively rigid cuticle works with the muscles to create a hydroskeleton, as nematodes lack circumferential muscles. Projections run from the inner surface of muscle cells towards the nerve cords; this is a unique arrangement in the animal kingdom, in which nerve cells normally extend fibers into the muscles rather than vice versa.

Digestive system
The oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened with structures, such as ridges, especially in carnivorous species, which may bear a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp stylet, which the animal can thrust into its prey. In some species, the stylet is hollow and can be used to suck liquids from plants or animals.

The oral cavity opens into a muscular, sucking pharynx, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this region of the gut, producing enzymes that start to break down the food. In stylet-bearing species, these may even be injected into the prey.

No stomach is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the bunghole just below and in front of the tip of the tail. The movement of food through the digestive system is the result of the body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.

Excretory system
Nitrogenous waste is excreted in the form of ammonia through the body wall, and is not associated with any specific organs. However, the structures for excreting salt to maintain osmoregulation are typically more complex.

In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular 'renette glands' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialized cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.

Nervous system

At the anterior end of the animal a dense, circular nerve ring which serves as the brain surrounds the pharynx. From this ring six labial papillary nerve cords extend anteriorly, while six nerve cords; a large ventral, a smaller dorsal and two pairs of sublateral cords extend posteriorly. Each nerve lies within a cord of connective tissue lying beneath the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The ventral nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretory pore. The dorsal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions.

The nervous system is also the only place in the nematode body that contains cilia, which are all nonmotile and with a sensory function.

The bodies of nematodes are covered in numerous sensory bristles and papillae that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head lie two small pits, or 'amphids'. These are well supplied with nerve cells and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be pigmented eye-spots, but whether or not these are actually sensory in nature is unclear.

Reproduction

Most nematode species are dioecious, with separate male and female individuals, though some, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, are androdioecious, consisting of hermaphrodites and rare males. Both sexes possess one or two tubular gonads. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testis opens into a relatively wide seminal vesicle and then during intercourse into a glandular and muscular ejaculatory duct associated with the vas deferens and cloaca. In females, the ovaries each open into an oviduct (in hermaphrodites, the eggs enter a spermatheca first) and then a glandular uterus. The uteri both open into a common vulva/vagina, usually located in the middle of the morphologically ventral surface.

Reproduction is usually sexual, though hermaphrodites are capable of self-fertilization. Males are usually smaller than females or hermaphrodites (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent or fan-shaped tail. During copulation, one or more chitinized spicules move out of the cloaca and are inserted into the genital pore of the female. Amoeboid sperm crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin.

Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the lifecycle is often much more complicated. The structure of the eggshell is complicated and includes several layers; a detailed anatomical and terminological framework has been proposed for these layers in 2023.

Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction. Some nematodes, such as Heterorhabditis spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida: intrauterine birth causing maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low food supply.

The nematode model species C. elegans, C. briggsae, and Pristionchus pacificus, among other species, exhibit androdioecy, which is otherwise very rare among animals. The single genus Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes) exhibits a range of reproductive modes, including sexual reproduction, facultative sexuality (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both meiotic and mitotic parthenogenesis.

The genus Mesorhabditis exhibits an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which sperm-producing males copulate with females, but the sperm do not fuse with the ovum. Contact with the sperm is essential for the ovum to begin dividing, but because no fusion of the cells occurs, the male contributes no genetic material to the offspring, which are essentially clones of the female.

Free-living species
Different free-living species feed on materials as varied as bacteria, algae, fungi, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms, and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note, C. elegans, lives in the soil and has found much use as a model organism. C. elegans has had its entire genome sequenced, the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.

Parasitic species

Nematodes that commonly parasitise humans include ascarids (Ascaris), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (Enterobius), and whipworms (Trichuris trichiura). The species Trichinella spiralis, commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. Baylisascaris usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. Dirofilaria immitis is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. Haemonchus contortus is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects.

One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens.

A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, Myrmeconema neotropicum, apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical ant Cephalotes atratus. Infected ants develop bright red gasters (abdomens), tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause frugivorous birds to confuse the infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's feces are subsequently collected by foraging C. atratus and are fed to their larvae, thus completing the lifecycle of M. neotropicum.

Similarly, multiple varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavities of the primitively social sweat bee, Lasioglossum zephyrus. Inside the female body, the nematode hinders ovarian development and renders the bee less active, thus less effective in pollen collection.

Agriculture and horticulture
Depending on its species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which kill garden pests; and the pest nematodes, which attack plants, or act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants.
Predatory nematodes include Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita which is a lethal parasite of gastropods such as slugs and snails. Some members of the genus Steinernema such as Steinernema carpocapsae and Steinernema riobrave are generalist parasites of webworms, cutworms, armyworms, girdlers, some weevils, wood-borers and corn earworm moths. These organisms are grown commercially as biological pest control agents which can be used as an alternative to pesticides; their use is considered very safe. Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses, taking 10% of crops worldwide every year. The most common genera are Aphelenchoides (foliar nematodes), Ditylenchus, Globodera (potato cyst nematodes), Heterodera (soybean cyst nematodes), Longidorus, Meloidogyne (root-knot nematodes), Nacobbus, Pratylenchus (lesion nematodes), Trichodorus, and Xiphinema (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is Xiphinema index, vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is Xiphinema diversicaudatum, vector of arabis mosaic virus. Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe. This nematode is transmitted from tree to tree by sawyer beetles (Monochamus).

Greenhouse growers use beneficial nematodes to control fungus gnats, the nematodes enter the larva of the gnats by way of their anus, mouth, and spiracles (breathing pores) and  then release a bacteria which kills the gnat larvae; commonly used nematode species to control pests on greenhouse crops include Steinernema feltiae for fungus gnats and western flower thrips, Steinernema carpocapsae used to control shore flies, Steinernema kraussei for control of black vine weevils, and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora to control beetle larvae.

Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus Gliocladium roseum. Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of soybean, corn, sugar beet, potato, and tomato crops without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil. Soil steaming is an efficient method to kill nematodes before planting a crop, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and beneficial soil fauna.

The golden nematode Globodera rostochiensis is a particularly harmful variety of nematode pest that has resulted in quarantines and crop failures worldwide. CSIRO has found a 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Chinese mustard Brassica juncea green manure or seed meal in the soil.

Epidemiology

A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting human beings, including ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm disease. Filarial nematodes cause filariases. Furthermore, studies have shown that parasitic nematodes infect American eels causing damage to the eel's swim bladder, dairy animals like cattle and buffalo, and all species of sheep.

Gastrointestinal nematode infections in humans are common, with approximately 50% of the global population being affected. Developing countries are most heavily impacted, in part due to lack of access to medical care.

Soil ecosystems

About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15 cm (6") of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, but, instead, are parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial population and community composition—they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by way of nitrogen mineralization.

One group of carnivorous fungi, the nematophagous fungi, are predators of soil nematodes. They set enticements for the nematodes in the form of lassos or adhesive structures.

Survivability

Nematode worms (C. elegans), part of an ongoing research project conducted on the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia mission STS-107, survived the re-entry breakup. It is believed to be the first known life form to survive a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to Earth's surface. In a research project published in 2012, it was found that the Antarctic Nematodes (P. davidi) was able to withstand intracellular freezing depending on how well it was fed. In 2023 it was reported that nematodes belonging to a species named Panagrolaimus kolymaensis had been revived after 46,000 years in Siberian permafrost.

See also

 Soil food web
 : A helminth infection of humans caused by the dog or cat roundworm, Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati

References

Further reading

External links

 Harper Adams University College Nematology Research
 Nematodes/roundworms of man
 http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/phyla/ecdysozoa/nematoda.html
 European Society of Nematologists
 Nematode.net: Repository of parasitic nematode sequences.
 http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020914155908/http://www.nematodes.org/
 NeMys World free-living Marine Nematodes database
 Nematode Virtual Library
 International Federation of Nematology Societies
 Society of Nematologists
 Australasian Association of Nematologists
 Research on nematodes and longevity
 Nematode on BBC
 Nematode worms in an aquarium
 Phylum Nematoda – nematodes on the UF / *IFAS Featured Creatures Web site

Articles containing video clips
Nematoida
Composting
Garden pests
Organic gardening
Pest control
Extant Early Devonian first appearances
Extremophiles
Cosmopolitan animals


The Finally LP is a compilation album by Mark Kozelek. The CD was released on December 9, 2008 via Caldo Verde Records. From the press release:

The compilation includes a country-tinged version of "Lazy" by Low, "Bedtime Lullaby," which first appeared in an animated featurette on an episode of the children's show Yo Gabba Gabba! (season 1/episode 5), and an acoustic version of Stephen Sondheim's "Send in the Clowns" recorded for the Minneapolis Bridge Disaster benefit CD. The album also includes radio show rarities, a previously unreleased version of Hüsker Dü's "Celebrated Summer" and two previously unreleased instrumentals, "The Piano Song" and "Gaping Mouth."

The Finally LP was released on 12" vinyl in October 2009, and features two exclusive bonus tracks: a cover of "Indian Summer" (originally by The Doors) and a live version of "Send in the Clowns."

Track listing
 "Piano Song" (Kozelek) – 1:44
 "Finally" (Kath Bloom) – 2:11
 "New Partner" (Will Oldham) – 3:34
 "Send in the Clowns" (Stephen Sondheim) – 2:55
 "Lazy" (Alan Sparhawk, Mimi Parker, Zak Sally) – 3:30
 "Bedtime Lullaby" (Jarond Gibbs) – 1:31
 "Celebrated Summer" (Bob Mould) – 3:37
 "My Friend Bob" (Dom Leone) – 2:59
 "If You Want Blood" (Live in Lisbon) (Bon Scott, Angus Young, Malcolm Young) – 3:11
 "Gaping Mouth" (Kozelek) – 5:12

Vinyl-only bonus track
 "Indian Summer" (Jim Morrison)
 "Send in the Clowns" (Live) (Stephen Sondheim)

Credits
 Mark Kozelek - vocals, guitar, producer
 Anthony Koutsos - percussion
 Dylan Magierek - engineer
 Aaron Prellwitz - engineer, mastering
 Nyree Watts - photography
 David Rager - design

References

Mark Kozelek albums
2008 compilation albums
Caldo Verde Records albums
Albums produced by Mark Kozelek
Covers albums


János Fliszár (; June 21, 1856 – June 21, 1947) was a Hungarian Slovenian translator, poet, writer, journalist, and teacher.

He was born in the village of Šalamenci in the Prekmurje region of the Kingdom of Hungary; his parents were Miklós Fliszár and Ilona Zsibrik. He enrolled in the elementary school in Puconci in 1862, and later studied in Nemescsó near Kőszeg. Until 1868 he studied at the Lutheran Lyceum in Sopron, graduating in June 1875. In October the same year he started working as teacher in Križevci. There he was married to the daughter of the writer János Berke in 1878 (she died in 1905).

In 1911 he retired and worked in Murska Sobota. Until 1923 he worked as the director of the Murska Sobota dormitory.

Fliszár wrote some poetry and translated the Hungarian literature (by János Arany, Kálmán Mikszáth, Sándor Petőfi, Mór Jókai, etc.). His translations were published in the United States, in the newspaper Amerikanszki Szlovencov glász, published by the Hungarian Slovenian and Prekmurje immigrants to the United States.

After World War I, Fliszár lived in Yugoslavia and supported radical Hungarian irredentism. His Magyar-vend szótár (Hungarian-Slovene Dictionary) contains 50,000 words.

See also

List of Slovene writers and poets in Hungary

References
Fliszár János
Zalai Hírlap - Szlovén és Magyar oldalon

Slovenian writers and poets in Hungary
Hungarian journalists
Slovenian journalists
Hungarian irredentism
1856 births
1947 deaths
People from the Municipality of Puconci
Journalists from Austria-Hungary


7 Songs Belfast is a live EP by Mark Kozelek. The limited edition CD was made available in July 2008, as a free gift with any order of a CD, t-shirt or vinyl record purchased via Caldo Verde Records' website. Starting from September 1, 2008, the EP was made available as a digital download. Tracks 1-6 were recorded live at the Blackbox in Belfast on November 4, 2007, and track 7 was recorded live at the Dancehouse Theatre in Manchester on October 30, 2007.

Track listing

Notes
 Mark Kozelek – vocals, guitar
 Phil Carney – guitar
 Photography by Nyree Watts
 Design by Brian Azer

References

2008 EPs
Mark Kozelek albums
Caldo Verde Records albums
Albums produced by Mark Kozelek


TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II is the reserve team of German association football club TSG 1899 Hoffenheim, based in Hoffenheim, Baden-Württemberg. The team has been playing in the tier four Regionalliga since 2010.

History
With the rise of the first team the club's reserve side, TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II, started to climb through the ranks, too. It entered the Verbandsliga Baden in 2001, only a year after the senior team had won this league, and won promotion to the Oberliga Baden-Württemberg in its second season there after coming second in the Verbandsliga.

After seven seasons in the Oberliga where it gradually improved season by season the team won promotion to the Regionalliga Süd after a league title in 2010. With the disbanding of the Regionalliga Süd in 2012 Hoffenheim II became part of the new Regionalliga Südwest.

Players

Current squad

Staff

Honours
The club's honours:
 Oberliga Baden-Württemberg (V)
 Champions: 2010
 Runners-up: 2009
 Verbandsliga Nordbaden (V)
 Runners-up: 2002, 2003
 Landesliga Nordbaden II
 Champions: 2001

Recent seasons
The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

 With the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 and the 3. Liga in 2008 as the new third tier, below the 2. Bundesliga, all leagues below dropped one tier. In 2012, the number of Regionalligas was increased from three to five with all Regionalliga Süd clubs except the Bavarian ones entering the new Regionalliga Südwest.

Key

References

External links
  (German and English available)
 TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II at Weltfussball.de
 TSG 1899 Hoffenheim II at fupa.net

II
German reserve football teams
Baden-Württemberg reserve football teams


Ephraim Laman (Lamen) Zox (22 October 1837 – 23 October 1899) was an Australian financier and politician.

Family
Zox was according to some sources born in Liverpool, England, son of Eliazer Laman Zox (died 1882), proprietor of a large cap-making business.

It seems more likely that he was born in London. In the 1851 London Census Ephraim's place of birth, like that of all his siblings, was given as London, where the family were living.  Their address was Long Acre, near London's Covent Garden, and their cap manufacturer father's place of birth was given as Prussia; the mother's birthplace was not given.

Immigrant
Ephraim arrived in Melbourne in December 1852 and worked as an assistant to his cousin Lewis Myer Myers (1830-1891), in a soft goods firm. From 1863 he partnered with Myers in a warehouse business; and, for about five years from 1866, his brother Joseph joined him in Melbourne. On 15 May 1879 his partnership with Myers was dissolved by mutual consent, and the next year he set up on his own as 'financial agent and arbitrator', Collins Street West.

Justice of the Peace
He was appointed Justice of the Peace for the "Melbourne District" in May 1874.

Politician
Following the death of Edward Cohen in April 1877, Zox was elected to the Legislative Assembly seat of East Melbourne in May 1877—he was one of the 27 newly elected members—and served in that capacity until his own death in 1899.

A conservative, he opposed payment of members and protection amid the bitter party strife which accompanied Sir Graham Berry's second government, and such measures as income tax and female suffrage in the 1890s. A supporter of the coalitions of the 1880s and of Sir James Patterson's ministry, he was more consistent and predictable than many of his contemporaries.

He was a flamboyant figure, invariably dressed in a white waistcoat so pristine in appearance that he was jocularly said to have 365 of them, one for every day of the year.

Good natured, genial and popular, he spoke in Parliament in a typically bantering style, and his puns were a byword, but he was less at ease on serious subjects. He was a keen student of Shakespeare and stories were told of his remarkable aptitude for arithmetic. He was a 'useful and painstaking' chairman of the royal commissions on asylums for the insane and inebriate (reported 1884–86), on banking laws (1887) and on charitable institutions (1890, 1891, 1895); he was also a member of the commissions on the working of the Friendly Societies Statute (1875–77) and the tariff (1881–83).

Jewish community
Zox was president of the Melbourne Hebrew congregation in 1883–85, treasurer of the Melbourne Hebrew School in 1883 and president of the Melbourne Jewish Club in 1885. In 1890 he chaired a meeting of the Melbourne branch of the Anglo-Jewish Association of London which protested against Jewish persecution in Russia.

Charities
He was vice-president of the Discharged Prisoners' Aid Society from 1885 and chairman in 1898–99, a director of the Royal Humane Society of Australasia and a board member of several hospitals.

He was prominent in the Manchester Unity Order of Oddfellows.

Zox suffered financial reverses in the early 1890s, but was still known for his earnest devotion to charitable movements and for his ready assistance to 'forlorn wayfarers'.

Death
He died, aged 62, on 23 October 1899, in a private hospital at St Kilda of pneumonia brought on by influenza.

He was buried in the Melbourne General Cemetery.

His estate, valued for probate at £4400, was left to his two brothers and two sisters in London and a sister in Cape Town, South Africa.

Notes

References
 Cooper, J.B. (1931), The History of St Kilda, Volume 2, Melbourne: Printers Proprietary Limited.
 L.E. Fredman, L.E. (1955), "Some Victorian Jewish Politicians", Australian Jewish Historical Society Journal and Proceedings, Vol.4, Part 3, (1955), pp.97-115.
 Goldman, L.M. (1954), The Jews in Victoria in the Nineteenth Century, Melbourne: Lazarus Morris Goldman.
 Rubinstein, Hilary L. (1985), The Jews in Victoria 1835-1985, Sydney: George Allen & Unwin.
 Wilmot, W.R.E., "The Block Revisited", The Argus Camera Supplement, (Saturday, 3 May 1930), p.3.
 Melbourne Hebrew Congregation, Annual reports (Synagogue Archives).

1837 births
1899 deaths
Members of the Victorian Legislative Assembly
Jewish Australian politicians
19th-century Australian politicians
19th-century Australian businesspeople
Businesspeople from Liverpool


was a one-minute-long station identification video that aired on Nippon Television in Japan when the station signs on in the morning and signs off at night.

History
The program began broadcasting on August 28, 1953 in black and white and then when colour television introduced to Japan on July 1, 1972, it added little colorful doves forming a circle. The video was discontinued on 1 October 2001, but a new version of the video was aired regularly from April 1, 2008 as a part of the station's 55th anniversary celebrations.

Synopsis
The video is accompanied by a custom-made orchestra piece (composed by Shirō Fukai), and features three doves, each representing the three televisions networks in Japan at the time (NHK, Nippon Television and TBS). The doves begin to fly off one by one, and eventually, only one dove remains: the one representing Nippon Television.

Although more national television networks began broadcasting, no new doves were added to represent these new networks. Instead, in the 2008 version made for NTV's 55th anniversary, all of the six national TV networks (including TV Asahi, TV Tokyo and Tokyo MX) were represented by the six dots (which form a circle) that were formed in place of the doves.

The video is then followed by standard station identification. This part has changed a few times over the years.

The music to the video was rearranged twice, in 1972 and 1978, the latter of the two was performed by The Yomiuri Nippon Symphony Orchestra.

Cancellation and Reairing
Due to reasons unknown, the program was pulled from the air on 2000, and was replaced by a simple station identification program announcing the handover to NNN News 24's overnight simulcast, and also by a static image of NTV's control room. However, the voice for the resumption of this program was strong, and in 2003,  a new version of the ident in CGI was produced, with refined graphics and made for the then-new technology of digital terrestrial television. Between 2003 and 2008, the analog feed aired a simple animation of the Nippon Television logo forming up. In 2008, as a part of the station's 55th Anniversary celebrations, the clip got a new, shortened version.

Just before midnight on July 24, 2011, the date of Japanese analog television switchoff in most regions, the original (colour) version was broadcast on NTV's analog signal in Tokyo, with the addition of "58年間ありがとうございました" (Thank you for 58 years) to the NTV logo screen. This was not broadcast on other stations affiliated with NNN/NNS, which aired their own station identifications after broadcasting their analog television termination notices.

Re-Cancellation
In celebration of Nippon Television's 60th anniversary, the network rebranded on January 5, 2014, and started airing another simple animation featuring the channel's logo with the slogan "Mitai, Ga sekai o kaete iku (見たい、が世界を変えていく, lit. "Watching will change the world")

References

External links
 Hato no kyujitsu on YouTube

Nippon TV original programming
1953 Japanese television series debuts
2001 Japanese television series endings
2008 Japanese television series debuts
2014 Japanese television series endings
Television presentation
Television series about birds


is a Japanese economist originally from Kyoto Prefecture. He used to be a professor at Jobu University until 2012.  His current appointments are a visiting professor at SBI Graduate School in Yokohama, Kanagawa, a lecturer at Aoyama Gakuin University, and the Chief Executive Officer of Agora Institute.

Works

Note

External links
OpenSpectrum Japan
Personal blog of Nobuo Ikeda
Writing by Nobuo Ikeda
Japanese Blogger Today
"Blogs as Formal Objection" - translation of blog post by Nobuo Ikeda
"Economics of the Illegal Download" - translation of blog post by Nobuo Ikeda

Japanese economists
Japanese male bloggers
Living people
1953 births
University of Tokyo alumni
Keio University alumni


The Deighton Family is an English folk ensemble from Yorkshire, England. The group is led by husband and wife Dave and Josie Deighton, and the five other members are their children, Maya, Arthur, Kathleen, Rosalie and Angelina.

The Deighton Family's first album was released in 1980. Their second album, Acoustic Music to Suit Most Occasions, was named Record of the Year by NPR in the U.S. in 1989. A third full-length album was released in 1991.

Kathleen Deighton-Cousins died from cancer on 24 December 2010.

Members
Dave Deighton – melodeon, harmonica, fiddle, guitar, vocals
Josie Deighton – guitar, bodhran
Maya Deighton – tin whistle, flute
Arthur Deighton – mandolin, guitar, piano
Kathleen Deighton – fiddle
Rosalie Deighton – vocals, drums, mandolin
Angelina Deighton – drums

Discography
Mama Was Right (Philo Records, 1980)
Acoustic Music to Suit Most Occasions (Philo, 1988)
Rolling Home (Green Linnet Records, 1991)

References

English folk musical groups
Musical groups from Yorkshire and the Humber
Family musical groups
Green Linnet Records artists


Jalan Kota Bahagia-Melati, Federal Route 2489, is a federal road in Pahang, Malaysia. It is a main route to Bandar Muadzam Shah via Tun Razak Highway.

At most sections, the Federal Route 2489 was built under the JKR R5 road standard, with a speed limit of 90 km/h.

List of junctions

Malaysian Federal Roads


The TSV Vestenbergsgreuth is a German association football club from the village of Vestenbergsgreuth, Franconia. From 1996 to 2007, the club did not field a team due to a merger with SpVgg Fürth, but has since returned to competitive football as a separate side.

TSV is best known for its 1–0 victory over FC Bayern Munich in the opening round of the 1994–95 DFB-Pokal, which eliminated that club from cup play just three months after they had claimed the Bundesliga title.

History

Beginnings
Formed on 1 February 1974 in the small village of Vestenbergsgreuth, the club entered the local C-Klasse Bamberg Gruppe 3 (VIII), then the lowest division in the region. Greuth was an immediate success in the league, winning it unbeaten and earning the right to play against FC Wacker Trailsdorf for promotion, a game which was won 2–1 in front of 2,000 spectators.

Rise
The season after, the club took out the league championship again, now in the B-Klasse Bamberg Gruppe 3 (VII) and was promoted once more. However, it did suffer a couple of first league defeats. At the beginning of the next season, the club opened its current ground on 1 August 1976 with a friendly against SpVgg Fürth, which ended in a 1–1 draw.

In the A-Klasse Erlangen-Forchheim (VI) in 1976–77, the club's rise came to a brief halt when it "only" finished fourth. By leaving the Bamberg region for Erlangen, the club had also made the transition from the Oberfranken FA to the Mittelfranken FA. The season after, it missed out on the title by one point, finishing second. In its third attempt, Greuth then won the league in 1978–79 and earned promotion to the Bezirksliga Mittelfranken-Nord (V). In an unusual friendly, the club played a football match against the ice hockey team of CSKA Moscow and lost 1–2.

The Bezirksliga proved to be less of a hindrance to the club's rise than the A-Klasse was and it won the league in its first season there. It also remained unbeaten during the regular season but then lost the first promotion decider to TuS Feuchtwangen 1–2, in front of 4,000 spectators. In the second decider however, now against TSV Lindberg, the club managed to win 4–2 and earn promotion to the Landesliga Bayern-Mitte (IV).

Landesliga years
The Landesliga proved more difficult than the Bezirksliga and the club ended up on ninth rank in midfield, on level points, a new situation for the team. The following season saw a decline in performance and the team could only finish twelfth but the formation of a youth team was a positive development for the club. Greuth started to become a fixture in the mid- to lower-table ranks of the Landesliga, even having to survive a relegation match against ASV Herzogenaurach (5–3 after penalties for TSV) in 1984, until in 1984–85, some progress could be made with a fourth spot. The next season, the team improved by a spot and also won the local Middle Franconian Cup (German: Mittelfranken Pokal) with a 1–0 victory over 1. FC Nürnberg II. It missed out on qualifying for the German Cup when losing 1–3 to FC Augsburg on state level.

The 1986–87 season became the highlight of the club's history so far. Winning the Landesliga championship and therefore earning promotion to the Amateur Oberliga Bayern (III), the highest league in the state of Bavaria, the team managed to win all 17 of its home games. Greuth also won the Mittelfranken Cup again, through a 2–1 victory in extra time against Südwest Nürnberg. This time, on state level, it succeeded, too, beating FC Bayern Hof 2–0 and earning the right to play in the 1987–88 DFB-Pokal.

Bayernliga years
The club's first appearance in the German Cup was a short one, a 0–4 defeat against SV Darmstadt 98 of the 2. Bundesliga ended its progress. In the Bayernliga, Vestenbergsgreuth continued its amazing performance, taking the league by surprise. The club's unbeaten series at home came to an end on 12 December 1987 when a 0–1 defeat to SpVgg Unterhaching ended 26-month of being unbeaten at home. Unterhaching was also the team, that Greuth came second to in its first year in the third division. Through this, the club qualified for the German amateur football championship, where it reached the semi-finals before being knocked out by the VfB Oldenburg.

In its second year in the league, the team came third but managed to take out the Mittelfranken Cup for a third time, with a 1–0 after extra time over the Spvgg Fürth. The team however failed to reach the German Cup again, being knocked out by the SpVgg Plattling in the state finals. With a fourth place in the Bayernliga and a lost Mittelfranken Cup final, to Fürth, the next season was a little less successful. In 1990–91, the team dropped to a tenth place and again lost the cup final to Fürth.

The 1991–92 season became something of a repeat of 1987–88. Again, the club finished runners-up to SpVgg Unterhaching and again it played in the German amateur championship. Two wins, a draw and a loss meant, the team failed to reach the final. On the positive side, the club's under-19 side achieved promotion to the A-Jugend Bayernliga Nord, the highest league at this level, where it was able to measure itself on the youth side of the 1. FC Nürnberg. The year after, the club finished fourth in the league again, which was important because the 1992, 1993 and 1994 placings were what counted to qualify for the new Regionalliga Süd, which was to start in 1994.

In its last Bayernliga year to-date, the club finished only eighth but it proved to be enough to gain one of the six available spots to the Regionalliga for 1994–95. Another Cup win, 6–2 against the SpVgg Ansbach, followed by a win over Schwaben Cup winner SC Altenmünster, meant qualification to the 1994–95 DFB-Pokal.

Regionalliga years

The Cup game
On 14 August 1994, in the first round of the German Cup, the club shot to fame: Beating the German champions FC Bayern Munich 1–0 in the Frankenstadion in Nuremberg, the goal having been scored by Roland Stein. It was Bayern's first competitive match under new manager Giovanni Trapattoni and one of the greatest upsets in German Cup history. Bayern had to "live with the humiliation", as Lothar Matthäus put it and, apart from making front page in Germany and Italy, like in the Gazzetta dello Sport, even a memorial stone was erected. For Bayern, it was not the first lapse either, the club had already lost to the amateurs of FV Weinheim in 1990 and in later years lost to 1. FC Magdeburg, too. Rumor has it that, when FSV Erlangen-Bruck shortly after knocked out Greuth from the Mittelfranken Cup, Uli Hoeneß send a telegram to the Erlangen club, congratulating them.

Greuth marched on to the second round, beating FC Homburg there and finally lost to VfL Wolfsburg in the third round in a penalty shoot out.

As a footnote, the club came fifth in the new Regionalliga.

Last season
The 1995–96 season was the last for the club in competitive football, for the time, finishing in a respectable sixth place. From there, the club went into a merger with the SpVgg Fürth, which had been decided upon in 1995 for financial reasons, to form SpVgg Greuther Fürth, the Greuther in the new name reflecting the TSV Vestenbergsgreuth heritage. The new logo included the wooden shoe from the Vestenbergsgreuth logo to also indicate that the new club was more than just a continuation of Fürth. The new club managed to finish second in the Regionalliga and earn promotion to the 2nd Bundesliga.

Revival
In 2007, the club decided to field a senior side again. Doing so, the club had to enter the lowest local league, which was now the A-Klasse Erlangen/Pegnitzgrund-Gruppe 3 (X). It won, in club tradition, a championship and promotion in its first season. In this league, it met another Bavarian club who had seen better days, the ASV Herzogenaurach.

Since 2008 the club has played in the Kreisklasse Erlangen/Pegnitzgrund 2, now the ninth tier of the Bavarian football league system.

Honours
The club's honours:

League
 Amateur Oberliga Bayern (III)
 Runners-up: (2) 1988, 1992
 Landesliga Bayern-Mitte (IV)
 Champions: 1987
 Bezirksliga Mittelfranken-Nord (V)
 Champions: 1980
 A-Klasse Erlangen-Forchheim (VI)
 Champions: 1979
 B-Klasse Bamberg Gruppe 3 (VII)
 Champions: 1976
 C-Klasse Bamberg Gruppe 3 (VIII)
 Champions: 1975
 A-Klasse Erlangen/Pegnitzgrund-Gruppe 3 (X)
 Champions: 2008

Cup
 Mittelfranken Cup
 Winners: (4) 1986, 1987, 1989, 1994
 Runners-up: (2) 1990, 1991

Indoor
 Bavarian indoor championship
 Winners: 1993

Managers
Former managers of the club until 1996:
 Norbert Klaus, Alfons Scharold: 1974–75
 Hans Klever: 1975
 Herbert Graf: 1976
 Heiner Vitzethum: 8/1976 – 6/1983
 Heinz Keck: 7/1983 – 2/1991
 Rudi Sturz: 2/1991 – 5/1991
 Paul Hesselbach: 7/1991 – 6/1993
 Hubert Müller: 7/1993 – 4/1994
 Paul Hesselbach: 4/1994 – 6/1996

Chairmen
The club had only two chairmen up until the merger in 1996:
 Gerhard Kilian: 1 February 1974 – 23 October 1984
 Helmut Hack: 23 October 1984 – 13 May 1997
 Helmut Lottes: current

Nicknames
While Greuth is an abbreviation Vestenbergsgreuth and quite easy to understand in its origins, the second nickname needs some explanation. Teekicker (English: tea kicker) derives from the fact that the club was financially strongly supported by a local tea retailing company, run by Hans Wedel, a founding member of the club. For a while, the company sold a special "1–0 Tea" after the cup victory.

Support
Considering the small size of the village of Vestenbergsgreuth (population: 1,627), the club was well supported with the following league attendance averages in its final seasons:

 Source: Oberliga/Regionalliga Yearbooks 1987 – 1996, publisher: DSFS

Recent seasons
The recent season-by-season performance of the club:

With the introduction of the Bezirksoberligas in 1988 as the new fifth tier, below the Landesligas, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the introduction of the Regionalligas in 1994 and the 3. Liga in 2008 as the new third tier, below the 2. Bundesliga, all leagues below dropped one tier. With the establishment of the Regionalliga Bayern as the new fourth tier in Bavaria in 2012 the Bayernliga was split into a northern and a southern division, the number of Landesligas expanded from three to five and the Bezirksoberligas abolished. All leagues from the Bezirksligas onward were elevated one tier.

DFB-Pokal appearances
The club has qualified for the first round of the German Cup a number of times:

References

External links
Official team site
Abseits Guide to German Soccer – SpVgg Greuther Fürth
TSV Vestenbergsgreuth profile at Weltfussball.de
Das deutsche Fußball-Archiv Historical German domestic league tables
Helmut Hack awarded the "Verdienstkreuz am Bande" – the Federal Cross of Merit on ribbon Article on Helmut Hack, former chairman
Zittern vor den Amateuren List of Bundesliga clubs who were knocked out of the DFB-Pokal by amateur teams

Football clubs in Germany
Football clubs in Bavaria
Association football clubs established in 1974
SpVgg Greuther Fürth
Football in Middle Franconia
1974 establishments in West Germany
Erlangen-Höchstadt


The 2009 Torneo Descentralizado de Fútbol Profesional (known as the Copa Cable Mágico for sponsorship reasons) was the 93rd season of Association Peruvian football. A total of 16 teams competed in the tournament. The season began on February 14 and concluded on December 13 with the victory of Universitario de Deportes over Alianza Lima in the second leg of the final Play-off, giving Universitario its twenty-fifth Peruvian title.

Competitions modus
The season was divided into 3 stages. In the first stage the 16 teams played a round-robin home-and-away round for a total of 30 matches each. In the second stage the 16 teams were divided into 2 groups. The 8 teams that ranked an odd number played in the group Liguilla A and the 8 teams that ranked an even number played in Liguilla B. Each team carried on their records from the first stage. Each group played another round-robin home-and-away round for 14 matches played by each team. The teams ranked first in each group at the end of the 14 matches advanced to the third stage. The two teams with the worst fewest points at the end of the second stage were relegated. In the third stage the championship was contested in a two-legged Play-off. The Play-off finalists qualified for the Copa Libertadores. The remaining international competition berths were determined by the season aggregate table.

Changes from 2008

Structural changes
Two teams were added to the first division to make 16 teams in the first division from 14 in 2008.
The Apertura and Clausura tournament format was not used after the addition of the two teams to the first division.
Peru was given a third berth for the 2010 Copa Sudamericana.
In the Play-off finals, goal difference was removed as a tiebreaking criterion. A tie in points meant a third match at a neutral ground.

Promotion and relegation
Atlético Minero and Sport Boys finished the 2008 season in 13th and 14th place, respectively, in the aggregate table and thus were relegated to the Segunda División. They were replaced by the champion and runner-up teams of the 2008 Segunda División, Total Clean and Inti Gas and champion and runner-up teams of the 2008 Copa Perú, Sport Huancayo and CNI

Teams
A total of 16 teams competed in this season. The only teams to have ownership over their home ground is Alianza Lima and Universitario. The other 14 clubs rent their home grounds from the Instituto Peruano del Deporte or their local municipality.

First stage

Standings

Results

Second stage
The Second Stage began September 13. The winner of each Liguilla qualified for the 2010 Copa Libertadores group stage and advanced to the third stage of the Torneo Descentralizado.

Liguilla A

Standings

Results

Liguilla B

Standings

Results

Third stage
The Third Stage was the finals (also known as the Play-off) of the 2009 season between the winners of each group of the Second Stage. They were played on December 8 and 13. The group winner with the most points on the aggregate table chose the home ground order.

Aggregate table
The aggregate table determined the third Peruvian berth for the 2010 Copa Libertadores, the three berths for the 2010 Copa Sudamericana, and the relegation to the Segunda División. The aggregate table consists of the points earned in the First and Second stages.

Top goalscorers
23 goals
 Richard Estigarribia (Total Chalaco)
20 goals
 Héctor Hurtado (Sporting Cristal)
15 goals
 Sergio Ibarra (Juan Aurich)
14 goals
 Ysrael Zúñiga (Melgar)
 Roberto Demus (U. César Vallejo)
13 goals
 Mayer Candelo (Juan Aurich)
 Irven Ávila (Sport Huancayo)
 Blas López (Sport Huancayo)
12 goals
 Martín Arzuaga (U. San Martín)
 Gianfranco Labarthe (Universitario)

References

External links
Peru 2009 season at RSSSF
Peruvian Football League News

Peruvian Primera División seasons
1


Aasha Davis (born August 17, 1973) is an American actress best known for her roles as Waverly Grady on Friday Night Lights and Chelsea Lewis on South of Nowhere.

Career
Davis is best known for playing the role of Waverly Grady on Friday Night Lights.  She has also appeared in Gilmore Girls, Grey's Anatomy, House, ER, Castle, and The Shield. Davis was featured in Gnarls Barkley's music video for "Who's Gonna Save My Soul" in mid 2008.

In 2011, she played opposite Adepero Oduye in the film Pariah.

In 2012, she guest-starred in the second season of the Jane Espenson-scripted romantic comedy web series Husbands.

Most recently, Aasha is producing and starring in a web series featured on YouTube called The Unwritten Rules, which is based on series creator Kim Williams's book 40 Hours and an Unwritten Rule: The Diary of an African-American Woman.

In 2019, Aasha starred as Bernadette in the rural Louisiana murder mystery The Long Shadow.

Personal life
In 2002, Davis married Jesse Pforzheimer They have one son, Ever, born in January, 2009.

Davis's older sister, Lesley Herring, disappeared in Los Angeles on February 8, 2009, after a fight with her husband, Lyle Stanford Herring, Sr. Davis reported her sister as missing when she failed to show up to work, her husband having neglected to do so. Lyle Herring was charged with his wife's murder and in April 2010 pleaded not guilty. On April 8, 2013, he was convicted of the second-degree murder of his wife. To date, her body has not been found. A 2011 episode of Nancy Grace and a June 7, 2013, episode of Dateline NBC covered Davis's sister's case.

Filmography

Film

Television

References

External links

Living people
American television actresses
1974 births
21st-century American actresses
American film actresses
African-American actresses
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American people
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women


Oniriad is the third album by the Polish symphonic black metal band Darzamat which was released in 2003 and was recorded at their own studio The Post Street Studio in Poland. The album was self-produced and it took them nearly two years to prepare all the new material. The main reason why it took so long was that the band had been building their own studio. Five months work in The Post Street Studio has brought 42 minutes of music and nine compositions. The band had personnel issues too. By the time Oniriad was prepared to be released, Kowalski had left band and started his own project called Eclipse. Chudzicki known as Mastiphal musician, joined the group. Katarzyna Banaszak left Darzamat and had gone to USA. She had been replaced by Karolina Widera after she left.

Track listing
 "Into the Abyss of Forgotten Woods" – 4:40
 "The Longest Journey" – 5:23
 "Nameless" – 4:51
 "Beauty" – 5:29
 "Time" – 4:38
 "Moon Has Imprisoned Me in Her Shine" – 3:37
 "When the Dreams Died" – 4:39
 "Elegy" – 3:41
 "Soporific" – 5:11

Personnel
 Katarzyna "Kate" Banaszak – vocals
 Rafał "Flauros" Góral – vocals, lyrics
 Szymon Struzek – bass guitar, programming, compositions
 Krzysztof "Chris" Michalak – electric guitar, compositions, engineering, mixing
 Pawel Chudzicki – drums
 Bartlomiej Krawczyk – compositions

External links
 Encyclopaedia Metallum (retrieved 10-18-08)

2003 albums
Avantgarde Music albums
Darzamat albums


The Gregynog Press, also known as Gwasg Gregynog, is a printing press and charity located at Gregynog Hall near Newtown in Powys, Wales.

Early years
Founded in 1922 by the sisters and art patrons Margaret and Gwendoline Davies, guided by Thomas Jones, the press was named after their mansion Gregynog Hall. Jones remained its chairman throughout its existence. It rose to prominence in the pre-war era as among the more important private presses, publishing limited edition books, primarily on a Victoria platen printing press. Much of the printing work from 1927 to 1936 was carried out by the skilled printer Herbert John Hodgson, who had previously worked on the 1926 edition of the T. E. Lawrence's Seven Pillars of Wisdom. The American poet and printer Loyd Haberly was briefly the controller of the press.

It commissioned a private typeface from Graily Hewitt, Gwendolin, dated 1935. It was manufactured as a private commission by Monotype.

Reincarnation as Gwasg Gregynog
In 1954 after the death of Gwendoline Davies, Margaret donated most of the machinery used by Gregynog Press to the National Library of Wales. The press was reopened under the Welsh title Gwasg Gregynog by the University of Wales in 1978, and production resumed. While the National Library permanently loaned the Press its original Victoria platen press in 1980, since 1986 it has primarily printed with a Heidelberg Cylinder Press. Typesetting of the smallest pieces is done by hand, but otherwise manuscripts are typeset with the use of a Monotype machine. Among the publications of the press are a series of pamphlets entitled "Beirdd Gregynog / Gregynog Poets": the first of these was Euros Bowen's Yr Alarch, 1987.

Gwasg Gregynog Limited is a company limited by guarantee which was incorporated on 28 June 1978. It adopted new Memorandum and Articles of Association on 28 August 2001 and was granted charitable status by the Charity Commission on 11 January 2002 (charity no. 1090060). Intended to benefit and educate the public, it offers lectures related to the press and printing techniques, as well as offering tours of press facilities, which are dedicated to maintaining traditional printing methods.

The press has been involved in several historic events in Wales in connection with the National Assembly. When the Assembly opened in Wales, the press produced its first documents, including a small hand-bound souvenir volume that served as the Assembly's first publication. Later, in 2006, it bound a poem commissioned to mark the opening of the Senedd, the Assembly's permanent home, and written in calligraphy.

Notes

Further reading
Dowd, Anthony; Brockman, James (2004), The Special Bindings of Gwasg Gregynog. Newtown, Powys, Wales: Gwasg Gregynog.
Esslemont, David; Hughes, Glyn Tegai (1990), Gwasg Gregynog: a descriptive catalogue of printing at Gregynog 1970-1990. Newtown, Powys, Wales: Gwasg Gregynog.
Esslemont, David; Schanilec, Gaylord; Armacost, J. Andrew; Chambers, David (2003), Ink on the Elbow: conversations between David Esslemont & Gaylord Schanilec, Solmentes Press,
 Evans, Jayne (1990), Gregynog Press Gwasg Gregynog
Haberly, Loyd (1979) An American Bookbuilder in England and Wales. London: Bertram Rota
 Hutchins, Michael (1976), Printing at Gregynog = Argraffu yng Ngregynog : aspects of a great private press = agweddau ar wasg breifat fawr; translated by David Jenkins = y cyfieithiad gan David Jenkins. Cardiff: Welsh Arts Council

External links

Publishing companies established in 1922
Arts in Wales
Book arts
Printing companies of the United Kingdom
Printmaking groups and organizations
Charities based in Wales
Book publishing companies of Wales
Companies based in Powys
British companies established in 1922
Private press movement


This list of Nobel laureates affiliated with the City University of New York as alumni or faculty comprehensively shows alumni (graduates and attendees) or faculty members (professors of various ranks, researchers, and visiting lecturers or professors) affiliated with the City University of New York (CUNY) who were awarded the Nobel Prize or the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. People who have given public lectures, talks or non-curricular seminars; studied as non-degree students; received honorary degrees; or served as administrative staff at the university are excluded from the list. Summer school attendees and visitors are generally excluded from the list, since summer terms are not part of formal academic years; the same rule applies to the extension school.

The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Karolinska Institute, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation. Another prize, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank, the central bank of Sweden, for contributors to the field of economics. Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics, the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a cash prize that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, the winners of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007. In 2008, the winners were awarded a prize amount of 10,000,000 SEK. The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.

As of 2021, there have been 14 Nobel laureates affiliated with CUNY as alumni or faculty. CUNY considers any laureate who attended one of its senior colleges as an affiliated laureate. Arthur Kornberg, who graduated from the City College of New York, a senior college of CUNY, in 1937, was the first CUNY laureate, winning the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1959. Herbert A. Hauptman and Jerome Karle, both of whom graduated from the City College in 1937 with Kornberg, jointly won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1985, the only CUNY laureates to do so. Six CUNY laureates have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, more than any other category. Ten of the CUNY laureates graduated from the City College; two laureates, Rosalyn Sussman Yalow and Gertrude B. Elion, graduated from Hunter College, another CUNY senior college; and one laureate, Stanley Cohen, graduated from Brooklyn College, one of CUNY's senior colleges, in 1943.

Laureates

References
General

Specific

External links
Official website of the City University of New York
Official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Official website of the Nobel Foundation

 Nobel laureates
City University of New York
City University


Jalan Utama Bera, Federal Route 1510, is a federal road in Pahang, Malaysia. It is a main route to Sebertak, Kota Bahagia, Bandar Muadzam Shah and Tasik Bera. At most sections, the Federal Route 1510 was built under the JKR R5 road standard, allowing maximum speed limit of up to 90 km/h.

List of junctions

Main roads

Jalan Bukit Kepayang side

Malaysian Federal Roads


Anthony Morley (born 1972) is an English former model and convicted murderer. He won the first Mr Gay UK contest in 1993. In 2008 he was imprisoned for the killing, dismemberment and partial cannibalisation of his lover, magazine executive Damian Oldfield.

In 1996, Morley was a contestant on the television programme God's Gift; one of the audience members of that edition was Damian Oldfield. Oldfield was a contestant of another edition of the show in October 1996.

On 2 May 2008, it was announced that Morley had been arrested for the murder of Oldfield, who worked for the gay lifestyle magazine Bent. After inviting Oldfield into his Leeds flat, police believed that Morley killed him, removed a section of his leg and began cooking it, before he stumbled into a nearby kebab house around 02:30 in the morning, drenched in blood and asking that someone call the police. He was found guilty on 17 October 2008 and sentenced to life imprisonment for the crime.

References

1972 births
Living people
20th-century criminals
English cannibals
Date of birth missing (living people)
English people convicted of murder
English prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
20th-century English LGBT people
Male beauty pageant winners
People convicted of murder by England and Wales
Place of birth missing (living people)
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by England and Wales
21st-century English LGBT people


RAF Moreton-in-Marsh was a Royal Air Force station near Moreton-in-Marsh, Gloucestershire. It was opened in November 1940 with three concrete and tarmac runways and five aircraft hangars. It closed for operational flying in early 1948. The base remained in use as a relief runway and for training. After a period of care and maintenance, the Station was handed over to the Home Office in 1955.

The town's environs are quite flat and low-lying although it is situated at the northern extremity of the Cotswold Hills range. During World War II, a large area of this flat land to the east of the town was developed as an airfield and became the base of 21 OTU (Operational Training Unit) RAF, flying mainly Vickers Wellington bombers. It is highly likely that the airfield inspired the title of the radio comedy series Much Binding in the Marsh. Two of the programme's stars, Kenneth Horne and Richard Murdoch, had served there as flying instructors.

Units

The following units were also here at some point:
 No. 1 Flying Training School RAF
 No. 1 (Pilot) Refresher Flying Unit RAF
 No. 1 Refresher School RAF
 No. 21 (Pilots) Advanced Flying Unit RAF
 No. 55 Operational Training Unit RAF
 No. 311 Ferry Training Unit RAF
 No. 1446 (Ferry Training) Flight RAF
 Central Flying School

Current use
The former airfield is now home to the Fire Service College where senior fire officers from brigades all over the UK undergo operational, management and leadership training.

References

Citations

External links

The Wellington Aviation Museum. Includes a detailed history of the station

Royal Air Force stations in Gloucestershire
RAF


The Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum (known in Vietnamese as ) is a trilingual Vietnamese-Portuguese-Latin dictionary written by the French Jesuit lexicographer Alexandre de Rhodes after 12 years in Vietnam. It was published by the Propaganda Fide in Rome in 1651, upon Rhodes's visit to Europe, along with his catechism .

Background
Before Rhodes's work, traditional Vietnamese dictionaries showed the correspondences between Chinese characters and Vietnamese chữ Nôm script. From the 17th century, Western missionaries started to devise a romanization system that represented the Vietnamese language to facilitate the propagation of the Christian faith, which culminated in the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum of Alexandre de Rhodes.

Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum was itself inspired by two earlier lost works: a Vietnamese–Portuguese dictionary by  and a Portuguese–Vietnamese dictionary by António Barbosa.

Content
The dictionary has 8,000 Vietnamese entries with glosses in Portuguese and Latin. The publication also incorporates a summary on Vietnamese grammar (Linguae Annamiticae seu Tunchinensis Brevis Declaratio) and the codification of some contemporary pronunciations.

Impact
The dictionary established chữ Quốc ngữ, the Vietnamese alphabet, which was refined by later missionaries and eventually became the predominant writing system for Vietnamese. Mgr Pigneau de Béhaine contributed to these improvements with his 1783 Annamite–Latin dictionary, the manuscript of which was remitted to Mgr Jean-Louis Taberd who published in 1838 his Vietnamese–Latin / Latin–Vietnamese dictionary.

Despite those efforts, Christian publications in Vietnam continued to use either Latin or the traditional Vietnamese chữ Nôm, rather than the simpler alphabetic Quốc ngữ, for the next 200 years. Quốc ngữ gained only predominance after the French invasion of 1861 and the establishment of French Indochina.

See also
Lịch sử nước An Nam
France-Vietnam relations

Notes

References

External links

Full text of the dictionary

1651 books
Vietnamese Christian texts
Vietnamese dictionaries
Portuguese dictionaries
Latin dictionaries
Jesuit Asia missions
Jesuit publications
Multilingual dictionaries
17th-century Latin books


Plants are the eukaryotes that form the kingdom Plantae; they are predominantly photosynthetic. This means that they obtain their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water, using the green pigment chlorophyll. Exceptions are parasitic plants that have lost the genes for chlorophyll and photosynthesis, and obtain their energy from other plants or fungi.

Historically, as in Aristotle's biology, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi. Definitions have narrowed since then; current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae. By the definition used in this article, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (green plants), which consists of the green algae and the embryophytes or land plants (hornworts, liverworts, mosses, lycophytes, ferns, conifers and other gymnosperms, and flowering plants). A definition based on genomes includes the Viridiplantae, along with the red algae and the glaucophytes, in the clade Archaeplastida.

There are about 380,000 known species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000, produce seeds. They range in size from single cells to the tallest trees. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen; the sugars they create supply the energy for most of Earth's ecosystems; other organisms, including animals, either consume plants directly or rely on organisms which do so.

Grain, fruit, and vegetables are basic human foods and have been domesticated for millennia. People use plants for many purposes, such as building materials, ornaments, writing materials, and, in great variety, for medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology.

Definition

Taxonomic history

All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups, plants and animals. This classification dates from Aristotle (384–322 BC), who distinguished different levels of beings in his biology, based on whether living things had a "sensitive soul" or like plants only a "vegetative soul". Theophrastus, Aristotle's student, continued his work in plant taxonomy and classification. Much later, Linnaeus (1707–1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, but retained the animal and plant kingdoms, naming the plant kingdom the Vegetabilia.

Alternative concepts
When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxa, it usually refers to one of four concepts. From least to most inclusive, these four groupings are:

Evolution

Diversity

There are about 382,000 accepted species of plants, of which the great majority, some 283,000, produce seeds. The table below shows some species count estimates of different green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions. About 85–90% of all plants are flowering plants. Several projects are currently attempting to collect records on all plant species in online databases, e.g. the World Flora Online.

Plants range in scale from single-celled organisms such as desmids (from 10 micrometres across) and picozoa (less than 3 micrometres across), to the largest trees (megaflora) such as the conifer Sequoia sempervirens (up to  tall ) and the angiosperm Eucalyptus regnans (up to  tall ).

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.

Evolutionary history

The ancestors of land plants evolved in water. An algal scum formed on the land , but it was not until the Ordovician, around , that the first land plants appeared, with a level of organisation like that of bryophytes. However, evidence from carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex plants developed over 1000 mya.

Primitive land plants began to diversify in the late Silurian, around . Bryophytes, club mosses, and ferns then appear in the fossil record. Early plant anatomy is preserved in cellular detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert. These early plants were preserved by being petrified in chert formed in silica-rich volcanic hot springs.

By the end of the Devonian, most of the basic features of plants today were present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood in trees such as Archaeopteris. The Carboniferous Period saw the development of forests in swampy environments dominated by clubmosses and horsetails, including some as large as trees, and the appearance of early gymnosperms, the first seed plants. The Permo-Triassic extinction event radically changed the structures of communities. This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~), with an adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous so rapid that Darwin called it an "abominable mystery". Conifers diversified from the Late Triassic onwards, and became a dominant part of floras in the Jurassic.

Phylogeny

In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed. The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the "streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis, as the land plants arose from within those groups. The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018, and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.

Physiology

Plant cells

Plant cells have distinctive features that other eukaryotic cells (such as those of animals) lack. These include the large water-filled central vacuole, chloroplasts, and the strong flexible cell wall, which is outside the cell membrane. Chloroplasts are derived from what was once a symbiosis of a non-photosynthetic cell and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The cell wall, made mostly of cellulose, allows plant cells to swell up with water without bursting. The vacuole allows the cell to change in size while the amount of cytoplasm stays the same.

Plant structure

Most plants are multicellular. Plant cells differentiate into multiple cell types, forming tissues such as the vascular tissue with specialized xylem and phloem of leaf veins and stems, and organs with different physiological functions such as roots to absorb water and minerals, stems for support and to transport water and synthesized molecules, leaves for photosynthesis, and flowers for reproduction.

Photosynthesis

Plants photosynthesize, manufacturing food molecules (sugars) using energy obtained from light. Plant cells contain chlorophylls inside their chloroplasts, which are green pigments that are used to capture light energy. The end-to-end chemical equation for photosynthesis is:

6CO2{} + 6H2O{} ->[\text{light}] C6H12O6{} + 6O2{}

This causes plants to release oxygen into the atmosphere. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world's molecular oxygen, alongside the contributions from photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria.

Plants that have secondarily adopted a parasitic lifestyle may lose the genes involved in photosynthesis and the production of chlorophyll.

Growth and repair
Growth is determined by the interaction of a plant's genome with its physical and biotic environment. Factors of the physical or abiotic environment include temperature, water, light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil. Biotic factors that affect plant growth include crowding, grazing, beneficial symbiotic bacteria and fungi, and attacks by insects or plant diseases.

Frost and dehydration can damage or kill plants. Some plants have antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars in their cytoplasm that enable them to tolerate these stresses. Plants are continuously exposed to a range of physical and biotic stresses which cause DNA damage, but they can tolerate and repair much of this damage.

Reproduction

Plants reproduce to generate offspring, whether sexually, involving gametes, or asexually, involving ordinary growth. Many plants use both mechanisms.

Sexual

When reproducing sexually, plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations. One generation, the sporophyte, which is diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes), gives rise to the next generation, the gametophyte, which is haploid (with one set of chromosomes). Some plants also reproduce asexually via spores. In some non-flowering plants such as mosses, the sexual gametophyte forms most of the visible plant. In seed plants (gymnosperms and flowering plants), the sporophyte forms most of the visible plant, and the gametophyte is very small. Flowering plants reproduce sexually using flowers, which contain male and female parts: these may be within the same (hermaphrodite) flower, on different flowers on the same plant, or on different plants. The pollen produces male gametes that enter the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the female gametophyte. Fertilization takes place within the carpels or ovaries, which develop into fruits that contain seeds. Fruits may be dispersed whole, or they may split open and the seeds dispersed individually.

Asexual

Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of structures capable of growing into new plants. At the simplest, plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces, each of which may regrow into whole plants. The propagation of flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process. Structures such as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area, forming a clone. Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant.

Some non-flowering plants, such as many liverworts, mosses and some clubmosses, along with a few flowering plants, grow small clumps of cells called gemmae which can detach and grow.

Disease resistance

Plants use pattern-recognition receptors to recognize pathogens such as bacteria that cause plant diseases. This recognition triggers a protective response. The first such plant receptors were identified in rice and in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Genomics

Plants have some of the largest genomes among all organisms. The largest plant genome (in terms of gene number) is that of wheat (Triticum aestivum), predicted to encode ≈94,000 genes and thus almost 5 times as many as the human genome. The first plant genome sequenced was that of Arabidopsis thaliana which encodes about 25,500 genes. In terms of sheer DNA sequence, the smallest published genome is that of the carnivorous bladderwort (Utricularia gibba) at 82 Mb (although it still encodes 28,500 genes) while the largest, from the Norway spruce (Picea abies), extends over 19.6 Gb (encoding about 28,300 genes).

Ecology

Distribution

Plants are distributed almost worldwide. While they inhabit several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of ecoregions, only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora, consisting of algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and just two flowering plants, have adapted to the prevailing conditions on that southern continent.

Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of the habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth's biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grassland, savanna, and tropical rainforest.

Primary producers

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis, at first by cyanobacteria and later by photosynthetic eukaryotes, radically changed the composition of the early Earth's anoxic atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems. Plants form about 80% of the world biomass at about  of carbon.

Ecological relationships

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants; flowering plants have evolved pollination syndromes, suites of flower traits that favour their reproduction. Many, including insect and bird partners, are pollinators, visiting flowers and accidentally transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar.

Many animals disperse seeds that are adapted for such dispersal. Various mechanisms of dispersal have evolved. Some fruits offer nutritious outer layers attractive to animals, while the seeds are adapted to survive the passage through the animal's gut; others have hooks that enable them to attach to a mammal's fur.
Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes serve as organic fertilizer.

The majority of plant species have fungi associated with their root systems in a mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis.
Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum in tall fescue grass has pest status in the American cattle industry.

Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots, which fix nitrogen from the air for the plant to use; in return, the plants supply sugars to the bacteria. Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to other plants, and is important in agriculture; for example, farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans, followed by a cereal such as wheat, to provide cash crops with a reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer.

Some 1% of plants are parasitic. They range from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully-parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Full parasites can be extremely harmful to their plant hosts.

Plants that grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them, are called epiphytes. These may support diverse arboreal ecosystems. Some may indirectly harm their host plant, such as by intercepting light. Hemiepiphytes like the strangler fig begin as epiphytes, but eventually set their own roots and overpower and kill their host. Many orchids, bromeliads, ferns, and mosses grow as epiphytes. Among the epiphytes, the bromeliads accumulate water in their leaf axils; these water-filled cavities can support complex aquatic food webs.

Some 630 species of plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and sundew (Drosera species). They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.

Competition

Competition for shared resources reduces a plant's growth. Shared resources include sunlight, water and nutrients. Light is a critical resource because it is necessary for photosynthesis. Plants use their leaves to shade other plants from sunlight and grow quickly to maximize their own expose. Water too is essential for photosynthesis; roots compete to maximize water uptake from soil. Some plants have deep roots that are able to locate water stored deep underground, and others have shallower roots that are capable of extending longer distances to collect recent rainwater.
Minerals are important for plant growth and development. Common nutrients competed for amongst plants include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

Importance to humans

Food

Human cultivation of plants is the core of agriculture, which in turn has played a key role in the history of world civilizations. Humans depend on plants for food, either directly or as feed in animal husbandry. Agriculture includes agronomy for arable crops, horticulture for vegetables and fruit, and forestry for timber. About 7,000 species of plant have been used for food, though most of today's food is derived from only 30 species. The major staples include cereals such as rice and wheat, starchy roots and tubers such as cassava and potato, and legumes such as peas and beans. Vegetable oils such as olive oil and palm oil provide lipids, while fruit and vegetables contribute vitamins and minerals to the diet. Coffee, tea, and chocolate are major crops whose caffeine-containing products serve as mild stimulants. The study of plant uses by people is called economic botany or ethnobotany.

Medicines

Medicinal plants are a primary source of organic compounds, both for their medicinal and physiological effects, and for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals. Many hundreds of medicines, as well as narcotics, are derived from plants, both traditional medicines used in herbalism and chemical substances purified from plants or first identified in them, sometimes by ethnobotanical search, and then synthesised for use in modern medicine. Modern medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. Plants used in herbalism include ginkgo, echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John's wort. The pharmacopoeia of Dioscorides, , describing some 600 medicinal plants, was written between 50 and 70 CE and remained in use in Europe and the Middle East until around 1600 CE; it was the precursor of all modern pharmacopoeias.

Nonfood products

Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing. Nonfood products include essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins, tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and other biofuels. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton in geological time. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.

Structural resources and fibres from plants are used to construct dwellings and to manufacture clothing. Wood is used for buildings, boats, and furniture, and for smaller items such as musical instruments and sports equipment. Wood is pulped to make paper and cardboard. Cloth is often made from cotton, flax, ramie or synthetic fibres such as rayon, derived from plant cellulose. Thread used to sew cloth likewise comes in large part from cotton.

Ornamental plants

Thousands of plant species are cultivated for their beauty and to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise, provide privacy, and reduce soil erosion. Plants are the basis of a multibillion-dollar per year tourism industry, which includes travel to historic gardens, national parks, rainforests, forests with colourful autumn leaves, and festivals such as Japan's and America's cherry blossom festivals.

Plants may be grown indoors as houseplants, or in specialized buildings such as greenhouses. Plants such as Venus flytrap, sensitive plant and resurrection plant are sold as novelties. Art forms specializing in the arrangement of cut or living plant include bonsai, ikebana, and the arrangement of cut or dried flowers. Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania.

In science

The traditional study of plants is the science of botany. Basic biological research has often used plants as its model organisms. In genetics, the breeding of pea plants allowed Gregor Mendel to derive the basic laws governing inheritance, and examination of chromosomes in maize allowed Barbara McClintock to demonstrate their connection to inherited traits. The plant Arabidopsis thaliana is used in laboratories as a model organism to understand how genes control the growth and development of plant structures. Tree rings provide a method of dating in archeology, and a record of past climates. The study of plant fossils, or Paleobotany, provides information about the evolutions of plants, paleogeographical reconstructions, and past climate change. Plant fossils can also help determine the age of rocks.

In mythology, religion, and culture

Plants including trees appear in mythology, religion, and literature. In multiple Indo-European, Siberian, and Native American religions, the world tree motif is depicted as a colossal tree growing on the earth, supporting the heavens, and with its roots reaching into the underworld. It may also appear as a cosmic tree or an eagle and serpent tree. Forms of the world tree include the archetypal tree of life, which is in turn connected to the Eurasian concept of the sacred tree. Another widespread ancient motif, found for example in Iran, has a tree of life flanked by a pair of confronted animals.

Flowers are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Flower arrangements may be used to send hidden messages. Plants and especially  flowers form the subjects of many paintings.

Negative effects

Weeds are commercially or aesthetically undesirable plants growing in managed environments such as in agriculture and gardens. People have spread many plants beyond their native ranges; some of these plants have become invasive, damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species, and sometimes becoming serious weeds of cultivation.

Some plants that produce windblown pollen, including grasses, invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever. Many plants produce toxins to protect themselves from herbivores. Major classes of plant toxins include alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics. These can be harmful to humans and livestock by ingestion or, as with poison ivy, by contact. Some plants have negative effects on other plants, preventing seedling growth or the growth of nearby plants by releasing allopathic chemicals.

See also

 Plant identification

References

Further reading
General:
 Evans, L.T. (1998). Feeding the Ten Billion – Plants and Population Growth. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. .
 Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. .
 Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. .
 Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. .

Species estimates and counts:
 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

External links

 Index Nominum Algarum
 Interactive Cronquist classification. Archived 10 February 2006.
 Plant Resources of Tropical Africa. Archived 11 June 2010.
 Tree of Life. .

Botanical and vegetation databases
 African Plants Initiative database
 Australia
 Chilean plants at Chilebosque
 e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others). .
 Flora Europaea
 Flora of Central Europe
 Flora of North America. .
 List of Japanese Wild Plants Online. .
 Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden. Archived 16 June 2007.
 Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center – Native Plant Information Network at University of Texas, Austin
 United States Department of Agriculture not limited to continental US species.

Plants