Clubul Sportiv Unirea Sânnicolau Mare, commonly known as Unirea Sânnicolau Mare, or simply as Sânnicolau Mare, is a Romanian amateur football club based in Sânnicolau Mare, Timiș County and currently playing in the Liga IV – Timiș County, the third tier of the Romanian football league system.

History
In the westernmost city of Romania, Sânnicolau Mare, football first dressed white-blue clothing in 1957. It was the moment when the leaders of two local teams – Recolta Sânnicolau Mare, which was considered the peasant's team, and the simple ones, respectively Progresul Sânnicolau Mare, which included the people in the "intellectual space" of the city on Aranca- were on the same wavelength and decided that only one football club was needed, and the name chosen was more than suggestively: Unirea.

Unirea played for sixteen years at the regional and county level. In the 1972–73 season, "The Band on the Aranca River" managed to win the Timiș County Championship and was promoted for the first time in Divizia C.

Followed nineteen consecutive seasons in the Third Division, in which Unirea was ranked as follows: 6th (1973–74),  7th (1974–75), 8th (1975–76), 8th (1976–77),  6th (1977–78), as runners-up in 1978–79, losing the promotion at goal difference in front of Unirea Alba Iulia, 11th (1979–80), 9th (1980–81), 9th (1981–82), 8th (1982–83), 7th (1983–84), 5th (1984–85), 14th (1985–86), 7th (1986–87), 7th (1987–88),  12th (1988–89), 4th (1989–90), 10th (1990–91) and 14th in 1991–92, relegating to the County Championship due to the reorganization of the competitive system in the summer of 1992.

At the end of the 2002–03 season, Unirea finished 12th in the Fourth Division. However, the local authorities decided to bought the place of Mureșul Deva in Divizia C. After one season spent in Third Division, with Daniel Mănăilă as head coach, Unirea Sânnicolau Mare finished first in the Series VII and promoted to Second Division for the first time in history. The squad included following players: Adrian Boldor, Toma Stoianov, Marius Stanache, Adrian Grijincu, Doru Siminiceanu, Răzvan Mitric, Cristian Uftineanț, Mihăiță Hromei, Petre Bălăban, Valentin Grigore, Marius Postolache, Andrei Rați, Safar, Tărnăuceanu, Nicolae Bota, Ion Feneș, Bran, Constantinescu.

After promotion to Divizia B, were brought experienced players such as Dan Stupar, Florin Macavei, Vasile Ciocoi, Nelu Mitrică, Marcel Băban or Ferid Colakovic, ending the 2004–05 season in tenth place in Series III.

Unirea started the 2005–06 season with Ciprian Urican as head coach, but in April 2006, due to the poor results, was replaced with Ioan Almășan, who was unable to save the club from relegation finishing fifteenth.

Following relegation to the Third Division, Ioan Petcu was appointed as the new head coach, leading the club to fifth place at the end of the 2006–07 season and promoted to Second Division after winning Series V of Liga III in the 2007–08 season. But in the summer of 2008, Unirea Sânnicolau Mare sold its place in Liga II to FCM Târgu Mureș and continued to play in Liga III the following season.

Dan Stupar took over as head coach for the 2008–09 season, leading the club, without many players among those who succeeded in promotion, to a disappointing fifteenth place.

The 2009–10 season started with Nicolae Căprărescu as head coach, but who left the club after thirteen rounds, Unirea being in the relegation zone on 14th place with 10 points, and was replaced with Petre Vlătănescu, the former coach of Alto Gradimento Albina in the last season. In the end, "The White and Blues" were relegated, finishing in fourteenth place.

Despite the relegation, Unirea continued to play in Liga III, due to the withdrawal of some teams, finishing ninth in the 2010–11 season.

In the summer of 2011, Unirea withdrew from Third League and enrolled in Liga V – Timiș County, the fifth tier of the Romanian football. "The Band on the Aranca River" promoted quickly to Liga IV – Timiș County winning Series I at the end of the 2011–12 season.

The club managed to stay in the fourth division in the following years finishing 5th in three consecutive seasons 2012–13, 2013–14 and 2014–15, 6th in the 2015–16 season, 9th in the 2016–17 season, 4th in the 2017–18 season, 7th in the 2018–19 season, 11th in the 2019–20 season, 6th in the 2020–21 season and 6th in the 2021–22 season.

Honours
Liga III:
Winners (2): 2003–04, 2007–08
Runners-up (1): 1978–79
Liga IV – Timiș County
Winners (1): 1972–73
Runners-up (1): 1970–71
Liga V – Timiș County
Winners (1): 2011–12

Club officials

Board of directors

Current technical staff

Former players
The footballers mentioned below have played at least 1 season for Unirea and also played in Liga I for another team.

   Dan Păltinișanu
   Ibrahim Dossey
   Ioan Almășan
   Vasile Ciocoi
   Marcel Băban
   Ovidiu Vezan
   Marius Postolache
   Valentin Miculescu
   Vasile Olariu
   Constantin Varga

References

External links
 Official website

Association football clubs established in 1957
Football clubs in Timiș County
Liga II clubs
Liga III clubs
Liga IV clubs
1957 establishments in Romania


The First Federal Electoral District of Nayarit (I Distrito Electoral Federal de Nayarit) is one of the 300 Electoral Districts into which Mexico is divided for the purpose of elections to the federal Chamber of Deputies and one of three such districts in the state of Nayarit.

It elects one deputy to the lower house of Congress for each three-year legislative period, by means of the first past the post system.

District territory
The First Federal Electoral District of Nayarit is in the north of the state and covers the municipalities of
Acaponeta, El Nayar, Huajicori, Rosamorada, Ruiz, Santiago Ixcuintla, Tecuala and Tuxpan.

The district's head town (cabecera distrital), where results from individual polling stations are gathered together and collated, is the city of  Santiago Ixcuintla.

Previous districting schemes

1996–2005 district
Between 1996 and 2005, Nayarit's First District covered the same territory as at present, with the exception of the municipality of
El Nayar, which belong to the Second District.

Deputies returned to Congress from this district

L Legislature
 1976–1979:  Ignacio Langarica Quintana (PRI)
LI Legislature
 1979–1982:  Alberto Tapia Carrillo (PRI)
LII Legislature
 1982–1985:  Antonio Pérez Peña (PRI)
LIII Legislature
 1985–1988:  José Félix Torres Haro (PRI)
LIV Legislature
 1988–1991:  Salvador Sánchez Vázquez (PRI)
LV Legislature
 1991–1993:  Rigoberto Ochoa Zaragoza (PRI)
 1993–1994:  Juan Alonso Romero (PRI)
LVI Legislature
 1994–1997:  Fidel Pineda Valdez (PRI)
LVII Legislature
 1997–2000:  Marco Antonio Fernández (PRI)
LVIII Legislature
 2000–2003:  Álvaro Vallarta Ceceña (PRI)
LIX Legislature
 2003–2006:  María Hilaria Domínguez Arvizu (PRI)
LX Legislature
 2006–2009:  Sergio González García (PRI)
 LXI Legislature
 2009–2012:  Manuel Cota Jiménez (PRI)
 LXII Legislature
 2012–2015:  Juan Manuel Rocha Piedra (PRI)
 LXIII Legislature
 2015–2018:  Efraín Arellano Núñez (PRI)

References and notes

Federal electoral districts of Mexico
Nayarit


Class 41 may refer to:

DRG Class 41, a Deutsche Reichsbahn German steam locomotive type
British Rail Class 41 (Warship Class), prototype diesel locomotives
British Rail Class 41 (HST) - prototype High Speed Train power cars
Belgian Railways Class 41, diesel multiple units


The Nizhnesvirsky Nature Reserve (, lit. Lower Svir Zapovednik) is a 416 km² (131 sq mi) zapovednik in Lodeynopolsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, established on June 11, 1980 to protect landscapes of the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga.

Geography
The nature reserve occupies lowlands on the right bank of the lower Svir River, including a portion of the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga and its waters. The zapovednik's northern border coincides with the border of the Republic of Karelia. The areas across the border belong to Olonetsky Zakaznik.  About 30% of the reserve is swamp and peat bog, with additional transient fens and wetlands.  The forests are coniferous spruce with an under-story of blueberry bush and shrub.  The terrain features sand ridges left by the retreating glaciers in the last Ice Age.  The reserve is in the Scandinavian and Russian taiga ecoregion, and has a humid continental climate (Köppen's Dfb).

History
It was first proposed in the 1950s that protected areas on the eastern shore of Lake Ladoga be created. At the time, the proposals were rejected by the authorities. The expansion and the industrial growth of the city of Leningrad caused considerable impact on the ecology of surrounding areas, and it was again proposed that a protected area be established to study this impact. In 1976 a large-scale program started, and, in particular, Nizhnesvirsky Zakaznik was established. Eventually, the zakaznik was transformed into a nature reserve in 1980.

Fauna and flora
It is an important stopover location for migratory birds.  The predominant tree species is Scots Pine. A  considerable area is occupied by swamps.

Forty species of mammals occur in the nature reserve. Big mammals include brown bear, moose, and lynx.

See also
 List of Russian Nature Reserves (class 1a 'zapovedniks')

References

External links
 Map of Nizhnevirsky Reserve, ProtectedPlanet

Nature reserves in Russia
Geography of Leningrad Oblast
Protected areas established in 1980
1980 establishments in Russia
Zapovednik


The Lucknow Mail is an Indian Railways train running between Lucknow and New Delhi on a daily basis. It is numbered 12229 when starting from Lucknow and terminating at New Delhi, 12230 from New Delhi to Lucknow. It has received an ISO 9000 certification after Bhopal Express. Lucknow Mail is the first LHB train of Indian Railways running permanently with 24 coaches (22 coaches+2 EOG). Lucknow Mail also has the largest number of AC coaches for a non fully-AC train (11 AC Coaches) in India.

Lucknow Mail along with Shram Shakti Express, Prayagraj Express, Shiv Ganga Express enjoys highest priority all over the route

From the Past

Lucknow Mail originally had 29 Up and 30 Down numbers before rationalisation of number schemes. With the new rationalisation scheme the train was assigned with service numbers 4229 from Lucknow and 4230 from New Delhi. In the 2005-06 railway Budget, it was elevated to superfast category without withdrawing any previous intermediate stops. During the tenure of Mamata Banerjee as Railway Minister a new five digit numbering scheme was introduced and present numbers 12229 and 12230 were assigned to Lucknow Mail.

Journey

The down train (#12230) departs New Delhi at 22:05 usually from Platform 16 and reaches Lucknow at 06:45 the following morning. The up train (#12229) departs Lucknow at 22:00 usually from Platform 1 and reaches New Delhi at 06:45 the following morning. The train boarding station was changed on 15/11/2018 from Lucknow Charbagh to Lucknow junction. The Time table is as follows:

12229 Lucknow Junction railway station to New Delhi

'''12230 New Delhi to Lucknow Junction railway station

Coaches
Coach Composition are as follows-

12229 LKO NDLS Loco-EOG-GEN-GEN-S1-S2-S3-S4-S5-S6-S7-S8-M1-M2-B1-B2-B3-B4-A1-A2-A3-A4-HA1-H1-EOG

12230 NDLS LKO Loco-EOG-H1-HA1-A4-A3-A2-A1-B4-B3-B2-B1-M2-M1-S8-S7-S6-S5-S4-S3-S2-S1-GEN-GEN-EOG

Loco in-charge for this train is WAP-7,WAP 5 from Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh (GZB) shed.

See also

 New Delhi railway station
 Lucknow Charbagh railway station

References

Transport in Delhi
Rail transport in Delhi
Passenger trains originating from Lucknow
Mail trains in India


Kannon Kumar Shanmugam (born November 15, 1972) is an American lawyer known for his litigation at the U.S. Supreme Court.  He became a partner at the law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison in 2019, and became the managing partner of the firm's Washington, D.C. office and chair of its Supreme Court and appellate practice group. Shanmugam was mentioned as a possible Solicitor General or judicial nominee in the 2017–2021 Donald Trump administration.

Shanmugam joined Paul, Weiss in a highly publicized move from Williams & Connolly, where he was head of the firm's Supreme Court and appellate practice. He previously served as an Assistant to the Solicitor General of the United States. Before joining the Solicitor General's office, he was an associate at the law firm of Kirkland & Ellis.

Early life and education
Shanmugam was born on November 15, 1972, in Lawrence, Kansas. Both his parents had immigrated to the United States from India in the late 1960s. His father, Kumarasamy "Sam" Shanmugam, was a professor of electrical engineering at the University of Kansas for over 30 years.

Shanmugam attended Lawrence High School and graduated as co-valedictorian in 1989 at age 16. He then went to Harvard University, where he was editor-in-chief of The Harvard Independent. He graduated in 1993 with an A.B. summa cum laude in Classics.

In 1993, Shanmugam won a Marshall Scholarship and spent the next two years in England doing graduate study in Classics at Keble College, Oxford. He received a Master of Letters degree in 1995.  Shanmugam then returned to the United States to attend Harvard Law School, where he was an executive editor of the Harvard Law Review and argued the case for the winning side in the Ames Moot Court Competition. He graduated in 1998 with a Juris Doctor magna cum laude.

Career
After law school, Shanmugam was a law clerk for judge J. Michael Luttig of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit from 1998 to 1999, then for justice Antonin Scalia of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1999 to 2000.

Shanmugam then entered private practice as an associate at  the law firm of Kirkland & Ellis, where he worked for noted lawyer and judge Kenneth Starr. In 2004, Shanmugam became an assistant to the U.S. Solicitor General, where he worked for four years and argued eight cases before the Supreme Court. In 2008, he joined the law firm of Williams & Connolly, where he built the firm's Supreme Court and appellate practice. He was the only lawyer to have joined the firm as a lateral partner in 32 years. In 2019, Shanmugam moved to the law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison to become the managing partner of the firm's Washington, D.C. office and chair of its newly established Supreme Court and appellate practice.

Shanmugam has served as co-chair of the American Bar Association's Appellate Practice Committee and is also a past president of the Edward Coke Appellate Inn of Court. He is the only practicing American attorney who is an honorary bencher of the Inner Temple, one of the four English Inns of Court. He taught a course on Supreme Court advocacy as an adjunct professor of law at the Georgetown University Law Center, and served on the board of trustees of Thurgood Marshall Academy. He is a longtime member of the Federalist Society.

Shanmugam has argued 36 cases before the Supreme Court. Most notably, in 2020, he argued on behalf of Seila Law LLC in the landmark case Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau.  In 2018, he argued on behalf of the victims of the USS Cole bombing and their families in Republic of Sudan v. Harrison.

See also
 List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 9)

References

External links
 Appearances at the U.S. Supreme Court from the Oyez Project
 Paul, Weiss bio

1972 births
Living people
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American lawyers
Alumni of the University of Oxford
Georgetown University Law Center faculty
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Kansas Republicans
People associated with Kirkland & Ellis
Law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States
Marshall Scholars
People from Lawrence, Kansas
Law clerks of J. Michael Luttig
Williams & Connolly people
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison people
American people of Indian descent


CDOT may refer to:
\cdot – the LaTeX input for the dot operator (⋅)
Cdot, a rapper from Sumter, South Carolina
Centre for Development of Telematics, India
Chicago Department of Transportation
Clustered Data ONTAP, an operating system from NetApp
Colorado Department of Transportation
Connecticut Department of Transportation
British Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories
Ċ – a letter of the Latin alphabet


"Tall, Tall Trees" is a song co-written by American singers George Jones and Roger Miller. Jones first released the song in 1957 as the B-side of "Hearts in My Dream" single. Miller released his version on his 1970 album A Trip in the Country.

The most famous version was released by Alan Jackson in October 1995 on a single in conjunction with his 1995 compilation album The Greatest Hits Collection. Jackson's cover was his eleventh Number One hit on the Billboard country charts.

Content
The song is an up-tempo track in which the narrator promises to his significant other that he will give her anything she desires, whether it be a "big limousine", a "great big mansion", or "tall, tall trees and all the water in the seas".

In the liner notes for his Greatest hits album, Jackson wrote,"This is an old Roger Miller song I stumbled across. It's a real fun song with a Cajun feel. I've always been a big fan of Roger's and when it came time to record a couple of new songs for this greatest hits, I couldn't resist. After I recorded it, we found out that George Jones is a co-writer - I think George had even forgotten he'd written it. I'm proud to have the chance to record a song written by two of my favorites."

Critical reception
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, saying that Jackson's vocal "evokes the right combination of devotion and playfulness on this tune about a man who promises his love everything from a big mansion to tall, tall trees."

Music video
The music video was directed and produced by Sherman Halsey and premiered in October 1995 on CMT. It features a woman (played by actress Monica Potter) in a white room watching screenshots of Jackson and his band playing in a black room. Throughout the video appears a random guy who tries to woo her. Near the end of the video a boy dressed like a cowboy gives the woman a peanut butter sandwich already bitten by the boy and she takes a bite but then leaves it on the chair, and then at the very end of the video, Jackson comes into the room and finds the sandwich on the chair, takes it, and walks away eating it.

Chart positions
"Tall, Tall Trees" debuted at number 51 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of October 21, 1995.

Year-end charts

References

1958 songs
1995 singles
George Jones songs
Roger Miller songs
Alan Jackson songs
Songs written by George Jones
Songs written by Roger Miller
Song recordings produced by Keith Stegall
Music videos directed by Sherman Halsey
Arista Nashville singles
Songs about trees


St. Thomas' Church is an Episcopal church in a rural setting, located at Croom, Prince George's County, Maryland. It is one of four congregations that have constituted the parish of St. Thomas in the Episcopal Diocese of Washington, the others including the Church of the Atonement in Cheltenham, the Chapel of the Incarnation in Brandywine, and St. Simon's Mission also in Croom.

The original church was constructed between 1742 and 1745, and is one of the earliest Episcopal churches in Southern Maryland. With the adjacent cemetery, St. Simon's Mission, and St. Simon's Cemetery, it forms part of the St. Thomas' Episcopal Parish Historic District.

History
The church was completed on December 25, 1745, and was unofficially known as "Page's Chapel," as the landowner, Daniel Page, had been contracted to erect the structure. In 1850, St. Thomas' became its own parish and undertook Gothic Revival renovations and expansion under the direction of New York City architect, John W. Priest, an associate of Andrew Jackson Downing.  In 1888, the frontal bell tower was erected in memory of Bishop Thomas John Claggett, first Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal Church consecrated in the United States. Recent restoration work, in 1954, was based on the specifications of the original 1740s building contract, but retained Priest's Gothic Revival additions. The church is surrounded on all sides by a cemetery, which contains the graves of many prominent citizens and old county families. A fence and cast iron gate posts with Gothic designs was installed in 1907.

One of the original founders and benefactors of St Thomas's church was Benedict Swingate Calvert (1730-1788) who was a Maryland Loyalist during the American Revolution. He was the son of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, the third Proprietor Governor of Maryland,  (1699–1751), and may have been the grandson of King George I of Great Britain. His mother's identity is not known and, as he was illegitimate, he was not able to inherit his father's title or estates, which passed instead to his half brother Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore (1731–1771). He spent most of his life as a politician and planter in Maryland, though Frederick, by contrast, never visited the colony. Calvert became wealthy through proprietarial patronage and became an important colonial official, but he would lose his offices and his political power, though not his land and wealth, during the American Revolution. He is buried beneath the chancel of the church along with his wife Elizabeth Calvert (1731 – 1788) and daughter Eleanor Calvert (1757/1758 – September 28, 1811).

The church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000.

Gallery

References

External links
, including photo in 2000, at Maryland Historical Trust website

St. Thomas Parish, Diocese of Washington

Churches completed in 1745
Gothic Revival church buildings in Maryland
Churches in Prince George's County, Maryland
Episcopal church buildings in Maryland
18th-century Episcopal church buildings
Religious organizations established in 1850
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Maryland
Historic American Buildings Survey in Maryland
National Register of Historic Places in Prince George's County, Maryland
Historic district contributing properties in Maryland
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Maryland


Norbert Jacques (6 June 1880 – 15 May 1954) was a Luxembourgish novelist, journalist, screenwriter, and translator who wrote in German. He was born in Luxembourg-Eich, Luxembourg and died in Koblenz, West Germany. He created the character Dr. Mabuse, who was a feature of some of his novels. Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler, the first novel to feature Mabuse, was one of the bestsellers of its time; it sold over 500,000 copies in Germany. Today, Jacques is known best for Dr. Mabuse. In 1922, he received German citizenship.

Bibliography

Novels

 Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler (1921)
 Ingenieur Mars (1923)
 Mensch gegen Mensch (1924)
 Plüsch und Plümowski (1927)
 Mabuses Kolonie (1930, fragment) – Never finished. First published in 1994.
 Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse (1932) – First published in 1950 under the title Dr. Mabuses letztes Spiel. In the late 1980s, it was reprinted under its original title.
 Chemiker Null (1934) – Serialized in 1934. First reprinted in a book in 1994.
 Leidenschaft: Ein Schiller-Roman (1939)

Short stories

 "Dr. Mabuse auf dem Presseball" (1923)

Translations
 Maurice Renard - Les Mains d'Orlac. Published in German as Orlac’s Hände (1922).
 Rudyard Kipling - Stalky & Co. Published in German as Staaks und Genossen (1928).
 Rudyard Kipling - Captains Courageous. Published in German as Fischerjungs: Ein Seeroman (1930).
 Hugh Walpole - Jeremy at Crale. Published in German as Jeremy auf der Schule (1931).

Selected filmography
 Dr. Mabuse the Gambler (1922) – Adaptation of Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler.
 Man Against Man (1924) – Adaptation of Mensch gegen Mensch. Screenplay written by Jacques.
 The Bordello in Rio (1927) – Adaptation of Plüsch und Plümowski.
 The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1933)
 Friedrich Schiller – The Triumph of a Genius (1940) – Adaptation of Leidenschaft: Ein Schiller-Roman.
 Blondes for Export (1950) – Adaptation of Plüsch und Plümowski. Screenplay written by Jacques.
 Final Destination: Red Lantern (1960) – Adaptation of Plüsch und Plümowski.
 The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse (1960) – Based on characters created by Jacques.
 The Return of Doctor Mabuse (1961) – Based on characters created by Jacques.
 The Testament of Dr. Mabuse (1962) – Remake of the 1933 film.
 The Invisible Dr. Mabuse (1962)
 Scotland Yard Hunts Dr. Mabuse (1963) – Based on characters created by Jacques.
 The Secret of Dr. Mabuse (1964) a.k.a. The Death Ray of Dr. Mabuse – Based on characters created by Jacques.
 The Vengeance of Dr. Mabuse (1971) - Spanish film directed by Jesus Franco
 Dr. M (1990) – Adaptation of Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler.

References
Notes

Sources

External links

1880 births
1954 deaths
Luxembourgian journalists
Male journalists
Luxembourgian novelists
Luxembourgian screenwriters
German male journalists
German male novelists
German male screenwriters
Translators to German
French–German translators
English–German translators
Translators from French
Translators from English
Literary translators
German travel writers
German male short story writers
German short story writers
German non-fiction writers
20th-century German journalists
20th-century German novelists
20th-century German male writers
20th-century German screenwriters
20th-century German translators


Dhokra (also spelt Dokra) is non–ferrous metal casting using the lost-wax casting technique. This sort of metal casting has been used in India for over 4,000 years and is still used. One of the earliest known lost wax artefacts is the dancing girl of Mohenjo-daro. The product of dhokra artisans are in great demand in domestic and foreign markets because of primitive simplicity, enchanting folk motifs and forceful form. Dhokra horses, elephants, peacocks, owls, religious images, measuringbowls, and lamp caskets etc., are highly appreciated. The lost wax technique for casting of copper based alloys has also been found in China, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, Central America, and other places.

The process
There are two main processes of lost wax casting: solid casting and hollow casting. While the former is predominant in the south of India the latter is more common in Central and Eastern India. Solid casting does not use a clay core but instead a solid piece of wax to create the mould; hollow casting is the more traditional method and uses the clay core.

The first task in the lost wax hollow casting process consists of developing a clay core which is roughly the shape of the final cast image. Next, the clay core is covered by a layer of wax composed of pure beeswax, resin from the tree Damara orientalis (more properly Agathis dammara), and nut oil. The wax is then shaped and carved in all its finer details of design and decorations. It is then covered with layers of clay, which takes the negative form of the wax on the inside, thus becoming a mould for the metal that will be poured inside it. Drain ducts are left for the wax, which melts away when the clay is cooked. The wax is then replaced by the molten metal, often using brass scrap as basic raw material. The liquid metal poured in hardens between the core and the inner surface of the mould. The metal fills the mould and takes the same shape as the wax. The outer layer of clay is then chipped off and the metal icon is polished and finished as desired.

The name
Dhokra Damar tribes are the main traditional metalsmiths of West Bengal and Odisha. Their technique of lost wax casting is named after their tribe, hence Dhokra metal casting. The tribe extends from Jharkhand to West Bengal and Odisha; members are distant cousins of the Chhattisgarh Dhokras. A few hundred years ago, the Dhokras of Central and Eastern India traveled south as far as Tamilnadu and north as far as Rajasthan and hence are now found all over India. Dhokra, or Dokra from Dwariapur and Bikna, West Bengal, is extremely popular. Recently Adilabad Dokra from Telangana got Geographical Indicator tag in 2018.

Images

References

External links

Artistic techniques
Bengali culture
Culture of West Bengal
Bastar district
Indian handicrafts
Indian metalwork
Geographical indications in Chhattisgarh
Metallurgical industry in India
Geographical indications in West Bengal


Cabinet of Leon Kozłowski () - cabinet headed by Prime Minister Leon Kozłowski, appointed by President Ignacy Mościcki on May 15, 1934 and serving until its resignation on March 28, 1935.
 Leon Kozłowski (BBWR) - Prime Minister
 Józef Piłsudski - Minister of Military Affairs
 Bronisław Piernacki (BBWR) - Minister of Internal Affairs
 Józef Beck (BBWR) - Minister of Foreign Affairs
 Władysław Marian Zawadzki (BBWR) - Minister of the Treasury
 Czesław Michałowski - Minister of Justice
 Wacław Jędrzejewicz (BBWR) - Minister of Religions and Public Enlightenment
 Bronisław Nakoniecznikow-Klukowski - Minister of Agriculture and Rural Reforms
 Michał Butkiewicz - Minister of Connection
 Emil Kaliński - Minister of Post
 Henryk Floyar-Rajchman - Minister of Industry and Commerce
 Jerzy Paciorkowski - Minister of Labor and Public Services

Changes:
 June 16, 1934 - Prime Minister Kozłowski became Acting Minister of Internal Affairs in place on assassinated (on June 15) Piernacki
 June 28, 1934 - Juliusz Poniatowski replaced Nakoniecznikow-Klukowski as Minister of AgricultureMarian Zyndram-Kościałkowski became Minister of Internal Affairs

Kozlowski, Leon
1934 establishments in Poland
1935 disestablishments in Poland
Cabinets established in 1934
Cabinets disestablished in 1935


Burrville may refer to:
Burrville (Torrington), a community of Torrington, Connecticut
Burrville, a hamlet near Watertown, New York
Burrville, Utah, an unincorporated community in Sevier County, Utah
Burrville (Washington, D.C.), a neighborhood of Washington, D.C.


William Partridge was born in Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire on 27 June 1858. William  moved to Blaina, Monmouthshire when he was a young boy with his parents. He enlisted into the 24th Regiment of Foot at Newport on 7 June 1877 having previously served in the Royal Monmouthshire Militia.

From Blaina to South Africa

William was one of a draft that joined the 2/24th in South Africa in July 1878. In January 1878, he was one of the small garrison at Rorke's Drift which held out from over 12 hours when the mission station was attacked by a Zulu force of 4,500 warriors. Following the end of the Zulu war, William remained with the 2nd Battalion when it moved to Gibraltar, but was soon back in Great Britain.

Marriage

Whilst at the Regimental Depot in Brecon, William met, and in November 1880 married, local girl Mary Reeves. Mary was the sister to Sarah Reeves who in 1876 had married Corporal William Wilson Allen – Corporal Allen was awarded a Victoria Cross for his actions at Rorke's Drift.

Service and later life

William Partridge was medically discharged with a pension from the army in November 1881. On 16 April 1930, he died at Blaina, aged 71 years.

Memorial

William Partridge was buried at Blaina Cemetery in sunken ground, the plot is marked by a simple wooden cross, which was made by his great-grandson on discovering his resting place 10 years ago. On 21 September 2008 the grave was rededicated with a headstone which donated by Co-Operative Funeral Care.

A service at St. Peter's Parish Church, Blaina, was followed by a march to Blaina cemetery, the parade was led by the Regimental band of the Royal Welsh with Royal British Legion standard bearers, 1879 Group Living History Company, and members of the Partridge Family in attendance. At an emotional graveside ceremony Beaufort Choir, accompanied by the band of the Royal Welsh, sang Men of Harlech. The Last Post and a gunfire salute from Martini-Henry rifles, the same type as those used at Rorke’s Drift, concluded the ceremonies.

The services were organised by the Royal Welsh Regiment, Blaina Royal British Legion and Blaina Communities First. Present was his last surviving direct descendant grandson William Arthur Coles (Second World War veteran) and great-great-grandson Khi Burgess.

References

External links
Wales Online

People from Ross-on-Wye
People from Blaina
1858 births
1930 deaths
Military personnel from Herefordshire
South Wales Borderers soldiers
British Army personnel of the Anglo-Zulu War


Tanks in the Spanish Army have over 90 years of history, from the French Renault FTs first delivered in 1919 to the Leopard 2 and B1 Centauro models of the early 21st century.  The Spanish FTs took part in combat during the Rif War and participated in the first amphibious landing with tanks in history, at Alhucemas.  In 1925, the Spanish Army began to undertake a program to develop and produce a Spanish tank, an upgraded version of the Renault FT, called the Trubia A4. Although the prototype performed well during testing, the tank was never put into mass production.  Spain also experimented with the Italian Fiat 3000, acquiring one tank in 1925, and with another indigenous tank program called the Landesa.  However, none of these evolved into a major armor program, and as a result the FT remained the most important tank, in numbers, in the Spanish Army until the beginning of the Spanish Civil War.

Between July 1936 and April 1939, during the Spanish Civil War, the two opposing armies received large quantities of tanks from foreign powers.  Spain's Second Republic received tanks from the Soviet Union, many of which were captured by the Nationalists and pressed into service against their former masters, while the Nationalists were aided by the Germans and Italians.  The Spanish Civil War, although the testing grounds for the nations which would ultimately take part in World War II, proved inconclusive with regard to the proof of mechanized warfare.  Despite attempts by Soviet, German and Italian advisers and soldiers to use newly devised mechanized theories, the lack of quality crews and the tanks, and the insufficient number of tanks provided bad impressions on the usefulness of tanks on their own.

The Spanish Army ended the Spanish Civil War with a fleet of light tanks.  Looking to field more modern and capable tanks, the Spanish government and army approved a venture to design and manufacture a better light tank, known as the Verdeja.  Although the tank proved extremely capable, a lack of raw materials and incentives doomed the program to failure.  Furthermore, the army's requirements were temporarily satisfied by the procurement of Panzer IVs in late 1943.  However, the failure to acquire more Panzer IVs led Spain to field a largely antiquated collection of light tanks and an insufficient number of medium tanks.  In 1953, the United States and Spain signed a military aid program agreement which led to the supply of M47 Patton and M48 Patton tanks.  The American decision to not allow Spain to deploy the new equipment during the war with Morocco caused Spain to look elsewhere for a supplement to their fleet of Patton tanks, ending with the procurement of the AMX-30E, based on the French AMX-30.

Almost immediately after, the Spanish Army and the Spanish Ministry of Defense began to look for a future Spanish tank.  This turned into the Lince tank program.  Despite numerous bids the Lince program failed, both for financial reasons and because of the decision to instead modernize the existing fleet of AMX-30Es, and to procure a large number of American M60 Patton tanks to replace the fleet of older Patton tanks.  Over half of the AMX-30Es were upgraded to a standard known as the AMX-30EM2, while the rest suffered a more finite modification known as the AMX-30EM1.  However, the M60s and modernized AMX-30Es did not provide Spain with a sufficiently modern tank for the next century.  In 1994, the Spanish Ministry of Defense began to negotiate with the German government over the purchase of the Leopard 2.  Ultimately, 108 Leopard 2A4s were procured and integrated into the Spanish Army, while 219 Leopard 2Es were built in Spain, based on the German Leopard 2A6.  The Leopard 2E and Leopard 2A4 replaced the fleet of M60 Patton tanks, while Spain's AMX-30EM2s were replaced by Italian B1 Centauro anti-tank cavalry vehicles.  Presently, the Spanish Army possesses 108 Leopard 2A4s and 219 Leopard 2Es.

Birth of the Spanish tank force: 1919–1926

Background
Before the First World War, the Spanish Army bought a unarmored Schneider-Brillié truck in 1909 to be used in Melilla, where armed conflict with local tribes was going on. This was a French bus platform that was fitted with an armoured body in Spain, to be used as troop transport. Although the Schneider-Brillié model 1909 was big, slow and its performance was not good, the Spanish Army learned the value of armored vehicles and bought a second one. Spanish Army officers appreciated the advantages of using advanced weapons technology in the Colonial War in Spanish Morocco and followed First World War advances.

First purchases

The Spanish army's interest in the tank began near the end of World War I, when a formal petition for one Renault FT light tank was made to the French government on 28 October 1918. This purchase, however, was not processed until 15 January 1919. Spain's Comisión de Experiencias, Proyectos y Comprobación del Material de Guerra (Experiences, Projects and Confirmation Commission) issued a formal order for an FT, armed with a  cannon, and days later extended the order to include another three cannon armed tanks, and another FT armed with a machine gun. On 5 March the order was authorized and then extended further to include two more FTs, armed with the  cannon. On 20 March the French government declared that they could not process the sale, and on 12 April the process to acquire these vehicles began anew.

In May 1919, the French acceded to the sale of a single FT light tank to the Spanish Army, delivered the next month. This particular FT was armed with an  Hotchkiss machine gun, and was later re-armed with a Spanish  machine gun. Upon inspection by the Spanish government, it was decided to procure another ten—including eight armed with machine guns and two armed with cannons. The French government declared that there were no vehicles available for sale, and later added that under no circumstances would they allow Spain to rearm these vehicles with the Spanish  machine gun, and consequently denied the sale. As a result, Spain began to approach other governments, including Great Britain and the United States, but with no success.

Rif War
Following Spain's colonial defeat at the Battle of Annual, on 22 July 1921, another military envoy was sent to France to petition for more tanks. This time, the French government consented and agreed to the sale of ten machine gun armed FTs and a single command tank. The command tank was an FT chassis, with the turret replaced by a superstructure, carrying a single communications radio. These were presented to the third section of the Escuela Central de Tiro, or the Central Shooting School, on 12 January 1922, and organized into a company of twelve light tanks. In September 1921, the Spanish government also procured six Schneider CA1 tanks and deployed these to Morocco as early as 28 February 1922. On 13 March 1922, six FTs were unloaded at Melilla, as well.

On 18 March 1922, the company of FT light tanks took part in its first combat operation, during the Rif War. Ordered to operate with the Spanish Legion, the force was to capture the town of Tunguntz, in Northern Morocco. Surprising the defenders with their appearance, the armored company advanced, and the legionnaires behind, and captured the town of Anvar. Advancing towards Tunguntz, the tanks began to come under heavy fire, as their advance had isolated them from the legionnaires due to the speed. As a result, the tanks were forced to withdraw to Anvar to fall back on the protection of the infantry. Two FTs were abandoned by their crew because of mechanical problems and were later destroyed by the Moroccan defenders with dynamite. A post-action analysis of the action decided that the poor performance of the tanks company was a direct result of poor cooperation with the infantry, the lack of reliability of the tanks' machine guns and the lack of prior training before being rushed to the front. Thereafter, Spain's armored company was used almost continuously in small-scale operations between late 1922 and September 1925. On 8 September 1925, Spain's armor would take part in the first amphibious landing with tanks in history.

After being refitted with brand new FTs to replace losses incurred during the three years of operations in Morocco, the tank company was transferred to Ceuta to prepare for the amphibious operations planned to place in and around Al Hoceima Bay. In the days previous to the Alhucemas landing, the armored company took part in a number of training exercises, with four K-type landing craft, specially modified to allow them to carry three tanks each. However, on the day of the landings the landing craft hit a shoal  from the beach; as a result, the armored company was not able to land until the next day, on 9 September 1925. Upon landing, the vehicles were used to support the left flank of the Spanish attack and aided in the capture of the heights surrounding the beaches and controlling the exit points towards the inland.

The Rif War came to an end in May 1926, and the armored company was relocated to the Spanish mainland in July of that year.

Early indigenous tank development programs: 1925–1935
With their experiences in Morocco, the Spanish Army decided to fund a development program for a new Spanish light tank. The new vehicle was to be based on the Renault FT, which was the most numerous armored vehicle in service with the Spanish Army at the time and one of the most widely used by foreign armies. The program was spearheaded by Captain of the Artillery Carlos Ruiz de Toledo, who had first commanded the battery of Schneider CA1 assault tanks in Morocco; Toledo felt that the tank would become an extremely important asset in future conflicts and felt that the Spanish Army required a Spanish-built model. As a result, he toured a number of European states in an effort to collect information on new trends in tank design and attempt to integrate these into the Spanish tank program. The resulting tank was known as the Carro de Combate Trubia serie A, or the "Series A Trubia Tank".

Trubia light tank

The first prototype development began in 1925. Produced in the Trubia Artillery Factory (Fábrica de Artillería Trubia), in Asturias, the tank was powered by a four-cylinder Hispano-Suiza 40/50 engine, the same engine the Spanish Army's military trucks had been equipped with since 1915. Given the Spanish Army's opinion that the FT was limited in firepower, the Trubia tank featured a special turret. The turret was designed in two articulated halves, which could traverse independently, each armed with a machine gun. Theoretically, if one of the machine guns jammed, the tank would still have another one to defend itself with. Furthermore, the vehicle's hull was provided with firing ports, to allow the crew to fire small arms from within the tank. This prototype was put through a series of tests, and its success brought about the decision to continue development on a Spanish tank, leading to an improved Trubia tank design, known as the Modelo Trubia 75HP, tipo rápido, serie A (Model Trubia 75 hp, fast tank, series A).

While touring Europe for a second time, in an attempt to integrate foreign design trends into the new Trubia, Captain Ruiz de Toledo found a new type of track system in Germany. Designed to avoid having problems with the tracks coming off the vehicle, the new design substituted the traditional tracks with a system which was held together by a lateral metal wall, with the roadwheels suspended from the chassis. The track system was the most innovative and unique part of the new Trubia light tank. Apart from the new tracks, the Trubia was to have a greater velocity (at least ) and greater road range than the FT. While a new machine gun was installed on the glacis plate, the tank's crew was increased from two to three, which caused the hull to be enlarged; this also allowed the engine to be maintained from inside the vehicle, allowing the crew to fix small breakdowns in the field. To refrigerate the engine and the crew, a compressed air dispenser was installed inside the chassis. This solved problems dealing with the crew's claustrophobia and the intake of gasses originating from the engine found in the FT, and made crewing the tank much more ergonomic. The original  was replaced with a more powerful  Daimler four cylinder engine. The transmission had four forward gears and four reverse gears. The new tank proved satisfactory—and even bettered the FT in some aspects—and the Spanish Army ordered the construction of four prototypes.

The first prototype was manufactured in 1926. A total of four prototypes were ordered, but production was slow and by 1928 only one of the tanks had been completed, while the other three prototypes were not armed. The completed vehicle, called the Trubia A4, was sent to the Firing School where it was put through a series of tests. In 1931, a second prototype was completed, while the final two were completed in 1934. The original prototype was returned to the factory in 1935, to integrate a number of modernizations and to repair any damage which was done to the vehicle during the testing process. The other three tanks were issued to the Milan Infantry Regiment, in Oviedo, where they continued testing.

Other tank programs
While the Trubia was being developed, the Spanish Army acquired an Italian Fiat 3000A. Ordered in October 1924, it was received in January 1925, and assigned to the Central Firing School. There, it went through a series of experiments and tests. The tank was originally developed as a near copy of the Renault FT, of which Italy had previously attempted to procure one hundred units. It had a smaller chassis and was powered through a  engine. The FIAT 3000A had a turret with two  machine guns; this was later improved with a  cannon and designated the FIAT 3000B.

In 1928, the Trubia Factory, under Major of the Artillery Victor Landesa Domenech, designed and began production of a prototype of a new armored tractor; these were named after him, as the Landesa. The unarmed tractor finished production in 1930 and went through a series of tests. Between 1931 and 1932 the vehicle went through a series of upgrades in the factory and was later sent to Madrid for further testing, where it passed satisfactorily in April 1932. Landesa, who had at this time been promoted to Lieutenant Colonel, began a preseries of three vehicles, motored by the L-2000  engine, designed by Daimler-Benz. Ultimately, two were produced and set for testing with the Spanish Republican Army, and another nine were ordered with the idea of using them to tow Škoda  anti-aircraft cannons. All the while, the Trubia Factory began to plan an armored and armed version of the vehicle for the Spanish Army. Two were produced by 1934, although the Trubia Factory experienced troubles in producing the L-2000 engines; as a result, they were not powered by the beginning of the Spanish Civil War in 1936. They were armed with a single  machine gun.

Tanks during the Spanish Civil War: 1936–1939

At the start of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish Army counted on a total of ten Renault FTs in working condition distributed equally amongst two light tank regiments; one in Madrid and the other in Sevilla. The former (1st Light Tank Regiment) fell under the control of the Second Spanish Republic's army, while the 2nd Light Tank Regiment (in Zaragoza) was integrated into the Nationalist army. The lone Fiat 3000A is thought to have been in service at this time, but was cannibalized for parts. Spain's six Schneider CA1 assault tanks were put into service with the Republican Army, and saw combat around Madrid before and during the siege of Madrid, and during the siege of the Alcázar in Toledo. They were destroyed during the siege of Madrid. The three Trubia A4 prototypes issued to the Milan Infantry Regiment at Oviedo were turned over to the Nationalist uprising, while the fourth prototype located in the Trubia Factory was taken by the factory's workers and quickly repaired so that it could be pressed into service in the Republican Army. A Landesa armored tractor in Trubia was also modified by the Republicans to carry on machine guns and converted into a light tank.

Armor of the Popular Front (Spanish Republic Government)

Spain's Republican Forces fabricated a number of different armored vehicles throughout the war. Although serving little military purpose, due to the poor quality of their design and construction, they were important factors in lifting the Popular Front's military's morale. Factories in the northern areas of Spain produced a fair number of armored tractors and trucks; for example, sixteen armored vehicles, denominated Naval-Somua, were manufactured based on the chassis of the French Somua bus. The Trubia Factory, at this time working for the Republic, manufactured between 15 and 20 light tanks known as the Trubia-Naval, which were heavily influenced by the Landesa and the Trubia A4. However, most construction revolved around the armoring of trucks, known as Tiznaos for the grey color of their steel armor. Due to the weight of the armor and the low power output of their engines, many were not able to move more than  without breaking down. These were mostly constructed in the heavily industrialized regions in northern Spain and in Catalonia. The factories of Levante, under Soviet guidance, built what was considered to be one of the best armored trucks of the war—the UNL-35. These vehicles were based on the Soviet ZiS-5 truck, and were fabricated between early 1937 and March 1939 at a rate of no more than five per month. Also, based on other chassis, such as Ford's model 817T, around 120 UNL-35s were manufactured.

On 15 October 1936, the first shipment of 50 Soviet T-26 light tanks arrived at Cartagena. These were put into combat as early as 26 October, under the leadership of Soviet Lieutenant Colonel Semyon Krivoshein, south of Madrid. The first combat operation in Spain for the T-26 was near the town of Seseña, when a Republican tank company counterattacked against the spearhead of the Nationalist's drive towards Madrid. The counterattack, although partially successful, did not hinder the Nationalist advance. By the beginning of the operation, the tanks had separated themselves from the infantry, following them. However, the Republican armor successfully surprised a company of Nationalist infantrymen, who had mistaken them for Italian allies, and routed them. The tank company then continued towards the town of Esquivias, to the West, where they were counterattacked by cavalry from the Moroccan Legion and finally forced to withdraw. Lacking infantry support, a number of T-26s were knocked out by Nationalist infantrymen using wine bottles as bomblets. The tank company returned through Seseña, which had been reoccupied by Nationalist infantry, and came under heavy fire. Despite the withdrawal, the counterattack was heavily publicized in Madrid, by the Republic, as a victory. The lack of success is attributed to the lack of coordination between Republican tanks, infantry and artillery. Although it is commonly mentioned that Spain received 312 T-26s, this number includes 16 FTs, delivered by Poland, and 15 T-26s which never actually made it to Spain. Ultimately, 281 T-26s were delivered to Spain during the Spanish Civil War.

The Soviet Union also supplied Spain with 50 BT-5 tanks. Although slightly heavier than the T-26, the BT-5 was faster; it was capable of reaching velocities of  with tracks, on road, and  with wheels. However, given the non-ideal nature of Spanish terrain, the BT-5 was rarely capable of taking advantage of its speed. The loss of many of the Republic's BT-5s during the Battle of the Ebro caused them to retire the tank to their reserves. The BT-5 was a product improvement of J. Walter Christie's fast tank concept, using Christie suspension, and was armed with a  tank gun.

Organization of Popular Front armored forces
The first 50 T-26 tanks which arrived in Spain, under the command of Krivoshein, were crewed by Soviet personnel. Nevertheless, the Soviet lieutenant colonel opened a training school in the town of Archena, near Cartagena, recruiting mainly truck and bus drivers from cities such as Madrid and Barcelona. The next month, he opened a second school in Alcalá de Henares, north of Madrid. However, only Communist soldiers were allowed to crew Soviet tanks, and as a result the pool of soldiers to recruit from was narrow and often less adept drivers were picked over better ones, due to their political ideologies. For example, in one instance a tank commander broke contact with the enemy because he had not learned how to fire his main gun. Furthermore, at first, the Soviet trainers did not have interpreters to communicate with their Spanish students.

With training underway, and the tanks quickly put into combat, the first 50 vehicles were organized into the Popular Army's first tank battalion. The battalion was equipped with three tank companies (each company containing ten tanks) and a headquarters company; each company had three platoons, with three tanks a piece, and a command tank. By mid-November a second battalion was organized. Later that month, Krivoshein and his deputy (Major Greisser) were recalled to the Soviet Union and replaced by General Dmitry Pavlov. In December 1936, General Pavlov organized new Soviet armored vehicles into an armored brigade, made up of four tank battalions and a reconnaissance company. This brigade, known as Brigada de Carros de Combate (Tank Brigade), was composed of 56 tanks and 68 other armored vehicles, and immediately saw combat around Madrid, including in the battles of Jarama and Guadalajara. However, the brigade was used to support Republican infantry forces and not as a mobile armored group, and as a result its strategic role during the war was limited by its misuse. In July 1937, the brigade took part in the Battle of Brunete, the largest tank battle to that date in the war, with some 150 Republican tanks taking part. The battle was also one of the few examples during the Spanish Civil War of the use of tanks to exploit a penetration along the front. However, the battle cost the Popular Army around 159 armored fighting vehicles.

After the Battle of Brunete, the brigade was reorganized into a new Spanish division, known as the División de Ingenios Blindados (Armored Vehicles Division). This was composed of a tank brigade and an armored brigade; the latter was made up of lighter armored fighting vehicles, such as the BA-6. It was put under the command of Spanish Colonel Sánchez Paredes. By this time, most of the Soviet tankers had returned to the Soviet Union to provide information on mechanized warfare in Spain. The only Soviet unit left was the heavy tank regiment, armed with brand new BT-5s which had not been used in combat yet. This regiment was crewed by both Soviet and veteran Spanish tankers, and was put under the command of Soviet Colonel Kondriatev. Finally, the division also disposed of an infantry brigade and an anti-tank artillery company. However, by this time the Republican military command had relegated the tank to the role of merely infantry support, dissuaded by the poor performance of Republican armor to that date. The last major battle Republican armor would take part in was the Battle of the Ebro, in 1938.

The Soviets deduced that although tank formations in Spain were not large enough to perform an ideal mechanized penetration of an enemy's lines, too large tank formations were also not ideal due to uneven terrain preventing their use en masse. As a result, armored commanders like Pavlov considered the tank's best role to be infantry support. The Republican use of armor during the Spanish Civil War was not a good demonstration of deep mechanized battle.

Armor of the Nationalists (Spanish Rebel Army)

During the Spanish Civil War, the Nationalist Army only developed a single tank, the Carro de Infanteria modelo 1937 (Infantry Tank model 1937). Taking advantage of the capture of the Trubia Factory in the north, in 1937, the Nationalists-based it on the Republican Trubia-Naval, the German Panzer I, the T-26 and the Italian CV-33. It was designed to unite the best of all three major light tanks used by the Nationalist Army during the war. However, it did not perform as well as expected, and it was not put into mass production. The Nationalist Army did manufacture a small number of armored trucks and tractors, as well as beginning the development of the Verdeja light tank, but none of these contributed with distinction to the Nationalist effort against the Popular Army.

The first foreign tanks to enter service with the Nationalists were five Italian CV-33s, which arrived at the city of Vigo on 26 August 1936. These arrived with ten crewman, who would serve as instructors. The tanks were armed with two  machine guns and had a maximum of  of steel armor. On 10 December 1936, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini decided to send combat troops to Spain, in a bid to end the war as early as possible. These men were organized into the Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV; Volunteer Corps), and by the end of the year their ranks had swelled to an estimated 47,000 men; 20,000 of which came from the Italian Army, and 27,000 of which originated from the Blackshirts. The corps was put under the command of Italian General Mario Roatta. The first major battle for the CTV came in March 1938, when it decided to engage Republican forces during the Battle of Guadalajara. A force of some 35,000 men, including 81 tanks, attacked on 8 March 1937. Failing to take into account the meteorological conditions of the battlefield, by the following day the Italian troops found themselves attacking over ground that had turned into mud due to the heavy rains. The slow speed of the advance allowed the Republican Air Force to persistently raid advancing Italian forces, dispersing entire columns off the main roads and forcing them to stall in the mud. A Republican counterattack on 18 March, led by Pavlov's armored brigade, forced the Italians to withdraw. Nationalist air support failed to provide close air support for Italian troops because runways had become water-logged, while Italian armor proved no match against the heavier and faster T-26 and BT-5 tanks. Officially, the Italians lost an estimated 2,700 soldiers during the campaigning around Guadalajara; the Republican Army lost an estimated 4,000. According to other sources, the CTV lost an estimated 5,000 casualties during the battle. However, armor losses were relatively low, as the Republicans lost 7 T-26s and the Italians lost 19 CV-33s. Despite this initial setback, the Italian government continued the supply of personnel and equipment to the CTV in Spain, and by late 1938 the Italian volunteer's corps was equipped with three tank battalions. By the end of the war, a total of 155 CV-33s were delivered to Spain.

The Germans delivered a total of 122 Panzer I light tanks to the Spanish Army over the course of the war. The first shipment arrived in October 1936, consisting of 41 tanks. These tanks would see combat as early as 30 October, around Madrid, when they engaged a column of Republican armored cars, which were able to knock out the German tanks at ranges of , with their larger guns. Although the use of armor penetrating ammunition fired from the Panzer I's  machine guns could penetrate the armor of the T-26 at ranges of up to , Republican tankers simply began to engage from ranges of up to , using their heavier  tank guns. Furthermore, the sights on the T-26 were calibrated for ranges far longer than those calibrated on German equipment. This disadvantage in firepower led the Nationalist Army to experiment with the adoption of the Italian  Breda anti-aircraft gun for its fleet of Panzer Is. Firing a  perforating projectile, this cannon could penetrate up to  of steel armor at a range of . The installation of the gun required the top of the tank's turret to be cut off and extended upwards, increasing the vehicle's profile and decreasing the visibility of the crew. Furthermore, the new gun's sights were located within an open crease to the front of the new turret extension, forcing the gunner to aim and fire from a relatively unsafe position. Although originally the Nationalists were aiming to equip at least one Panzer I in each platoon of each battalion with the larger gun, only four prototypes were completed. The capture of Republican T-26s and their return to service with the Nationalist Army made the modification of the Panzer I unnecessary, while later attempts to up-gun the German light tank failed because of the lack of available  Breda guns. There were also attempts to mount a  anti-tank gun and a  tank gun, taken from a captured Soviet vehicle, but these failed before any prototypes were completed.

The Nationalist's tank disparity with Republican forces caused Nationalist commanders to offer Spanish soldiers up to 500 pesetas for each captured T-26. Due to the number of T-26s captured and put back into service against their previous masters, the Soviet Union also inadvertently became the largest provider of armored fighting vehicles of the Nationalist Army. An estimated total of 178 T-26s were captured during the Spanish Civil War, including 98 put back into service, 30 irreparable vehicles used for spare parts, and 50 T-26s not pressed into service with the Nationalist Army. In May 1939, France turned over 10 T-26s, which had been interned after they had retreated across the border, to Nationalist Spain. The number of captured BT-5s amounted to much less. By May 1938, the Nationalist tank force had only put into service 4 BT-5s, as opposed to 39 T-26s. The first Nationalist tank company outfitted with T-26s entered combat during the Battle of Brunete, between 18–23 July 1937. Ultimately, the amount of captured equipment caused the Nationalists to organize a recuperation unit, designed to recuperate Soviet armor off the field and repair them so that they could return to combat.

Post-war era: 1939–1953
At the end of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish Army could count on 144 Panzer Is and CV-33s, and 139 T-26s. Panzer Is and CV-33s were organized as "light tanks", denominated Type Is, while the T-26s were considered "medium" tanks and categorized as Type IIs. These were organized into four armored regiments, including the 1st Tank Regiment (based in Madrid), the 2nd Tank Regiment (in Sevilla) and the 3rd and 4th Tank Regiments. The 3rd's organization was based upon that used by Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War, while the 4th's was based on that used by the Italian CTV. In 1941, a fifth regiment was created in North Africa.

Verdeja tank program

Between late 1937 and 1938, Captain Félix Verdeja Bardales began to privately develop the concept for a new light tank. The new tank would take into consideration all the qualities and problems with existing tanks in service with the Nationalist Army, including the Panzer I and T-26, and combine a number of characteristics which would make it the best light tank in service at the time. His ideal light tank included a  tank gun, with 360-degree traverse and an elevation of 72 degrees. At the same time, the vehicle was to have the lowest possible silhouette, and no less than  of all-around armor, and  on the front. Furthermore, the armor was to be sloped to maximize its efficiency and chance of an incoming projectile ricocheting. With a maximum velocity of , the light tank was to be powered by a  engine. Furthermore, the vehicle's mechanical reliability was to improve upon that of the existing tanks in service with the Nationalist Army. Despite initial obstacles, including opposition to an indigenous Spanish tank program from German General Wilhelm Ritter von Thoma, the first prototype was delivered in late 1938; this prototype was built from spare parts taken from a number of different tanks. The prototype performed well in testing and a new prototype was ordered.

The new prototype was much closer to what Captain Verdeja had originally planned. The chassis was enlarged, and the engine was moved to the left side of the front compartment of the hull. The volume of the fuel tanks and the thickness of the armor was also increased, while the height of the turret was decreased by sloping the turret's sides. One of the most unusual—at the time—developments for the tank were the tracks, designed to eliminate the possibility of having them slide off when the tank was moving. The tank had a sprocket to the front of the hull, on each side, and a tensioner to the rear. The tracks were guided by four return rollers and four roadwheels. The tracks had previously been tested on the original prototype; they were designed to fit around the roadwheel, and consequently lock themselves into place, avoiding the possibility of slipping off. The construction of the prototype was postponed until May 1940, due to a shortage of funds, and the tank was finally delivered to the proving grounds of Carabanchel for testing. The prototype was denominated the Verdeja 1, and competed against a T-26B in a number of different tests. Ultimately, the Verdeja scored a total of 243 points, as compared to 205 scored by the T-26. The testing resulted in a number of modifications, including higher suspension to allow climbing over taller obstacles, the increase in armor thickness, increase of the body width and the creation of an empty space at the rear, to allow for the future installation of a communications radio. After two months work, the Verdeja 1 was returned for testing and this time scored a total of 261.98 points. Although the success of this prototype persuaded the Spanish government to issue an order for the construction of 1,000 tanks, ultimately lack of incentives to develop the relevant industrial infrastructure; the poor economic situation after the Spanish Civil War and absence of foreign clients, soon caused the production program to collapse.

As the Verdeja 1 program dissolved, Captain Verdeja began to design a successor, taking into consideration the lessons learned during the opening campaigns of the Second World War. The new design featured a reorganized engine bay at the rear of the chassis, which meant moving the drive sprocket to the rear as well. The movement of the engine's location allowed for better cooling of the vehicle's motor and the fighting compartment, as well as allowing the turret to be moved forward. The vehicle's armor was also increased substantially. This new tank was not approved for production or further development, due to continued postponement of the production of the Verdeja 1 for reasons which included offers by the German government to supply the Panzer IV's engine for the Verdeja 1. Although production of the new vehicle finally began in 1942, it was not until August 1944 that the Verdeja 2 prototype was delivered. The decision to purchase a number of German armored vehicles delayed the decision to begin production of the Verdeja 2; ultimately the vehicle was left untouched until 1950, when there was a failed attempt to mount a new engine.

Beginning in 1945, the now-Major Verdeja was ordered to begin designing an artillery piece using a rapid-firing 75 millimeter L/40 howitzer designed by Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval, based on the Verdeja 1 chassis. The chassis' roof and rear wall were eliminated, and instead a gun shield placed over the front. A mechanical brake was installed next to the idler wheel, stopping rearwards movement of the artillery piece during the firing process. The availability of the required parts and the lack of complicated changes meant that the vehicle was quickly prepared and tested extensively. The fate of the self-propelled piece was much the same as that of the Verdeja 2, and the vehicle was left untouched at the proving grounds in Carabanchel until 1973, when it was moved to the Spanish base Alfonso XIII, housing the then Mechanized Infantry Regiment Wad Rass nº 55. It was soon moved to another base, and finally delivered to the base of El Goloso, outside of Madrid, as a part of an armored vehicles museum.

German armor in service with the Spanish Army

In 1943, the Spanish Army and government decided to replace much of its armor, after studying war in Europe and North Africa. Tanks such as the Panzer I and T-26 were obsolete, as compared to newer tanks such as the Soviet T-34 and German Panther tank. As a result, on 15 March 1943 Spain began to negotiate with the Wehrmacht over the acquisition of modern materiel. The petition asked for 250 Panzer IIIs and 100 Panzer IVs. In return, the Germans instead offered a sale of 20 Panzer IVs and 10 Sturmgeschütz IIIs. On 29 April, Spain accepted Germany's offer. The Panzer IVs sold were of the Ausf. H variant, and arrived in Spain on 6 December 1943. The Panzer IV Ausf. H included the longer  tank gun, and the homogeneous  steel plate on the glacis.

As early as January 1944, Spain again began to negotiate with Germany for more equipment. The new program revolved around the sale of 33 Panzer IVs, three of which would be of the command variant. Another offer was made for 67 more Panzer IVs at a later date; a result, the two programs together summed up to a potential procurement of 100 Panzer IVs. Spain also suggested the purchase of a number of Tiger tanks, although this offer never amounted to anything serious. Regardless, the program to acquire another 100 Panzer IVs never materialized. The 20 Panzer IVs received in late 1943 were organized into two companies, distributed among two battalions in the armored regiment of the Armoured Division No. 1 "Brunete".

At the end of World War II, the Spanish Army counted on a tank force composed of 20 Panzer IVs, 10 StuG IIIs, 116 T-26s, 93 Panzer Is (including command vehicles), 60 CV-33s and 80 armored cars. In 1949 the armored regiment was reorganized into two battalions of 60 T-26s, with two command Panzer Is, six combat versions of the Panzer I and two CV-33, which were used for reconnaissance, each. A third battalion was composed of the 20 Panzer IVs, plus six Panzer Is. The regiment numbered an estimated 1,500 personnel and 100 tanks.

American military aid: 1954–1970

By the mid-1950s, the state of the Spanish Army's tanks was deteriorating. Spain's armored force composition remained the same until February 1954, when the United States delivered the first twelve M47 Patton tanks to the Spanish Army. These were a product of a military aid program the United States had signed with Spain in 1953. By 1957, the Spanish Army had received a total of 29 M47 tanks. Over the course of the 1950s, Spain received a total of 389 M47 Patton tanks. Throughout the 1960s, Spain received 65 M48 Patton tanks and 66 M48A1s. The M47 and M48 tanks were an important modernization of Spain's armored firepower. For example, while the T-26 was armed with a  cannon, the American tanks were armed with the much more powerful  tank gun.

While a Panzer IV's (Ausf. G)  L/43 tank gun could penetrate  of steel armor at  (using the Panzergranate 39), the M47 (using the M348 high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warhead) could penetrate  from its  tank gun. Further, the M47's armor was  thick on the glacis plate, and  thick on the turret front. Spain also received a number of M41 Walker Bulldog light tanks. These were organized into the Villaviciosa Light Armored Cavalry Regiment, while four were also organized into the Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment as reconnaissance tanks.

Between 1953 and 1968, the Spanish Army received a total of 446 medium battle tanks (M47s and M48s), 123 light tanks (M24s and M41s), as well as 30 armored recovery vehicles (the M74). In 1970, the United States agreed to extend the military aid program by another five years, giving Spain another 66 M48A2 tanks and 17 M41A3s.

The vehicles received were organized based on a reorganization of the Brunete Armored Division in 1965. This included the General Staff, based at El Pardo, and the Nucleo de Tropas Divisionario (Divisionary Troop Nucleus). The latter was formed by the Villaviciosa Light Armored Cavalry Regiment, the Campaign Artillery Regiment, the 1st Anti-Air Artillery Group, the 1st Engineering Regiment and the Divisionary Logistics Group. Also in the division was the XI Mechanized Infantry Brigade, which included the 6th Saboya Motorized Infantry Regiment, the 55th Uad Ras Mechanized Infantry Regiment, the XI Self-Propelled Artillery Group, the XI Engineering Battalion and the XI Logistics Group. Finally, the division also made use of the XII Armored Brigade, which was formed by the 61st Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment, the 31st Asturias Mechanized Infantry Regiment, the XII Self-Propelled Artillery Group, the XII Engineering Battalion and the XII Logistics Group. The majority of the division's armor was located in the Alcázar de Toledo Armored Infantry Regiment, which contained two regiments of 48 M48s and 54 M47s, respectively.

Late Cold War: 1970–1991

Western Sahara crisis and Purchase of French tanks

The United States' ban on the usage of American ordnance supplied as military aid to Spain during the 1957–58 Ifni War pushed Spain to look for alternative equipment which could be freely employed in the Spanish Sahara. Throughout the 1960s, the Spanish government had approached the governments of France and West Germany, hoping to procure either the AMX-30 or the Leopard 1, respectively. Ultimately, the Germans were unable to sell the Leopard tank on account of the gun system being British; at the time, the British Labour Party had decided not to sell to the government of Francisco Franco in Spain. As a result, in May 1970 Spain and France agreed to the sale of 19 AMX-30 main battle tanks. The first six AMX-30s were delivered in November 1970, and these were immediately issued to a new armoured company of the Spanish Legion, stationed in Spanish Sahara. All 19 AMX-30s purchased from France in 1970 were delivered to the Spanish Legion, in the Spanish Sahara. Beginning in 1974, Spain began to manufacture the AMX-30 (now denominated the AMX-30E), with production of the first batch of 180 tanks ending on 25 June 1979. The second batch, this time of 100 AMX-30Es, were produced between 1979 and 1983. This gave the Spanish Army a total of 299 AMX-30Es.

The AMX-30E was armed with the  modele F1 tank gun, and was powered by the HS-110  diesel engine. With a fuel tank of , the tank had a road range of  and the fuel was, on average, sufficient for 18 hours of travel. The tracks had a life of at least . However, Spain's new tanks began to suffer a number of mechanical problems, dealing with the reliability of the original engine and transmission. Therefore, the Spanish Army and Santa Bárbara Sistemas (the vehicle's manufacturer in Spain) began to look into a series of modifications to improve the AMX-30. By this time, the Spanish Army had already begun upgrading its M47 and M48 Patton tanks to the M47E and M48E models, which made them equivalent to the M60 Patton tank in capabilities.

From the late 1970s Spain had upgraded 330 M47 tanks to the M47E and E1 standard with AVDS-1790-2A diesel engines and CD-850-6A transmissions like those in the M60A1 and elimination of the bow gunners position.  Another 46 were further upgraded to the M47E2 standard with a German Rheinmetall Rh-105-30 105 mm gun.  Eighteen of the Spanish M48's were locally upgraded to the M48A5E standard, essentially matching the American M48A3 configuration for the Marines.  Fifty four M48A2 tanks (1 battalion) acquired from Germany were locally upgraded to the M48A5E1 standard which was equivalent to the American M48A5, followed by and 108 from the United States upgraded to the M48A5E1 which provided a passive M35 periscope for the gunner, AM/VVS-2 passive periscope for the driver and the TEESS engine smoke laying system.  From 1983 a further 54 tanks were upgraded to the M48A5E2 standard with a Hughes Mk 7 fire control system similar to that of the M60A3 featuring a passive night vision sight for the gunner, laser rangefinder, and analog electronic ballistic computer. A further 110 were upgraded in 1984. A further upgrade of these to the M48A5E3 standard from 1991 featuring a gun stabilization system and thermal gunners sight was cancelled with the availability of surplus American M60A3 TTS tanks retired under CFE.

Lince Programme (Lynx)

While the army was studying a possible modernisation of its brand-new AMX-30E fleet, the Spanish Ministry of Defense had set aside 120 billion pesetas (1.1 billion dollars) for a future tank programme and attracted interest from five foreign companies. A bid by Krauss-Maffei's, known as the Lince, provided the clearest technical designs. The tank would be  and equipped with a 120-millimeter main gun. It could fire this gun on the move and aim at targets with effectiveness in day and night operations. Fitted with a 1,200 horsepower (894.84 kW) engine, the Lince could travel as fast as 70 kilometers per hour (43.50 mph) on the roads. Although heavily based on the Leopard 2A4, the Lince was smaller and lighter, trading protection for mobility. Specifically, the Lince prioritised enhanced mobility over the irregular Spanish terrain. Furthermore, size restrictions were imposed due to the existing capabilities of Spain's railroad and highway network. Although the reduced armor conflicted with the problems that the Spanish had with AMX-30E's thin armour, the Lince used a multi-layer armor similar to that of the German Leopard 2A4, providing greater protection than standard armour for a similar weight. The protection was further enhanced by the low profile turret, again similar to that of the Leopard 2A4. Despite the offer and ongoing collaboration with the Italians, Spanish investment in the German-Spanish Lince programme grew up to 200 billion pesetas (1.8 billion dollars). However, the Spanish government did not announce any winner for the contract. This indecision led Krauss-Maffei to freeze their bid for the Lince. Krauss-Maffei also cited the loss of millions of dollars due to failures on part of Santa Bárbara Sistemas, who would manufacture the Lince. In 1987, the Lince program was pushed aside and postponed by the Spanish Ministry of Defense's decision to instead go on with the modernisation of the Spanish Army's AMX-30E fleet. Ultimately, the purchase of a number of M60 Patton tanks, the modernisation of the AMX-30E and the continued fiscal problems finally caused the Spanish Ministry of Defense to cancel the Lince programme in 1989.

1990s modernization

Between 1989 and 1993, 150 AMX-30Es were modernised to what would become known as the AMX-30EM2. The modernisation entailed the introduction of a new armour piercing discarding sabot round, the modification of the turret hatch to allow the installation of a larger anti-aircraft machine gun, and a brand new fire control system. Besides these modernisations of the tank's firepower, the mobility of the tank was improved through the exchange of the old engine and transmission for the more reliable MTU 833 Ka-501 diesel engine, producing , coupled with the German ZF LSG-3000. A new smoke machine, linked to the tank's new engine, was also installed. The other 149 AMX-30Es went through a less expensive and extensive modification, known as the AMX-30EM1. These received the American Allison CD-850-6A three speed transmission (two forward and one reverse); however, the new transmission caused extensive overheating in the engine compartment. These 149 AMX-30EM1s would eventually be replaced by US surplus M60A3 Patton tanks, purchased from the United States, in the early 1990s.

Modern Spanish armor: 1992–present

In the early 1990s, due large numbers of tanks were being withdrawn from Central Europe in compliance with the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe the Spanish Army received 244 M60 tanks to replace its aging fleet of M47Es and M48Es, and its troublesome AMX-30EM1s. However, these did not represent a great improvement over the existing fleet, and as a result as early as 1994 the Spanish government had already begun to negotiate for a future Spanish tank, which would replace the M60. Although the Germans offered Spain surplus Leopard 1 tanks and Soviet equipment incorporated into the German Army after the reunification of Germany, the Spanish government declined these offers and pressed for the Leopard 2.

In March 1994, the Spanish Ministry of Defense created Programa Coraza 2000 (Programme Armour 2000), which focused on the procurement and integration of new armament for the Spanish Army's modernisation. The program included the procurement and integration of a Spanish derivative of the German Leopard 2, known as the Leopard 2E into the Spanish Army. The programme's scope extended to the integration of 108 Leopard 2A4s, which were leased to Spain in late 1995. Apart from procurement, Programa Coraza was meant to prepare the Spanish Army logistically for the introduction of new matériel.

A memorandum of understanding was signed on  1995 between the German and Spanish governments, setting the foundations for an acquisition of up to 308 brand-new Leopard 2Es. These were to be assembled in Spain by Santa Bárbara Sistemas, with 60–70 percent of the components manufactured by Spanish companies, and production taking place between 1998 and 2003. Furthermore, the German government agreed to lend the Spanish Army 108  for training purposes for a period of five years. These vehicles were delivered between November 1995 and June 1996. In 1998, Spain agreed to procure the ceded Leopard 2A4s and reduce production of the brand-new Leopard 2E to 219 vehicles. In 2005 it was declared that the 108 Leopard 2A4s were to cost Spain 16.9 million euros, to be paid by 2016. The Leopard 2Es, based on the German Leopard 2A6, were produced between 2002 and 2008.

While the M60s were replaced by the Leopard 2s, the AMX-30EM2s were replaced by the Italian B1 Centauro anti-tank vehicle in the early years of the 2000s (decade).

See also

 History of the tank
 List of interwar armoured fighting vehicles
 Tanks in World War II
 Comparison of early World War II tanks
 Tank classification
 List of military vehicles
 List of armoured fighting vehicles by country

Notes

References

Tanks of Spain
Tank


Legh may refer to:

Families
 Leghs of Adlington, Cheshire family dating back to 1315 who lived in Adlington Hall, a manor house in the Borough of Cheshire East
 Leghs of Lyme, family who owned Lyme Park in Cheshire, England, from 1398 to 1946, when the house and estate were given to the National Trust

People
Gerard Legh or Leigh (d. 1563), English lawyer and author of an influential treatise on heraldry
George Anthony Legh Keck (b. 1784), English politician
Legh Richmond (1772–1827), English clergyman
Thomas Legh Claughton (1808–1892), English academic and clergyman
William Legh Walsh (1857–1938), Canadian lawyer
Thomas Legh (disambiguation)

Other uses
High Legh, a village and civil parish in Cheshire


Count of Tentúgal (in Portuguese Conde de Tentúgal) was a Portuguese title of nobility created by a royal decree, dated from 1 January 1504, by King Manuel I of Portugal, and granted to Dom Rodrigo de Melo, son of Álvaro of Braganza and Philippa of Melo (daughter and heir of the Count of Olivença).

Twenty nine years later, in 1533, King John III of Portugal granted him the new title of Marquis of Ferreira (in Portuguese Marquês de Ferreira). Count of Tentúgal became the title used by the Marquis's heir.

Finally, and following the expulsion of the Philippine Dynasty from the throne of Portugal (1640), the new King John IV of Portugal granted to 5th Count of Tentúgal and 4th Marquis of Ferreira, Dom Nuno Álvares Pereira de Melo, the new title of Duke of Cadaval (in Portuguese Duque de Cadaval) by a royal decree dated from 26 April 1648.

Marquis of Ferreira and Count of Tentúgal became subsidiary titles from the Duke of Cadaval, used by the Duke's heir, during his father's life.

List of the Counts of Tentúgal (1504) and Marquises of Ferreira (1533)
Álvaro de Bragança, 4th Lord of Cadaval and 1st Lord of Tentúgal ⚭ Filipa de Melo, 5th Lady of Ferreira;
Rodrigo de Melo (1468–1545), 1st Count of Tentúgal and 1st Marquis of Ferreira;
Francisco de Melo (1520–1588), 2nd Count of Tentúgal and 2nd Marquis of Ferreira;
Nuno Álvares Pereira de Melo (1555–1597), 3rd Count of Tentúgal;
Francisco de Melo (1588–1645), 4th Count of Tentúgal and 3rd Marquis of Ferreira;
Nuno Álvares Pereira de Melo (1638–1727), 5th Count of Tentúgal, 4th Marquis of Ferreira and 1st Duke of Cadaval;
Luis Ambrósio de Melo (1679–1700), 2nd Duke of Cadaval;
Jaime Álvares Pereira de Melo (1684–1749), 6th Count of Tentúgal, 5th Marquis of Ferreira and 3rd Duke of Cadaval;
Nuno Caetano Álvares Pereira de Melo (1741–1771), 7th Count of Tentúgal, 6th Marquis of Ferreira and 4th Duke of Cadaval;
Miguel Caetano Álvares Pereira de Melo (1765–1808), 8th Count of Tentúgal, 7th Marquis of Ferreira and 5th Duke of Cadaval;
Nuno Caetano Álvares Pereira de Melo (1799–1837), 9th Count of Tentúgal, 8th Marquis of Ferreira and 6th Duke of Cadaval;
Maria da Piedade Caetano Álvares Pereira Melo (1827–1898), 10th Countess of Tentúgal, 9th Marquise of Ferreira and 7th Duchess of Cadaval;
Jaime Caetano Álvares Pereira de Melo (1844–1913), 11th Count of Tentúgal, 10th Marquis of Ferreira and 8th Duke of Cadaval;
Nuno Maria José Caetano Álvares Pereira de Melo (1888–1935), 12th Count of Tentúgal, 11th Marquis of Ferreira and 9th Duke of Cadaval;
Jaime Álvares Pereira de Melo (1913–2001), 13th Count of Tentúgal, 12th Marquis of Ferreira and 10th Duke of Cadaval;
Rosalinda Aurora Felicidade Álvares Pereira de Melo (born 1936), 14th Countess of Tentúgal, 13th Marquise of Ferreira and 1st Duchess of Cadaval-Guerrand-Hermès;
Olympia Álvares Pereira de Melo Guerrand-Hermés (born 1977), 15th Countes of Tentúgal.

See also
Duke of Cadaval
List of Portuguese Dukedoms
List of Marquesses in Portugal
List of Countships in Portugal

External links
Genealogy of the Counts of Tentúgal, in Portuguese
Genealogy of the Marquesses of Ferreira, in Portuguese

Tentugal
1504 establishments in Portugal


The Instituto de Física Corpuscular (IFIC, English: Institute for Corpuscular Physics) is a CSIC and University of Valencia joint center dedicated to experimental and theoretical research in the fields of particle physics, nuclear physics, cosmology, astroparticles and medical physics.

It is located at the scientific park of the University of Valencia, in Paterna (Valencia, Spain).

History
In the autumn of 1950 Prof. Joaquin Catalá formed a group in Valencia to study atomic nuclei and elementary particles using nuclear emulsions.
He had first been working in Bristol with C.F. Powell,
who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1950 for using this technique to detect
particles in cosmic rays.

Prof. Catalá’s group first operated as a Local Division of the Instituto de Óptica Daza de Valdés
belonging to CSIC and specialized in photo-nuclear studies. One of Catalá’s students, Fernando Senent, later becoming Professor and director of the Institute, produced what was the first Spanish thesis in Experimental Particle and Nuclear Physics. It was at the beginning of 1960 when the Institute got its present name, IFIC, Instituto de Física Corpuscular. IFIC, hence, is one of the oldest Spanish Institutes in Experimental Physics and the oldest studying particle and nuclear physics.

References
Navarro Brotons V., 2000. "Valencia, cuna de la Física de partículas en España", Mètode, Anuario 2000.

External links
Instituto de Física Corpuscular (IFIC)
Promotional video of IFIC

Physics research institutes
Research institutes in Spain
Schools in Paterna


Taoism is believed to be the inspiration for some spiritual concepts in Japanese culture. Taoism's influence can be seen throughout the culture but to a lesser extent than Confucianism.

Taoism in the form it takes in Japan can be easily seen as superstitious or astrological and the concept of demons and spirits seem to have their roots in a Taoist influence such as Onmyōdō and Shugendō. The widely practiced ritual of setsubun (節分) where chanters repeat "Demons out! Luck in!" has its base in Taoism and also touches on a relation to uchi-soto. There is a culture of consultation where ogamiyasan are called upon to provide their Taoism based insight to bear upon events such as house-buildings. Taoism in Japan has a calendar whereby one can determine the best day to perform various functions.

Taoist fulu charms became ofuda in Shinto.

Etymology
The Japanese kanji for Taoism is 道教 (Dô-kyô). The root of this kanji is 道 (michi, way, path) + 教 (kyō, doctrine, teaching, education). Dô shares the same Chinese character as tao, 道 which literally means "way".

Taoism in Japan
According to a tale from the Nihon Shoki, a man named Tajimamori set out to explore for the elixir of immortality and reached the Eternal Land, where he brought back the “fragrant fruit” to offer to his ruler; the latter turned out to be already dead so Tajimamori followed suit. “Scholars have identified it as the immortals’ isles of Penglai, and the ‘fragrant fruit’ as the mandarin orange".

The legal system of China was brought to Japan in the late 7th and early 8th centuries, specifically a Bureau of yin and yang, the Ommyokan, to handle affairs of time keeping, astronomy, dream interpretation and calendar calculation and yin-yang and the Five Phases cosmology. By the 10th century, it developed with rituals to cast away unlucky tendencies and this became known as the religious practice in Japan called inyodo (Onmyōdō) or yin-yang divination.

Taoism also influenced Shugendo, Japan’s shamanistic and mountain worship. It began in the 7th century and combined Buddhism, yin-yang divination, Shinto and Taoist elements. One spell of Taoistic influence is the “Come down, soldiers and fighters, and line up before me!” which is used to enter a holy mountain on certain days. Another ritual formula evident of Taoism is the “Swiftly, swiftly, in accordance with the statutes and ordinances!” which can be seen in banners, talismans and roof tiles even today in Japan.

Taoist influences made their way even to Shinto, specifically Ise and Yoshida Shintō, both of which developed in Kamakura in 1281. Shinto became one of Japan’s political doctrines in the early 20th century, known as the State Shinto. In 1950, the Society for the Research of Daoism was founded. In 1951, the Society published its first journal.

One of the Taoist practices in Japan is the Kōshin religion. Koshin refers to the 57th day of the 60-day calendar cycle, where three worms bringing death from the human body go to report of people’s sins in heaven. The worms then go back to the human body and shorten the people’s lifespan by causing illnesses and unhappiness. To avoid this, the Taoists stays awake the whole day and night and perform rituals. “The Koshin cult is the most obvious and best known instance of Taoism in Japan”

See also
Kuji-in
Fulu

References

Japanese philosophy


The horned clubtail (Arigomphus cornutus) is a clubtail dragonfly of Canada and the United States.

The horned clubtail is  long and lacks an abdominal club. It has a greenish thorax with black stripes and a black abdomen with a light stripe along the top. It has blue eyes and black legs. It also has distinctive wide forked yellow claspers shaped like cow horns and a large sloped bridge between the eyes.

The horned clubtail lives in ponds and sluggish streams. Its range includes Canada and several U.S. states:
Colorado
Iowa
Minnesota
Montana – Carter, Custer, Fallon, Powder River, and Wibaux Counties; only in artificial reservoirs.
Nebraska – Cherry and Cuming Counties
New York – (rarely)
North Dakota
South Dakota
Wisconsin
Wyoming

References

Gomphidae
Odonata of North America
Insects described in 1900


The Second Federal Electoral District of Nayarit (II Distrito Electoral Federal de Nayarit) is one of the 300 Electoral Districts into which Mexico is divided for the purpose of elections to the federal Chamber of Deputies and one of three such districts in the state of Nayarit.

It elects one deputy to the lower house of Congress for each three-year legislative period, by means of the first past the post system.

District territory
Nayarit's Second District is located in the centre of the state and covers the municipality of Tepic.

The district's head town (cabecera distrital), where results from individual polling stations are gathered together and collated, is the state capital, the city of Tepic.

Previous districting schemes

1996–2005 district
Between 1996 and 2005, Nayarit's Second  District covered the municipality of Tepic,
plus the municipalities of El Nayar and La Yesca.

Deputies returned to Congress from this district

L Legislature
 1976–1979:  María Hilaria Domínguez Arvizu
LI Legislature
 1979–1982:  Emilio M. González (PRI)
LII Legislature
 1982–1985:  Ignacio González Barragán
LIII Legislature
 1985–1988:  Leobardo Ramos Martínez
LIV Legislature
 1988–1991: Ignacio González Barragán
LV Legislature
 1991–1994:  Víctor Joaquín Canovas Moreno (PRI)
LVI Legislature
 1994–1997:  José Santos Ramos Damián (PRI)
LVII Legislature
 1997–2000:  Salvador Sánchez Vázquez (PRI)
LVIII Legislature
 2000–2002:  Ney González Sánchez (PRI)
2002–2003:  Luis Eduardo Jiménez Agraz (PRI)
LIX Legislature
 2003–2006:  Gerardo Montenegro Ibarra (PRI)
LX Legislature
 2006–2009:  María Eugenia Jiménez Valenzuela (PRD)
 LXI Legislature
 2009–2012:  Martha Elena García Gómez (PRD)
 LXII Legislature
 2012–2014:  Roy Gómez Olguín (PRI)
 2014–2015:  Ángel Alain Aldrete Lamas (PRI)

References and notes

Federal electoral districts of Mexico
Nayarit