The Xhosa people, or Xhosa-speaking people ( ,  ; ) are a Bantu ethnic group whose traditional homeland is primarily the Cape Provinces of South Africa. They are the second largest ethnic group in Southern Africa and are native speakers of the IsiXhosa language.

Presently, over nine million Xhosa-speaking people are distributed across the country, and the Xhosa language is one of Southern Africa's most populous languages. The pre-1994 apartheid system of Bantustans suspended the Xhosa South African citizenship, but assigned them to have self-governing "homelands" (native reserves), namely; Transkei and Ciskei, now both a part of the Eastern Cape Province where most Xhosa remain. Many Xhosa live in Cape Town ( in Xhosa), East London (), and Gqeberha ().

 the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 5.3 million, lived in the Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape (approximately 1 million), Gauteng (971,045), the Free State (546,192), KwaZulu-Natal (219,826), North West (214,461), Mpumalanga (46,553), the Northern Cape (51,228), and Limpopo (14,225).

There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking  (Mfengu) community in Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognised as an official national language. This community is based on a diaspora that moved up from the Cape in South Africa upon the establishment of Rhodesia with Cecil Rhodes.

History

Some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have lived in the Eastern Cape area since at least the 7th century. The modern Xhosa are Nguni people, a stock of Bantu

Origins

The Xhosa people are descendants of the ancestors of Ngunis. Xhosa oral history also mentions a historical settlement called 'Eluhlangeni' believed to have been in East Africa in which the Ngunis lived in for some time before continuing with their migration.

Upon crossing mountains and rivers in South Africa, these farm-working agro-pastoralists brought their cattle and goats with them and absorbed the weaker San groups in the region. They also brought weapons, notably their assegais and their shields and would form groups or chiefdoms and kingdoms mainly in what is now the Eastern Cape.

Kingdom

According to oral tradition, the modern Xhosa Kingdom was founded somewhere before the 15th century by Tshawe (whom the royal clan of the Xhosas is named after) who overthrew his brother Cirha (assisted by his brother Jwarha) with the help of the  clan of the amaMpondomise Kingdom. Tshawe and his army then incorporated formerly independent Nguni clans into the Xhosa Kingdom. Also Khoikhoi tribes were incorporated, these include the Inqua, the Giqwa and the  (both khoi and sotho origin).

Formerly independent clans (many of khoi origin) and chiefdoms in the region became tributary to the  and spoke isiXhosa as their main language.

The Xhosa polity achieved political ascendancy over most of the Cape Khoi extending to the very fringes of the Cape Peninsula.

With the settlement of the Cape by Europeans in 1652, the native populations were gradually pushed eastwards, until, in the 1700s, the borders of the Cape Colony had pushed populations far enough east (with relations between colonist and native significantly broken down) to create a critical mass of hostile population to resist the colonists in the Eastern Cape. This sparked off the Cape frontier wars, which represent some of the longest military resistance to colonialism.

The historical end-result would be the containment of large portions of the Cape native population into native reserves in the Easternmost part of the Cape. However these populations would also continually serve as the labour inside the Cape Colony. These native reserves would be re-branded "homelands" in the 20th century and would only be fully dismantled in 1994 with populations moving back into the wider Cape.

In the 19th century, the Xhosas fought and repulsed many tribes that were escaping the Zulus in Natal, this was during the historical mfecane. Those who were accepted were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions. The Xhosas called these various tribes AmaMfengu, meaning wanderers, and were made up of clans such as the , , ,  and Rhadebe. To this day, the descendants of the amaMfengu are part of the Xhosa people and they speak isiXhosa and practice the Xhosa culture.

Xhosa unity and ability to fight off colonial encroachment was to be weakened by the famines and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858. Historians now view this movement as a millennialist response, both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy.

Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress (ANC), South Africa's ruling political party in the government.

Language

Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal language categorized under Bantu linguistic classification. While the Xhosas call their language "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to as "Xhosa" in English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken by about 18% of the South African population, and has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken in urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, particularly those living in urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.

Folklore and religion

Traditional healers of South Africa include diviners (). This job is mostly taken by women, who spend five years in apprenticeship. There are also herbalists (), prophets (), and healers () for the community.(umphakathi)

The Xhosas have a strong oral tradition with many stories of ancestral heroes; according to tradition, the leader from whose name the Xhosa people take their name was the first King of the nation. One of Xhosa's descendants named Phalo gave birth to two sons, Gcaleka kaPhalo, the heir, and Rarabe ka Phalo, a son from the Right Hand house. Rarabe was a great warrior and a man of great ability who was much loved by his father. Gcaleka was a meek and listless man who did not possess all the qualities befitting of a future king. Matters were also complicated by Gcaleka's initiation as a diviner, which was a forbidden practice for members of the royal family.

Seeing the popularity of his brother and fearing that he might one day challenge him for the throne, Gcaleka attempted to usurp the throne from his father.
Rarabe came to his father's aid and quelled the insurrection. With the blessing of his father, who provided him retinue, and accompanied him; Rarabe left and settled in the Amathole Mountains region. There, he destroyed the weaker Khoikhoi tribes and killed Hinsati of the  and bought the land. He then ruled over the various Xhosa clans there and the Right Hand House of the Xhosa Kingdom was founded.

The key figure in the Xhosa oral tradition is the  (plural: ) or praise singer.  traditionally live close to the chief's "great place" (the cultural and political focus of his activity); they accompany the chief on important occasions – the  Zolani Mkiva preceded Nelson Mandela at his presidential inauguration in 1994. ' poetry, called , praises the actions and adventures of chiefs and ancestors.

The supreme being is called  or . In Xhosa tradition, the ancestors act as intermediaries between the living and God; they are honoured in rituals in order to bring good fortune. Dreams play an important role in divination and contact with ancestors. Traditional religious practice features rituals, initiations, and feasts. Modern rituals typically pertain to matters of illness and psychological well-being.

Christian missionaries established outposts among the Xhosa in the 1820s, and the first Bible translation was in the mid-1850s, partially done by Henry Hare Dugmore. Xhosa did not convert in great numbers until the 20th century, but now many are Christian, particularly within the African initiated churches such as the Zion Christian Church. Some denominations combine Christianity with traditional beliefs.

Rites of passage

The Xhosa are a South African cultural group who emphasise traditional practices and customs inherited from their forefathers. Each person within the Xhosa culture has their place which is recognised by the entire community. Starting from birth, a Xhosa person goes through graduation stages which recognise their growth and assign them a recognised place in the community. Each stage is marked by a specific ritual aimed at introducing the individual to their counterparts and also to their ancestors. Starting from , a ritual performed to introduce a new born to the ancestors, to  (the homecoming), from  (a boy) to  (a man). These rituals and ceremonies are sancrosact to the identity and heritage of the Xhosa and other African descendents. Though some western scholars question the relevance of these practices today, even urbanised Xhosa people do still follow them. The ulwaluko and  are also traditions which separated this tribe from the rest of the Nguni tribes. These are performed to mark the transition from child to adulthood. Zulus once performed the ritual but King Shaka stopped it because of war in the 1810s. In 2009, it was reintroduced by King Goodwill Zwelithini Zulu, not as a custom, but as a medical procedure to curb HIV infections.

All these rituals are symbolic of one's development. Before each is performed, the individual spends time with community elders to prepare for the next stage. The elders' teachings are not written, but transmitted from generation to generation by oral tradition. The iziduko (clan) for instance—which matters most to the Xhosa identity (even more than names and surnames) are transferred from one to the other through oral tradition. Knowing your  is vital to the Xhosas and it is considered a shame and  (lack-of-identity) if one doesn't know one's clan. This is considered so important that when two strangers meet for the first time, the first identity that gets shared is . It is so important that two people with the same surname but different clan names are considered total strangers, but two people from the same clan but with different surnames are regarded as close relatives. This forms the roots of ubuntu (human kindness) – a behaviour synonymous to this tribe as extending a helping hand to a complete stranger when in need. Ubuntu goes further than just helping one another – it is so deep that it even extends to looking after and reprimanding your neighbour's child when in the wrong. Hence the saying "it takes a village to raise a child".

One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to manhood, . After ritual circumcision, the initiates () live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous customs.

In modern times the practice has caused controversy, with over 825 circumcision- and initiation-related deaths since 1994, and the spread of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, via the practice of circumcising initiates with the same blade. In March 2007, a controversial mini-series dealing with Xhosa circumcision and initiation rites debuted on South African Broadcasting Corporation. Titled Umthunzi Wentaba, the series was taken off the air after complaints by traditional leaders that the rites are secret and not to be revealed to non-initiates and women. In January 2014 the website ulwaluko.co.za was released by a Dutch medical doctor. It features a gallery of photographs of injured penises, which sparked outrage amongst traditional leaders in the Eastern Cape. The South African Film and Publication Board ruled that the website was "scientific with great educative value", addressing a "societal problem needing urgent intervention".

Girls are also initiated into womanhood (Intonjane). They too are secluded, though for a shorter period. Female initiates are not circumcised.

Other rites include the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth, and the burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. This is reflected in the traditional greeting ?, literally "where is your navel?" The answer "tells someone where you live, what your clan affiliation is, and what your social status is and contains a wealth of undisclosed cultural information. Most importantly, it determines where you belong".

Rituals surrounding umtshato (Xhosa marriage)
Xhosa marriage, , is one that is filled with a number of customs and rituals which relate to the upkeep of Xhosa traditional practices. These rituals have been practiced for decades by the Xhosa people and have been incorporated into modern day Xhosa marriages as well. The purpose of the practices is to bring together two different families and to give guidance to the newly wed couple throughout.

Ukuthwalwa
To start off the procedures the male intending to marry goes through  which entails him choosing his future bride and making his intentions of marriage known, however this practice was not done by all the tribes within the Xhosa people. In modern day, the man and woman would most likely have been in courtship or a relationship prior to . Decades before  would entail legal bridal abduction, where the man could choose a woman of his liking to be his bride and go into negotiations with the family of the bride without her knowledge or consent. She would have to abide to the marriage as per tradition.

Isiduko
Following , the man will then be in discussion with his parents or relatives to inform them of his choice in bride. During this discussion the clan name, , of the woman would be revealed and researched. If it were found that the woman and the man share the same clan name they would not be allowed to proceed with the marriage as it is said that people with the same clan name are of the same relation and cannot be wed.

Ikhazi

Once discussions with the family are complete and satisfactory information about the woman is acquired then the family of the man will proceed to appoint marriage negotiators. It is these very negotiators that will travel to the family of the woman to make known the man and his intentions. Once the negotiators reach the family of the woman they will be kept in the kraal, , of the woman's family. If the family does not possess a kraal they will simply be kept outside the household as they will not be allowed to enter the household without the acknowledgment and acceptance of the woman's family. It is here where the  (dowry) negotiations will begin. The family of the woman will give them a bride-price and a date for which they must return to pay that price. The bride-price is dependent on numerous things such as her level of education, the wealth status of her family in comparison to that of the man's family, what the man stands to gain in the marriage and the overall desirability of the woman. The payment of the bride-price could be in either cattle or money depending on the family of the woman. The modern Xhosa families would rather prefer money as most are situated in the urban cities where there would be no space nor permits for livestock.

Upon return of the man's family on the given date, they will pay the bride-price and bring along gifts of offering such as livestock and alcoholic beverages, , to be drunk by the family of the bride. Once the  from the man's negotiators is accepted then they will be considered married by the Xhosa tradition and the celebrations would commence. These include slaughtering of the livestock as a grateful gesture to their ancestors as well as pouring a considerable amount of the alcoholic beverages on the ground of the bride's household to give thanks to their ancestors. The groom's family is then welcomed into the family and traditional beer, , will be prepared for the groom's family as a token of appreciation from the bride's family.

Ukuyalwa
To solidify their unity the family of the bride will head to the groom's household where the elders will address her with regards to how to carry herself and dress appropriately at her newly found household, this is called . Furthermore, a new name will also be given to her by the women of the groom's family and this name signifies the bond of the two families.

Xhosa burial practices
Burial practices and customs include a specific sequence of events and rituals which need to be performed in order to regard a funeral as dignified. Once the family has been notified that a member has died, the extended family comes together in preparation for the burial of the deceased.

The "" (to accompany) ritual is performed in order to accompany the spirit of the deceased to the land of the ancestors. The local male clan leader or his proxy is the one who facilitates the process. The purpose of  is to keep the bonds between the deceased person and the bereaved alive so that the deceased may be able to return later and communicate as an ancestor.
During this ritual, an animal such as a goat is slaughtered. A larger animal like a cow may also be slaughtered for an important person like a head of the family whilst a goat without a blemish may be slaughtered for others.

Further customs include the emptying the main bedroom of the bereaving family, known as ''. This room is where most of the last respects will be paid by family and friends. The emptying of the room is done in order to create space for extended family members to be able to mourn in the main room. The first family members and/or neighbours to arrive arrange the main bedroom to accommodate this seating arrangement by placing a traditional grass mat () or mattress on the floor.

Mourners do not require an invitation to attend a funeral and everyone who can and would like to attend is welcome. This means that the bereaved family has to cater for an unknown number of mourners. Traditionally, mourners were fed with '', which is boiled dried corn and water, and the corn was taken from the family food reserves as well as donated by family members and neighbours. In the 21st century, it is regarded as taboo to feed mourners with '' and, as a result of shame, funeral catering has become a lucrative business for the industry during burial events.

On the day of burial, before extended family members disperse to their homes, the  (cleansing) ritual occurs and a goat or sheep or even a fowl is slaughtered.

A cleansing ritual is done the day after the burial, in which the bereaved women of the family go to the nearest river to wash all the materials and blankets that were used by the deceased before death. Furthermore, the clothes of the deceased are removed from the house and the family members shave their hair. The shaving of hair is an indication that life continues to spring up even after death.

Traditional diet
The Xhosa settled on mountain slopes of the Amatola and the Winterberg Mountains. Many streams drain into great rivers of this Xhosa territory, including the Kei and Fish Rivers. Rich soils and plentiful rainfall make the river basins good for farming and grazing making cattle important and the basis of wealth.

Traditional foods include beef (), mutton (), and goat meat (), sorghum, milk (often fermented, called "amasi"), pumpkins (), Mielie-meal (maize meal), samp (), beans (), vegetables, like "rhabe", wild spinach reminiscent of sorrel, "", the sweet sap of an aloe, or "", a mushroom that grows after summer rains.

Xhosa cuisine

 , slices of unpeeled pumpkins that are cooked in plenty of water.
  or , soft and sour porridge
 , peeled off fresh maize grains, and boiled until cooked. It is eaten as a snack, preferably with salt.
 , a soft porridge made mealie meal. It is usually served for breakfast, with sugar and milk.
 , a citron melon with white insides, eaten either raw or cooked.
 , corn with beans or peas soup
 , fermented porridge [amarhewu], sour, slightly soft than porridge itself, mixed with dry pap [umphokoqo]; was popular in the 1900s.
 , a dish made with free-range chicken.
 , a dish made from white maize and sugar beans, a staple food for the Xhosa people.
 , crumble pap
 , a type of beer made from fermented maize and sorghum.
 , (Amasi)sour milk mixed with umphokoqo, commonly eaten by the Xhosa.
 , a loaf of bread, commonly made with homemade dough. Normally round, from baking pots
 , Wild Spinach/Cabbage called imifino, spinach mixed with mealie meal.
 , a dish made of pumpkin and mielie meal (maize meal)
 , a pumpkin that is cooked before it is fully ripened.

Art

Traditional crafts include bead-work, weaving, woodwork and pottery.

Traditional music features drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, mouth harps, and stringed-instruments and especially group singing accompanied by hand clapping. There are songs for various ritual occasions; one of the best-known Xhosa songs is a wedding song called "", performed by Miriam Makeba as "Click Song #1". Besides Makeba, several modern groups record and perform in Xhosa.
Missionaries introduced the Xhosa to Western choral singing. "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika", part of the National anthem of South Africa is a Xhosa hymn written in 1897 by Enoch Sontonga.

The first newspapers, novels, and plays in Xhosa appeared in the 19th century, and Xhosa poetry is also gaining renown.

Several films have been shot in the Xhosa language.  is a modern remake of Bizet's 1875 opera Carmen. It is shot entirely in Xhosa, and combines music from the original opera with traditional African music. It takes place in the Cape Town township of Khayelitsha. The movie Black Panther also features the Xhosa language.

Xhosa beadwork

Beads are small round objects made of glass, wood, metal, nutshell, bone seed and the likes, which are then pierced for stringing. Before glass beads were introduced, people used natural materials to make beads. Xhosa people relied on the San to sell beads to them through trade or barter exchange. Xhosa people would give hemp to the San in exchange for beads. The beads made by the San were made out of ostrich egg shells which were chipped to small size, bored and polished and strung into sinews. Producing them took a long time, so they were scarce, highly priced, valued and in demand. It is recorded that it was only in the 1930s that the Portuguese introduced glass beads through trade.

Xhosa beadwork and its symbolism

Adornments serve a particular purpose across different cultures as social markers. They are used to ascertain where one belongs to with regards to identity, history and geographical location. They reveal personal information with regards to age and gender and social class as some beads were meant to be worn by royalty. Beadwork creates a sense of belonging and cultural identity and traditions hence people draw their cultural ways of living and meanings, as Xhosa people use them as social markers. Xhosa people believe that the beads also create a link between the living and the ancestors as diviners use them during rituals. Thus beads have some spiritual significance.

Social identities/markers with regards to age, gender, grade, marital status, social rank or role and the spiritual state can be ascertained through Xhosa beadwork. Symbolic references are drawn from the beads through the colour, pattern, formation and motifs. However, it ought to be taken into cognisance that some of these messages are limited to a certain group or between two people. In Xhosa culture beads represent the organisational framework of the people and the rites of passage that people have gone through as the beads are representative of the stages of one's life. Motifs on the beads often used include trees, diamonds, quadrangles, chevrons, triangles, circles, parallel lines that form a pattern that is exclusive to certain age groups. Although the beadwork has some cultural significance with certain motifs having exclusive meanings, the creator of the beadwork has creative control and can create and draw meaning from individual preference. Thus the meanings drawn from the beadwork are not rigidly set.

Among the Thembu (a tribe in the Eastern Cape often erroneously referred to be a Xhosa tribe), after circumcision, the men wore, and still wear, skirts, turbans and a wide bead collar. A waistcoat, long necklaces, throat bands, armbands, leggings and belts are part of his regalia. The dominant colours in the beadwork are white and navy blue, with some yellow and green beads symbolising fertility and a new life, respectively.
Xhosa people regard white as the colour of purity and mediation; white beads are still used as offerings to spirits or to the creator. Amagqirha/diviners use white beads when communicating with the ancestors . These diviners also carry with them beaded spears, which are associated with the ancestors that inspire the diviner; beaded horns; and calabashes, to hold medicinal products or snuff. "Amageza", a veil made of beads, is also part of their regalia, they use these beads by swaying them in someone's eyes so as to induce a trance-like state.

Inkciyo is a beaded skirt that serves as a garment covering the pubic area. Among the Pondo people (Xhosa clan) the beads are turquoise and white in colour. This skirt is worn during a virginity testing ceremony among Xhosa people undergoing their rites of passage into womanhood.

Impempe is a whistle that has a necklace on it. The whistle symbolises one's introduction to adolescence.

Xhosa beadwork and other cultural beadworks have cultural ties, but nowadays beads are also worn as fashion pieces, too, either as cultural appreciation or appropriation. The use of cultural beadworks as fashion pieces means that anyone can wear these pieces without having to belong to that cultural group.

Clothing

The Xhosa culture has a traditional dress code informed by the individuals social standing portraying different stages of life.  The 'red blanket people' (Xhosa people) have a custom of wearing red blankets dyed with red ochre, the intensity of the colour varying from tribe to tribe. Other clothing includes beadwork and printed fabrics.  Although in general, Xhosa lifestyle has been adapted to Western traditions, the Xhosa people still wear traditional attire for special cultural activities.
The various tribes have their own variations of traditional dress which includes the colour of their garments and beadwork. This allows for different Xhosa groups to be able to be distinguishable from one another due to their different styles of dress. The Gcaleka women, for instance, encase their arms and legs in beads and brass bangles and some also wear neck beads.

Women
Unmarried women often wear wraps tied around their shoulders, leaving their breasts exposed.  Engaged women redden their plaited hair and let it screen their eyes, this was done as a sign of respect for their fiancés. Xhosa women wear some form of headdress to cover their heads as a sign of respect to the head of the family which is either their father or husband. Elderly Xhosa women are allowed to wear more elaborate headpieces because of their seniority.

Description

Incebetha is a small blanket that is used as a bra. It is pinned or adorned with beads. The process of making 'incebetha' is called 'uRhaswa'.
'Ifulu' is a garment that is worn underneath, below the belt.  'Ifulu' is covered by the 'isikhakha' or 'umbhaco' and is made of a blanket. It is also adorned with beads through 'urhaswa'.
'Iqhiya' is a cloth that is fitted to the head and covered with beads. Women then wear a small and light weight blanket on the waist called 'uxakatha'.
Women make bracelets with beads, called 'intsimbi' or 'amaso', which they wear on their feet. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso' is also worn around the waist. 'Intsimbi' or 'amaso'  is made with small wires or flexible material. 'Imitsheke' is worn on the wrist. A small hand bag is worn called 'ingxowa'.

Men

Xhosa men traditionally filled the roles as hunters, warriors and stockman, therefore animal skin forms an important part of their traditional wear.
Men often wear goatskin bags in which to carry essentials such as tobacco and a knife. The bag is usually made from skin that had been removed in one piece, cured without removing the hair, and turned inside out.
On special occasions such as weddings or initiation ceremonies, Xhosa men wear embroidered skirts with a rectangular cloth over the left shoulder alternatively, a tunic and strands of beaded necklaces can be worn.

Description
Men wear 'ingcawa' a white and black blanket, adorned with 'ukurhaswa'. Men wear beads around their neck. 'Isichebe' is a short bead while 'Isidanga' is a long bead necklace with different colors. Men wear beads around their wrists and foot called 'amaso'. Beads that are worn on the head are called 'unngqa' or 'igwala'. Men smoke pipes that are decorated by 'ukurhaswa'. The traditional smoking pipes are called 'umbheka phesheya'.

Xhosas in modern society

Xhosa people currently make up approximately 18% of the South African population. The Xhosa are the second largest cultural group in South Africa, after the Zulu-speaking nation.

Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30%, and  studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%. There have been advances since then, however.

Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in Xhosa, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level. Most of the students at Walter Sisulu University and University of Fort Hare speak Xhosa. Rhodes University in Grahamstown, additionally, offers courses in Xhosa for both mother-tongue and non-mother-tongue speakers. These courses both include a cultural studies component. Professor Russel H. Kaschula, Head of the School of Languages at Rhodes, has published multiple papers on Xhosa culture and oral literature.

The effects of government policies during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.

After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town has become increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa people.

Notable Xhosa

 Desmond Tutu
 Steven Bantu Biko
 Nelson Rholihlahla Mandela
 Winnie Madikizela Mandela
 Walter Sisulu
 Albertina Sisulu
 Govan Mbeki
 Thabo Mbeki
 Oliver Reginald Tambo

See also
List of Xhosa Kings
List of Xhosa Chiefs
Xhosa wars
Military history of South Africa
Great Lakes Region
Nguni
List of Xhosa people
Inqawe
Xhosa literature

References

Bibliography

Note that the figure mentioned on this page is based upon the number of people speaking Xhosa as their home language, which may be greater or less than the total number of people claiming Xhosa descent. In addition, several million people in the Johannesburg-Soweto region speak Xhosa or Zulu as a second or third language. For a majority of these, the two languages become difficult to distinguish (unsurprising given the extreme closeness of their linguistic relationship).
 Reader, J., 1997. Africa: A Biography of the Continent, Vintage Books, New York, NY, United States of America.
 Kaschula, Russell The Heritage Library of African People: Xhosa, New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.

External links

 People of Africa
 Xhosa History and Society
 2001 Digital Census Atlas
 Xhosa Folklore – a collection of Xhosa folklore collected in 1886.
 Xhosa Google – Google interface in Xhosa
 Wiki Loves Africa 2017

Ethnic groups in South Africa


Acarodomatia (singular Acarodomatium) (Latin: Acari - mites, domus - dwelling), are tussocks of hairs or nonglandular trichomes located in pits situated in major leaf vein axes of many plant species, occupied and caused by predatory and mycophagous mites.

Acarodomatia have also been described from lizards where they are commonly called "mite pockets". These cavities or skin folds are usually located around the neck or behind the legs and occupied by chiggers. Their function is debated, but they are thought to distract mites from damaging or blocking important skin surfaces such as the tympans.

See also
 Domatium

References

Plant morphology
Acari


Gilbert de Lyvet (died ca. 1244) was an early Anglo-Norman nobleman and merchant who became one of the earliest Mayors of Dublin. He donated extensive properties to the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in Dublin, acted as witness for early gifts to the cathedral, and was a partisan for the Bigods, the de Clares, the de Lacys and other Norman magnates.

Biography

Early life
The birthplace of Gilbert de Lyvet is unknown, although he was likely born in Sussex, England, where the Levett family had their seat from about the time of the Norman Conquest. The family later became Lords of the Manor of Firle, Sussex, and received extensive grants of land across the south of England. They were sublords of the de Ferrers family, originating from the village of Livet in Normandy within the original de Ferrers barony.

Mayor
Gilbert de Lyvet was a citizen of Dublin from 1229-1244. He served as Mayor of Dublin for four one-year terms, 1233–1234, 1235–1236, and was re-elected for a third term from 1236-1237. de Lyvet was frequently engaged in business in the city, and was a partisan of the most powerful Norman lords of Ireland. He was a witness to a 1210 gift by Isabel de Clare, 4th Countess of Pembroke to The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, in honour of her father Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, whose 'Strongbow' tomb is within the Cathedral. de Lyvet was also a merchant with wide trading interests, and old Irish records note that he often traded with France using his own ships. He is frequently in Latin charters relating to church business in Dublin.

de Lyvet acted in state matters involving the King of Connaught, the De Clares, the le Bruns, the De Burghs, Dermot MacMurrough, the Marshals and others. In 1234, de Lyvet and his wife also made gifts of land, including a "stone hall and cellars outside the King's gate" to the Holy Trinity Church, today's Cathedral of the Holy Trinity. de Lyvet and his wife lived in a stone hall not far from the church itself, "without the King's Gate." de Lyvet owned land on nearby Castle Street as well.

Family
de Lyvet founded a family which succeeded him in Ireland, and for a time his became among the most powerful Anglo-Irish families. The patriarch mayor died before 1244, and he and his wife Sibilla are buried within Holy Trinity Church. Their daughter Elena is mentioned in the Register of the Hospital of St. John the Baptist in Dublin outside the New Gate.

Philip de Livet, probably Gilbert's father but possibly a brother, was involved in a Dublin dispute in 1200 which escalated into violence. Involved were some of the most powerful Norman magnates including the le Brun Lusignan family, Robert de Winchester, William Warenne and others. A murder charge resulted from the fracas involving the group.

Son
Geoffrey de Lyvet, likely Gilbert's son, owned a "great stone hall" in the city, according to contemporaneous records. Sir Philip de Lyvet, Knight, probably also a son of Gilbert, was identified in early records as a "kinsman" of William Brun, one of Dublin's most important citizens. In 1278, Sir Gilbert Lyvet, Knight, is listed in a petition of Maurice FitzMaurice to the King and Council. Sir Gilbert Lyvet was also an active businessman in the city. Reginald Lyvet, probably either a son or grandson of Gilbert, was named by Roger Bigod, 5th Earl of Norfolk and marshall of England, as Bigod's Irish attorney for the year in which Bigod would be away in Wales on the King's business.

de Livet family
Documents from the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries show that the de Livet family was active in Ireland, frequently being named in Royal writs and orders. In September 1215, for instance, Gilbert de Livet was named in a Royal order requiring him and several others to go to the King of Connaught and collect fees and fines from him due to the English crown. Other documents from the same century show Philip de Livet, John de Livet and other members of the family frequently acting on behalf of the King, or deputized to adjudicate disputes. In one case, the King even commands Earl William Marshall of Ireland to permit a servant of Gilbert de Livet, citizen of Dublin, to retain a ship he had captured as part of the capture of La Rochelle, France.

Subsequent documents over the next century saw the family's influence still strong. After Gilbert de Roche was beheaded for his betrayal for siding with the Scots in their Ireland invasion, for instance, the King ordered that all Roche's lands be turned over to John Lyvet.

Sheriff
"Gilbert de Lynet (Lyvet) was of sufficient importance to be Sheriff of Connaught from 1287 to 1289," according to The History of the County of Mayo to the Close of the Sixteenth Century. "The family appear again as owners of half the castle and lands of Carn -- the other half owned by Carews -- and of the lands of Kincon, Ellagh, and Seehaunmore in Kilfian."

By 1302, John Lyvet was granted arms in Ireland, and in 1311 was appointed steward of Carlow with the keeping of Old Ros and the Isle of Hervey, as well as the Knights Templar's hamlet of Kilclogan in Wexford. (A branch of the Dublin Levett family apparently relocated to Waterford at some later date, as the first family member appears as mayor in the early seventeenth century.) In 1302 King Edward I of England issued a call to convene the magnates of Ireland to assist in an invasion against the Scots. John de Lyvet was one of the Irish nobles named in the writ.

The de Lyvet family were one of the earliest of the Anglo-Irish families, but unlike other early Normans like the de Burghs and the De Lacys, the Levetts seem to have been largely overlooked by historians. Perhaps the orthography made them difficult to trace: the spelling of the name varied wildly, including 'de Liuet,' 'de Lyvet', 'de Leuet', 'de Lyuet,' 'de Lynet,' 'Linet', and even 'de Yvet" and "Del Ynet." One historian assures us that "at the commencement of the reign of Edward II, the De Lynets were a powerful family in the south of Ireland." By the seventeenth century, an Irishman named Levett had registered his coat of arms, and it was distinct from those of his English brethren, which was unsurprising given that the first Levetts who came to Ireland did so as heraldry was only beginning to come into use.

See also
Norman Ireland
List of rulers of Waterford
Hiberno-Norman
Walter de Burgh, 1st Earl of Ulster

References

Anglo-Normans
Norman warriors
Lord Mayors of Dublin
1240s deaths
Year of death uncertain
Year of birth unknown


The Potbelleez is the self-titled debut album by the Australian band The Potbelleez. The first two singles from The Potbelleez, "Don't Hold Back", and "Are You with Me", were both smash hits. Other singles released include "Trouble Trouble" and "Duuurty Dreemz".

Track listing
Australian version
"Trouble Trouble"
"Ours to Rock"
"Don't Hold Back"
"Are You with Me"
"Showbiz"
"Bad Boy Tune"
"Everything"
"Hold On"
"Crystalize"
"Pog Ma Thon"
"Junkyard"
"Duuurty Dreemz"
"Summertime"

Exclusive remix CD
"Trouble Trouble" (Carl Kennedy Remix)
"Are You with Me" (Mr Timothy Remix)
"Don't Hold Back" (Markus Gardweg Remix)
"Junkyard" (Vandalism Remix)
"Duuurty Dreemz" (Mind Electric Remix)

Singles
 "Don't Hold Back" was released as the first single in late 2007, peaking at No. 5 on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart. It was certified 3 x platinum, and has sold more than 210,000 copies in Australia.
 "Are You with Me" peaked at No. 15 on the Australian Singles Chart.
 "Trouble Trouble" was released to radio in September 2008, and debuted at No. 72 on the Australian Singles Chart, eventually peaking at #54.

Charts

Release history

References

2008 albums
The Potbelleez albums


Douala is the largest city in Cameroon and its economic capital. It is also the capital of Cameroon's Littoral Region. Home to Central Africa's largest port and its major international airport, Douala International Airport (DLA), it is the commercial and economic capital of Cameroon and the entire CEMAC region comprising Gabon, Congo, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Central African Republic and Cameroon. Consequently, it handles most of the country's major exports, such as oil, cocoa and coffee, timber, metals and fruits. , the city and its surrounding area had an estimated population of 5,768,400. The city sits on the estuary of Wouri River and its climate is tropical.

History

The first Europeans to visit the area were the Portuguese in about 1472. At the time, the estuary of Wouri River was known as the Rio dos Camarões (Shrimp River). By 1650, it had become the site of a town formed by immigrants, said to have arrived from Congo, who spoke the Duala language. During the 18th century it was the center of the transatlantic slave trade.

In 1826 Douala appeared to be made of four different villages located in four specific locations: the village of Deido (Dido), of Akwa, of Njo and Hickory-town (today Bonaberi, located on the other side of Wouri River).

Between 1884 and 1895 the city was a German protectorate.
The colonial politics focused on commerce and some exploration of the unoccupied territories. In 1885, Alfred Saker organized the first mission of the British Baptist Church. In the same year the city known as Kamerun was renamed Douala and became the capital of the territory until 1902, when the capital was moved to Buéa.

In 1907 the Ministry of Colonies was established and Douala had 23,000 citizens.

After World War I in 1919, the German colonial territories became French and British protectorates. France received a mandate to administer Douala. A treaty was signed with the local chiefs.

From 1940 to 1946, it was the capital of Cameroon. In 1955 the city had over 100,000 inhabitants.

In 1960, Cameroon gained independence as a federal republic, with its capital in Yaoundé. Douala became the major economic city. In 1972, the federal republic became a unitary state. Douala then had a population of around 500,000.

In the 1980s, in Cameroon the struggle for liberalization and multi-party democracy grew. Between May and December 1991, Douala was at the center of the civil disobedience campaign called the ghost town operation (ville morte) during which economic activities shut down to make the country ungovernable and to force the government to allow multi-partitism and freedom of expression.

Name
With the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th century, the area was known as Rio dos Camarões. Before coming under German rule in 1884, the town was also known as Cameroons Town; thereafter it became Kamerunstadt ("Cameroon City"), the capital of German Kamerun.  It was renamed Douala in 1907 after the name of the natives known as Dua ala Ijaws (Njos), and became part of French Cameroon in 1919. Many of the Ijaw (Njo) natives migrated to the Niger Delta in Nigeria during the Portuguese era.

Geography

Douala is the largest city in Cameroon on the Atlantic Ocean coast approximately 130 miles (210 km) west of Yaoundé The city is located on the banks of the Wouri River, the two sides linked by Bonaberi Bridge.

Climate
Douala features a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Am), with relatively consistent temperatures throughout the course of the year, though the city experiences somewhat cooler temperatures in July and August. Douala typically features warm and humid conditions with an average annual temperature of  and an average humidity of 83%. Douala sees plentiful rainfall during the course of the year, experiencing on average roughly  of precipitation per year. Its driest month is December, when on average  of precipitation falls, while its wettest month is August, when on average nearly  of rain falls.

Population

Evolution of population in Douala (in thousands)

With 1.9 million inhabitants in 2005, Douala is the most populated city of Cameroon.

Languages

Cameroon is home to nearly 250 languages or dialects. The local indigenous language is Duala, which shares its name with the city. French and English are official languages, but Douala is primarily francophone.
In 2014, 63.7% of Douala inhabitants of over 15 years knew how to read and write French, while 76.4% knew how to speak and understand French.

Urbanism and contemporary life
The city of Douala is divided into seven districts (Akwa, Bassa, Bonabéri, Bonapriso, Bonanjo, Deïdo and New Bell) and it has more than 120 neighbourhoods.

Some of the neighbourhoods of Douala include
 Akwa. Akwa is Douala's business district and Bonanjo its administrative district. Plateau Joss is the name used historically for the current district of Akwa. The name of the districts refer to the Douala lineage, as well as the neighborhoods. For example, Akwa was historically divided between Bell and Deido into Bonadibong, Bonamilengue, Boneleke, Bonalembe, Bonejang, Bonamuti, Bonabekombo, Bonaboijan, and Bonakuamuang; the prefix "bona" means "descendant of".

 Bali, housing area located near Bonanjo administrative area.
 Bépanda is a very densely populated  neighbourhood. It is probably the most inhabited area of the city with many residents having arrived from West Africa and from all parts of the country. The seat of the University of Douala and an important telecommunication centre of Cameroon's telecommunications are located there.
 Deido is a historical neighborhood located in the north central part of the city. It includes one of the main junctions of the city known as Le Rond-Point Deïdo and the symbol of the city “the Njounjou” (“the monster”).
 Bonaberi is located on the right bank of the Wouri River. It is primarily an industrial neighbourhood but is gradually becoming a mixed area including more residential and commercial areas. It is connected by the two only bridges of the city. It is also the main opening toward the western anglophone area of the country.
 Bonapriso is one of the wealthiest area of the city and even of the country. Historically a residential neighbourhood, it has become a mixed area including  commercial galleries, restaurants and shops.
 Bonanjo is the administrative neighborhood, with many large administrations, larger companies and banks offices, with higher buildings than the rest of the city
 Bonamoussadi is the main housing area located in the northern part of the city. In a first time very residential, it has recently witnessed a significant surge in the installation of malls, supermarkets, restaurants and even night clubs.
 Kotto is a modern residential neighbourhood next to Bonamoussadi. It developed in the early 1980s with the housing projects of the Société immobilière du Cameroun (SIC) and is now the prime area for the small but increasing  middle and upper classes of the city.
 New Bell is an historical neighbourhood of the city. It was founded in the early 20th century with the expropriation by the Germans of the natives Duala people from the plateau Joss. It has been known since then for housing newcomers in the city from all parts of the country and even from abroad (mainly west Africa). It today a very populous neighbourhood with very tough conditions. Two of the main markets of the city (Central market and Marché Nkololoun) are in the area.

 Bassa is a vast area in the eastern part of the city. It is a mixed area including  many neighborhoods (some wealthier than others) such as Logbaba, Ndogpassi, Cité des Palmiers, PK 8 and many others. It also includes one of the two major industrial zones of the city (the other being in Bonaberi).

Architecture

According to Jacques Soulillou, historical images of Douala document the areas of Akwa (Plateau Joss) and the port between 1860 and 1960, while the districts of Bonaberi, Deido and New Bell have almost no images. The archives which provide documentation about the city are based in Paris, Basel, Hamburg, Potsdam, Douala and Yaoundé.

In 1896 a first urban plan of the city was developed during the German colonial period. The plan included a hospital, the governor residency, the palace of justice, the police station, administrative buildings and buildings for the port and customs (among those the Old Woermann Linie Bachelors House). The Bonakouamouang Chimney also dates back to this period. In 1904 construction of the Villa Mandessi Bell was begun. In 1905 the palace of the King Manga Ndumbe Bell (also called la Pagode) was built, and in 1906 the general plan of Gross Douala was established. In 1914 the large population living in Bonanjo was moved to the new estate of Neue Bell (New Bell).

Between 1925 and 1930, during the French colonial period, the chamber of commerce, the new palace of justice, the new railway station, the vault of the Kings Bell and the catholic cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul were built. Constructions were intensified between 1930 and 1955 and in 1955 the bridge on Wouri River was built. In 1935 the Mausoleum of the Kings Akwa was constructed. In 1947 the Temple of the Centenary was built. In 1959 a new city plan was designed (Plan Dorian); according to Danièle Diwouta-Kotto, this plan is still influencing Douala's urban development. After the independence of 1960 a new development and urban plan were established. In 1998 a research prepared the diagnostic for the 2015 horizon. In 2005 a new development and urban plan was designed and routes and public canalizations were reestablished and created. In the same year the Project Sawa-Beach was  launched. Since 1888, terracotta bricks have been  produced in Douala.

The publication Suites architecturales focuses on heritage and reappropriation in the architecture of Douala, and it presents some of the characteristics of the buildings and architecture of Douala after its independence. Among those buildings are the casino, the show-room La Meublerie, the exhibition hall Cami-Toyota, Union Bank of Cameroon, Immeuble Hollando, the Baptist church, Immeuble Victoria, headquarters of CA-SCB, espace doual'art, and Orange Flagship. The Palace Dika Akwa Mukanda was built in 1990.

Along the city's main thoroughfare lie some of Cameroon's best restaurants, coffee houses and French-style patisseries; along the waterfront, many bars and bistros may be found, commanding views of the Gulf of Guinea and nearby mangrove swamps.  Many of these are frequented by the city's large expatriate population, mainly French or Lebanese, most of whom work in the petroleum industry.

Culture
 Douala Maritime Museum, a museum showcasing the rich maritime history of Douala. The building is shaped like a boat (however, the museum only occupies 400 m2 of the building). It is located in the administrative area Bonanjo
 Doual'art, an art gallery/center
 La Nouvelle Liberté, a 12m piece from Joseph Francis Sumégné inaugurated in 2007. A permanent monumental sculpture made with recycled material located at a main roundabout in Douala. It is 12 meters high with a wingspan of 5 meters.
 The Cathedral of St Peter and St Paul
 The Centennial Temple

Places of worship
The city's population is predominantly Christian and contains houses of worship of numerous denominations : Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Douala (Catholic Church), Evangelical Church of Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Presbyterian Church in Cameroon (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Union of Baptist Churches in Cameroon (Baptist World Alliance), Integrity for All (Christian Missionary Fellowship and Associated Churches), Full Gospel Mission Cameroon (Assemblies of God). There are also Muslim mosques.

A small community has begun to practice Judaism in Douala, but they do not have a synagogue yet.

Education

As in most large cities in Cameroon there are several nursery, primary, secondary and high schools in the city. In recent years there has been a surge in the number of private schools.  It is interesting to note that there is also a large, informal educational sector that caters to a huge part of the population, mostly individuals with a primary school certificate or those with no education at all.  This form of education is common in sectors like cloth manufacturing, bread making, construction, security, and car repairing. Individuals from these informal sectors are by far the most visibly deprived in neighborhoods such as Ndokoti, Bepanda, Village, Logbaba.

The city of Douala is home to a number of higher education institutions, including the University of Douala. There are also a number of professional schools, the most prominent one being the Douala Maritime institute. Douala has an aviation school called CAE Oxford Aviation Academy Douala.

Transportation

Douala is linked by rail to Yaoundé, Ngaoundéré, Kumba and Nkongsamba. Douala has a fairly developed road network compared to other cities in Cameroon. However many of the city's roads have decayed due to years of neglect and corruption. Efforts have recently been made to renovate the city's roads, especially in the most deprived neighborhoods. In spite of the numerous domestic and international investments, the roads remain in deplorable state largely due to embezzlement and corruption.

A tram network is planned for Douala, with the first line projected to open in 2021.

The Douala International Airport is located in the eastern part of the city. There are direct flights to several European cities, including Paris, Brussels, and Istanbul. Regional and continental destinations include Abidjan, Brazzaville, Dakar, Johannesburg, Kinshasa, Lagos, Malabo, and Nairobi. The airport is the busiest in the CEMAC area and is the hub for Cameroon's national carrier, Camairco. The airport is in dire need of renovations due to poor circulation and old infrastructure.

The seaport has  of draft.

Economy
Douala is a city with a modest oil resource in Africa, but is in excellent agricultural condition, therefore it has one of best economies in Africa. However, it also faces some problems like other underdeveloped countries such as heavy civil service and bad climate (flood, tornado, storm) to business.

Main economic parameters are:

GDP: $42.2 billion (2006 est.):
 GDP growth rate: 4.1% (2006 est.)
 Exports-partners: Spain 17.3%, Italy 13.8%, France 9.5%, South Korea 8.1%, UK 8.1%, Netherlands 7.9%, Belgium 4.9%, US 4.3% (2005)
Imports - partners: France 21%, Nigeria 15%, Belgium 6.3%, China 5.6%, US 5.1%, Thailand 4.5%, Germany 4.2% (2005)

Wealth and poverty
Even though Douala is the economic center of Cameroon, a large percentage of its inhabitants live below the poverty line. Recent data shows that about thirty percent of the population lives in poverty (Avameg, Inc). While the aforementioned percentage is doubled for rural regions, poverty is a growing problem for Douala due to its steadily increasing population. Unlike the rural populations of Cameroon that can grow their own foods to lessen their expenses, Douala locals are disadvantaged by living in the port city where there are not many opportunities for monetary gain.

Notable people

 Ibrahim Amadou (1993–), footballer
 Patrick Baudry (1946–), second French astronaut and first astronaut of an African country
 Clément Antoine Bayema (1988–), professional Cameroonian footballer
 Prince René Douala Manga Bell (1927–2012), chief of Douala
 Francis Bebey (1929–2002), author
 BeBe Zahara Benet (1980-), drag queen
 Mister Bibal (Samuel Ludwig Salla), (1988-) musician and producer
 Hemley Boum (1973–), writer
 Jean-Alain Boumsong (1979–), footballer
 Louis Brody (1892–1951), German actor
 Manu Dibango (1933–2020), musician, saxophonist and singer, world jazz, ethno-jazz.
 Herman Dzumafo (1980-), footballer
 Angèle Etoundi Essamba (1962–), photographer
 Samuel Eto'o (1981–), footballer
 Kareyce Fotso (2010-), singer
Kenny Kadji (born 1988), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 Anouk Aimee Takam Kenmoe (1979– ), footballer
 Christian Koloko (2000–), basketball player
 Narcisse Mouelle Kombi (1962– ), writer and politician
 Maka Kotto (1961–), Canadian politician
 Guy Kouemou (1970-), inventor and aerospace engineer
 Bobby Kamwa (2000-), footballer
 Jacques Kuoh-Moukouri (1909-2002), author and diplomat
 Thérèse Kuoh-Moukouri (1938–), feminist and author
 Véronique Mang (1984–), track athlete
 Marc Kibong Mbamba (1988–), footballer
 Christian Ngan (1983– ), entrepreneur, businessman and financier
 Valery Noufor (born 1985), professional footballer
 Paul-Georges Ntep (1992–), footballer
 Petit Pays (1967–), singer, dancer, author
 Jean-Pierre Dikongué Pipa (1940–), cineast
 Pascal Siakam (1994– ), basketball player - 2019 NBA Champion
 Pierre Womé (1979–), footballer
 Carlos Takam (1980-), professional boxer

Twin towns – sister cities
Doula is twinned with the following places:
 Strasbourg, France
 Akhisar, Turkey
 Dakar, Senegal
 Newark, United States
 Philadelphia, United States
 Windhoek,  Namibia

See also
 List of colonial governors of Cameroon
 Timeline of Douala

References

Further reading

  Brooke, James (1987). "Informal Capitalism Grows in Cameroon." The New York Times. November 30.
  Derrick, Jonathan (1977). "Review of Douala: ville et histoire by René Gouellain." Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 47:4.
  Diwouta-Kotto, Danièle (2010). Suites architecturales: Kinshasa, Douala, Dakar. Épinal: Association VAA.
  Elate, Som Simon (2004). "African Urban History in the Future." In Steven Salm and Toyin Falola (eds), Globalization and Urbanization in Africa. Trenton: Africa World Press.
  Gouellain, René (1969). Douala, ville et histoire. Paris: Institut d'ethnologie Musée de l'homme.
  Hance, William (1964). The Geography of Modern Africa. New York: Columbia University Press.
  Lambi, C. M. and Hombe, L. F. (2002). "Environmental Hazards and Landuse Planning for Sustainable Development: the Douala Unstable Coastal Region." In R. G. Macinnes and Jenny Jakeways (eds), Instability: Planning and Management. London: Thomas Telford.
  Lauber, Wolfgang (1988). Architectures allemandes au Cameroun 1884-1914. Stuttgart: Karl Kramer Verlag.
  Levine, Victor (1971). The Cameroon Federal Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  Mainet, Guy (1985). Douala, croissance et servitudes. Paris: L'Harmattan.
  Njoh, Ambe (2003). Planning in Contemporary Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  Séraphin, Gilles (2000). "Vivre à Douala. L'imaginaire et l'action dans une ville africaine en crise". Paris: L'Harmattan.
  Simone, A. M. (2004). For the City Yet to Come: Changing African Life in Four Cities. Durham: Duke University Press.
  Soulillou, Jacques (1989), Douala, un siècle en images. Paris: L'Harmattan.
  Schler, Lynn (2008), The Strangers of New Bell: Immigration, Public Space and Community in Colonial Douala 1914–1960 (Pretoria: Unisa).
  Brooke, James (1987). "Informal Capitalism Grows in Cameroon." The New York Times. November 30.
  Derrick, Jonathan (1977). "Review of Douala: ville et histoire by René Gouellain." Africa: Journal of the International African Institute. 47:4.
  Diwouta-Kotto, Danièle (2010). Suites architecturales: Kinshasa, Douala, Dakar. Épinal: Association VAA.
  Elate, Som Simon (2004). "African Urban History in the Future." In Steven Salm and Toyin Falola (eds), Globalization and Urbanization in Africa. Trenton: Africa World Press.
  Gouellain, René (1969). Douala, ville et histoire. Paris: Institut d'ethnologie Musée de l'homme.
  Hance, William (1964). The Geography of Modern Africa. New York: Columbia University Press.
  Lambi, C. M., and Hombe, Hombe (2002). "Environmental Hazards and Landuse Planning for Sustainable Development: the Douala Unstable Coastal Region." In R. G. Macinnes and Jenny Jakeways (eds), Instability: Planning and Management. London: Thomas Telford.
  Lauber, Wolfgang (1988). Architectures allemandes au Cameroun 1884-1914. Stuttgart: Karl Kramer Verlag.
  Levine, Victor (1971). The Cameroon Federal Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
  Mainet, Guy (1985). Douala, croissance et servitudes. Paris: L'Harmattan.
  Njoh, Ambe (2003). Planning in Contemporary Africa. Aldershot: Ashgate.
  Séraphin, Gilles (2000). "Vivre à Douala. L'imaginaire et l'action dans une ville africaine en crise". Paris: L'Harmattan.
  Simone, A. M. (2004). For the City Yet to Come: Changing African Life in Four Cities. Durham: Duke University Press.
  Soulillou, Jacques (1989), Douala, un siècle en images. Paris: L'Harmattan.

External links

 Official Douala website
 Satellite image of Douala from Google Earth

Populated coastal places in Cameroon
Populated places in Littoral Region (Cameroon)
Port cities in Africa
Provincial capitals in Cameroon
Articles containing video clips


Jean Riachi (born 1963) is the founder and current CEO and Chairman of the Board of I&C Bank, Lebanon's largest specialized Bank

Jean Riachi is also the Chairman of FFA Private Bank Dubai Limited, a financial services firm regulated by the DFSA and operating from the Dubai International Financial Center (DIFC).

Education
Born and raised in Lebanon, Jean Riachi completed his high school education at Lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris and graduated from HEC Paris business school in 1985. He also holds a Certificate in Corporate Governance (IDP-C) from INSEAD's International Directors Program.

References

1963 births
Living people
HEC Paris alumni
INSEAD alumni
Lebanese businesspeople
Lebanese bankers
Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni


Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. ) is a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon that discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy. The book has been called a "sophisticated, insightful, and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy, from wind to solar, geothermal, hydrogen, and beyond".

References

Renewable energy commercialization
2006 non-fiction books
2006 in the environment


Tallebudgera is a suburb in the City of Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. In the , Tallebudgera had a population of 3,826 people.

Geography
Tallebudgera Creek forms a part of the western and eastern border of Tallebudgera.

History
The traditional owners were the Tulgigin clan of Australian Aborigines, but in the 2011 Census, Indigenous Australians accounted for just 0.9% of the population of Tallebudgera (around one third of the national average of 2.5%).

The village was originally called Maybree, perhaps after the name of a tree that grew locally, while Tallebudgera was the name of the creek and was an Aboriginal word meaning good fish. Another theory is that the name refers to a property called "Mayberry" owned by pioneers Stephen Tobin and his wife Mary. Tobin was known for his hospitality and it is possible that Mayberry was shortened to Maybree and became well known as a place to stay when travelling through or to Tallebudgera.

Tallebudgera State School opened on 17 October 1877.

Tallebudgera Presbyterian Church was opened in August 1888 by Reverend James Ewen.

In 1904, 10,000 acres subdivided in to 36 dairy farms known as "Tallebudgera and Currumbin Estate" were advertised for sale by auction by Isles, Love and Co. auctioneers. Blocks from 72 acres up to 557 acres were advertised as available for purchase.

Tallebudgera Upper State School opened in 1923 and closed circa 1942. It was on the western side of Tallebudgera Creek Road (approx ), now within Tallebudgera Valley.

St Andrew's Lutheran College opened in 1993.

Demographics
In the , Tallebudgera had a population of 3,667 people.

In the , Tallebudgera had a population of 3,826 people.

Heritage listings

Tallebudgera has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 17 Trees Road: former Tallebudgera Post Office

While not heritage listed, the single lane Coplicks wooden bridge which crossed Tallebudgera Creek along Tallebudgera Connection Road was a visible sign of the rural nature of the valley. Up until the 1980s, this bridge was the only crossing of the creek along Tallebudgera Connection Road and being one way, drivers had to give way to everyone heading north. The road has now been upgraded with a large 2 lane bridge. The old timber bridge remained until June 2019 when it was replaced with a concrete structure due to safety concerns, much to the disappointment of local residents. The bridge can be accessed from Scotty Logan Lane.

Education
Tallebudgera State School is a government primary (Prep-6) school for boys and girls at 492 Guineas Creek Road (). In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 771 students with  56 teachers (46 full-time equivalent) and 33 non-teaching staff (20 full-time equivalent). It includes a special education program.

St Andrews Lutheran College is a private primary and secondary (Prep-12) school for boys and girls at 175 Tallebudgera Creek Road (). In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 1204 students with  81 teachers (73 full-time equivalent) and 74 non-teaching staff (45 full-time equivalent).

There are no government secondary schools in Tallebudgera. The nearest government secondary school is Elanora State High School in neighbouring Elanora to the west.

Amenities
Tallebudgera Golf Course is an 18 hole course - at 495 Guineas Creek Road.

References

Sources

External links

 Tweed Heads Task Force Master Plan - Section 3.1 Cultural Context
 University of Queensland: Queensland Places: Tallebudgera

Suburbs of the Gold Coast, Queensland


Section 597t of the Penal Code of California is a California State criminal law which requires that animals confined in enclosed areas be provided with an adequate exercise area. Even though this section of the Penal Code does not define "adequate exercise area", it would seem to prohibit the confinement of calves in veal crates, as well as the confinement of hens in battery cages and the confinement of sows in gestation crates.  However, this law seems to have never been enforced.

There is not a single court case in California where a defendant was found guilty of or even prosecuted for violating 597t.  Because this law has never been applied in a court case, there is no precedential standard according to which animal confinement may be judged.  Since 597t is a criminal law, it may not be enforced by private entities through civil action, and may only be enforced by a public prosecutor filing a criminal action, or by corporations formed for the prevention of cruelty to animals under the California Corporations Code § 10400

Text
§ 597t of the California Penal Code states:

Court Cases
Three California cases cite 597t.  However, the courts in all these cases refrained from determining whether the concerned animal farming practice violates this statute.

Farm Sanctuary, Inc. v. Corcpork, Inc.
Farm Sanctuary claimed that Corcpork's use of gestation crates violates Pen. Code section 597t and thus constitutes an unfair business practice under Business and Professions Code sections 17200 et. seq.  In Farm Sanctuary, Inc. v. Corcpork, Inc., 2007 Cal. Unpub. LEXIS 634, the court refused to hear Farm Sanctuary's claim that violations under 597t constitute unfair business practice under B&PC 17200.  According to California Proposition 64 (2004), an individual or group may only sue for unfair business practices if that individual or group has suffered actual injury and has lost money or property as a result of unfair competition.  The court issued summary judgment in favor of Corcpork, and did not address whether the confinement of sows in gestation crates violates 597t.

Humane Society of the United States v. State Bd. of Equalization
Under the Code of Civil Procedure section 526(a), any individual taxpayer or group of taxpayers may seek a judgment restraining wasteful government expenditures.  Wasteful government expenditures are understood as government funding for illegal activities.  The Humane Society of the United States sued the California State Board of Equalization, arguing that sales tax exemptions for battery cages are illegal government expenditures in that they enable factory farmers to confine hens in a way that violates Pen. Code section 597t.  However, in Humane Society of the United States v. State Bd. of Equalization, 152 Cal. App. 4th 349 (2007), the court ruled that sales tax exemptions for battery cages are not illegal and so do not constitute wasteful government expenditures under Code Civ. Proc. section 526(a).  The court did not address whether battery cages violate Pen. Code section 597t.

Animal Legal Defense Fund v. Mendes
Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF) sued Victor L. Mendes for confining calves in veal crates, which ALDF considered to be a violation of Pen. Code 597t.  In Animal Legal Defense Fund v. Mendes, 160 Cal. App. 4th 136 (2008), the court ruled that ALDF had no private right to enforce 597t through civil action.  Since 597t is a criminal law, it may only be enforced by a public prosecutor, or by a private corporation which meets particular standards.  The court did not address whether the confinement of calves in veal crates violates 597t.

There are two ways in which private entities may initiate legal action against persons who violate anticruelty criminal laws.  One way is through Section 10400 corporations.  According to Corporations Code section 10400, a corporation may be formed for the purpose of preventing cruelty to animals, and may pursue legal action against anyone for violating anti-cruelty laws.  The articles of incorporation for these corporations are to be filed with the Secretary of State and endorsed by the Department of Justice or by a judge of the superior court of the county in which the principal office of the corporation is located.  Only these corporations may apply for appointment of humane officers whose duty it is to enforce laws for the prevention of cruelty to animals.

Private persons and corporations who are not incorporated under Corp. Code section 10400 may initiate legal action against persons who violate anticruelty criminal laws by making a complaint under oath to a magistrate authorized to issue warrants in criminal cases.  A magistrate who receives a complaint alleging ongoing or potential animal abuse in a particular location must issue a warrant to a sheriff, police officer, or officer of a Section 10400 corporation, authorizing him or her to enter and search the building mentioned in the complaint and to arrest any person there who is violating, or intending to violate, anticruelty laws.

The ALDF is not a Section 10400 corporation.  Its articles of incorporation were not endorsed by the Department of Justice or by a judge of any superior court for the purpose of giving it quasi-governmental powers described in Section 10400.  Since it is not a Section 10400 corporation, it does not have a humane officer who is authorized to pursue legal action against violators of anticruelty criminal laws.  The ALDF did not make a complaint before a magistrate authorized to issue warrants.  Because this case is not initiated by a Section 10400 corporation, or by a complaint made before a magistrate, it does not fall under any of the methods of enforcement provided by law.

See also
 Animal Welfare
 California Proposition 2 (2008)
2018 California Proposition 12
 Factory Farming

Notes

California law


In the United States, a presidential transition is the process during which the president-elect of the United States prepares to take over the administration of the federal government of the United States from the incumbent president. Though planning for transition by a non-incumbent candidate can start at any time before a presidential election and in the days following, the transition formally starts when the General Services Administration (GSA) declares an “apparent winner” of the election, thereby releasing the funds appropriated by Congress for the transition, and continues until inauguration day, when the president-elect takes the oath of office, at which point the powers, immunities, and responsibilities of the presidency are legally transferred to the new president.

The 20th Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1933, moved the beginning and ending of the terms of the president and vice president from March 4 to January 20, thereby also shortening the transition period. After the election, an outgoing president is commonly referred to as a lame-duck president. A transition can also arise intra-term if a president dies, resigns or is removed from office, though the period may be very short.

The Presidential Transition Act of 1963 provides the current mechanisms to facilitate an orderly and peaceful transition of power. Under existing federal law and custom, the major-party presidential candidates receive classified national security briefings once their nomination is formalized by their party. They are also entitled to presidential transition services and facilities provided by the General Services Administration, including office space, equipment and the payment of certain related expenses. Just after the presidential election, a revised edition of the Plum Book is published, which lists over 9,000 federal civil service leadership and support political appointment positions which an incoming administration needs to review, and fill or confirm. Though the formal transition commences when it is clear that a non-incumbent candidate has won the election, counting of votes continues until all votes are counted, after which officials from each state certify the state's final tally before the presidential electors are formally appointed and the Electoral College meets in mid-December to cast their votes for the president and vice president.

Transition normally involves a transition team to carry out some pre-election planning by the non-incumbent candidates, and involves consideration of key personnel from the outgoing and incoming presidents’ staffs, requires resources, and includes a host of activities, such as vetting candidates for positions in the new administration, helping to familiarize the incoming administration with the operations of the executive branch, and developing a comprehensive policy platform.

Background
The use of the term "presidential transition" to describe the period between a president's election and assumption of office does not appear to have come to general usage until as late as 1948. The term "interregnum" has also been applied to this period of time. For much of U.S. history, they were far less elaborate operations and were carried out without very much advance planning or even cooperation from the outgoing president. Legally, a president-elect is not required to come to the capital until the inauguration and need not have substantial policy or procedural discussions with the outgoing administration.

It was not until the 1950s that much public attention was brought to the idea of presidential transitions. President Harry S. Truman set the stage for modern presidential transitions by offering to provide intelligence briefings to Republican Party candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower and then by inviting President-elect Eisenhower to the White House after his victory in the 1952 election. Eisenhower, smarting from an insult aimed at him by Truman during the campaign ("The general doesn't know any more about politics than a pig knows about Sunday."), declined to receive a direct briefing from Truman before the election. Truman also ordered federal agencies to assist with the transition. Eight years later, John F. Kennedy engaged in extensive transition planning on domestic and foreign policy issues, but did not meet with Eisenhower until December 6, 1960, four weeks after the election.

Presidential transition acts
The Presidential Transition Act of 1963 () established the mechanisms to facilitate an orderly and peaceful transition of power, and has been amended numerous times: by the Presidential Transitions Effectiveness Act of 1998 (), the Presidential Transition Act of 2000 (), the Pre-Election Presidential Transition Act of 2010 (), the Presidential Transitions Improvements Act of 2015 (), the Presidential Transition Act of 2019, and the Electoral Count Reform and Presidential Transition Improvement Act of 2022.

The Pre-Election Presidential Transition Act of 2010 requires the General Services Administration to provide potential presidential transition teams with office space, facilities, funding for transition staff, and access to government services. For example, spending on Mitt Romney's transition team in 2012 was going to be $8.9 million, all funds appropriated by the federal government.

The Presidential Transition Act of 2019 requires the incumbent president to establish "transition councils" by June of an election year to facilitate a possible handover of power.

Process

The transition process begins as leading presidential contenders forming a transition team to start making preliminary plans for building an administration and assuming the presidency should they be elected. This can take place at any time of the candidate's choosing. In 2008, the presidential campaign of Democratic Party nominee Barack Obama began informally planning for a possible presidential transition several months before Election Day. Obama's transition team, called the "Obama-Biden Transition Project", analysed prior transition efforts, the workings of federal government agencies, and what priority positions needed to be filled by the incoming administration first. In April 2012, before Mitt Romney became the Republican Party nominee, the Romney presidential campaign began planning for a potential transition. Romney's transition team made extensive plans for the transfer of power, called the "Romney Readiness Project", which also included a legislative agenda for the first 200 days of a Romney administration.

During the 2016 presidential election cycle, Donald Trump began assembling his transition team in May, after he became the presumptive Republican nominee. His fall campaign opponent, Hillary Clinton, lagged behind in this regard, not forming a team until August, which was after she became the Democratic nominee. Key activities in this pre-election phase include: setting goals for the transition; assembling and organizing the key transition team staff; allocating responsibilities among the team and allocating resources and personnel for each core work stream; developing an overall management work plan to guide the team through the entire transition process; and establishing relationships with Congress, the outgoing administration, General Services Administration, the Office of Government Ethics, the FBI and the Office of Personnel Management to encourage information sharing and to begin the security clearance process for select personnel.

The GSA administrator officially determines the "apparent winner" of a presidential election. If it is not the incumbent president, the winner can access federal agencies and transition funds. To free government funds, the GSA Administrator is required to issue an "ascertainment" letter declaring a non-incumbent candidate the "apparent winner" of an election. The declaration marks the official start of the transition, without which the winning candidate's transition team is not entitled to government funding, secure office space, equipment and access to agencies. The right to the ownership and confidentiality of emails and phone records produced by the transition team is, however, not secure as against the GSA and the government.

There are no firm rules on how the GSA determines the president-elect. Typically, the GSA chief might make the decision after reliable news organizations have declared the winner or following a concession by the loser. The GSA administrator's declaration releases about $9.9 million in transition funds for salary, support, and computer systems; allow transition officials to establish government email addresses and receive federal office space; and allow the transition team to start work with the Office of Government Ethics on required financial disclosure and conflict-of-interest forms for incoming nominees.

The actual transition phase begins immediately following the presidential election (barring any electoral disputes) when a sitting president is not re-elected or is concluding a second term. In the case of the Obama-Trump transition, on the day after the election, November 9, 2016, outgoing president Barack Obama made a statement from the Rose Garden of the White House in which he announced that he had spoken the previous evening with (apparent election winner) Donald Trump and formally invited him to the White House for discussions to ensure "that there is a successful transition between our presidencies." Obama said he had instructed his staff to "follow the example" of the administration of George W. Bush in 2008, who he said could "not have been more professional or more gracious in making sure we had a smooth transition". This phase of the process lasts between 72 and 78 days, ending on the inauguration day. During this time, the transition team must handle the influx of campaign staff  and additional personnel into daily operations and prepare to take over the functions of government. Key activities in this phase include staffing the office of the president-elect; deploying agency review teams; building out the president-elect's management and policy agendas and schedule; and identifying the key talent necessary to execute the new president's priorities.

Appointments
It is the practice for Cabinet secretaries and high-level political appointees to tender their resignation with effect on the Inauguration Day (January 20) of a new president. The deputy secretaries are also expected to tender their resignation, but are commonly requested to stay on in an acting capacity until the confirmation by the Senate of the new secretary.

Noteworthy transitions

Presidential transitions have existed in one form or another since 1797, when retiring president George Washington passed the presidency to John Adams, winner of the 1796 United States presidential election. Despite most going smoothly, many have been bumpy and a few verged on catastrophic.

Buchanan–Lincoln

During the 1860–61 transition from James Buchanan to Abraham Lincoln (November 6, 1860 to March 4, 1861), seven states seceded in February. Buchanan held the opinion that states did not have the right to secede, but that it was also illegal for the federal government to go to war to stop them. Buchanan peacefully transferred power to Lincoln on March 4, 1861. The American Civil War began on April 12, 1861, just a month after Lincoln took office.

Grant–Hayes
In the 1876 election to succeed Ulysses S. Grant, there were disputes regarding 20 electoral votes in four states—enough to guarantee a majority for either Rutherford B. Hayes or Samuel J. Tilden—along with multiple allegations of electoral fraud. This made it unclear who would take the president's office on inauguration day. This constitutional crisis was resolved only two days before the scheduled inauguration through the Compromise of 1877 under which federal troops were withdrawn from the South, and the Reconstruction era was brought to an end.

Hoover–Roosevelt

The 1932–33 transition (November 8, 1932 to March 4, 1933) from Herbert Hoover to Franklin D. Roosevelt was during the Great Depression.

After the election, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to come up with a joint program to stop the crisis and calm investors, claiming it would limit his options, and as this "would guarantee that Roosevelt took the oath of office amid such an atmosphere of crisis that Hoover had become the most hated man in America". During this period, the U.S. economy suffered after thousands of banks failed.
The relationship between Hoover and Roosevelt was one of the most strained between presidents: while Hoover had little good to say about his successor, there was little he could do. Roosevelt, however, supposedly could—and did—engage in various spiteful official acts aimed at his predecessor, ranging from dropping him from the White House birthday greetings message list to having Hoover's name struck from the Hoover Dam along the Colorado River border, which would officially be known only as Boulder Dam until 1947.

Clinton–Bush

The 2000–01 transition from Bill Clinton to George W. Bush was shortened by several weeks due to the Florida recount crisis that ended after the Supreme Court handed down its ruling in Bush v. Gore which made Bush the president-elect.

Due to the recount effort and litigation between Bush and his presidential opponent Al Gore leaving the election undecided until December 12, 2000, Bush's official transition was the shortest in United States history, at just 39 days.

Bush–Obama

The 2008–09 transition from Bush to Barack Obama was considered seamless, with Bush granting Obama's request to ask Congress to release $350 billion of bank bailout funds. At the start of his inaugural speech, Obama praised Bush "for his service to our nation, as well as the generosity and co-operation he has shown throughout this transition". The White House website was redesigned and “cut over” at exactly 12:01pm, January 20, 2009. This was described by some as a "new inaugural tradition spawned by the Internet-age". Additionally, the information system was provided to the Obama administration without a single electronic record from the previous administration. Not only were emails and photos removed from the environment at the 12:01pm threshold, data elements like phone numbers of individual offices and upcoming meetings for the senior staff were also removed.

Nonetheless, by April 2012, the Bush administration had transferred electronic records for the presidential components within the Executive Office of the President to the National Archives and Records Administration. Included in these records was more than 80 terabytes of data, more than 200 million emails and 4 million photos.

Obama–Trump

On the evening of November 8, 2016, the day of the presidential election, outgoing president Barack Obama spoke with presumptive winner Donald Trump and formally invited him to the White House for November 10, for discussions to ensure "that there is a successful transition between our presidencies".

Early on November 9, media outlets projected Trump would secure enough votes in the Electoral College to win the presidential election, and Democratic Party nominee Hillary Clinton conceded the election to him later that day. Also on November 9, GSA Administrator Denise Turner Roth issued the "ascertainment letter” to officially designate Trump president-elect, and the transition team was provided office space and were also eligible for government funding for staff. Also on November 9, Trump and Vice President-elect Mike Pence were offered the full President's Daily Brief, with the first briefing taking place on November 15. The Trump transition website was launched on November 9.

The Trump transition team was led by Mike Pence and had six vice-chairs: former transition head Chris Christie, Ben Carson, Newt Gingrich, Michael Flynn, Rudy Giuliani and Jeff Sessions.

Trump–Biden

Incumbent president Donald Trump prematurely claimed victory in the 2020 presidential election on Election Day, November 3 and demanded all further vote counting cease. The president also alleged widespread fraud, corruption and other misconduct, and commenced multiple lawsuits in multiple states seeking a halt to counting, rejection of votes, preventing certification of results, besides other remedies. Trump claimed that 2.7 million votes were "deleted" by the digital voting system used in some states, and said votes were switched from him to Joe Biden. Officials called the 2020 election the most secure in history and officials from all fifty states refuted claims of fraud.

Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden became generally acknowledged as the president-elect on November 7, 2020. The GSA Administrator, Emily Murphy, a Trump appointee, initially refused to issue the "ascertainment" letter declaring Biden the "apparent winner", on the basis that the election result was disputed. The declaration would mark the official start of the transition: withholding it denied the Biden transition team full funds, secure office space, and access to agencies. (Following the 2016 presidential election, the acting GSA administrator issued the "ascertainment" letter the next day, on November 9, 2016.) Biden had also been denied daily classified national security briefings. Further, the State Department denied access to communications from foreign leaders, leaving the Biden team to communicate through other unofficial channels. According to CBS News, "In past transitions, the State Department has facilitated the logistics of the calls and provided translation services, possible talking points, and even taken notes".

On November 23, Murphy issued the letter of ascertainment naming Biden as the "apparent winner", making funds available for him towards the transition, although Trump had still not conceded. After pro-Trump protesters stormed the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, Trump offered a statement that "My focus now turns to a smooth, orderly and seamless transition of power", although he continued to reiterate his false claims of widespread fraud and irregularities. President Trump did not attend Biden's inauguration, which made him the first president not to attend the inauguration of his elected successor since Andrew Johnson was absent from the first inauguration of Ulysses S. Grant in 1869. Vice President Mike Pence attended Biden's inauguration.

List of presidential transitions

See also
 Contingent election, procedure used in U.S. presidential elections in cases where no candidate wins an absolute majority of votes in the Electoral College
 Midnight regulations, rules created by an outgoing administration before it leaves office
 Former Presidents Act
Political transition team

References

Further reading

 Brown, Heath (2023). "Status and expertise: A typology of US presidential transition team members". Presidential Studies Quarterly.

External links
 Presidential Transition Directory at the General Services Administration.


The  occurred in Tottori prefecture, Japan at 17:36 local time on September 10, 1943. Although the earthquake occurred during World War II, information about the disaster was not censored, and relief volunteers and supplies came from many parts of the Empire of Japan, including Manchukuo.

The Tottori earthquake had its epicenter offshore from Ketaka District, now part of Tottori, and registered a magnitude of 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale. The seismic intensity was recorded as 6 in Tottori city, and 5 as far away as Okayama on the Inland Sea. The center of Tottori city, with many antiquated buildings was the hardest hit, with an estimated 80% of its structures damaged or destroyed. As the earthquake struck in the evening when most kitchens had fires lit in preparation for the evening meal, fires broke out in 16 locations around the city. With water mains damaged, citizens formed bucket brigades to prevent fires from spreading. The number of fatalities was 1,083, including numerous Zainichi Koreans working in the nearby Aragane Copper Mines.

Two magnitude 6.2 earthquakes had occurred in the same area earlier that year on March 4 and 5, but did not cause significant damage.

See also
 List of earthquakes in 1943
 List of earthquakes in Japan

Notes

External links

Tottori
Tottori
September 1943 events
Earthquakes in the Empire of Japan
History of Tottori Prefecture
Earthquakes of the Showa period
1943 disasters in Japan
Zainichi Korean history


The Dragon Li is a recently established Chinese breed of domestic cat (also called Chinese Li Hua or China Li Hua as a standardized breed, depending on breed registry). It was developed from a common landrace of cats in China, known as , Pinyin: , literally 'fox flower cat' (sometimes shortened to   or  ); the native cats are featured in some Chinese folklore stories.  The derived standardized breed is recognized by China's Cat Aficionado Association (CAA), and was for a time by the US-based, international Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA), later revoked.

Physical characteristics
The Dragon Li displays a unique golden-brown, broken-mackerel (also known as broken-striped) tabby pattern; distinctive ear tipping; large round almond shaped luminescent yellow/green eyes; and a strong full bodied stature reminiscent of its wild nature.

Origin

The eponymous Dragon Li is thought in China to be a natural self-domesticating breed by way of a wildcat subspecies, the Chinese mountain cat (Felis silvestris bieti). While this theory is still somewhat controversial, it has also not been scientifically disproven, and is therefore widely accepted as the origin of this breed within established breeding sources in China. (All other cat breeds in the world are known to be descended from F. s. lybica, the African wildcat.)

The Chinese character interpretation is based on a legendary description rather than a fully accurate contemporary portrayal of the , and as a result, this cat had been confused with the wild fox by the Chinese. For this reason, the literal translated characters for  read as  referred as 'Common raccoon dog';  from  for 'pattern', referring to raccoon patterns; and  'cat'.

 is the prevalent name for the original variety in China. More recently, the names Chinese Li Hua and Dragon Li have been used internationally for the standardized breed. The dragon is a potent symbol in Chinese folklore, standing for power and good luck.

Popularity
The Dragon Li debuted as an experimental-class standardized breed in Beijing, China, in January 2004 All-breed Judges Dolores Kennedy and Barb Belanger of the American Cat Fanciers Association (ACFA) were guests of the Cat Aficionado Association (CAA) and judged the event. There were four of these pedigreed Dragon Li in the United States .

In 2005, a male specimen named Needy, presented by its owner Da Han, was shown and won its class as first place CAA champion. The event was judged by John Douglas Blackmore of the ACFA. Needy was then "married" to a breeding partner in an elaborate mockup of a traditional Chinese wedding ceremony, attracting some press coverage. In February 2010, the Li Hua was accepted for showing in the miscellaneous class by the international (US-based) Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA). Since gaining international recognition, and due in part to its limited availability, the Dragon Li / Chinese Li Hua has now become of interest to cat fanciers internationally.

The Chinese literary legend "The Cat for Crown Prince Conspiracy" ( ) utilizes a  as its central theme. The story has more recently served as the basis for the third episode (rendered "Wild Cat Exchanged for Crown Prince" in English) of the Hong Kong television series Justice Pao ( ).

References

External links

Breed Profile Web Page- The Chinese Li Hua - In CFA (Cat Fanciers' Association)
Chinese Li Hua Standard Modification 2014 - In CFA (Cat Fanciers' Association)
The Messybeast.com Cat Breed List

Cat breeds
Natural cat breeds
Cat breeds originating in China


Ronald Bernard Klimkowski (March 1, 1944 – November 13, 2009) was a baseball player born in Jersey City, New Jersey. He was a right-handed Major League Baseball pitcher and junkball specialist. He played for the New York Yankees (–, ) and the Oakland Athletics () during his career.

Klimkowski attended college at Morehead State University for only one year. He was the first graduate of Clarke High School in Westbury, New York, to play in the major leagues.

Career
Before the 1964 season, Ron Klimkowski was signed by the Boston Red Sox as an amateur free agent. On August 8, 1967, he was sent by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees to complete an earlier deal made on August 3, 1967. The Boston Red Sox traded Pete Magrini to the New York Yankees for Elston Howard. Klimkowski was traded to the New York Yankees by the Boston Red Sox to complete the trade. Klimkowski made his major league debut on September 15, 1969. On that day, the Detroit Tigers were playing against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium with 5,734 people attending the game. Klimkowski was called to replace Tom Shopay pitching and batting 9th at the top of the seventh inning. He pitched three full innings. At the bottom of the ninth inning, Dave McDonald was called to pinch hit for Klimkowski batting 9th. At the end of the game, the New York Yankees lost the game 2–1. He was traded with Rob Gardner from the Yankees to the Athletics for Felipe Alou on April 9, 1971. On May 22, 1972, he was released by the Oakland Athletics and on the same day was signed again with the New York Yankees. Klimkowski played his last Major League Baseball game on September 22, 1972.

Death
He died of heart failure at Plainview Hospital in Plainview, New York on November 13, 2009 at the age of 65.

References

External links

Retrosheet
Ron Klimkowski at Baseball-Almanac

1944 births
2009 deaths
Baseball players from Jersey City, New Jersey
Binghamton Triplets players
Florida Instructional League Red Sox players
Florida Instructional League Yankees players
Iowa Cubs players
Leones del Caracas players
American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela
Major League Baseball pitchers
Morehead State Eagles baseball players
New York Yankees players
Oakland Athletics players
Syracuse Chiefs players
Waterloo Hawks (baseball) players
West Haven Yankees players
Winston-Salem Red Sox players