The history of the oil tanker is part of the evolution of the technology of oil transportation alongside the oil industry.

Background

The technology of oil transportation has evolved alongside the oil industry. Although use of oil reaches to prehistory, the first modern commercial exploitation dates back to James Young's manufacture of paraffin in 1850. In the early 1850s, oil began to be exported from Upper Burma, then a British colony. The oil was moved in earthenware vessels to the river bank where it was then poured into boat holds for transportation to Britain.

In the 1860s, the Pennsylvania oil fields became a major supplier of oil, and a center of innovation after Edwin Drake struck oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. The first oil well in the United States was dug here in 1859, initially yielding around ten barrels per day. Within two years, the Titusville field was providing .

The invention of oil refining led to the availability of kerosene as lamp oil, which has a smokeless combustion in contrast with the until then highly used whale oil. The lamp oil became known as Pennsylvania Kerosine. Due to overfishing, whale oil became rare and expensive. By this time, petroleum oil had already begun to supplant fish, whale, and vegetable oils for applications such as indoor and outdoor lighting, and transatlantic export had already begun.

Break-bulk boats and barges were originally used to transport Pennsylvania oil in  wooden barrels. But transport by barrel had several problems. The first problem was weight: the standard empty barrel weighed , representing 20% of the total weight of a full barrel. Also barrels were leaky, and could only be carried one way. Finally, barrels were themselves expensive. For example, in the early years of the Russian oil industry, barrels accounted for half the cost of petroleum production.

Early oil tankers

The movement of oil in bulk was attempted in many places and in many ways. Modern oil pipelines have existed since 1860. The first oil tankers were two sail-driven tankers that were built in 1863 on England's River Tyne.

The first ocean-going oil-tank steamer, the Vaderland, was designed and built by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company of the United Kingdom for the American-Belgian Red Star Line in 1873, although the vessel's use was soon curtailed by the authorities citing safety concerns. By 1871, the Pennsylvania oil fields were making limited use of oil tank barges and cylindrical railroad tank cars similar to those in use today. In 1877, the sailing ship Lindesnæs was converted to carry oil in bulk.

The modern oil tanker
The modern oil tanker was developed in the period from 1877 to 1885. In 1876, Ludvig and Robert Nobel, brothers of Alfred Nobel, founded Branobel (short for Brothers Nobel) in Baku, Azerbaijan. It was, during the late 19th century, one of the largest oil companies in the world.

Ludvig was a pioneer in the development of early oil tankers. He first experimented with carrying oil in bulk on single-hulled barges. Turning his attention to self-propelled tankships, he faced a number of challenges. A primary concern was to keep the cargo and fumes well away from the engine room to avoid fires. Other challenges included allowing for the cargo to expand and contract due to temperature changes, and providing a method to ventilate the tanks.

Nobel's Zoroaster, built in 1878, was the world's first successful oil tanker. He designed this ship together with Sven Alexander Almqvist, who also built the vessel. The contract to build it was signed in January 1878, and it made its first run later that year from Baku to Astrakhan. The Zoroaster design was widely studied and copied, with Nobel refusing to patent any part of it. In October 1878 he ordered two more tankers of the same design: the Buddha and the Nordenskjöld.

Zoraster carried its  of kerosene cargo in two iron tanks joined by pipes. One tank was forward of the midships engine room and the other was aft. The ship also featured a set of 21 vertical watertight compartments for extra buoyancy. The ship had a length overall of , a beam of , and a draft of . Unlike later Nobel tankers, the Zoraster design was built small enough to sail from Sweden to the Caspian by way of the Baltic Sea, Lake Ladoga, Lake Onega, the Rybinsk and Mariinsk Canals and the Volga River.

When W.A. Riedmann of Geestemünde entered the petroleum trade in 1877, he noted the difficulties of using barrels, and began to experiment with the former emigrant ships Adona and Derby, filling their large iron drinking water tanks with oil. In October 1879 he purchased the Andromeda at Liverpool, an 1,876-ton full-rigged composite ship built in 1864, brought it to Teklenborgs Werft, and added seventy iron tanks to the hold. The piping between the tanks was connected so that all could be filled from a single tank. The composite hull, with structural members of iron covered with wooden planking, was especially suitable for the addition of tanks, because they could be firmly fastened to the iron beams. Andromeda made seven trips from Germany to North America as a sailing oil tanker.

Nobel also began to adopt a single-hull design, where the ship's hull forms part of its tank structure. In November 1880 he ordered his first single-hulled tanker, the Moses. Within a year, he ordered seven more single-hulled tankers: the Mohammed, Tatarin, Bramah, Spinoza, Socrates, Darwin, Koran, Talmud, and Calmuck. Branobel experienced one of the first oil tanker disasters. In 1881 Zoroasters sister-ship, Nordenskjöld, exploded in Baku while taking on kerosene. The pipe carrying the cargo was jerked away from the hold when the ship was hit by a gust of wind. Kerosene then spilled onto the deck and down into the engine room, where mechanics were working in the light of kerosene lanterns. The ship then exploded, killing half the crew. Nobel responded to the disaster by creating a flexible, leakproof loading pipe which was much more resistant to spills.

In 1883, oil tanker design took a large step forward. Working for the Nobel company, British engineer Colonel Henry F. Swan designed a set of three Nobel tankers. Instead of one or two large holds, Swan's design used several holds which spanned the width, or beam, of the ship. These holds were further subdivided into port and starboard sections by a longitudinal bulkhead. Earlier designs suffered from stability problems caused by the free surface effect, where oil sloshing from side to side could cause a ship to capsize. But this approach of dividing the ship's storage space into smaller tanks virtually eliminated free-surface problems. This approach, almost universal today, was first used by Swan in the Nobel tankers Blesk, Lumen, and Lux.

Others point to the , another design of Colonel Swan, as being the first modern oil tanker. It adopted the best practices from previous oil tanker designs to create the prototype for all subsequent vessels of the type. It was the first dedicated steam-driven ocean-going tanker in the world and was the first ship in which oil could be pumped directly into the vessel hull instead of being loaded in barrels or drums. It was also the first tanker with a horizontal bulkhead, its features included cargo valves operable from the deck, cargo main piping, a vapor line, cofferdams for added safety, and the ability to fill a ballast tank with seawater when empty of cargo. The ship was built in Britain and was purchased by Wilhelm Anton Riedemann, an agent for the Standard Oil Company along with several of her sister ships. After the Glückauf was lost in 1893 after being grounded in fog, Standard Oil purchased the sister ships.

In 1903, the Nobel brothers built two oil tankers which ran on internal combustion engines, as opposed to the older steam engines. The , the first diesel-electric ship, was capable of carrying  of refined oil was powered by three  diesel motors. The larger Sarmat employed four  engines. The first seagoing diesel-powered tanker, 4,500-ton Mysl, was built by Nobel's competitors in Kolomna. Nobel responded with Emanuel Nobel and Karl Hagelin,  kerosene tankers with  engines.

The , seven-masted schooner , built in 1902, was the largest purely sail tanker ever built. It carried coal, and oil in barrels from Texas to the East Coast of the U.S. This  schooner was fitted out as an oil tanker in 1906, and sunk in a storm off Isles of Scilly in December 1907.

Asian oil trade

The 1880s also saw the beginnings of the Asian oil trade. The oil industry in Azerbaijan was the largest producer in the world at that time, but was limited to the Russian market. John D. Rockefellers Standard Oil dominated the world market.

The idea that led to moving Russian oil to the Far East via the Suez Canal was the brainchild of two men: importer Marcus Samuel and shipowner/broker Fred Lane — the London agent for the De Rothschild Frères. Prior bids to move oil through the canal had been rejected by the Suez Canal Company as being too risky. Samuel approached the problem a different way: asking the company for the specifications of a tanker it would allow through the canal.

Armed with the canal companies specifications, Samuel had James Fortescue Flannery designing tankers for Bnito — the Russian oil company of the Rothschilds — and ordered three tankers from William Gray & Company in northern England. Named the Murex, the Conch and the Clam, each had a capacity of 5,010 long tons of deadweight. In 1893 the Samuel brothers founded the Tank Syndicate together with Fred Lane and Asian trading companies. In 1897 it was renamed Shell Transport and Trading company, forerunner of today's Royal Dutch Shell company.

With facilities prepared in Jakarta, Singapore, Bangkok, Saigon, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Kobe, the fledgling Shell company was ready to become Standard Oil's first challenger in the Asian market. On August 24, 1892, the Murex became the first tanker to pass through the Suez Canal.

In the meanwhile, in 1890 the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Maatschappij tot Exploitatie van Petroleumbronnen in Nederlandsch-Indie (KNMEP) ("Royal Dutch Company for the Working of Petroleum Wells in the Dutch Indies") — part of Royal Dutch Petroleum — was founded. In 1892 it found oil near Pangkalan Brandan on Sumatra, just some months before Samuels kerosene arrived in Singapore. At first, chartered ships were used, but in 1896 KNMEP launched its first tankers, the Besitang and Berandan. The threat of the Tank Syndicate was reduced as the Dutch government excluded them from trading in the Dutch East Indies. To prevent a hostile takeover by Standard Oil, preference shares were issued. By the time Shell merged with Royal Dutch Petroleum in 1907, the company had 34 steam-driven oil tankers. Standard Oil started building tankers the same way as Shell and by 1900 owned around 60 tankers.

From 1912 Compañía Mexicana de Petróleo El Aguila ("Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company") — founded in 1909 by Weetman Pearson to develop the newly found Mexican oil fields, nationalized in 1938 as Pemex — also had its own tanker fleet. They quickly adopted Isherwood's new longitudinal framing system that allowed much larger ships and a simpler construction process. Just before World War I it owned a fleet of 20 tankers. Standard Oil did not participate directly in the newly discovered oil fields in Texas — such as Spindletop — and Oklahoma, which gave opportunities for new oil companies as Gulf Oil and Texas Fuel Company, later Texaco. Avoiding the use of Standard Oil's pipe line system, they started using tankers to get their oil to the East Coast. In combination with the oil fields discovered in Mexico and Venezuela, this caused a rise in the demand for tankers, which gave opportunities for the first independents, such as the Norwegian Wilh. Wilhelmsen, that launched its first tanker in 1913.

World War I and interbellum
The fleet oiler , launched on April 17, 1915, pioneered the technique of underway replenishment. A large ship at the time, with a capacity of 14,500  long tons of deadweight, Maumee began refuelling destroyers en route to Britain at the outset of World War I. This technique enabled the Navy to keep its fleets at sea for extended periods, with a far greater range independent of the availability of a friendly port. This independence proved crucial to victory in World War II by the ships commanded by Fleet Admiral Nimitz who, as Maumees executive officer, had played a key role in developing underway replenishment.

Underway replenishment was quickly adopted by other navies. One example of this is the Australian fleet oiler  which provided underway replenishment services in the United Kingdom's Royal Navy from 1917 to 1919.

During World War I, unrestricted submarine warfare caused a shortage of tankers. The United States ambassador to the United Kingdom, Walter Hines Page, wrote "The submarines are sinking freight ships faster than freight ships are being built by the whole world. In this way, too, then, the Germans are succeeding. Now if this goes on long enough, the Allies' game is up. For instance, they have lately sunk so many fuel oil ships, that this country may very soon be in a perilous condition — even the Grand Fleet may not have enough fuel". Georges Clemenceau wrote to US president Wilson "Gasoline is as vital as blood in the coming battles…a failure in the supply of gasoline would cause the immediate paralysis of our armies". Wilson reacted strongly. The War Shipping Board commandeered all ships in the United States and also took over all yards. An unprecedented budget of $US1.3 billion was used for this end. At Hog Island, the largest shipyard in the world was built, known for the Hog Islander.

Between 1916 and 1921, 316 tankers were built with a total capacity of 3.2 million long tons of deadweight, where the entire world fleet before World War I was just above 2 million tons. In 1923 about 800,000 long tons were laid up, which gave enormous opportunities for speculators, such as Daniel Keith Ludwig. In 1925 he had bought the freighter Phoenix and put tanks in the holds. These riveted tanks leaked, which resulted in an explosive mixture. The resulting explosion killed two crew members and badly injured Ludwig. After this, he was a strong believer in welding.

The bunkering of ships with oil instead of coal, mass-production of automobiles and increasing aviation, all increased demand for oil and thus oil transport.

In 1928 the World's largest oil tanker was the  , completed that year for Canadian owners by Bremer Vulkan in Germany.

With the right connections at the Shipping Board, ships could be bought cheaply, which caused a lot of fraud. This system was too complicated for the oil companies however, so when World War II started, independents owned 39 percent of the world tanker fleet. This was especially because oil companies needed capital to invest in the growing oil market. By not buying the ships, but chartering, the bond rating of the oil companies was not affected, because the charter hire was not recognized as debt in that time. In 1934 H.T. Schierwater founded the International Tanker Owners' Association — later International Association of Independent Tanker Owners or INTERTANKO — to protect the interests of these companies in a strongly fluctuating market.

World War II

When World War II broke out in 1939, Roosevelt could not support the United Kingdom directly, as in 1935 the Shipping Neutrality Act was signed to prevent Mussolini from invading Ethiopia. A solution was found by flagging out to Panama, which was under US control. The advantage for shipping companies was not having to comply with US regulations and not having to sail with US crew which were 50 percent more expensive than European crews at that time. In 1939 there were 52 tankers with a total capacity of 700,000 long tons of deadweight under Panamanian flag, a boost for flags of convenience.

The block construction method was invented in the United States, because German U-boats were sinking more ships than could be built with existing methods. By building in blocks and welding, the construction time could be reduced dramatically. Daniel Keith Ludwig had an important role in this, as he introduced the method at his Welding Shipyards in Norfolk as part of the Emergency Shipbuilding program.

Particularly the T2 tanker played an important part in World War II. The T2-SE-A1 with a capacity of 16,613 long tons of deadweight, was the most popular variant with nearly 500 built during the war. A small T1 tanker was used for small ports and near shore. The larger T3 tanker was use a fleet oiler. After the war these tankers were used commercially for decades, and many were sold on the international market.

In this period, the Worldscale was introduced to determine freight tariffs.

Until 1956, tankers were designed to be able to navigate the Suez Canal. This size restriction became much less of a priority after the closing of the canal during the Suez Crisis of 1956. Forced to move oil around the Cape of Good Hope, shipowners realized that bigger tankers were the key to more efficient transport.

Supertanker era
Where the size of tankers had been more or less the same for 25 years, after World War II they have grown in size significantly, initially slowly. A typical T2 tanker of the World War II era was  long and had a capacity of . A modern ultra-large crude carrier (ULCC) can be  long and have a capacity of . Several factors encouraged this growth. Hostilities in the Middle East which interrupted traffic through the Suez Canal contributed, as did nationalization of Middle East oil refineries. Intense competition among shipowners also played a part. But apart from these considerations is a simple economic advantage: The larger an oil tanker is, the more cheaply it can move crude oil, and the better it can help meet growing demands for oil.

Where the refinery of oil had taken place near the well earlier, this moved to the consumer location during this stage. Oil production in the Middle East developed and the dominance of product tankers was replaced by crude oil carriers. Soon, Panamax tankers were built, soon followed by Aframax and Suezmax tankers because of economics.

After the war, it was expected that a large number of tankers would be laid up, which indeed happened. The United States Maritime Commission had replaced the War Shipping Board, but fraudulent activities remained. Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos used this to buy tankers cheaply. The expected economic decline did not come, due to reasons amongst others the Marshall plan, with the demand for oil increasing to the point in 1947 that there was a shortage of tankers. Freight tariffs tripled overnight, enabling some to recoup their investment in one voyage.

Ludwig had started Universe Tankships in 1947 and began building larger tankers in his Welding Shipyards. The Bulkpetrol of 30,000 long tons was the largest tanker of its time. Four of the five Bulk class tankers sank, likely because welding technology was not yet fully understood. As larger ships could not be constructed in the yard at Norfolk, Virginia, Ludwig went to Japan where he introduced the block construction method at the Kure Naval Yard. Here, in 1952, he built the Petrokure of 38,000 long tons. That same year, Onassis had a tanker of 45,000 long tons built and also Niarchos had supertankers built. Both Onassis and Niarchos claimed to be the largest independent tanker owner in the world.

The Sinclair Petrolore that Ludwig had built in 1955, was at 56,000 long tons not only the largest freighter in the world, but also a self-unloading ore-oil carrier, the only one of that type ever built. It exploded on 6 December 1960 near Brazil — likely because of cargo leakage in the double bottom — resulting in the largest spill until then with 60,000 tons.

In 1956 the Universe Leader of 85,000 long tons was built just before the Suez Crisis started with the seizure of the Pannegia . In ten years time, tanker size had quadrupled. In 1958, Ludwig broke the barrier of 100,000 long tons of heavy displacement. His Universe Apollo displaced 104,500 long tons, a 23% increase from the Universe Leader.

In 1962 Niarchos had the 106,000 long ton  built. This was the largest merchant vessel ever built in the United States. It was converted to have ice breaking capacities in 1969 and was the first commercial ship to cross the Northwest Passage. Although the voyage was a success, a second attempt to cross the passage in winter proved impossible, and there were numerous environmental concerns with the project, so it was cancelled and the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System built.

In 1966 the 206,000 long ton Idemitsu Maru was the first Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) built. In twenty years, the size of tankers had increased tenfold. In 1968, the first Ultra Large Crude Carrier, the Universe Ireland was built.

World tanker fleet 1957–1980
Data according to.

 * Tonnage Classes are in thousands of long tons, dwt.
 ** Size categories for these years are 100,000 to 159,999 dwt and 160,000 to 199,999 dwt.

Closure of the Suez Canal
The oil spill caused by the Torrey Canyon in 1967 caused a public awareness about the environmental dangers of oil tankers. Oil companies united in 1970 in the Oil Companies International Marine Forum to become involved in the following issuing of rules such as MARPOL 73. In 1968 also the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation was founded to indemnify the victims.

For tanker owners, the Six-Day War of 1967 was of greater importance. The Suez Canal closed until 1975 and freight rates skyrocketed because of the shortage of tonnage now ships had to pass the Cape of Good Hope. Even larger tankers were now built, as the limitations of the Suez Canal were not governing anymore. In only a couple of years the size of tankers quadrupled to more than 500,000 long tons and there were even plans for tankers of 1,000,000 long tons. In 1969 the first ULCC's were built.

The world's largest supertanker ever was built for Tung Chao Yung in 1979 at the Oppama Shipyard of Sumitomo Heavy Industries, Ltd. as the Seawise Giant. This ship was built with a capacity of , a length overall of  and a draft of . She has 46 tanks,  of deck, and is too large to pass through the English Channel.

Seawise Giant was renamed Happy Giant in 1989, Jahre Viking in 1991. From 1979 to 2004 she was owned by Loki Stream, at which point she was bought by First Olsen Tankers, renamed Knock Nevis and converted into a permanently moored storage tanker. The Batillus class supertankers are the biggest ships ever constructed by gross tonnage.

Although the tanker fleet increased around 12 percent annually around 1970, a shortage on tonnage remained. In 1973 this resulted in an enormous increase in new building orders, especially from oil majors that wanted to gain on the quicker deciding independents, who could ask enormous rates for their vessels. Where the existing tanker fleet comprised some 150 million long tons, in a quarter of a year a tonnage of 75 million was ordered, although new build prices doubled.

The increase in scale brought a new problem. Until then, the washing of tanks after cargo discharge was done by water. In December 1969 three tankers exploded during tank washing. The Dutch Shell tanker Marpessa sank off Dakar and became the largest merchant vessel ever lost. The other two, the British Shell tanker Mactra and the Norwegian Kong Haakon VII were damaged heavily, but remained afloat. Shell investigated the matter and came to the conclusion that water drops that impact steel with high velocity generates static electricity that can cause explosions in combination with cargo vapors. This only became apparent with the large sizes of the tanks of VLCC's.

The solution was found by filling the cargo tanks with inert gas (IG), reducing the oxygen level such that the tank remains below the explosive limit. The use of IG is seen as the biggest step in increasing tanker safety. Ten years later however, fifty people were killed when the Betelgeuse exploded at Whiddy Island in Bantry Bay. The Total tanker was still not fitted with inert gas. The Energy Concentration did have this system, preventing an explosion when it broke in two on 21 July 1980 during discharge at Europoort. It has also saved many lives during the Tanker War.

Washing with water in combination with the Load on Top system was replaced by crude oil washing (COW), a method developed by BP. The advantages were cleaner tanks, no corrosive sea water in cargo tanks and no polluted sea water being pumped overboard.

Oil crisis and consolidation
On 10 October 1973 the Yom Kippur War begun, causing the 1973 oil crisis, tripling oil prices to US$10 per barrel, halting economic growth. Newly build ships sometimes went straight from the yard to lay-up. The situation worsened when the Suez Canal was reopened in 1975. Just when the situation began to improve in 1979, the Iranian Revolution caused the second oil crisis, causing oil prices to rise to US$30. Ships were sometimes sent to the breakers after being in service for only ten years. It took until the end of the 1980s before any profits were being made in oil transport.

In 1979, World-Wide Shipping of Yue-Kong Pao with 204 vessels, many of them tankers, was the largest shipping company in the world with a tonnage of 20.5 million, but in the five years after that he sold some 140 vessels to manage the crisis. In 1980, Daniel K. Ludwig had the largest fleet after Y. K. Pao and C. Y. Tung and was regarded the richest man of the United States. John Fredriksen owns the largest tanker operator in the world, Frontline. He also owns almost ten percent of the largest shipping company in the world, Overseas Shipholding Group.

In 1976, the Intervention Convention was used for the first time when the US Coast Guard took on the salvage of the Argo Merchant, although the vessel was in international waters. This was the first time the monopoly of flag states was broken through.

The Exxon Valdez oil spill was the incentive to introduce legislation requiring tankers to have a double hull, a measure that is not seen as the best solution by all experts. Where a double hull should minimize the consequences after a disaster, Concordia Maritime developed the Stena V-MAX, a VLCC with two propellers, two rudders and two redundant engine rooms, where a single fault does not result in loss of steering, reducing the chances of a grounding.

The size of VLCCs and ULCCs limits their sailing area and available ports. In the United States, Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP) is the only facility that is able to handle VLCCs. To overcome this, lightering from large tankers in smaller ones that are able to reach the destination port. The largest oil terminal is Ras Tanura in Saudi Arabia.

ULCCs had not been built since the beginning of the 1980s until the Greek Hellespont Steamship Corporation ordered four double-hull supertankers in 1999. These ships were built in 2002 and 2003 as the Hellespont Alhambra, Hellespont Metropolis, Hellespont Tara and Fairfax. Hellespont sold these ships to Overseas Shipholding Group and Euronav in 2004. These TI class supertankers – currently known as the TI Asia, TI Europe, TI Oceania, and TI Africa — are as of 2008 the world's four largest working supertankers.

Each of the four sister ships has a capacity of over , a length overall of  and a cargo capacity of . The first ULCC tankers to be built for some 25 years, they were also the first ULCCs to be double-hulled. To differentiate them from smaller ULCCs, these ships are sometimes given the V-Plus size designation. In February 2008, their owners announced plans to convert TI Africa and the TI Asia into stationary floating storage and offloading units to be placed in the Al Shaheen oilfield near Qatar in late 2009.

With the exception of the pipeline, the tanker is the most cost-effective way to move oil today. Worldwide, tankers carry some  annually, and the cost of transportation by tanker amounts to US$0.02 per gallon at the pump.

Open registries
The first open register was Panama in 1916. Fear for political instability and high and excessive consular fees led the president of Liberia, William Tubman, in 1948 to start an open register with the help of Edward Stettinius, Jr. The World Peace of Stavros Niarchos was the first ship in that register. In 1967 Liberia passed the United Kingdom as the largest register. Nowadays, Panama — currently the largest register — and Liberia have one third of the world fleet under their flag.

Open registries have been branded as flags of convenience by ITF (International Transport Workers' Federation) to have lower standards for vessel, equipment, and crew than the traditional maritime countries and often have classification societies certify and inspect the vessels in their registry, instead of by their own shipping authority. This made it attractive for ship owners to change flag, whereby the ship lost the economic link and the country of registry. With this, also the link between classification society and traditional maritime country became less obvious - for instance Lloyd's with the United Kingdom and ABS with the United States. This made it easier to change class and introduced a new phenomena; class hopping. A ship owner that is dissatisfied with class can change to a different class relatively easily. This has led to more competition between classes and a relaxation of the rules. This has led to the shipping industry losing confidence in the classification societies, but also by the European Commission.
Today open registries are amongst the leading performers on the white lists, are first to ratify and implement International Conventions, including Labor Standards, and are often offering the level of service and attention which the traditional national registries are missing.

To counteract class hopping, the IACS has established TOCA (Transfer Of Class Agreement).

In 1978, a number of European countries agreed in The Hague on a memorandum that agreed to audit whether the labour conditions on board vessels were according to the rules of the ILO. After the Amoco Cadiz sank that year, it was decided to also audit on safety and pollution. To this end, in 1982 the Paris Memorandum of Understanding (Paris MoU) was agreed upon, establishing Port State Control, nowadays consisting of 24 European countries and Canada. In practice, this was a reaction on the failure of the flag states - especially flags of convenience that have delegated their task to classification societies - to comply with their inspection duties.

See also

Aristotle Onassis
List of oil spills
List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
List of tankers
List of Type T2 Tanker names
Marine transfer operations
Stavros Niarchos

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Bill Willis. Supertankers
Intertanko - the society of International Tanker Operators
The International Maritime Organization - Tanker Safety (for double-hulls)

History


, sometimes known simply as Hiromitsu, is a Japanese contemporary artist, specializing in kappazuri stencil prints depicting figures from the kabuki theatre.

Born in Kanagawa prefecture in 1959, Hiromitsu graduated from Nihon University in 1981, and currently operates out of the Tokyo area. An obvious successor to the ukiyo-e artists of the Edo period in his choice of subject (see yakusha-e, lit. "[kabuki] actor prints"), his methods and style show the strong influence of Yoshitoshi Mori, a stencil print artist whom Hiromitsu's parents served as printers.

Takahashi has taken part in solo and group exhibitions both in Japan and abroad. He was named Most Promising Artist at the Grand Prix Exhibit at the Isetan Art Gallery in Tokyo, in both 1986 and 1989.

See also
mingei

References

External links
Hiromitsu Takahashi official website
 THE TOLMAN COLLECTION A gallery dealing with Hiromitsu Takahashi's works

Japanese printmakers
Living people
1959 births
Nihon University alumni


Luigi Gaudiano (born July 3, 1965 in Pagani, Salerno) is a former amateur boxer from Italy. He is best known for winning the bronze medal at the 1987 European Championships in Turin, Italy in the Men's Heavyweight (– 91 kg) division. He represented his native country at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea.

References
sports-reference

1965 births
Living people
Heavyweight boxers
Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Olympic boxers for Italy
Competitors at the 1987 Mediterranean Games
Mediterranean Games silver medalists for Italy
Sportspeople from Salerno
Italian male boxers
Mediterranean Games medalists in boxing
20th-century Italian people


The Macchi M.9 was a flying boat bomber designed by Alessandro Tonini and produced by Macchi in Italy close to the end of World War I and shortly afterwards.

Design and development
The M.9 was a conventional design for its day, with unstaggered biplane wings of unequal span and a single engine mounted pusher-fashion on struts in the interplane gap, close to the underside of the top wing. The pilot and observer sat side by side in an open cockpit. While earlier Macchi flying boats had conventional interplane struts, the M.9 introduced the Warren truss-style struts that would become characteristic of this manufacturer's designs.

Around 16 examples were delivered to the Italian Navy prior to the Armistice, and around another 14 were assembled after the end of hostilities. A small number of postwar aircraft were built with four seats under the designation M.9bis and were used in Switzerland for carrying passengers and mail.

Operators

Argentine Navy
Argentine Naval Aviation

Brazilian Naval Aviation

Corpo Aeronautico Militare

Polish Navy (Naval Aviation Base in Puck)

Specifications

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Angelucci, Enzo. The Rand McNally Encyclopedia of Military Aircraft, 1914-1980. San Diego, California: The Military Press, 1983. .
Nelcarz, Bartolomiej and Robert Peczkowski. White Eagles: The Aircraft, Men and Operations of the Polish Air Force 1918–1939. Ottringham, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2001.
 Grey, C.G. Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1919. London: Sampson Low Marston, 1969 (reprint). .
 Taylor, Michael J. H. Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation. London: Studio Editions, 1989. .

1910s Italian bomber aircraft
Flying boats
M.09
Biplanes
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1918


San Francisco de Borja is one of the 67 municipalities of Chihuahua, in northern Mexico. The municipal seat lies at San Francisco de Borja. The municipality covers an area of .

As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 2,290, up from 2,243 as of 2005.

As of 2010, the town of San Francisco de Borja had a population of 1,157. Other than the town of San Francisco de Borja, the municipality had 81 localities, none of which had a population over 1,000.

References

Municipalities of Chihuahua (state)


Erich Gallwitz (5 July 1912 in Reutte – 1 October 1981 in Salzburg) was an Austrian cross-country skier who competed in the 1936 Winter Olympics.

In 1936 he was a member of the Austrian relay team which finished eighth in the 4x10 km relay competition. In the 18 km event he finished 41st.

External links
Austrian Olympic Committee
Erich Gallwitz's profile at Sports Reference.com

1912 births
1981 deaths
Austrian male cross-country skiers
Olympic cross-country skiers for Austria
Cross-country skiers at the 1936 Winter Olympics
People from Reutte District
Skiers from Tyrol (state)


Washington and Western Railroad may refer to several railroads in the U.S. state of Virginia:
Washington and Western Railroad (1882–1883), predecessor of the Southern Railway, later leased to the Washington and Old Dominion Railroad
Washington and Western Railroad (1889–1890), predecessor of the Norfolk and Western Railway


Wiener Carneval (Viennese Carnival), opus 3, is a waltz composed by Johann Strauss I in 1828. The waltz was intended as a contribution to the carnival of 1828 Johann Strauss appeared as leader of a group of musicians at the balls at the Kettenbrücke in Leopoldstadt. The fourth waltz theme incorporates melodies from Carl Maria von Weber's Ocean aria from Oberon, with Rezia’s words Mein Hüon, mein Gatte, die Retter, sie nah’n (My Hüon, my husband, the rescuers approach), partly as a tribute to Weber, who had died not long before Strauss' waltz was composed.

References

Compositions by Johann Strauss I


Pomacea paludosa, common name the Florida applesnail, is a species of freshwater snail with an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusk in the family Ampullariidae, the apple snails.

Shell description

This species is the largest freshwater gastropod native to North America.

The shell is globose in shape. The whorls are wide, the spire is depressed, and the aperture is narrowly oval. The shells are brown in color, and have a pattern of stripes.

The shell is 60 mm in both length and width.

Distribution
The indigenous distribution of this snail is central and southern Florida, Cuba and Hispaniola.

The nonindigenous distribution includes northern Florida. The species has also been found in Georgia, Oahu, Hawaii (Devick 1991),  Louisiana, and Oklahoma.

Ecology

This is a tropical species. It is amphibious, and can survive in water bodies that dry out during the dry season.

Applesnails have both gills and lungs.

References

  Applesnails of Florida Pomacea spp. (Gastropoda: Ampullariidae) <https://www.egovlink.com/public_documents300/winterhaven/published_documents/Winter%20Haven/Lakes/Backyard%20Wildlife/Animal%20Information/Snails%20and%20Slugs/Applesnails%20of%20Florida%20IN59800.pdf>

This article incorporates public domain text from:
 A. Benson. 2008. Pomacea paludosa. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. <https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/FactSheet.asp?speciesID=985> Revision Date: 4/24/2006

Further reading
 McClary, A. 1962. Surface inspiration and ciliary feeding in Pomacea paludosa (Prosobranchia: Mesogastropoda: Ampullariidae). Malacologia, 2(1): 87-104.
 Philip C. Darby, Robert E. Bennetts, Jason D. Croop, Patricia L. Valentine-Darby and Wiley M. Kitchens A Comparison of Sampling Techniques for Quantifying Abundance of the Florida Apple Snail (Pomacea Paludosa Say). J. Moll. Stud. (1999), 65, 195-208.
 Philip C. Darby, Patricia L. Valentine-Darby, H. Franklin Percival & Wiley M. Kitchens. Collecting Florida applesnails (Pomacea paludosa) from wetland habitats using funnel traps. Wetlands. Volume 21, Issue 2 (June 2001): 308–311.
 Robert B.E. Shuford III, Paul V. McCormick & Jennifer Magson. Habitat related growth of juvenile Florida applesnails (Pomacea paludosa). Florida Scientist. Volume 68, Issue 1 (March 2005): 11–19.
 Bruce Sharfstein & Alan D. Steinman. Growth and survival of the Florida apple snail (Pomacea paludosa) fed 3 naturally occurring macrophyte assemblages. Journal of the North American Benthological Society, Volume 20, Issue 1 (March 2001): 84–95.
 Posch H., Garr A. L. & Reynolds E. (2013). "The presence of an exotic snail, Pomacea maculata, inhibits growth of juvenile Florida apple snails, Pomacea paludosa". Journal of Molluscan Studies 79(4): 383-385. .
Applesnails of Florida on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
 The applesnails of Florida
 Apple Snail Habitat Suitability Index
 https://web.archive.org/web/20060923125401/http://nis.gsmfc.org/nis_factsheet.php?toc_id=155
 http://www.applesnail.net/content/species/pomacea_paludosa.htm

paludosa
Gastropods described in 1829


Harnas Wildlife Foundation is an organization located in Namibia, approximately 300 km east of the capital Windhoek. Harnas is one of the few wildlife orphanages and medical centers in the world to take in abused, injured, and captured wild animals from Namibia, Botswana, and southern African nations, saving hundreds of animals per year.
Its mission is to protect life; done through the responsible and effective management, regulation and understanding of the resources necessary for this task.

History
Harnas Wildlife Foundation has been on the forefront of nature conservation and wildlife tourism for over 34 years.
The farm was originally fenced as a cattle farm and acted as such as main source of income for its residents until fairly recently. It all started in 1978 when Nick and Marieta van der Merwe saved an abused vervet monkey from its captors for five Rand and some bread.

This monkey was the beginning of a long line of animals that found refuge at their farm, Harnas. Shortly thereafter a zoo in South Africa went defunct and its lions were given into the care of the Van der Merwe family. To cover the ever-increasing costs of food, new enclosures and medical treatment, all of which the family had financed until then through profits from their cattle, Harnas opened its doors to visitors and contributors.

This wildlife refuge became a reality, and over the years expanded to become a major role player in conservation and wildlife campaigns. The site now comprises enclosures, voluntary headquarters, safari tours, guest farm and a huge surrounding conservation land around the main hub. Once fit and able to leave the main enclosures, the previously injured and traumatized animals are set free in this wilderness, to roam as they would in their natural habitat.

Locations
Harnas Wildlife Foundation currently operates from Gobabis area.

Harnas Gobabis

Harnas Gobabis is the main contact point between man and animal. The original farm and location for all operations and projects like the animal clinic, Cheeky Cheetah Day-care centre, adult literacy project, a running lodge, lapa and various research stations. There are various animal enclosures, free roaming game camps and grazing camps for domesticated animals such as cattle and goats. The farm is roughly 10 000 hectares big and situated in the central Kalahari, a region that is mostly flat savannah locally known as sand-veld.

Animals
There are many types of animals that take refuge at Harnas and a population of feral animals on site.

This overview is only one indication of the diversity of animals at Harnas Wildlife Foundation and is not a complete list.

Harnas Lifeline Project
This is the primary "soft release" area, also used to gather vital information on semi-wild animals, in a natural environment.

Adult literacy program
At Harnas Wildlife Foundation, 90% of the employees are people from the San community and through the years we have realized that it is not only the animals that needs to be taken care of. We have established an adult literacy program to teach members of the San community basic useful life and job skills so that no matter where they may migrate to, they are educated to take care of themselves. The program is open to any member of the community and lasts around 6 months. Woman learn skills in arts and crafts, jewellery making, housework and needlework and men are equipped with knowledge of welding, building and woodwork. Upon completion each member receives a certificate showing their ability in the specific training area and stating their completion of the course.

Cheeky Cheetah Kids Project
When the Van Der Merwe family were looking for schools for their own children, they realized that they had the ability to provide the basic education and general skills for not only their own, but for many of the San people that they employ. The Cheeky Cheetah day care center was established to provide the children day care with the necessary education, food and to equip them with the basic knowledge to, when they reach the right age, be able to adapt and attend a primary school.
After 5 years the school consists of a fully furnished school with of one big classroom, showers, toilets, and an outdoor play area.
Children are further helped by being placed in public schools where they are continuously supported through financial support; paying of school, hostel and other fees, as well as clothing, food and other needs.

International patronage
The international patron of Harnas Wildlife Foundation is Angelina Jolie.

References

External links
Hannamibia.com
Harnas.org

Nature conservation in Namibia


Chicagoland Golf is an independent regional golf newspaper serving the public golfers in Northern Illinois, Southeast Wisconsin and Northeast Indiana since 1989, when it was founded by the journalist Phil Kosin, who died in 2009.

Chicagoland Golf is published in the United States 7 times per year by Chicagoland Golf Media, Inc. and covers recreational/amateur golf from Juniors, High School, College and Professional local golf. Distribution is through golf courses and golf retailers and is complimentary. It appears once in March/April, May, June, July, August, September and Fall/October.

Val Russell relaunched the paper as "Chicago Area Golf" in the spring of 2010, publishing six issues in 2010 and seven issues, as shown above, each year since. Val Russell is a nationally recognized magazine Audience Development expert and had his own consulting firm for more than 10 years named "Russell Consulting, Inc." He has worked for several publishers over his more than 40-year career including 17 years with the Audit Bureau of Circulations Now AAM.

Renamed Chicagoland Golf in the Spring of 2013 under the publishing company name of "Chicagoland Golf Media, Inc." established in May 2010.

Notable contributors
 Jack Berry, freelance golf writer

References

Sports newspapers published in the United States
Newspapers published in Chicago


The Walla Walla Union-Bulletin (U-B) is a newspaper based in Walla Walla, Washington and owned by the Seattle Times Company. It publishes daily except Saturdays.

History

The modern Union-Bulletin can trace its origins to the Washington Statesman, the city's first newspaper, founded in September 1861. It began publishing weekly editions on November 29, 1861, using an old printing press acquired from the Oregon Statesman in Salem by brothers William Smith and R. B. Smith and a press from The Oregonian purchased by Major Raymond R. Rees and Nemiah Northrop. The newspaper was released on Fridays, changed its name to Walla Walla Statesman in 1864. The paper's name was changed again to the Statesman in 1878, and it became the region's first daily newspaper.

The Walla Walla Union was founded in 1868 as a Republican newspaper, to counter the Statesman'''s Democratic lean, and began publishing in April 1869 as a weekly and in 1881 as a daily. The Union was merged with the Statesman in 1907, coming under the common ownership of Washington Printing and Book Publishing Company.

The Walla Walla Bulletin began publication on February 12, 1906, becoming the third largest newspaper in the Walla Walla region. The Bulletin and Union were merged into the Union-Bulletin by owner John G. Kelly in 1934, who had acquired the Bulletin in 1910. The Union-Bulletin was operated as an independent newspaper until it was acquired by The Seattle Times Company on October 1, 1971.

Until February 2020, the newspaper was managed by a local publisher. A local executive team was formed in August to manage the Union-Bulletin'' following the departure of editor Brian Hunt, under the leadership of senior editor Dian Ver Valen.

References

Union-Bulletin
Walla Walla, Washington
Companies based in Walla Walla County, Washington


San Francisco del Oro is one of the 67 municipalities of Chihuahua in northern Mexico. The municipal seat lies at San Francisco del Oro Municipality. The municipality, one of the smallest in Chihuahua, covers an area of 695.5 km².

Demography
As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 4,753, which is a decrease from the 2005 population of 4,838.

As of 2010, the municipality of San Francisco del Oro had a population of 4,249. The municipality has 97 localities, none of which has a population over 1,000.

References

Municipalities of Chihuahua (state)


Hans Baumann (born 28 March 1910) was an Austrian cross-country and Nordic combined skier who competed in the 1936 Winter Olympics. He was a member of the Austrian relay team which finished eighth in the 4×10 km relay competition. In the Nordic combined event, he finished 17th place.

References

1909 births
Year of death missing
Austrian male Nordic combined skiers
Austrian male cross-country skiers
Olympic Nordic combined skiers for Austria
Olympic cross-country skiers for Austria
Nordic combined skiers at the 1936 Winter Olympics
Cross-country skiers at the 1936 Winter Olympics
20th-century Austrian people


The Sandman is a children's book written by Ralph Fletcher and illustrated by Richard Cowdrey.  It was first published in 2008 by Henry Holt and Company.

Plot summary
Tor is an inches tall man who can not fall asleep no matter what he tries.  He discovers a dragon scale while walking in the woods.  He learns that the powder made by grinding the scale induces sleep.  He then travels sprinkling the sand into the eyes of sleepless children.

Reception
Ian Chipman in his review for Booklist said "Fletcher’s spin on the classic character responsible for suddenly leaden lids is helped along by Cowdry’s quaint, deeply hued artwork."  He described the book as "charming and comforting bedtime tale."  Kirkus Reviews said "Fletcher's fantasy narrative fleshes out the familiar trope by combining worlds of fairy-tale-forest settings with average household bedtime environments.  Cowdrey's deeply colored acrylics of flora, fauna, one frightfully greenish and nostril-smoking dragon, workshop scenes and angelically dozing children alternate with black-and-white images of a cherubic dimple-chinned bald and white mustachioed tiny gentleman hard at work."  Lauralyn Persson in her review for School Library Journal said "Fletcher's smoothly written story flows in a thoroughly plausible way and is beautifully served by Cowdrey's vibrant acrylic paintings.  All in all, this is a compelling story with pictures that add drama, charm, and atmosphere."

Notes

External links

Ralph Fletcher's website
Richard Cowdrey's website

2008 children's books
American picture books
Picture books by Ralph Fletcher
Henry Holt and Company books
Sandman


Bute Street may refer to:

 Bute Street, Cardiff
 Bute Street, Hong Kong


Søren Fjordback Søndergaard (born 17 September 1966 in Nørager, Nordjylland) is a Danish former professional boxer. As an Amateur he won the bronze medal at the 1987 European Championships in Turin, Italy in the Men's Light Welterweight (– 63.5 kg) division. Nicknamed Mr. Perfect he represented his native country at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, losing in the first round to eventual gold medalist Vyacheslav Yanovskiy.

1988 Olympic results
Below is the record of Soren Sondergaard, a Danish Light welterweight boxer who competed at the 1988 Seoul Olympics:

 Round of 64: lost to Vyacheslav Yanovskiy (Soviet Union) referee stopped contest in the second round

Professional career
During his professional career he held the European Super Lightweight Title and the International Boxing Council Super Lightweight and Welterweight Titles. He recorded victories over world champions Michele Piccirillo, Livingstone Bramble and Carlos Baldomir, his only professional loss coming in a European title fight with future WBA World Super-Lightweight champion Khalid Rahilou.

References
sports-reference

1966 births
Living people
Light-welterweight boxers
Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Olympic boxers for Denmark
Danish male boxers
People from Rebild Municipality
Sportspeople from the North Jutland Region


Miron Raţiu (July 8, 1929, in Dobra - November 23, 2011, in Oradea) was a Romanian conductor and music educator.

He studied with Sergiu Celibidache.

His repertoire spans from Johann Sebastian Bach to Witold Lutosławski, he has recorded Michael Haydn's only minor-key symphony.

He conducted the Philharmonic Orchestra of Oradea for more than 40 years, and also conducted other orchestras in Romania and throughout Europe.

His daughter, Anca Rațiu, is violinist with the Barcelona Symphony Orchestra.

References

1929 births
2011 deaths


Francesca's Kitchen is a novel by Peter Pezzelli. It was published in trade paperback by Kensington Publishing in 2006.

Reception
A Publishers Weekly review says, "Most of the action happens in kitchens: home cooking, good pasta and traditional family values conquer all in this amusing and touching story". An Albuquerque Journal review says, "The glowing characters, with their refreshingly human fears and insecurities, are fun and familiar, capturing the everyday emotions of regular people". Sheri Melnick, of Romantic Times, reviewed the book saying, "Filled with warmth and humor, Pezzelli's latest novel entices. Readers won't want to put down this richly detailed novel as two very different women find a common bond and develop a highly rewarding relationship. And the scrumptious recipes at the end are a fine addition to the captivating conclusion".

References

2006 American novels


Santa Bárbara is one of the 67 municipalities of Chihuahua, in northern Mexico. The municipal seat lies at Santa Bárbara. The municipality, one of the smallest in Chihuahua, covers an area of 424.2 km2.

As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 10,427, up from 10,120 as of 2005.

As of 2010, the city of Santa Bárbara had a population of 8,765. Other than the city of Santa Bárbara, the municipality had 105 localities, none of which had a population over 1,000.

Geography

Towns and villages
The municipality has 53 localities. The largest are:

References

Municipalities of Chihuahua (state)


Computational thinking (CT) refers to the thought processes involved in formulating problems so their solutions can be represented as computational steps and algorithms.  In education, CT is a set of problem-solving methods that involve expressing problems and their solutions in ways that a computer could also execute.  It involves automation of processes, but also using computing to explore, analyze, and understand processes (natural and artificial).

History

The history of computational thinking as a concept dates back at least to the 1950s but most ideas are much older. Computational thinking involves ideas like abstraction, data representation, and logically organizing data, which are also prevalent in other kinds of thinking, such as scientific thinking, engineering thinking, systems thinking, design thinking, model-based thinking, and the like. Neither the idea nor the term are recent: Preceded by terms like algorithmizing, procedural thinking, algorithmic thinking, and computational literacy by computing pioneers like Alan Perlis and Donald Knuth, the term computational thinking was first used by Seymour Papert in 1980 and again in 1996. Computational thinking can be used to algorithmically solve complicated problems of scale, and is often used to realize large improvements in efficiency.

The phrase computational thinking was brought to the forefront of the computer science education community in 2006 as a result of a Communications of the ACM essay on the subject by Jeannette Wing. The essay suggested that thinking computationally was a fundamental skill for everyone, not just computer scientists, and argued for the importance of integrating computational ideas into other subjects in school.  The essay also said that by learning computational thinking, children will be better in many everyday tasks—as examples, the essay gave packing one's backpack, finding one's lost mittens, and knowing when to stop renting and buying instead.  The continuum of computational thinking questions in education ranges from K–9 computing for children to professional and continuing education, where the challenge is how to communicate deep principles, maxims, and ways of thinking between experts.

For the first ten years computational thinking was a US-centered movement, and still today that early focus is seen in the field's research.  The field's most cited articles and most cited people were active in the early US CT wave, and the field's most active researcher networks are US-based.  Dominated by US and European researchers, it is unclear to what extent can the field's predominantly Western body of research literature cater to the needs of students in other cultural groups. An ongoing effort to globalize effective thinking skills in everyday life is emerging in the Prolog community, whose Prolog Education Committee, sponsored by the  Association for Logic Programming   has the mission of "making Computational and Logical Thinking through Prolog and its successors a core subject in educational curricula and beyond, worldwide".

Characteristics

The characteristics that define computational thinking are decomposition, pattern recognition / data representation, generalization/abstraction, and algorithms. By decomposing a problem, identifying the variables involved using data representation, and creating algorithms, a generic solution results. The generic solution is a generalization or abstraction that can be used to solve a multitude of variations of the initial problem.

Another characterization of computational thinking is the "three As" iterative process based on three stages:
 Abstraction: Problem formulation;
 Automation: Solution expression;
 Analysis: Solution execution and evaluation.

Connection to the "four Cs"

The four Cs of 21st-century learning are communication, critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity. The fifth C could be computational thinking which entails the capability to resolve problems algorithmically and logically. It includes tools that produce models and visualize data. Grover describes how computational thinking is applicable across subjects beyond science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) which include the social sciences and language arts.

Since its inception, the 4 Cs have gradually gained acceptance as important elements of many school syllabi. This development triggered a modification in platforms and directions such as inquiry, project-based, and more profound learning across all K–12 levels. Many countries have introduced computer thinking to all students. The United Kingdom has CT in its national curriculum since 2012. Singapore calls CT "national capability". Other nations like Australia, China, Korea, and New Zealand embarked on massive efforts to introduce computational thinking in schools. In the United States, President Barack Obama created this program, Computer Science for All to empower this generation of students in America with the proper computer science proficiency required to flourish in a digital economy. Computational thinking means thinking or solving problems like computer scientists. CT refers to thought processes required in understanding problems and formulating solutions. CT involves logic, assessment, patterns, automation, and generalization. Career readiness can be integrated into academic environments in multiple ways.

The "algoRithms" part of CT has also been referred to as the "fourth R", where the others are Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic.

In K–12 education

Similar to Seymour Papert, Alan Perlis, and Marvin Minsky before, Jeannette Wing envisioned computational thinking becoming an essential part of every child's education. However, integrating computational thinking into the K–12 curriculum and computer science education has faced several challenges including the agreement on the definition of computational thinking, how to assess children's development in it, and how to distinguish it from other similar "thinking" like systems thinking, design thinking, and engineering thinking.  Currently, computational thinking is broadly defined as a set of cognitive skills and problem solving processes that include (but are not limited to) the following characteristics (but there are arguments that few, if any, of them belong to computing specifically, instead of being principles in many fields of science and engineering)

 Using abstractions and pattern recognition to represent the problem in new and different ways
 Logically organizing and analyzing data
 Breaking the problem down into smaller parts
 Approaching the problem using programmatic thinking techniques such as iteration, symbolic representation, and logical operations
 Reformulating the problem into a series of ordered steps (algorithmic thinking)
 Identifying, analyzing, and implementing possible solutions with the goal of achieving the most efficient and effective combination of steps and resources
 Generalizing this problem-solving process to a wide variety of problems

Current integration of computational thinking into the K–12 curriculum comes in two forms: in computer science classes directly or through the use and measure of computational thinking techniques in other subjects. Teachers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) focused classrooms that include computational thinking, allow students to practice problem-solving skills such as trial and error. Valerie Barr and Chris Stephenson describe computational thinking patterns across disciplines in a 2011 ACM Inroads article However Conrad Wolfram has argued that computational thinking should be taught as a distinct subject.

There are online institutions that provide a curriculum, and other related resources, to build and strengthen pre-college students with computational thinking, analysis and problem-solving.

Center for Computational Thinking

Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh has a Center for Computational Thinking. The Center's major activity is conducting PROBEs or PROBlem-oriented Explorations. These PROBEs are experiments that apply novel computing concepts to problems to show the value of computational thinking. A PROBE experiment is generally a collaboration between a computer scientist and an expert in the field to be studied. The experiment typically runs for a year. In general, a PROBE will seek to find a solution for a broadly applicable problem and avoid narrowly focused issues. Some examples of PROBE experiments are optimal kidney transplant logistics and how to create drugs that do not breed drug-resistant viruses.

Criticism

The concept of computational thinking has been criticized as too vague, as it's rarely made clear how it is different from other forms of thought. The inclination among computer scientists to force computational solutions upon other fields has been called "computational chauvinism". Some computer scientists worry about the promotion of computational thinking as a substitute for a broader computer science education, as computational thinking represents just one small part of the field. Others worry that the emphasis on computational thinking encourages computer scientists to think too narrowly about the problems they can solve, thus avoiding the social, ethical and environmental implications of the technology they create. In addition, as nearly all CT research is done in the US and Europe, it is not certain how well those educational ideas work in other cultural contexts.

A 2019 paper argues that the term "computational thinking" (CT) should be used mainly as a shorthand to convey the educational value of computer science, hence the need of teaching it in school. The strategic goal is to have computer science recognized in school as an autonomous scientific subject more than trying to identify "body of knowledge" or "assessment methods" for CT. Particularly important is to stress the fact that the scientific novelty associated with CT is the shift from the "problem solving" of mathematics to the "having problem solved" of computer science. Without the "effective agent", who automatically executes the instructions received to solve the problem, there would be no computer science, but just mathematics. Another criticism in the same paper is that focusing on "problem solving" is too narrow, since "solving a problem is just an instance of a situation where one wants to reach a specified goal". The paper therefore generalizes the original definitions by Cuny, Snyder, and Wing and Aho as follows: "Computational thinking is the thought processes involved in modeling a situation and specifying the ways an information-processing agent can effectively operate within it to reach an externally specified (set of) goal(s)."

Many definitions of CT describe it only at skill level because the momentum behind its growth comes from its promise to boost STEM education. And, the latest movement in STEM education is based on suggestions (by learning theories) that we teach students experts' habits of mind. So, whether it is computational thinking, scientific thinking, or engineering thinking, the motivation is the same and the challenge is also the same: teaching experts' habits of mind to novices is inherently problematic because of the prerequisite content knowledge and practice skills needed to engage them in the same thinking processes as the experts. Only when we link the experts' habits of mind to fundamental cognitive processes can we then narrow their skill-sets down to more basic competencies that can be taught to novices. There have been only a few studies that actually address the cognitive essence of CT. Among those, Yasar (Communications of ACM, Vol. 61, No. 7, July 2018)   describes CT as thinking that is generated/facilitated by a computational device, be it biological or electronic. Accordingly, everyone employs CT, not just computer scientists, and it can be improved via education and experience.

See also
 Computer-based math
 Computational Intelligence
 Artificial Intelligence
 Decision making
 Machine learning
 Data Science
 Computational literacy

References

Further reading

Problem solving skills
Computational fields of study
Theories of deduction
Cognition
Computational science


Kati Apo Mena (Greek: Κάτι Από ΄Μένα; English: Something From Me) is the sixth studio album by Greek singer Sakis Rouvas, released on 3 December 1998. The album is largely written by Giorgos Theofanous. This was Rouvas' first album with Minos EMI group and gained success, becoming gold two months after its release.

Album information

Producers and collaborators
This was Rouvas' first album produced entirely by Vangelis Yannopoulos.  It was also the first Rouvas' album released by Minos-Emi.  Music was almost entirely written by composer Giorgos Theofanous. Folk-rock singer Stelios Rokkos also contributed four tracks to the album while Vangelis Konstantinidis also penned several tracks, as well as Natalia Germanou and Nikos Gritsis.

Track listing

Release history

Singles
"Theleis I Den Theleis"
The only CD single from the album : it was released in late May 1998 along with three other songs that appeared on the album.

"I Kardia Mou"
The leading single from the album, released in December.

"Den Ehi Sidera I Kardia Sou"
 The third single from the album was released in early 1999.

"Ipirhes Panda"
The final single from the album, released in Spring 1999.

Music videos
Four of the songs from the album were made into videos:
"Theleis I Den Theleis" (Director: Giorgos Lanthimos)
"I Kardia Mou" (Director: Giorgos Lanthimos)
"Den Ehi Sidera I Kardia Sou" (Director: Giorgos Lanthimos)
"Ipirhes Panda" (Director: Giorgos Lanthimos)

External links
Sakis Rouvas' official website
IFPI Greece official website with Greek charts

References

1998 albums
Greek-language albums
Minos EMI albums
Sakis Rouvas albums


Naser may refer to:

Places
 Naser (river), better known as Nežárka, a river in South Bohemia, Czech Republic
 Naser, Khuzestan, a village in Khuzestan Province, Iran
 Naser, South Khorasan, a village in South Khorasan Province, Iran

Other
 Naser (name), name list
 Salwa Eid Naser (born 1998), Bahraini track sprinter
 Al Naser Sporting Club, a Kuwaiti professional football club

See also
Nasr (disambiguation)
Nasser (disambiguation)
Nassar, Naseer, Nasir, alternative transliterations of the name


The Hinchinbrook Channel is a channel between the Australian mainland and Hinchinbrook Island. It runs for 44 km between Oyster Point, just south of Cardwell, and Lucinda in Far North Queensland. The Aboriginal name for the channel is Bolan Milbirmi. The Herbert River flows into the channel's southern point.  The channel includes 164 km2 of mangrove swamps and 109 km2 of open water.

The Hinchinbrook Channel is protected within the Hinchinbrook Island National Park, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. Dugong feed and seek habitat in the sea grass patches along the channel seafloor.  The channel is bordered by extensive, deltaic mangrove forests. The northern end resembles a bay, more than a narrow channel, with a width of 4 km.

The residence time of the channel is roughly 50 days. This long period is due to the lack of mixing of water in creeks and mangrove forests with offshore water. There is little to no current in the channel.

See also

Goold Island National Park

References

Coastline of Queensland
Channels of Australia
Far North Queensland


"The Female of the Species" is a poem by Rudyard Kipling originally published in 1911. Its title and refrain ("The female of the species is more deadly than the male.") have inspired the titles of numerous subsequent works (see The Female of the Species (disambiguation)).

Summary
Kipling begins the poem by illustrating the greater deadliness of female bears and cobras compared to their male counterparts, and by stating that early Jesuit missionaries to North America were more frightened of Native women than male warriors. He continues by giving his thoughts on how male and female humans differ and why the female "must be deadlier than the male," saying that females can be single-minded - often to the point of being dangerous - because they were solely made for child-rearing. An example is contained in these lines: "She who faces Death by torture for each life beneath her breast may not deal in doubt or pity, must not swerve for fact or jest. These be purely male diversions, not in these her honour dwells."

Kipling's description of the stubborn nature of women that makes them good mothers and wives implies that they are unsuitable to hold leadership positions in the broader community. Kipling writes that "man, the coward" has a "timid heart," and so may choose to exclude women from leadership positions out of foolishness ("fear, or foolishness, impels him").

References in other media
"The Female of the Species" and its refrain have been referenced in numerous other works:
 In 1928, the Bulldog Drummond story "The Female of the Species" may have lifted the title. This story was adapted as the 1967 European spy movie Deadlier Than the Male. Scott Walker of The Walker Brothers wrote and performed the accompanying musical theme and scored a minor hit on the UK Singles Chart in 1966.
 A 1946 novel by James Hadley Chase was titled More Deadly Than The Male. Another novel, written by Mindy McGinnis, is titled “The Female of the Species.”
 In 1984, Off Centaur Publications released an audio tape cassette album titled The Horse-Tamer's Daughter, which featured a song based on the poem set to music by Leslie Fish and performed by Julia Ecklar. In 1998, the song was nominated for a Pegasus Award for "Best Adaptation" by a ballot of science fiction and fantasy fans, conducted by the committee of the annual  Ohio Valley Filk Fest (OVFF), a filk music convention.
 It is referenced by the character of Col. Mustard, played by Martin Mull, in the 1985 film Clue.
 It seems to be referred to by the abbreviated form "The F of the S is much more D than the M" in episode 3 of series 1 of the TV series "Jeeves and Wooster".
 In 1996, the English pop group Space released "Female of the Species".
 The title was lifted in 2006 for Joanna Murray-Smith's satirical play The Female of the Species.
 The title of the poem is also used as the name of a character in Garth Ennis' 2006 comic book The Boys. As a possible other reference to Kipling's work, the character is depicted as a feral child

References

Poetry by Rudyard Kipling


Oil tankers generally have from 8 to 12 tanks. Each tank is split into two or three independent compartments by fore-and-aft bulkheads.  The tanks are numbered with tank one being the forwardmost.  Individual compartments are referred to by the tank number and the athwartships position, such as "one port", "three starboard", or "six center."

A cofferdam is a small space left open between two bulkheads, to give protection from heat, fire, or collision.  Tankers generally have cofferdams forward and aft of the cargo tanks, and sometimes between individual tanks.  A pumproom houses all the pumps connected to a tanker's cargo lines.  Some larger tankers have two pumprooms.  A pumproom generally spans the total breadth of the ship.

Hull designs
A major component of tanker architecture is the design of the hull or outer structure. A tanker with a single outer shell between the product and the ocean is said to be single-hulled.  Most newer tankers are double-hulled, with an extra space between the hull and the storage tanks.  Hybrid designs such as double-bottom and double-sided combine aspects of single and double-hull designs.   All single-hulled tankers have been phased out as of 2015, in accordance with amendments to Annex I of the MARPOL Convention. IMO distinguishes three categories of tankers that will be phased out:

 Category 1 - oil tankers of 20,000 tonnes deadweight and above carrying crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil or lubricating oil as cargo, and of 30,000 tonnes deadweight and above carrying other oils, which do not comply with the requirements for protectively located segregated ballast tanks (commonly known as Pre-MARPOL tankers)
 Category 2 - as category 1, but complying with protectively located segregated ballast tank requirements (MARPOL tankers), and
 Category 3 - oil tankers of 5,000 tonnes deadweight and above but less than the tonnage specified for Category 1 and 2 tankers

Phased out types

PreMARPOL tanker
Category 1 tankers have been phased out in 2005. These so-called preMARPOL tankers were single hull only with some segregated ballast tanks. Around one third of the cargo tanks also acted as ballast tanks. During ballast discharge oil was released into the environment. These tankers did not extend high above the water line, allowing Hydrostatically Balanced Loading (HBL), so relatively little oil was spilled in case of bottom damage.

MARPOL tanker
Category 2 tankers were used for a number of years and were planned to be phased out by 2010 at the latest, depending on the year of delivery. With MARPOL tankers, it is not allowed to use ballast tanks as cargo tanks. This has reduced operational spillage drastically. The downside is designs based on MARPOL spill more oil when damaged than a preMARPOL tankers. This is due to several factors:
as ballast tanks could not be used as cargo tanks anymore, cargo space was lost. To compensate for this, tanks were made taller, which means that more oil is spilled before hydrostatic balance is reached,
a MARPOL rule is that 30 percent of the side shell in way of the tanks of a MARPOL tanker should be non-cargo. The cheapest way to reach this, is by making these tanks as narrow as possible. This means that centre tanks became extremely large, so in case of damage, the amount of spillage increased,
in a preMARPOL tanker ballast tanks were also filled with inert gas, as these were also used as cargo tanks, which reduced corrosion. Ballast tanks of MARPOL tankers are not protective this way, causing structural failure by corrosion on the Erika, Castor and Prestige,
the painted area tripled, increasing required maintenance and corrosion in case this maintenance is done poorly.

Category 3
These small tankers will also be phased out by 2010.

New types
After the Exxon Valdez disaster, public outcry became so strong that authorities were forced to come with preventive measures. Especially the double hull design was favoured and although this is not the best design in all cases, because of OPA 90, this is the only design currently in operation.

Double hull

OPA 90 caused the phasing out of single hull tankers in the United States between 1997 and 2000 — apart from tankers lightering off the coast, which are allowed to be single hull until 2015. In this design, cargo tanks are protected by ballast tanks of at least 2 metres. As long as this barrier is not breached, there will be no spillage.

In 1998, the Marine Board of the National Academy of Sciences conducted a survey of industry experts regarding the pros and cons of double-hull design.  Some of the advantages of the double-hull design that were mentioned include ease of ballasting in emergency situations, reduced practice of saltwater ballasting in cargo tanks decreases corrosion, increased environmental protection, cargo discharge is quicker, more complete and easier, tank washing is more efficient, and better protection in low-impact collisions and grounding.

The same report lists the following as some drawbacks to the double-hull design, including more expensive to build,  higher canal and port expenses,  ballast tank ventilation difficult,  ballast tanks need continual monitoring and maintenance,  increased transverse free surface,  more surfaces to maintain,  explosion risk in double-hull spaces if vapor detection system not fitted,  cleaning mud from ballast spaces a bigger problem.

In all, double-hull tankers are said to be safer than a single-hull in a grounding incident, especially when the shore is not very rocky.<ref>Joem K. Paik and Tak K. Lee, Damage and Residual Strength of Double-Hull Tankers in Grounding , International Journal of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Vol. 5, No. 4, December 1995.</ref> The safety benefits are less clear on larger vessels and in cases of high speed impact.

Other downsides of this design are:
as small leakages from cargo tanks do not spill in sea, they can go unnoticed for a long time. This can cause an explosive mixture in ballast tanks, as there is no requirement to connect these to the IG system,
the painted area is three times as large as on a MARPOL tanker, and almost tenfold compared to a preMARPOL tanker.

Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea and spills from a double-hull tanker can be significantly higher than designs like the Mid-Deck Tanker, the Coulombi Egg Tanker and even a pre-MARPOL tanker, as the last one has a lower oil column and reaches hydrostatic balance sooner.

 Mid-Deck Oil Tanker

A Mid-Deck Tanker is a tanker design, which includes an additional deck intended to limit spills if the tanker is damaged. The extra deck is placed at about the middle of the draft of the ship.

With double hull tankers, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea. In grounding events of this type, a mid-deck design overcomes this by eliminating the double-bottom compartments that are void with air. Since the density of seawater is greater than that of oil, water comes into the tanks instead of oil escaping out, and rather than spilling, oil is vented upwards into overflow tanks.

If the Exxon Valdez had been a Mid-Deck ship, she would have spilled very little oil.

 Coulombi Egg Tanker

A variation on the Mid-Deck Tanker is the Coulombi Egg Tanker, which was approved by IMO as an alternative to the double hull concept. The design consists of a series of centre and wing tanks that are divided by horizontal bulkheads. The upper wing tanks form ballast tanks and act as emergency receiver tanks for cargo should the lower tanks be fractured. The lower tanks are connected to these ballast tanks by non-return valves. The United States Coast Guard does not allow this design to enter US waters, effectively preventing it from being built.

When a lower tank is damaged, the incoming sea water pushes the oil in the damaged tank up into the ballast tank. Because of the hydrostatic pressure, there is an automatic transfer out of the damaged tank. The double-hull design is aimed at the probability of zero outflow. In low energy casualties where only the outside hull is penetrated, this will be the case. However, in high energy casualties both hulls are penetrated. As the tanks of a double hull tanker are larger than those of MARPOL-tankers and preMARPOL-tankers and the height of the cargo above the water line is higher, the resulting spill can be much larger than these single hull designs. In the Coulombi Egg design spillage is greatly reduced, possibly to zero.

Where a double hull VLCC has a ballast tank coated area of about 225,000 m³, in a Coulombi Egg tanker this area is reduced to 66,000 m³. This reduces maintenance and corrosion risks, which otherwise may result in structural failure.

Inert gas system
An oil tanker's inert gas system is one of the most important parts of its design.  Fuel oil itself is very difficult to ignite, however its hydrocarbon vapors are explosive when mixed with air in certain concentrations. The purpose of the system is to create an atmosphere inside tanks in which the hydrocarbon oil vapors cannot burn.

As inert gas is introduced into a mixture of hydrocarbon vapors and air, it increases the lower flammable limit or lowest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited.  At the same time it decreases the upper flammable limit or highest concentration at which the vapors can be ignited.  When the total concentration of oxygen in the tank reaches about 11%, the upper and lower flammable limits converge and the flammable range disappears.

Inert gas systems deliver air with an oxygen concentration of less than 5% by volume.  As a tank is pumped out, it's filled with inert gas and kept in this safe state until the next cargo is loaded.  The exception is in cases when the tank must be entered.  Safely gas-freeing a tank is accomplished by purging hydrocarbon vapors with inert gas until the hydrocarbon concentration inside the tank is under about 1%.  Thus, as air replaces the inert gas, the concentration cannot rise to the lower flammable limit and is safe.

See also

List of oil spills
List of replenishment ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
List of tankers
List of Type T2 tankers
Marine transfer operations
Hydraulic tanker

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Bill Willis. SupertankersIntertanko'' - the society of International Tanker Operators
The International Maritime Organization - Tanker Safety (for double-hulls)

Arch


The Fauna Foundation is the only chimpanzee sanctuary in Canada. Located just outside Chambly, on the South Shore of Montreal, the story of Fauna started in 1990 by Gloria Grow and Dr. Richard Allan on their  farm. Later in 1997, it became the Fauna Foundation. Its primary objective, the rescue and care of chimpanzees who have been used in research, began in the wake of the shutdown of LEMSIP.

It is the first sanctuary to accept chimpanzees with HIV.

In 2012, author Andrew Westoll won the Charles Taylor Prize for his non-fiction book The Chimps of Fauna Sanctuary, detailing his encounters with the chimpanzees at the foundation.

In August 2013, chimpanzees Loulis and Tatu from the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute (CHCI) moved to the sanctuary.

Fauna Sanctuary Inc, is a registered 501(c)(3) not-for-profit charity in the United States.

References

External links
Official site

Organizations based in Montreal
Organizations established in 1997
Primate sanctuaries
Animal welfare organizations based in Canada

501(c)(3) organizations


Flip is a 1985 solo album from Nils Lofgren, longtime guitarist for Neil Young and Bruce Springsteen. The sound is typical of the style of the mid-'80s, with a heavy emphasis on the snare drum sound, Lofgren's guitar, and plenty of synthesizer. The name of the album reflects his signature trampoline 'flips' performed on stage whilst playing guitar solos.

Track listing
All tracks composed by Nils Lofgren.

 "Flip Ya Flip" – 4:11
 "Secrets in the Street" – 4:33
 "From the Heart" – 3:31
 "Delivery Night" – 3:54
 "King of the Rock" – 5:24
 "Sweet Midnight" – 6:49
 "New Holes in Old Shoes" – 4:35
 "Dreams Die Hard" – 3:34
 "Big Tears Fall" – 6:08
Later re-releases include the bonus track "Beauty and the Beast".

Personnel
Adapted from liner notes.

The Band
Nils Lofgren – vocals, guitars, keyboards
Andy Newmark – drums
Wornell Jones – bass
T. Lavitz – Oberheim PPG
Tommy Mandel – DX7, Prophet 5, Casio

Additional musicians
Paul Griffin – piano, Hammond organ
Steve Hooper Lombardeli – saxophone
Rick Valenti – harmonica, backing vocals
Devereaux Merryweather, Rudy Rubin, Tico Torres – backing vocals

Production
Produced by Lance Quinn and Nils Lofgren
Recording and mixed by Bill Scheniman
Additional engineering by Mal, assisted by Big Al Greaves, John Cianci, Paul K
Remix engineer: Ed Stasium, Right Track, NY
Flip album software by flippagemaker.com

Charts

References

1985 albums
Nils Lofgren albums


Football captains may refer to:

 Captain (association football), a team captain of an association football team
 National Football League team captains, a team captain in a National Football League team


This is a list of Danish records in swimming, which are ratified by the Danish Swimming Federation. All records were achieved in finals unless otherwise noted.

Long course (50 m)

Men

Women

Mixed relay

Short course (25 m)

Men

Women

Mixed relay

References
General
Danish Records 26 July 2023 updated
Specific

External links
Danish Swimming Federation
Danish Swimming Federation Records subpage

Denmark
Records
Swimming
Swimming


Theophilus Levett (1693–1746) was an attorney and early town clerk of Lichfield, Staffordshire, a prominent Staffordshire politician and landowner, and a member of a thriving Lichfield social and intellectual circle which included his friends Samuel Johnson, the physician Erasmus Darwin, the writer Anna Seward and the actor David Garrick, among others.

Life
Theophilus Levett was married to Mary Babington, the daughter of Zachary Babington, a lawyer, High Sheriff of Staffordshire. Levett and his wife later inherited Babington properties at Curburough, Whittington and elsewhere in Staffordshire. The Babington family had been prominent in the Lichfield Cathedral for two centuries and as local barristers. Dr. Zachary Babington, great-grandfather of barrister Zachary, was precentor of Lichfield Cathedral, as well as diocesan chancellor, and died at his estate Curborough Hall in 1613.

An early friend of Samuel Johnson's before the author went off to Oxford, Levett later assumed the mortgage on Johnson's mother's Lichfield home for £80 on 31 January 1739, when Johnson was 31 years old, a debt that Theophilus Levett's son John continued to carry after his father's death. Hardpressed for cash, Johnson and his mother had only one substantial asset after the death of his father, who had invested in a parchment-making operation that failed. Levett offered Johnson favourable terms and advanced him ready money in return for holding the mortgage, easing Johnson's financial bind. Theophilus Levett and Johnson were frequent correspondents, and they remained lifelong friends, despite Levett's occasional inquiries about overdue payments.

Theophilus Levett had St. John's House (later Yeomanry House) opposite St. John's hospital built for himself before 1732. Levett's new home "replaced a house known in 1577 as Culstubbe Hall, the home of the physician Sir John Floyer in the late 17th century," according to the Victoria County History of Staffordshire. The Levett home was demolished in 1925.

Descendants
Theophilus Levett's daughter Anne was, according to Anna Seward, the early paramour of actor David Garrick. Garrick, wrote Seward, "was the lover of her early youth. When he quitted Lichfield to become a theatrical adventurer, he had her promise to be his the instant his situation became profitable." The romance was not to be: Anna Levett ultimately married her cousin Rev. Richard Levett of West Wycombe, Buckinghamshire. The episode prompted Seward to pen her poem Portrait of Miss Levett about the fickle Lichfield beauty.

The descendants of Theophilus Levett and his wife Mary Babington went on to become prominent in Lichfield and Staffordshire for more than two centuries, serving as High Sheriffs of Staffordshire, Members of Parliament, investors in Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufactory at Birmingham, as well as rectors of the local church at Whittington and elsewhere. Several streets in today's Lichfield are named for the early town clerk and his family. The family is of Anglo-Norman descent and originated in Sussex, arriving in Staffordshire from Cheshire. Theophilus Levett was named for Theophilus Hastings, 7th Earl of Huntingdon, whose wife the Countess of Huntingdon was Levett's godmother.

Career
Theophilus Levett served as Steward (town clerk) of Lichfield from 1721 to 1746, during which time he was a prominent player in the town's political affairs, occasionally narrowly averting political disaster. In 1718 and 1721 Levett narrowly escaped prosecution for sedition after declaring his Jacobite sympathies. After Levett retracted his statements, the matter was dropped but not without a storm of controversy.

The imbroglio began in 1718 when Levett prevented the Town Clerk from saying 'amen' to the final 'God Save the King' when a brief was read in church. Levett, according to testimony, had "clapt his Hand upon the Deponent's Mouth," and the Clerk "Blubbered" to the bemusement of the congregation. Three years passed before Levett again stirred up controversy. A candidate for coroner and Town Clerk, Levett was accused of wearing white roses on 10 June, as well as drinking toasts to the Pretender "with other Gentlemen who were reconned the Jacobites of the Town."

Subsequently, all Levett's accusers retracted their statements, and he was elected to office as Town Clerk. Levett's accusers claimed they had been manipulated into testifying against him by local Whigs. One accuser, a "poor servant girl" named Alice Hayes, even claimed that one prominent local Whig gentleman had promised to marry her if she swore falsely against the aspiring politico. Shortly afterwards, a petition was sent to the King, signed by 185 Lichfield worthies, including Michael Johnson, the father of Samuel, a favour that Levett later repaid when he arranged a tutor's job for Samuel Johnson at the home of Thomas Whitby in Great Haywood, near Lichfield, after Johnson's father's death.

Because of his position, Levett became a major powerbroker in Lichfield. In a letter to the Earl of Dartmouth and the Deputy Lieutenants from 1745, Levett gives a snapshot of the influence he wielded, and showed there was little doubt about where he stood on the question of the Monarchy. "By command of Lord Gower," Levett wrote, "I beg to call a meeting for 9 October to consider whether it will be more for his Majesty's service and the ease of the county, to call out the militia or to raise some companies of foot and a troop or two of horse, by virtue of commissions to be granted by Lord Gower, with a declaration that they shall be disbanded as soon as the present troubles are over."

References

Sources
 The Levetts of Staffordshire, Dyonese Levett Haszard, Milford Hall, Staffordshire, privately printed
  Victoria County History of Staffordshire, M. W. Greenslade, (text also at British History Online)

Further reading
   (see John Levett, MP)

City and town clerks
People from Lichfield
Samuel Johnson
Local government officers in England
THeophilus
1693 births
1746 deaths
English people of Norman descent


Michael Charlton (born 1 May 1927) is an Australian-born Gold Logie winning former journalist and broadcaster, who worked for the BBC in the United Kingdom for many years.

Biography
Charlton was born in Sydney to broadcaster Conrad and Hazel Charlton, both born in New Zealand, and is the elder brother of Australian sports broadcaster and Order of Australia recipient Tony Charlton. He initially worked for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) as a presenter in current affairs and commentator for Test cricket matches, but later moved to London. He was the Australian representative on the BBC radio cricket commentary team for the 1956 Test series between England and Australia.

In 1961 he was the inaugural presenter of Four Corners, an Australian current affairs programme. In 1963 he was the recipient of the Australian Gold Logie award.

From 1962 to 1976 he was a reporter and interviewer for Panorama, reporting live from America in the aftermath of the Kennedy assassination. In July 1969 he reported live from mission control for the BBC during the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Later, during the 1980s, he presented It's Your World, a phone-in programme on the BBC World Service. He also presented the news and current affairs programme 'Newsday' on BBC2 in the 1970s.

Charlton wrote the 1986 seven-episode documentary TV series Out of the Fiery Furnace with Robert Raymond. The series traced the development of metallurgy from the Stone Age to the space age. Nuclear industry advocate Ian Hore-Lacy also worked closely with the production team. The series was shown in 20 countries.

Awards

Selected works

References

1927 births
Living people
British male journalists
Australian cricket commentators
Gold Logie winners
Articles containing video clips
Australian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Panorama (British TV programme)