The Chamberlains of the Exchequer were officials of the English Exchequer from its creation until 10 October 1826, when the offices were abolished and their duties transferred to the Auditor of the Exchequer.

History of the office
The chamberlains originated as subordinates of the master chamberlain assigned to serve in the treasury, and migrated into the Exchequer as it became established under Henry I. The office of the original chamberlains became hereditary, and these chamberlains are sometimes called chamberlains-in-fee. It soon became a regular practice for them to appoint a knight to attend in the Exchequer and carry out their duties.

As the business of the Exchequer increased, the chamberlains in fee largely ceased their personal attendance on the Exchequer in favour of their deputies. On at least one occasion, during the reign of Edward I, a chamberlain in fee (the 9th Earl of Warwick) appointed two deputies, one to attend in the Exchequer of Pleas and the other in the Exchequer of Receipt; it was more usual for one deputy to be appointed, whose principal business was in the Receipt, or lower Exchequer. As the chamberlains in fee became merged into the Crown and ceased attendance, the deputies themselves became known as Chamberlains of the Exchequer or Chamberlains of the Receipt.

Chamberlains in Fee

In the 12th century, the two hereditary positions of Chamberlains-in-Fee were held by the Maudit and Fitzgerald families.

The Maudit chamberlainship descended to the Beauchamp Earls of Warwick and passed into the hands of the Crown in 1483 upon the accession of Richard III, son-in-law of the 16th Earl. However, the office was also held by the crown from the death of Guy de Beauchamp in 1315 until the death of Edward II in 1327 because Guy's eldest son was only a young child.

The Fitzgerald chamberlainship passed by marriage to the Redvers Earls of Devon. In 1275 Isabel de Forz, the eldest daughter of Baldwin de Redvers, 6th Earl of Devon, and 8th Countess of Devon in her own right, alienated her chamberlainship-in-fee to her steward, the moneylender Adam de Stratton. He forfeited it to the Crown on her death in 1293, after which time the office-holders of this chamberlainship were appointed by patent.

Chamberlains of the Receipt
Originally the deputies of the Chamberlains in Fee.

Source:

Appointed by the senior Chamberlain in Fee (the owner of the manor of Hanslope) until 1483, when that office was absorbed by the Crown, and thereafter by the monarch.
William Rothmell c.1273–1274
William Golafre 9 April 1274 – 1278
Peter Leicester 8 November 1278 – c.1282
William FitzNigel c.1284 – 10 May 1290
William Pershore 10 May 1290 – 1309
Peter le Blount 7 April 1309 – 17 May 1315
John Golafre 18 May 1315 – 1315
William Maldon 1 September 1315 – January 1326
John Warin 20 January 1326 – 1327
John Langton 20 June 1327 – 1330
Nicholas Acton 16 April 1330 – 31 January 1337
John Culcotes 31 January 1337 – 2 February 1337 (appointed pro tem by the Barons of Exchequer)
John Houton 2 February 1337 – 1340
Roger Ledbury 17 January 1341 – 1344
John Houton 6 April 1344 – 8 March 1347
John Buckingham 16 April 1347 – 1350
William Rothwell 10 February 1350 – 1353
Richard Pirriton 29 September 1353 – 1365
John Newenham 21 February 1365 – 1369
Adam Hertington 23 November 1369 – 1376
John Hermesthorp 20 October 1376 – 1396
John Oudeby 4 September 1396 – c.1414
Nicholas Calton 14 July 1414 – c.1418
John Throckmorton c.1418 – April 1445
John Nanfan 1445–1446
John Brown 3 June 1446 – 1450
Thomas Colt 10 December 1450 – 1467
Sir Walter Wrottesley 14 June 1468 – 10 April 1473
Sir Roger Tocotes c.1474–1475
Sir John Pilkington 14 April 1477 – 29 December 1478
Sir James Tyrrell 14 January 1479 – 1485
Sir William Stanley 23 September 1485 – 1495
Sir Sampson Norton 9 February 1495 – 8 February 1517 (joint)
Sir John Heron 9 February 1495 – 15 January 1522
Sir Richard Jerningham January 1522 – 25 March 1525
Sir Henry Guildford 26 April 1525 – May 1532
Robert Radclyffe, 1st Earl of Sussex 4 June 1532 – 27 November 1542
Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton 29 January 1543 – 30 July 1550
Sir Anthony Wingfield 29 August 1550 – 15 August 1552
Sir John Cheke 12 September 1552 – 1553
Robert Strelley 2 November 1553 – 23 January 1554
Henry Stafford, 1st Baron Stafford 23 February 1554 – 30 April 1563
Sir Nicholas Throckmorton 21 June 1564 – 12 February 1571
Thomas Randolph 14 May 1572 – 8 June 1590
Thomas West, 2nd Baron De La Warr 25 September 1590 – 24 March 1603
George Young 7 June 1603 – 1606?
Sir William Killigrew 6 January 1606 – 1608
Sir Walter Cope 1 June 1608 – 1613
Sir John Poyntz 18 February 1613 – 31 January 1618 (previously John Morice)
Sir Nicholas Fortescue 26 February 1618 – 1623
Sir Edward Bashe 30 May 1625 – 12 May 1653
Edward Fauconberg 13 July 1655 – 1660
Henry Hildyard 10 July 1660 – 8 January 1675
Philip Hildyard 16 February 1675 – 1693
Charles Cole May? 1693 – 5 March 1712
Sir Simeon Stuart, 2nd Baronet 7 July 1712 – 11 August 1761
Sir Simeon Stuart, 3rd Baronet 12 December 1761 – 19 November 1779
Frederick North, 5th Earl of Guilford 13 December 1779 – 10 October 1826

Appointed by the junior Chamberlain in Fee (usually the owner of the manor of Highworth) until 1290, when that office was forfeited to the Crown, and thereafter by the monarch.
Adam de Stratton c.1273–c.1278
Henry de Stratton 22 November 1279 – 1290
William de Estden 28 January 1290 – 1201
David le Grant c.1291–1293
Richard Louth 2 May 1293 – 29 November 1297
William Brykhull 14 April 1298 – 1307
Henry Ludgershall 23 August 1307 – 28 February 1312
John Percy 16 March 1312 – 27 March 1312
Richard Crumbwell 27 March 1312 – 1317
James Spain 30 January 1317 – 1323
John Langton 6 April 1323 – 1327
Robert Swalclive 29 January 1327 – 1327
John Leicester 10 October 1327 – 1340
John Etton 6 April 1340 – 1347
Thomas Cross 18 March 1347 – 1349
Ralph Brantingham 31 January 1349 – 1365
William Mulsho 21 February 1365 – 1375
Robert Sibthorp 15 October 1375 – 1376
Robert Crull 4 October 1376 – 1377
John Bacon 28 August 1377 – 1385
Thomas Orgrave 27 January 1385 – 1386
John Lincoln 5 November 1386 – 1388
Arnold Brocas 6 January 1388 – 29 September 1395
Guy Mone 30 September 1395 – 19 February 1396
John Godmanston 25 February 1396 – 1401
John Ikelyngton 8 June 1401 – 1403
John Legburn 9 September 1403 – 1413
John Ikelyngton 30 March 1413 – 1415
John Wodehouse 6 July 1415 – 27 January 1431
John Hotoft 1 February 1431 – 29 April 1443
Richard Alrede 5 May 1443 – 11 July 1443 (removed in favor of Cromwell's claim to the reversion of the office)
Ralph de Cromwell, 3rd Baron Cromwell 11 July 1443 – 4 January 1455
Sir Thomas Neville 2 March 1456 – 1459 (joint)
Humphrey Bourchier 2 March 1456 – 1459 (joint)
Sir Richard Tunstall 19 December 1459 – c.1460
Humphrey Bourchier, 1st Baron Cromwell 4 March 1461 – 31 August 1465
John Leynton 31 August 1465 – 14 April 1471
William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings 27 June 1471 – 13 June 1483

Sir William Catesby 27 June 1483 – 25 August 1485
Sir Richard Guildford 29 September 1485 – 1487
Giles Daubeney, 1st Baron Daubeney 29 December 1487 – 21 May 1508
George Talbot, 4th Earl of Shrewsbury 14 May 1509 – 26 July 1538
Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury 26 July 1538 – 28 September 1560
George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury 28 September 1560 – 18 November 1590
Sir William More 23 November 1591 – 19 July 1600
Sir George More 23 June 1601 – 1613
Sir Nicholas Carew (Throckmorton) 11 January 1613 – February 1644
Sir Robert Hatton 3 April 1644 – 1646
Scipio le Squyer 8 February 1655 – September 1659
Sir Nicholas Steward, 1st Baronet 1 October 1660 – 15 February 1710
Sir William Ashburnham, 2nd Baronet 25 May 1710 – 4 November 1755
Sir John Miller, 4th Baronet 4 November 1755 – 19 April 1772
Montagu Burgoyne 17 July 1772 – 10 October 1826

References

External links

Exchequer offices


Víctor Manuel Miranda  (born 27 July 1982) is a Panamanian football defender.

Club career
Miranda played 10 matches for Universidad Costa Rica in the Primera Division de Costa Rica in the 2007-08 season.

He was released by Alianza in summer 2010.

International career
Miranda played for the Panama U-23 squad during qualifying for the 2004 Olympics.

Miranda has made 17 appearances for the full Panama national football team, including six qualifying matches for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. He made his debut in a friendly against Trinidad and Tobago on June 10, 2001.

His final international was a January 2005 friendly match against Ecuador.

References

External links

1982 births
Living people
People from La Chorrera District
Men's association football defenders
Panamanian men's footballers
Panama men's international footballers
San Francisco F.C. players
C.D. Árabe Unido players
Tauro F.C. players
La U Universitarios footballers
Sporting San Miguelito players
Alianza F.C. (Panama) players
Panamanian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Costa Rica


Leonhard Christian Borchgrevink Holmboe (10 October 1802 – 24 September 1887) was a Norwegian Lutheran minister and politician.

Personal life
He was born in Trondenes as the son of bailiff Jens Holmboe (1752–1804) and his wife Anna Margrethe Irgens (1766–1851). He had several brothers and sisters. His brothers Even and Hans became involved in politics, so did his nephew Jens Holmboe.

In 1828 he married Elisabeth Musæus, who hailed from Stavanger. The couple had seven sons and two daughters. Their grandson Cornelius Holmboe was Minister of Justice in 1928.

Career
He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1836, representing the constituency of Nordlands Amt. He was elected again in 1842, representing the constituency of Finmarkens Amt. (which at that time included both Finnmark and Troms)

He worked as a minister, being appointed as vicar in Buksnes in 1827, dean in Tromsøe in 1839 and vicar in Jevnaker in 1860.

He died in 1887 in Kristiania.

References

1802 births
1887 deaths
Members of the Storting
Nordland politicians
Politicians from Tromsø
Norwegian priest-politicians
19th-century Norwegian people
Leonhard Christian Borchgrevink


The 2005–06 Hong Kong Elite Youth League was the second of the Hong Kong Elite Youth League.

Fixtures and results

League table

Youth
2005-06


The Tanfoglio Combat or Standard, also known as T(A)95 or EAA Witness Steel, is a modified clone of the Czech CZ-75/CZ-85 pistol. It is made in Gardone Val Trompia near Brescia, Italy by Fratelli Tanfoglio S.N.C.

Design details

The Tanfoglio Combat/Standard models are evolved copies of the famous CZ-75 pistol design, with manufacturing improvements.  Tanfoglio introduced the firing pin block before CZ, and its operation is different from what is employed in modern CZs.  The firing pin block is kept in an upwards position, blocking the firing pin until the trigger is pulled.  This causes the pin to fall, allowing the firing pin to move.  As a result, the overall trigger operation is improved by the block (the CZ design actively pushes the block out of the way when the trigger is pulled, increasing overall weight to the pull).  The Browning-style safety is improved to allow operation with hammer cocked or down (the CZ allows the safety to operate only when the hammer is cocked). The frame is simplified by omitting the magazine brake, reducing complexity as well as simplifying machining.  The Tanfoglio Combat/Standard is offered in several variants in full sized, compact and subcompact pistol frame sizes. The steel surface finish can be military blued, polished "Wonder" finish, blue "Wonder" finish or hard chromed finish.

The Tanfoglio Combat/Standard is a short recoil operated, locked breech semi-automatic pistol that uses a Browning Hi-Power style linkless system.
All T95 Standard and Combat models have the capability of being fired single- and double-action.
The T95 Combat models feature an ambidextrous frame-mounted combat "switch" style manual safety that locks the sear so the trigger cannot be moved rearward as well as an internal firing pin block safety which stops the firing pin from traveling forward. The manual safety allows the Combat models to be carried with the hammer back, ready for use just by switching the safety off, a configuration known as condition one.
The T95 Standard models feature slide mounted hammer drop safety/decocker lever (ambidextrous as an option).
Unlike most other semi-automatic pistols, the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard slide rides inside the frame rails rather than outside, similar to the SIG P210. This provides a very tight slide-to-frame fit, very good barrel lock-up and contributes to accuracy. A new slide with a slide-mounted safety/decocker lever is available as a factory option. Most variants have fixed iron sights with three dots for increased visibility that can be adjusted for windage. The Tanfoglio Combat/Standard models feature high capacity "double stack" magazines.

Magazines
The capacity of the detachable box magazines of the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard pistols varies from chambering to chambering and the exact Tanfoglio Combat/Standard pistol variant. Technically the length of the magazine well in the handgrip dictates the shortest possible magazine length and accompanying minimum ammunition capacity. The maximum capacity of handgun magazines can however also be restricted by law in some jurisdictions.

In newer pistols the magazines are positioned  higher in the gun to get the rounds nearer to the feeding ramp. The required replacement part to position the magazine higher in older pistols that exhibit feeding problems is offered by Tanfoglio Germany for their customers without charge.

Tanfoglio and EAA offer the following magazine capacities:

There are also "semi-factory" parts and modified magazines available to optimize Tanfoglio pistols for IPSC competition and other racegun usage.

Significant differences from the CZ-75
The biggest difference between the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard and the CZ-75 is chamberings; while the CZ-75 is available in 9×19mm Parabellum, .40 S&W, and .22 Long Rifle (in its Kadet model), the Combat/Standard can interchange calibers between 9×19mm Parabellum, 9×21mm, .38 Super Auto, .40 S&W, 10mm Auto, .45 ACP and .22 Long Rifle.

To convert between chamberings requires only the removal and installation of the appropriate barrel/slide/spring ("top end") group and the insertion of the corresponding magazine. This enables a user to switch from 9 mm to .38 Super Auto or 10 mm Auto to .45 ACP—in other words, from one caliber to any of the others—in a few seconds, allowing shooters the flexibility of several calibers on one serialized frame. The top end kits are readily available, and cost less than half the price of the complete pistol. Another advantage of this capability is that each caliber change is independent of any custom trigger fitting, stocks, etc. done to the lower part of the pistol. This allows a shooter to practice with inexpensive and ubiquitous .22 Long Rifle ammunition, then swap top ends and be ready for "social carry" or competition with no change in ergonomics or feel.

Another capability that the interchangeable top end groups provide is the different slide/barrel lengths. The shorter "Compact" top end can be mounted on the Standard frame, and vice versa. Thus, the most versatile frame is the Compact, which can be used with all lengths of slide as well as both Compact and Standard magazines.

Due to its larger magazine width, the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard pistol can be somewhat uncomfortable for shooters with smaller hands but with aftermarket grips can be made to be as thin as the M1911 while carrying an extra 3 rounds in .45 ACP. Also, the steel versions are heavier than their composite counterparts and pistols made by other manufacturers, such as Heckler & Koch and Glock, although this increased weight also reduces felt recoil. Accuracy varies but out of box the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard types are similar in accuracy to other semi-automatic service pistols. There are factory accurized variants such as the Gold, Gold Match, Limited & Combat Sport versions (known as the "Witness Elite" in the United States).

Some models feature frames with integral Picatinny rails.  While such rails can be useful for mounting accessories (such as lights and lasers), they increase the size of the frame, making it impractical to use many common holsters (such as those for the M1911-type pistols) even when no accessories are mounted.

Variants
The Tanfoglio Force is produced in several variants. The ammunition capacity of the default magazine of the variant (number of cartridges in the magazine + 1 in the chamber) is expressed after the chambering between brackets.

A table is shown below for quick reference, with each model listed with its capacity in each of its chamberings.

Combat

Full-size self-defence pistol with a steel frame and a high-capacity magazine. The pistol has a "cocked and locked" safety on the frame with an automatic firing pin safety, double-action trigger, standard reversible magazine catch, standard hammer, three-dots sights, and standard magazine. The Combat is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (16), 9×21mm (16), .38 Super Auto (17), .40 S&W (14), 10mm Auto (11) and .45 ACP (10).

Combat Sport
Action shooting and self-defence-orientated full-size pistol with a steel frame and a standard-capacity magazine. The pistol has a "cocked and locked" safety on the frame with an automatic firing pin safety, double-action trigger, standard reversible magazine catch, standard hammer three-dots sights, and standard magazine. The Combat Sport is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (16), 9×21mm (16), .38 Super Auto (17), .40 S&W (12), 10mm Auto (11) and .45 ACP (10).

Compact
Self-defence-orientated compact pocket-size pistol with a steel frame and a compact-capacity magazine. The  pistol has a "cocked and locked" safety on the frame with an automatic firing pin safety, double-action trigger, standard reversible magazine catch, standard hammer and three-dots sights. The Compact is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (13), 9×21mm (13), .38 Super Auto (13), .40 S&W (11), 10mm Auto (11) and .45 ACP (8).

Carry
Self-defence-orientated subcompact-size pistol with a steel frame and a compact-capacity magazine. The pistol has a double-action trigger, frame with rounded trigger guard, standard reversible magazine catch, extended beavertail, standard safety, standard hammer, rubber grips, three-dots sights, standard magazine. The CARRY is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (16), 9×21mm (16) and .40 S&W (12).

Standard
Self-defence-orientated full-size pistol with a steel frame and a standard-capacity magazine. The pistol has a "hammer drop safety/decocking system" safety on the slide, double-action trigger, standard reversible magazine catch, standard hammer three-dots sights, and standard magazine. The Standard is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (16), 9×21mm (16), .38 Super Auto (17), .40 S&W (14), 10mm Auto (14) and .45 ACP (10).

Compact Standard
Self-defence-orientated compact pocket-size pistol with a steel frame and a compact-capacity magazine. The pistol has a "hammer drop safety/decocking system" safety on the slide, double-action trigger, standard reversible magazine catch, standard hammer and three-dots sights. The Compact Standard is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (13), 9×21mm (13), .38 Super Auto (13), .40 S&W (11), 10mm Auto (11) and .45 ACP (8).

Carry Standard
Self-defence-orientated subcompact-size pistol with a steel frame and a compact-capacity magazine. The pistol has a "hammer drop safety/decocking system" safety on the slide, double-action trigger, frame with rounded trigger guard, standard reversible magazine catch, extended beavertail, standard safety, standard hammer, rubber grips, three-dots sights, standard magazine.
The Carry Standard is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (16), 9×21mm (16) and .40 S&W (12).

L

Target and action shooting-orientated full-size pistol, long slide, double-action trigger, frame with rounded trigger guard, standard reversible magazine catch, extended beavertail, extended safety, standard hammer, rubber grips, super sight (adjustable micrometer rear sight), dovetail front sight and a standard magazine.
The L is available in 9×19mm Parabellum (15), 9×21mm (15), .38 Super Auto (17), .40 S&W (12), 10mm Auto (11) and .45 ACP (10).

Parts availability in the United States
Due to the limited number of pistols imported into the US and their popularity, the Tanfoglio Combat/Standard pistol (while relatively inexpensive to buy) is more difficult to find parts for than some similar handguns. Most parts such as barrels or caliber conversion kits are only available through the US importer, European American Armory Corporation (EAA). Some aftermarket parts are available from Henning Wallgren, a Tanfoglio-sponsored pro shooter, and manufacturers such as Evolution Gun Works (EGW), Mec-Gar magazines and Wolff Gunsprings.

See also
Bren Ten
Tanfoglio
Tanfoglio Force

References

External links
Tanfoglio Forum

European American Armory Corporation company website
Tanfoglio/EAA Witness manual
EAA Catalog
Tanfoglio T95 "Standard" and "Combat" / EAA Witness pistol (Italy) at World Guns Modern Firearms & Ammunition
Tanfoglio Combat Manual (German)
Tanfoglio T95 Pictorial

.22 LR pistols
.38 Super semi-automatic pistols
.40 S&W semi-automatic pistols
.45 ACP semi-automatic pistols
9mm Parabellum semi-automatic pistols
9×21mm IMI semi-automatic pistols
10mm Auto semi-automatic pistols
Semi-automatic pistols of Italy
T95, Tanfoglio


A transgender person (often shortened to trans) is someone whose gender identity differs from that typically associated with the sex they were assigned at birth.  Some transgender people who desire medical assistance to transition from one sex to another identify as transsexual. Transgender, often shortened as trans, is also an umbrella term; in addition to including people whose gender identity is the opposite of their assigned sex (trans men and trans women), it may also include people who are non-binary or genderqueer. Other definitions of transgender also include people who belong to a third gender, or else conceptualize transgender people as a third gender. The term transgender may be defined very broadly to include cross-dressers. The term transgender does not have a universally accepted definition, including among researchers.

Being transgender is distinct from sexual orientation. Transgender people may identify as heterosexual (straight), homosexual (gay or lesbian), bisexual, asexual, or otherwise, or may decline to label their sexual orientation. The opposite of transgender is cisgender, which describes persons whose gender identity matches their assigned sex. Accurate statistics on the number of transgender people vary widely, in part due to different definitions of what constitutes being transgender. Some countries, such as Canada, collect census data on transgender people. Generally, fewer than 1% of the worldwide population are transgender, with figures ranging from <0.1% to 0.6%.

The degree to which individuals feel genuine, authentic, and comfortable within their external appearance and accept their genuine identity has been called transgender congruence. Many transgender people experience gender dysphoria, and some seek medical treatments such as hormone replacement therapy, sex reassignment surgery, or psychotherapy. Not all transgender people desire these treatments, and some cannot undergo them for financial or medical reasons.

Many transgender people face discrimination in the workplace and in accessing public accommodations and healthcare. In many places, they are not legally protected from discrimination.

Terminology
Before the mid-20th century various terms were used within and beyond Western medical and psychological sciences to identify persons and identities labeled transsexual, and later transgender from mid-century onward. Imported from the German and ultimately modeled after German Transsexualismus (coined in 1923), the English term transsexual has enjoyed international acceptability, though transgender has been increasingly preferred over transsexual. The word transgender acquired its modern umbrella term meaning in the 1990s.

Transgender
Psychiatrist John F. Oliven of Columbia University used the term transgenderism in his 1965 reference work Sexual Hygiene and Pathology, writing that the term which had previously been used, transsexualism, "is misleading; actually, 'transgenderism' is meant, because sexuality is not a major factor in primary transvestism." The term transgender was then popularized with varying definitions by various transgender, transsexual, and transvestite people, including Virginia Prince, who used transgenderal in the December 1969 issue of Transvestia, a national magazine for cross-dressers she founded. By the mid-1970s both trans-gender and trans people were in use as umbrella terms, while transgenderist and transgenderal were used to refer to people who wanted to live cross-gender without sex reassignment surgery (SRS). By 1976, transgenderist was abbreviated as TG in educational materials.

By 1984, the concept of a "transgender community" had developed, in which transgender was used as an umbrella term. In 1985, Richard Elkins established the "Trans-Gender Archive" at the University of Ulster. By 1992, the International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy defined transgender as an expansive umbrella term including "transsexuals, transgenderists, cross dressers", and anyone transitioning. Leslie Feinberg's pamphlet, "Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time has Come", circulated in 1992, identified transgender as a term to unify all forms of gender nonconformity; in this way transgender has become synonymous with queer. In 1994, gender theorist Susan Stryker defined transgender as encompassing "all identities or practices that cross over, cut across, move between, or otherwise queer socially constructed sex/gender boundaries", including, but not limited to, "transsexuality, heterosexual transvestism, gay drag, butch lesbianism, and such non-European identities as the Native American berdache or the Indian Hijra".

Between the mid-1990s and the early 2000s, the primary terms used under the transgender umbrella were "female to male" (FtM) for men who transitioned from female to male, and "male to female" (MtF) for women who transitioned from male to female. These terms have been superseded by "trans man" and "trans woman", respectively. This shift in preference from terms highlighting biological sex ("transsexual", "FtM") to terms highlighting gender identity and expression ("transgender", "trans man") reflects a broader shift in the understanding of transgender people's sense of self and the increasing recognition of those who decline medical reassignment as part of the transgender community.

Transgender can also refer specifically to a person whose gender identity is opposite (rather than different from) the sex the person had or was identified as having at birth.

 is a term for any person, binary or non-binary, who was assigned male at birth and has a predominantly feminine gender identity or presentation.

Transmasculine refers to a person assigned female at birth who has a predominantly masculine gender identity or presentation.

Transgendered is a common term in older literature. Many within the transgender community deprecate it on the basis that transgender is an adjective, not a verb. Organizations such as GLAAD and The Guardian also state that transgender should never be used as a noun (e.g., "Max is transgender" or "Max is a transgender man", not "Max is a transgender"). "Transgender" is also a noun for the broader topic of transgender identity and experience.

Although the term "transgenderism" was once considered acceptable, it has come to be viewed as offensive, according to GLAAD. In 2020 the International Journal of Transgenderism changed its name to the International Journal of Transgender Health "to reflect a change toward more appropriate and acceptable use of language in our field."

Health-practitioner manuals, professional journalistic style guides, and LGBT advocacy groups advise the adoption by others of the name and pronouns identified by the person in question, including present references to the transgender person's past.

In contrast, people whose sense of personal identity corresponds to the sex and gender assigned to them at birth – that is, those who are neither transgender nor non-binary or genderqueer – are called cisgender.

Transsexual

Inspired by Magnus Hirschfeld's 1923 term seelischer Transsexualismus, the term transsexual was introduced to English in 1949 by David Oliver Cauldwell and popularized by Harry Benjamin in 1966, around the same time transgender was coined and began to be popularized. Since the 1990s, transsexual has generally been used to refer to the subset of transgender people who desire to transition permanently to the gender with which they identify and who seek medical assistance (for example, sex reassignment surgery) with this.

Distinctions between the terms transgender and transsexual are commonly based on distinctions between gender and sex. Transsexuality may be said to deal more with physical aspects of one's sex, while transgender considerations deal more with one's psychological gender disposition or predisposition, as well as the related social expectations that may accompany a given gender role. Many transgender people reject the term transsexual. Christine Jorgensen publicly rejected transsexual in 1979 and instead identified herself in newsprint as trans-gender, saying, "gender doesn't have to do with bed partners, it has to do with identity." Some have objected to the term transsexual on the basis that it describes a condition related to gender identity rather than sexuality. Some transsexual people object to being included in the transgender umbrella.

In his 2007 book Imagining Transgender: An Ethnography of a Category, anthropologist David Valentine asserts that transgender was coined and used by activists to include many people who do not necessarily identify with the term and states that people who do not identify with the term transgender should not be included in the transgender spectrum. Leslie Feinberg likewise asserts that transgender is not a self-identifier (for some people) but a category imposed by observers to understand other people. According to the Transgender Health Program (THP) at Fenway Health in Boston, there are no universally-accepted definitions, and confusion is common because terms that were popular at the turn of the 21st century may have since been deemed offensive. The THP recommends that clinicians ask clients what terminology they prefer, and avoid the term transsexual unless they are sure that a client is comfortable with it.

Harry Benjamin invented a classification system for transsexuals and transvestites, called the Sex Orientation Scale (SOS), in which he assigned transsexuals and transvestites to one of six categories based on their reasons for cross-dressing and the relative urgency of their need (if any) for sex reassignment surgery. Contemporary views on gender identity and classification differ markedly from Harry Benjamin's original opinions. Sexual orientation is no longer regarded as a criterion for diagnosis, or for distinction between transsexuality, transvestism and other forms of gender-variant behavior and expression. Benjamin's scale was designed for use with heterosexual trans women, and trans men's identities do not align with its categories.

Sexual orientation

Gender, gender identity, and being transgender are distinct concepts from sexual orientation. Sexual orientation is an individual's enduring pattern of attraction, or lack thereof, to others (being straight, lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual, etc.), whereas gender identity is a person's innate knowledge of their own gender (being a man, woman, non-binary, etc.). Transgender people can have any orientation, and generally use labels corresponding to their gender, rather than assigned sex at birth. For example, trans women who are exclusively attracted to other women commonly identify as lesbians, and trans men exclusively attracted to women would identify as straight. Many trans people describe their sexual orientation as queer, in addition to or instead of, other terms.

For much of the 20th century, transgender identity was conflated with homosexuality and transvestism. In earlier academic literature, sexologists used the labels homosexual and heterosexual transsexual to categorize transgender individuals' sexual orientation based on their birth sex. Critics consider these terms "heterosexist", "archaic", and demeaning. Newer literature often uses terms such as attracted to men (androphilic), attracted to women (gynephilic), attracted to both (bisexual), or attracted to neither (asexual) to describe a person's sexual orientation without reference to their gender identity. Therapists are coming to understand the necessity of using terms with respect to their clients' gender identities and preferences.

The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey reported that of the 27,715 transgender and non-binary respondents, 21% said queer best described their sexual orientation, 18% said pansexual, 16% said gay, lesbian, or same-gender-loving, 15% said straight, 14% said bisexual, and 10% said asexual. A 2019 Canadian survey of 2,873 trans and non-binary people found that 51% described their sexual orientation as queer, 13% as asexual, 28% as bisexual, 13% as gay, 15% as lesbian, 31% as pansexual, 8% as straight or heterosexual, 4% as two-spirit, and 9% as unsure or questioning.

Related identities and practices

Non-binary identity

Some non-binary (or genderqueer) people identify as transgender. These identities are not specifically male or female. They can be agender, androgynous, bigender, pangender, or genderfluid, and exist outside of cisnormativity. Bigender and androgynous are overlapping categories; bigender individuals may identify as moving between male and female roles (genderfluid) or as being both masculine and feminine simultaneously (androgynous), and androgynes may similarly identify as beyond gender or genderless (agender), between genders (intergender), moving across genders (genderfluid), or simultaneously exhibiting multiple genders (pangender). Non-binary gender identities are independent of sexual orientation.

Transvestism and cross-dressing

A transvestite is a person who cross-dresses, or dresses in clothes typically associated with the gender opposite the one they were assigned at birth. The term transvestite is used as a synonym for the term cross-dresser, although cross-dresser is generally considered the preferred term. The term cross-dresser is not exactly defined in the relevant literature. Michael A. Gilbert, professor at the Department of Philosophy, York University, Toronto, offers this definition: "[A cross-dresser] is a person who has an apparent gender identification with one sex, and who has and certainly has been birth-designated as belonging to [that] sex, but who wears the clothing of the opposite sex because it is that of the opposite sex." This definition excludes people "who wear opposite sex clothing for other reasons", such as "those female impersonators who look upon dressing as solely connected to their livelihood, actors undertaking roles, individual males and females enjoying a masquerade, and so on. These individuals are cross dressing but are not cross dressers." Cross-dressers may not identify with, want to be, or adopt the behaviors or practices of the opposite gender and generally do not want to change their bodies medically or surgically. The majority of cross-dressers identify as heterosexual.

The term transvestite and the associated outdated term transvestism are conceptually different from the term transvestic fetishism, as transvestic fetishist refers to those who intermittently use clothing of the opposite gender for fetishistic purposes. In medical terms, transvestic fetishism is differentiated from cross-dressing by use of the separate codes 302.3 in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and F65.1 in the ICD.

Drag

Drag is clothing and makeup worn on special occasions for performing or entertaining, unlike those who are transgender or who cross-dress for other reasons. Drag performance includes overall presentation and behavior in addition to clothing and makeup. Drag can be theatrical, comedic, or grotesque. Drag queens have been considered caricatures of women by second-wave feminism. Drag artists have a long tradition in LGBT culture.

Generally the term drag queen covers men doing female drag, drag king covers women doing male drag, and faux queen covers women doing female drag. Nevertheless, there are drag artists of all genders and sexualities who perform for various reasons. Drag performers are not inherently transgender. Some drag performers, transvestites, and people in the gay community have embraced the pornographically derived term tranny for drag queens or people who engage in transvestism or cross-dressing; this term is widely considered an offensive slur if applied to transgender people.

History

A precise history of the global occurrence of transgender people is difficult to assess because the modern concept of being transgender, and of gender in general in relation to transgender identity, did not develop until the mid-1900s. Historical depictions, records and understandings are inherently filtered through modern principles, and were largely viewed through a medical and (often outsider) anthropological lens until the late 1900s.

Some historians consider the Roman emperor Elagabalus to have been transgender. Elagabalus was reported to have dressed in a feminine manner, preferred to be called "Lady" instead of "Lord" and may have even sought a primitive form of gender-affirming surgery.

Worldwide, a number of societies have had traditional third gender roles, some of which continue in some form into the present day.The Hippocratic Corpus (interpreting the writing of Herodotus) describes the "disease of the Scythians" (regarding the Enaree), which it attributes to impotency due to riding on a horse without stirrups. This reference was well discussed by medical writings of the 1500s1700s. Pierre Petit writing in 1596 viewed the "Scythian disease" as natural variation, but by the 1700s writers viewed it as a "melancholy", or "hysterical" psychiatric disease. By the early 1800s, being transgender separate from Hippocrates' idea of it was claimed to be widely known, but remained poorly documented. Both trans women and trans men were cited in European insane asylums of the early 1800s. One of the earliest recorded transgender people in America was Thomas(ine) Hall, a seventeenth century colonial servant. The most complete account of the time came from the life of the Chevalier d'Éon (17281810), a French diplomat. As cross-dressing became more widespread in the late 1800s, discussion of transgender people increased greatly and writers attempted to explain the origins of being transgender. Much study came out of Germany, and was exported to other Western audiences. Cross-dressing was seen in a pragmatic light until the late 1800s; it had previously served a satirical or disguising purpose. But in the latter half of the 1800s, cross-dressing and being transgender became viewed as an increasing societal danger.

William A. Hammond wrote an 1882 account of transgender Pueblo "shamans" (mujerados), comparing them to the Scythian disease. Other writers of the late 1700s and 1800s (including Hammond's associates in the American Neurological Association) had noted the widespread nature of transgender cultural practices among native peoples. Explanations varied, but authors generally did not ascribe native transgender practices to psychiatric causes, instead condemning the practices in a religious and moral sense. Native groups provided much study on the subject, and perhaps the majority of all study until after WWII.

Critical studies first began to emerge in the late 1800s in Germany, with the works of Magnus Hirschfeld. Hirschfeld coined the term "transvestite" in 1910 as the scope of transgender study grew. His work would lead to the 1919 founding of the Institut für Sexualwissenschaft in Berlin. Though Hirscheld's legacy is disputed, he revolutionized the field of study. The Institut was destroyed when the Nazis seized power in 1933, and its research was infamously burned in the May 1933 Nazi book burnings. Transgender issues went largely out of the public eye until after World War II. Even when they re-emerged, they reflected a forensic psychology approach, unlike the more sexological that had been employed in the lost German research.

Healthcare

Mental healthcare
People who experience discord between their gender and the expectations of others or whose gender identity conflicts with their body may benefit by talking through their feelings in depth.  While individuals may find counseling or psychotherapy helpful, it is no longer recommended as a prerequisite for further transition steps. Research on gender identity with regard to psychology, and scientific understanding of the phenomenon and its related issues, is relatively new. The term gender incongruence is listed in the ICD by the WHO. In the American (DSM), the term gender dysphoria is listed under code F64.0 for adolescents and adults, and F64.2 for children.

France removed gender identity disorder as a diagnosis by decree in 2010, but according to French trans rights organizations, beyond the impact of the announcement itself, nothing changed. In 2017, the Danish parliament abolished the F64 Gender identity disorders. The DSM-5 refers to the topic as gender dysphoria (GD) while reinforcing the idea that being transgender is not considered a mental illness.

Transgender people may meet the criteria for a diagnosis of gender dysphoria "only if [being transgender] causes distress or disability." This distress may manifest as depression or inability to work and form healthy relationships with others. This diagnosis is often misinterpreted as implying that all transgender people suffer from GD, which has confused transgender people and those who seek to either criticize or affirm them. Transgender people who are comfortable with their gender and whose gender is not directly causing inner frustration or impairing their functioning do not suffer from GD. Moreover, GD is not necessarily permanent and is often resolved through therapy or transitioning. Feeling oppressed by the negative attitudes and behaviours of such others as legal entities does not indicate GD. GD does not imply an opinion of immorality; the psychological establishment holds that people with any kind of mental or emotional problem should not receive stigma. The solution for GD is whatever will alleviate suffering and restore functionality; this solution often, but not always, consists of undergoing a gender transition.

Clinical training lacks relevant information needed in order to adequately help transgender clients, which results in a large number of practitioners who are not prepared to sufficiently work with this population of individuals. Many mental healthcare providers know little about transgender issues. Those who seek help from these professionals often educate the professional without receiving help. This solution usually is good for transsexual people but is not the solution for other transgender people, particularly non-binary people who lack an exclusively male or female identity. Instead, therapists can support their clients in whatever steps they choose to take to transition or can support their decision not to transition while also addressing their clients' sense of congruence between gender identity and appearance.

Research on the specific problems faced by the transgender community in mental health has focused on diagnosis and clinicians' experiences instead of transgender clients' experiences. Therapy was not always sought by transgender people due to mental health needs. Prior to the seventh version of the Standards of Care (SOC), an individual had to be diagnosed with gender identity disorder in order to proceed with hormone treatments or sexual reassignment surgery. The new version decreased the focus on diagnosis and instead emphasized the importance of flexibility in order to meet the diverse health care needs of transsexual, transgender, and all gender-nonconforming people.

The reasons for seeking mental health services vary according to the individual. A transgender person seeking treatment does not necessarily mean their gender identity is problematic. The emotional strain of dealing with stigma and experiencing transphobia pushes many transgender people to seek treatment to improve their quality of life, as one trans woman reflected: "Transgendered individuals are going to come to a therapist and most of their issues have nothing to do, specifically, with being transgendered. It has to do because they've had to hide, they've had to lie, and they've felt all of this guilt and shame, unfortunately usually for years!" Many transgender people also seek mental health treatment for depression and anxiety caused by the stigma attached to being transgender, and some transgender people have stressed the importance of acknowledging their gender identity with a therapist in order to discuss other quality-of-life issues. Rarely, some choose to detransition.

Problems still remain surrounding misinformation about transgender issues that hurt transgender people's mental health experiences. One trans man who was enrolled as a student in a psychology graduate program highlighted the main concerns with modern clinical training: "Most people probably are familiar with the term transgender, but maybe that's it. I don't think I've had any formal training just going through [clinical] programs ... I don't think most [therapists] know. Most therapistsMaster's degree, PhD levelthey've had ... one diversity class on GLBT issues. One class out of the huge diversity training. One class. And it was probably mostly about gay lifestyle." Many health insurance policies do not cover treatment associated with gender transition, and numerous people are under- or uninsured, which raises concerns about the insufficient training most therapists receive prior to working with transgender clients, potentially increasing financial strain on clients without providing the treatment they need. Many clinicians who work with transgender clients only receive mediocre training on gender identity, but introductory training on interacting with transgender people has recently been made available to health care professionals to help remove barriers and increase the level of service for the transgender population. In February 2010, France became the first country in the world to remove transgender identity from the list of mental diseases.

A 2014 study carried out by the Williams Institute (a UCLA think tank) found that 41% of transgender people had attempted suicide, with the rate being higher among people who experienced discrimination in access to housing or healthcare, harassment, physical or sexual assault, or rejection by family. A 2019 follow-up study found that transgender people who wanted and received gender-affirming medical care had substantially lower rates of suicidal thoughts and attempts. However, a study on the impact of parental support on trans youth found that among trans children with supportive parents, only 4% attempted suicide, a 93% decrease.

Autism is more common in people who are gender dysphoric. It is not known whether there is a biological basis. This may be due to the fact that people on the autism spectrum are less concerned with societal disapproval, and feel less fear or inhibition about coming out as trans than others.

Physical healthcare
Medical and surgical procedures exist for transsexual and some transgender people, though most categories of transgender people as described above are not known for seeking the following treatments. Hormone replacement therapy for trans men induces beard growth and masculinizes skin, hair, voice, and fat distribution. Hormone replacement therapy for trans women feminizes fat distribution and breasts, as well as diminishes muscle mass and strength. Laser hair removal or electrolysis removes excess hair for trans women. Surgical procedures for trans women feminize the voice, skin, face, Adam's apple, breasts, waist, buttocks, and genitals. Surgical procedures for trans men masculinize the chest and genitals and remove the womb, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. The acronyms "Gender-affirming surgery (GAS)" and "sex reassignment surgery" (SRS) refer to genital surgery. The term "sex reassignment therapy" (SRT) is used as an umbrella term for physical procedures required for transition. Use of the term "sex change" has been criticized for its emphasis on surgery, and the term "transition" is preferred. Availability of these procedures depends on degree of gender dysphoria, presence or absence of gender identity disorder, and standards of care in the relevant jurisdiction.

Trans men who have not had a hysterectomy and who take testosterone are at increased risk for endometrial cancer because androstenedione, which is made from testosterone in the body, can be converted into estrogen, and external estrogen is a risk factor for endometrial cancer.

Detransition

Detransition refers to the cessation or reversal of a sex reassignment surgery or gender transition. Formal studies of detransition have been few in number, of disputed quality, and politically controversial. Estimates of the rate at which detransitioning occurs vary from less than 1% to as high as 13%. Those who undergo sex reassignment surgery have very low rates of detransition or regret.

The 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey, with responses from 27,715 individuals who identified as "transgender, trans, genderqueer, [or] non-binary", found that 8% of respondents reported some kind of detransition. "Most of those who de-transitioned did so only temporarily: 62% of those who had de-transitioned reported that they were currently living full time in a gender different than the gender they were thought to be at birth." Detransition was associated with assigned male sex at birth, nonbinary gender identity, and bisexual orientation, among other cohorts. Only 5% of detransitioners (or 0.4% of total respondents) reported doing so because gender transition was "not for them"; 82% cited external reason(s), including pressure from others, the difficulties of transition, and discrimination. "The most common reason cited for de-transitioning was pressure from a parent (36%)."

Law

Legal procedures exist in some jurisdictions which allow individuals to change their legal gender or name to reflect their gender identity. Requirements for these procedures vary from an explicit formal diagnosis of transsexualism, to a diagnosis of gender identity disorder, to a letter from a physician that attests the individual's gender transition or having established a different gender role. In 1994, the DSM IV entry was changed from "Transsexual" to "Gender Identity Disorder". In 2013, the DSM V removed "Gender Identity Disorder" and published "Gender Dysphoria" in its place. In many places, transgender people are not legally protected from discrimination in the workplace or in public accommodations. A report released in February 2011 found that 90% of transgender people faced discrimination at work and were unemployed at double the rate of the general population, and over half had been harassed or turned away when attempting to access public services. Members of the transgender community also encounter high levels of discrimination in health care.

Europe

36 countries in Europe require a mental health diagnosis for legal gender recognition and 20 countries require sterilisation. In April 2017, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that requiring sterilisation for legal gender recognition violates human rights.

Canada

Jurisdiction over legal classification of sex in Canada is assigned to the provinces and territories. This includes legal change of gender classification. On June 19, 2017, Bill C-16, having passed the legislative process in the House of Commons of Canada and the Senate of Canada, became law upon receiving Royal Assent, which put it into immediate force. The law updated the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Criminal Code to include "gender identity and gender expression" as protected grounds from discrimination, hate publications and advocating transgender genocide. The bill also added "gender identity and expression" to the list of aggravating factors in sentencing, where the accused commits a criminal offence against an individual because of those personal characteristics. Similar transgender laws also exist in all the provinces and territories.

United States

In the United States, transgender people are protected from employment discrimination by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Exceptions apply to certain types of employers, for example, employers with fewer than 15 employees and religious organizations. In 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed that Title VII prohibits discrimination against transgender people in the case R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.

Nicole Maines, a trans girl, took a case to Maine's supreme court in June 2013. She argued that being denied access to her high school's women's restroom was a violation of Maine's Human Rights Act; one state judge has disagreed with her, but Maines won her lawsuit against the Orono school district in January 2014 before the Maine Supreme Judicial Court. On May 14, 2016, the United States Department of Education and Department of Justice issued guidance directing public schools to allow transgender students to use bathrooms that match their gender identities.

On June 30, 2016, the United States Department of Defense removed the ban that prohibited transgender people from openly serving in the US military. On July 27, 2017, President Donald Trump tweeted that transgender Americans would not be allowed to serve "in any capacity" in the United States Armed Forces. Later that day, Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman Joseph Dunford announced, "there will be no modifications to the current policy until the president's direction has been received by the Secretary of Defense and the secretary has issued implementation guidance." Joe Biden later reversed Trump's policy when he became president in 2021.

India

In April 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared transgender to be a 'third gender' in Indian law. The transgender community in India (made up of Hijras and others) has a long history in India and in Hindu mythology. Justice KS Radhakrishnan noted in his decision that, "Seldom, our society realizes or cares to realize the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex". Hijras have faced structural discrimination including not being able to obtain driving licenses, and being prohibited from accessing various social benefits. It is also common for them to be banished from communities.

Sociocultural relationships

LGBT community

Despite the distinction between sexual orientation and gender, throughout history gay, lesbian and bisexual subcultures were often the only places where gender-variant people were socially accepted in the gender role they felt they belonged to; especially during the time when legal or medical transitioning was almost impossible. This acceptance has had a complex history. Like the wider world, the gay community in Western societies did not generally distinguish between sex and gender identity until the 1970s, and the role of the transgender community in the history of LGBT rights is often overlooked.

According to a study done at University of California, Los Angeles in 2011, conducted in part by Gary J. Gates, 3.5% of adults across the United States identify as either gay, lesbian, or bisexuals whereas only 0.3% of adults identify as transgender. Transgender individuals have been part of various LGBT movements throughout  history, with significant contributions dating back to the early days of the gay liberation movement.

The LGBT community is not a monolithic group, and there are different modes of thought on who is a part of this diverse community. The changes that came with the Gay Liberation Movement and Civil Rights movement saw many gay, lesbian, and bisexual people making headway within the public sphere, and gaining support from the wider public, throughout the latter half of the twentieth century. The trans community only experienced a similar surge in activism during the start of the twenty-first century. Due to the many different groups that make up the broader LGBT movement, there are those within the larger community who do not believe that the trans community has a place within the LGBT space.

Religion

The Catholic Church holds that transgender people cannot become godparents and compares transitioning to self-harm. The Church of England passed a motion at the 2017 General Synod, which would ensure Anglican churches accepted transgender people, even suggesting on their website that transgender people could be gifted a Bible with their new name inscribed to support them.

Feminism

Feminist views on transgender women have changed over time, but have generally become more positive. Second-wave feminism saw numerous clashes opposed to transgender women, since they were not seen as "true" women, and as invading women-only spaces. Though second-wave feminism argued for the sex and gender distinction, some feminists believed there was a conflict between transgender identity and the feminist cause; e.g., they believed that male-to-female transition abandoned or devalued female identity and that transgender people embraced traditional gender roles and stereotypes. By the emergence of third-wave feminism (around 1990), opinions had shifted to being more inclusive of both trans and gay identities. Fourth-wave feminism (starting around 2012) has been widely trans-inclusive, but trans-exclusive groups and ideas remain as a minority, though one that is especially prominent in the UK. Feminists who do not accept that trans women are women have been labeled "trans-exclusionary radical feminists" (TERFs) or gender-critical feminists by opponents.

Discrimination and support

Transgender individuals experience significant rates of employment discrimination. Approximately 90% of trans people have encountered some form of harassment or mistreatment in their workplace. Moreover, 47% have experienced some form of adverse employment outcome due to being transgender; of this figure, 44% were passed over for a job, 23% were denied a promotion, and 26% were terminated on the grounds that they were transgender.

Studies in several cultures have found that cisgender women are more likely to be accepting of trans people than cisgender men.

The start of the twenty-first century saw the rise in transgender activism and with it an increase in support. Within the United States, groups such as the Trevor Project have been serving the wider LGBT community including people who identify with the term transgender. The group offers support in the form of educational resources including research, advocacy, and crisis services. The American Civil Liberties Unions (ACLU) is another group that fights legal battles in support of many different groups including those in the trans community.

Other groups within the United States specifically advocate for transgender rights. One of these groups directly related to transgender support is the National Center for Transgender Equality (NCTE), which is committed to advocating for policy changes that protect transgender people and promote equality. Through their research, education, and advocacy efforts, the NCTE works to address issues such as healthcare access, employment discrimination, and legal recognition for transgender individuals. One prominent organization within Europe is Transgender Europe (TGEU), a network of organizations and individuals committed to promoting equality and human rights for transgender people within European borders. TGEU works to challenge discrimination, improve transgender healthcare access, advocate for legal recognition of gender identity, and support the well-being of transgender communities.

Population figures and prevalence

Little is known about the prevalence of transgender people in the general population and reported prevalence estimates are greatly affected by variable
definitions of transgender. According to a recent systematic review, an estimated 9.2 out of every 100,000 people have received or requested gender affirmation surgery or transgender hormone therapy; 6.8 out of every 100,000 people have received a transgender-specific diagnoses; and 355 out of every 100,000 people self-identify as transgender. These findings underscore the value of using consistent terminology related to studying the experience of transgender, as studies that explore surgical or hormonal gender affirmation therapy may or may not be connected with others that follow a diagnosis of "transsexualism", "gender identity disorder", or "gender dysphoria", none of which may relate with those that assess self-reported identity. Common terminology across studies does not yet exist, so population numbers may be inconsistent, depending on how they are being counted.

A study in 2020 found that, since 1990, of those seeking sex hormone therapy for gender dysphoria there has been a steady increase in the percentage of trans men, such that they equal the number of trans women seeking this treatment.

Asia

In Thailand and Laos, the term kathoey is used to refer to male-to-female transgender people and effeminate gay men. However, many transgender people in Thailand do not identify as kathoey. Transgender people have also been documented in Iran, Japan, Nepal, Indonesia, Vietnam, South Korea, Jordan, Singapore, and the greater Chinese region, including Hong Kong, Taiwan, and the People's Republic of China.

The cultures of the Indian subcontinent include a third gender, referred to as hijra in Hindi. In India, the Supreme Court on April 15, 2014, recognized a third gender that is neither male nor female, stating "Recognition of transgenders as a third gender is not a social or medical issue but a human rights issue." In 1998, Shabnam Mausi became the first transgender person to be elected in India, in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.

Europe
According to Amnesty International, 1.5 million transgender people live in the European Union (as at 2017), making up 0.3% of the population. A 2011 survey conducted by the Equality and Human Rights Commission in the UK found that of 10,026 respondents, 1.4% would be classified into a gender minority group. The survey also showed that 1% had gone through any part of a gender reassignment process (including thoughts or actions). In the England and Wales section of the 2021 United Kingdom census, 0.5% of respondents aged 16 and over indicated that their gender identity was different from their sex assigned at birth.

North America
The 2021 Canadian census released by Statistics Canada found that 59,460 Canadians (0.19% of the population) identified as transgender. According to the Survey of Safety in Public and Private Spaces by Statistics Canada in 2018, 0.24% of the Canadian population identified as transgender men, women or non-binary individuals.

The Social Security Administration has tracked the sex of United States citizens since 1936. A 1968 estimate, by Ira B. Pauly, estimated that about 2,500 transsexual people were living in the United States, with four times as many trans women as trans men. One effort to quantify the modern population in 2011 gave a "rough estimate" that 0.3% of adults in the US are transgender. More recent studies released in 2016 estimate the proportion of Americans who identify as transgender at 0.5 to 0.6%. This would put the total number of transgender Americans at approximately 1.4 million adults ().

In the United States and Canada, some Native American and First Nations cultures traditionally recognize the existence of more than two genders, such as the Zuni male-bodied lhamana, the Lakota male-bodied , and the Mohave male-bodied alyhaa and female-bodied hwamee. These traditional people, along with those from other North American Indigenous cultures, are sometimes part of the contemporary, pan-Indian two-spirit community. Historically, in most cultures who have alternate gender roles, if the spouse of a third gender person is not otherwise gender variant, they have not generally been regarded as other-gendered themselves, simply for being in a same-sex relationship. In Mexico, the Zapotec culture includes a third gender in the form of the Muxe. Mahu is a traditional third gender in Hawai'i and Tahiti. Mahu are valued as teachers, caretakers of culture, and healers, such as Kapaemahu. Diné (Navajo) have Nádleehi.

Latin America
In Latin American cultures, a travesti is an individual who has been assigned male at birth and who has a feminine, transfeminine, or "femme" gender identity. Travestis generally undergo hormonal treatment, use female gender expression including new names and pronouns from the masculine ones they were given when assigned a sex, and might use breast implants, but they are not offered or do not desire sex-reassignment surgery. Travesti might be regarded as a gender in itself (a "third gender"), a mix between man and woman ("intergender/androgynes"), or the presence of both masculine and feminine identities in a single person ("bigender"). They are framed as something entirely separate from transgender women, who possess the same gender identity of people assigned female at birth.

Other transgender identities are becoming more widely known, as a result of contact with other cultures of the Western world. These newer identities, sometimes known under the umbrella use of the term "genderqueer", along with the older travesti term, are known as non-binary and go along with binary transgender identities (those traditionally diagnosed under the obsolete label of "transsexualism") under the single umbrella of transgender, but are distinguished from cross-dressers and drag queens and kings, that are held as nonconforming gender expressions rather than transgender gender identities when a distinction is made.

Culture

Coming out

Transgender people vary greatly in choosing when, whether, and how to disclose their transgender status to family, close friends, and others. The prevalence of discrimination and violence against transgender persons can make coming out a risky decision. Fear of retaliatory behavior, such as being removed from the parental home while underage, is a cause for transgender people to not come out to their families until they have reached adulthood. Parental confusion and lack of acceptance of a transgender child may result in parents treating a newly revealed gender identity as a "phase" or making efforts to change their children back to "normal" by utilizing mental health services to alter the child's gender identity.

The internet can play a significant role in the coming out process for transgender people. Some come out in an online identity first, providing an opportunity to go through experiences virtually and safely before risking social sanctions in the real world.

Visibility

In 2014, the United States reached a "transgender tipping point", according to Time. At this time, the media visibility of transgender people reached a level higher than seen before. Since then, the number of transgender portrayals across TV platforms has stayed elevated.

Annual marches, protests or gatherings take place around the world for transgender issues, often taking place during the time of local Pride parades for LGBT people. These events are frequently organised by trans communities to build community, address human rights struggles, and create visibility. International Transgender Day of Visibility is an annual holiday occurring on March 31 dedicated to celebrating transgender people and raising awareness of discrimination faced by transgender people worldwide. The holiday was founded by Michigan-based transgender activist Rachel Crandall in 2009.

Transgender Day of Remembrance (TDOR) is held every year on November 20 in honor of Rita Hester, who was killed on November 28, 1998. Her murder remains unsolved, but was described in 2022 as "a result of transphobia and anti-trans violence" by the Office of the Mayor of Boston, Michelle Wu. TDOR memorializes victims of hate crimes and prejudice and raises awareness of hate crimes committed upon living transgender people. Transgender Awareness Week is a one-week celebration leading up to TDOR, dedicated to educating about transgender and gender non-conforming people and the issues associated with their transition or identity.

Pride symbols

A common symbol for the transgender community is the Transgender Pride Flag, which was designed by the American transgender woman Monica Helms in 1999, and was first shown at a pride parade in Phoenix, Arizona, in 2000. The flag consists of five horizontal stripes: light blue, pink, white, pink, and light blue Other transgender symbols include the butterfly (symbolizing transformation or metamorphosis), and a pink/light blue yin and yang symbol. Several gender symbols have been used to represent transgender people, including ⚥ and ⚧.

See also

 List of transgender and transsexual fictional characters
 List of transgender people
 List of transgender publications
 List of transgender-related topics
 List of transgender-rights organizations
 List of people killed for being transgender
 Transgender history

Notes

References

Sources

Further reading

 Lerario, Z Paige, "Voice Training for Transgender People: Speech therapy and language strategies can help save lives", Scientific American, vol. 328, no. 1 (January 2023), p. 55. "Voice training is less costly and invasive than a throat operation... Through sessions with a licensed speech-language pathologist, transgender people learn to control pitch, resonance, word choice and other vocal behaviors.... Such training can improve quality of life, reduce voice-related disability and boost self-confidence."

LGBT studies


The Intelligence Medal of Merit is awarded by the Central Intelligence Agency for performance of especially meritorious service or for achievement conspicuously above normal duties.

Notable recipients

Gust Avrakotos
I. Nathan Briggs
George W. Cave
John Chambers (1923–2001) Hollywood make-up artist involved in Canadian Caper during 1979 Iran hostage crisis (aka Jerome Calloway)
Charles Cogan
Gene A. Coyle
Richard G. Fecteau
Robert Gates
Gina Haspel
John J. Hicks, former director of National Photographic Interpretation Center; for his work during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
J.B.E. Hittle
Stephen Kasarda
Mark Kelton, former deputy director of the National Clandestine Service for Counterintelligence
George V. Lauder
Harry E. Mason
Edmund H. Nowinski (twice)
Jerrold Post
Robert Schaller
Frank Snepp
John Stockwell
Elizabeth Sudmeier
David O. Sullivan
Al Ulmer
Charles Wilson, first non-Agency Officer to be awarded the Medal

See also
Awards and decorations of the United States government

References

Awards and decorations of the Central Intelligence Agency
Recipients of the Intelligence Medal of Merit


Charles Reilly or Charlie Reilly may refer to:
Charles Nelson Reilly (1931–2007), American actor, comedian, director and drama teacher
Charles Herbert Reilly (1874–1948), major figure in 20th-century architecture in Britain
Charlie Reilly (1867–1937), American Major League Baseball player

See also
Charlie Reilley, baseball player


Hankey is a small town on the confluence of the Klein and Gamtoos rivers in South Africa.  It is part of the Kouga Local Municipality of the Sarah Baartman District in the Eastern Cape.

History
Hankey was established in 1826 and is the Gamtoos Valley's oldest town. It was named after the Rev. William Alers Hankey, (1771–1859) an ex-banker and the secretary of the London Missionary Society (LMS). He was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, (though the Missionary Society's successor body's obituary gives the place of his birth as London) as William Alers, the natural son of the London banker, merchant, Jamaica planter and treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, Thomas Hankey of Fetcham Park (the Hankey Bank, which was to become part of the Royal Bank of Scotland, had been founded in 1685 by Thomas Hankey's great-great-grandfather, Captain Samuel Hankey, who had also been a partner in "Houblon & Hankey" with a John Houblon, who was presumably the same who became the first Governor of the Bank of England) and Susannah Alers, and educated, according to his father's 1793 will, at the University of Edinburgh. Some descendants used Alers as part of their surnames, including Captain Conrad Byron Alers-Hankey, Royal Navy (who helped rescue HMS Calcutta when the 1926 Havana–Bermuda hurricane struck the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda in 1926, and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his conduct at the 1940 evacuation of Dunkirk), while others used it as a forename, such as Alexander Maurice Alers Hankey and brothers Maurice Pascal Alers Hankey, 1st Baron Hankey (the creator of the modern UK Cabinet Office) and Donald William Alers Hankey.

The purpose of the establishment of the village was to grow mielies and corn for the LMS main station at Bethelsdorp and also to carry out evangelistic work. The first property was "Wagondrift" owned by the Damant Bros. And although the town was planned for 250 families it started with 25 families. The first inhabitants consisted of a large number of Khoi, a few Mfengos, a few farmers and mixed "Gamtouer" (1700) descendants.

The LMS founded the station in 1822, terminated it in 1875 and in 1876 it became independent from the LMS. It became a Congregational Church as it is today. The first trustees of the LMS were Dr John Philip and the Rev. William Alers Hankey. The first missionaries were Messrs Miles, Melville, Williams, later the Philips' (Will Enowy and Thom Durant Philip)

Dr John Philip was superintendent. Some of the residents were Windvogel, Diederich, Abraham, Stuurman, Dragoonder, Armoed, Scheepers, Mahtjies, Gerts, Matroos, Konstabel and Kettledas. The first white farmers were Messrs. Wait, Salmon Ferreira, Stefanus Ferreira and the Damant Bros.

The first irrigation scheme on the Klein Rivier was started by James Wait in 1827 and completed in 1830. It extended for 3.5 miles and he was awarded 50 cattle and the use of 50 workers.

What the papers said about the opening of the scheme on the Klein Rivier:

"......the course swung into action sending streams of water down its winding length ....."

People came from far and wide to view the spectacle and Dr Philip later declared it the greatest work of its kind ever undertaken in the Colony. Part of this irrigation scheme can still be seen today and forms part of the Hankey Golf Course.

The second irrigation scheme on the Gamtoos River, a provincial heritage site in Hankey today, was carried out by William Enowy Philip, the son of the Superintendent of the LMS, Dr John Philip. His inspiration was the window in the hill between Backhousehoek and Vensterhoek and was dug using pick and shovel and wheelbarrows. The length of the tunnel is 228 meters and the speed of construction was very slow – about 1 to 2 feet a day. It was started in April 1843 and completed in August 1844 – 15 months later. It was in use from April 1845 to 1970 – a period of 125 years.  Note: This was the first ever tunnel scheme in South Africa.

A tragedy: The builder of the tunnel, William Enowy Philip, drowned on 1 July 1845 in the Gamtoos River "apparently in a desperate but vain attempt to save his ten year old nephew, John Philip Fairbairn. William was only 31 years old at the time." according to the family history book, compiled by Peter Philip in 1980,  "A Fifeshire Family:The Descendants of John and Thomas Philip of Kirkcaldy."

In 1822 Dr John Philip, the superintendent of the London Missionary Society established a mission station on the farm Wagendrift and named it after Reverend William Alers Hankey, the treasurer of the London Missionary Society. An irrigation tunnel constructed under direction of William Philip, the son of Dr John Philip, is today protected as a provincial heritage site.

On 19 August 2002, the remains of Saartjie Baartman were laid to rest on Vergaderingskop, a hill on the edge of town.

As is the case with most South African towns, there are residential areas previously reserved for non-white residents set up on the outskirts of the town. In the case of Hankey these are Centerton on the western edge of the town (on the opposite bank of the Klein River) and Weston, located about  to the south-west (on the opposite bank of the Gamtoos River).

In 2009, strategically, a handkerchief factory was opened in the area, in order to celebrate the unique name of Hankey, which is also known as the shortened name for a handkerchief. This has contributed significantly to the local economy of the Hankey area.

Transport
Hankey is located on the junction of the R330 and the R331 roads and the Avontuur Railway passes through the town.

See also
 Saartjie Baartman

References

External links

Populated places in the Kouga Local Municipality
1826 establishments in the British Empire


Manuripi  is one of the five provinces of Pando Department in Bolivia and is situated in the northwest of the department. Its name is derived from the Manuripi River, which passes through the province from west to east.

Location
Manuripi province is located between 10° 49’ and 12° 30' South and between 66° 00' and 69° 14' West. It extends over a length of 370 km from Northeast to Southwest, and up to 100 km from Northwest to Southeast.

The province is situated in the Amazon lowlands of Bolivia and borders Abuná Province in the North, Nicolás Suárez Province in the Northwest, Peru in the West, La Paz Department in the South, Madre de Dios Province in the Southeast, Beni Department in the East, and Federico Román Province in the Northeast.

Population
The population of Federico Román Province has increased by 40% over the last two decades:
1992: 7,360 inhabitants (census)
2001: 8,230 inhabitants (census)
2005: 9,505 inhabitants (est.)
2010: 10,164 inhabitants (est.)

47.7% of the population are younger than 15 years old. (1992)

98.0% of the population speak Spanish, 0.4% speak Quechua, and speak 0.2% Aymara. (1992)

The literacy rate of the province's population is 75.4%. (1992)

91.0% of the population have no access to electricity, 68.5% have no sanitary facilities. (1992)

84.4% of the population are Catholics, 14.6% are Protestants. (1992)

Division
The province comprises three municipalities:
Filadelfia Municipality – 3,145 inhabitants (2005)
Puerto Rico Municipality – 4,003 inhabitants
San Pedro Municipality – 1,082 inhabitants

Places of interest
 Manuripi-Heath Amazonian Wildlife National Reserve

References

External links
t_manuripi.htm General map of province
manuripi.htm Detailed map of province towns and rivers
Population data (Spanish)
Social data (Spanish)

Provinces of Pando Department


John Corcoran ( ; born in 1939) is an American author and the founder of the John Corcoran foundation. He is severely dyslexic and read at a second-grade level until the age of 48. Despite this, he graduated from high school and college, and worked as a high school teacher and real estate developer without being discovered.

Early life
Corcoran was raised in Santa Fe, New Mexico where his literacy stalled after second grade. He was one of six siblings, and his parents were too overwhelmed to notice the deficit.  His teachers at school assigned him to the "dumb row" but were distracted by his disciplinary problems and soon forgot about his reading difficulties.

After graduating high school by cheating, he attended two junior colleges and then University of Texas at El Paso (then called Texas Western). Thanks to an athletic scholarship and aggressive, continual cheating, he was able to graduate in 1961 with a bachelor's degree in education and business administration.

He became a high school social studies teacher.  On his personal website, Corcoran describes some of the tricks he used to manage this.

He switched schools but continued as a teacher for 17 years before becoming a real estate developer in 1977. He was successful for ten years, until his business faltered. After seeing Barbara Bush talk about literacy on television, he resolved to finally learn how to read. After receiving tutoring from a volunteer tutor in a literacy program, he became literate at a 6th grade level.

Life after literacy
Since learning to read, he has written two books. He has since become a spokesman for literacy programs, as well as running his own foundation to help people learn to read. He created the John Corcoran Foundation, which trains tutors and helps students learn to read. He has appeared in the international media, but mostly his coverage is from American media. His appearances include an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, National Public Radio's Eye on Books, and interviews in USA Today and other publications.

Books
The Bridge to Literacy: No Child—or Adult—Left Behind
The Teacher Who Couldn't Read: One Man's Triumph Over Illiteracy

References

External links
 The John Corcoran Foundation
Sarah McDermott: ‘I was a teacher for 17 years, but I couldn’t read or write’. BBC News, 15 April 2018

American educators
Living people
American education writers
University of Texas at El Paso alumni
1937 births


The Bua (also Boua) were a medieval Albanian tribe. The name is first attested in 14th-century historical documents as one of the Albanian tribes living in the Despotate of Epirus. Later on, the Bua settled southwards in the Peloponnese, and a part of them found refuge in Italy in the Arbëreshë migrations that followed the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. A branch of the tribe regiments was ennobled in the Holy Roman Empire after its service in the Stratioti, a Balkan mercenary unit. Mërkur Bua (1478 –c. 1542), its most prominent member, was Count of Aquino and Roccasecca.

Name
Bua appears in historical record as both a given name and as a surname. It is often accompanied by the surname Shpata. John VI Kantakouzenos's History written in second half of the 14th century is the first primary source about the Bua tribe. Kantakouzenos writes that the "Albanian tribes of Mazaraki, Bua, Malakasioi were named so after the names of their leaders." Albanian clans traditionally bore the name of their first leader or progenitor, but after intermarriage between different leading families, the identification of the clans became intricate, as in the case of Muriki Bua Spata, who was perhaps the offspring of both Bua and Spata clans.

According to the Greek historian Constantine Sathas, the surname Bua derived from the name of the river Boiana / Buna in Albania and Montenegro, while poet Giuseppe Schirò suggested that the original form of the name was Buchia, from which stem the two forms Bugia and Bokoi. According to Schiró, from the latter derived the form Koboi attested in the Chronicle of the Tocco, and from the indefinite form Kobua, through apheresis of the initial syllable, ultimately derived Bua. Another possible derivation is from Albanian bua ('buffalo').

History
They were semi-nomadic pastoralists, organized in katuns and had no central leadership. From that time, they appear in the history of the Despotate of Epirus and the involvement of Gjin Bua Shpata in the region. The Bua were not patrilineally kin (blood relatives) with the Shpata tribe. The Meksi family is believed to be the first branch of Bua family. As a tribe, they were related to the Shpata via intermarriage. Many of the leaders of the Despotate of Arta appears with Bua as a second surname in historical record. As such, in historiography the Bua are considered to have been among the rulers of the Despotate of Arta and the regions of Aetolia and Acarnania to the south after the Battle of Achelous until 1416. After their loss, the Venetians invited the Bua tribe to settle in the Morea. In 1423, they appear in Venetian records in the Morea under the leadership of Rossus Bua, capu unius comitive Albanensium. The Bua tribe established in Morea amounted to about one or two thousand people in 1423.

After the fall of much of the Morea to the Ottomans, Venice invited them to settle in the Ionian Islands, in particular in Zakynthos in 1473. Many branches of them settled in Italy after 1479 as part of the Arbëreshë migrations. In Italy, many of them joined Stratioti regiments. Between 1481 and 1570, at least 44 Buas appear as stratioti captains. Among them two Gjin, Gjon, Bardh Bua. The best known was Mërkur Bua who in time was ennobled. In modern Greece, in 1504 a branch of the Albanian tribe of Bua who remained in the Ionian Islands were part of the colonization of the abandoned island of Ithaca. The Boua-Grivas as they came to be known in the late 16th century produced the anti-Ottoman rebel and armatolos Theodore Boua-Grivas who started a revolt in Epirus and Acarnania in 1585 with Venetian support.

Members
 Peter Bua ( 1450s), leader of the Albanian community in the Peloponnese after the fall of the Despotate of the Morea.
 Theodore Bua ( 1479), Venetian mercenary captain
 Mercurio Bua (1478–1542), Venetian mercenary captain, son of Pjetër Bua.
 Andrés Bua, Stratiot of the Habsburg Empire of Charles V
 Michele Bua, Stratioti captain in Flanders, France and Italy
 Gianmattia Bua, italian businessman

Sources

Citations

Bibliography

Bua family
Medieval Albanian nobility
Tribes of Albania


The pair skating event was held as part of the figure skating at the 1936 Winter Olympics. It was the sixth appearance of the event, which had previously been held twice at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1920 and at all three Winter Games from 1924 onward. The competition was held on Thursday, 13 February 1936. Thirty-six figure skaters from twelve nations competed.

Results
The points and score are given as shown in the official Olympic report.

Referee:
  Hermann Wendt

Judges:
  Charles M. Rotch
  Kurt Dannenberg
  August Anderberg
  Arnold Huber
  Hans Grünauer
  André Poplimont
  Oscar Kolderup
  Jenő Minnich
  Ludowika Jacobsson

References

External links
 Official Olympic Report
 sports-reference

Figure skating at the 1936 Winter Olympics
1936 in figure skating
1936
Mixed events at the 1936 Winter Olympics


The Thuringia Cup (German: Thüringenpokal) is an annual football competition in Thuringia, Germany. The Thuringia Football Association (German: Thüringer Fußball-Verband, TFV) is its governing body. The cup winner qualifies for next season's DFB-Pokal. It is one of the 21 regional cup competitions in Germany.

Qualification and competition format
All Thuringian clubs competing in 3. Liga, Regionalliga, NOFV-Oberliga Süd, Thüringenliga and Landesklasse Thüringen are eligible to play in the cup. Additionally the winners of the Bezirkspokal competitions qualify. Starting with the 2007–08 season only one team per club may participate.

Thecompetition consists of 6 rounds played in a knock-out format. There is only one match per round, if scores are level after 90 minutes, there is a 2x15 minutes extra time followed by a penalty shootout, if necessary. Fixtures are determined by a draw. Clubs from 3rd Liga and several other teams (determined by a draw) get a first-round bye.

Finals
The finals:

Records
Record winners are FC Carl Zeiss Jena, having won the title 14 times, followed by FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt (9).

The highest attendance record was set on 15 November 2005 in Erfurt. After rivals FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt and FC Carl Zeiss Jena had only met in the final in the preceding years, they met in the quarter-final of the 2005–06 season. Jena took home a 4–2 penalty shootout win in front of 11,000 spectators.

References

Sources
Deutschlands Fußball in Zahlen,  An annual publication with tables and results from the Bundesliga to Verbandsliga/Landesliga, publisher: DSFS

External links
 Fussball.de: Thuringia Cup
 All results of the Thuringia Cup

Recurring sporting events established in 1991
Football cup competitions in Germany
Football competitions in Thuringia
1991 establishments in Germany


Alonso de Cordova y Figueroa (? - August 9, 1698) Spanish soldier born in Concepción, Chile, son of Alonso de Figueroa y Córdoba and father of the historian Pedro de Cordova y Figueroa.  He served as lieutenant, captain of infantry and of cavalry in Lota and San Carlos de Austria; lieutenant general of cavalry and Sargento Mayor of the Captaincy General of Chile.

Sources
 José Toribio Medina,  Diccionario biográfico colonial de Chile, Impr. Elziviriana, Santiago, 1906, Pj. 211 CORDOBA Y FIGUEROA (ALONSO DE)

1698 deaths
17th-century Chilean people
Spanish generals
17th-century Spanish military personnel
Year of birth unknown


Trond R. Reinertsen (born December 12, 1945) is a Norwegian economist and business leader. He has a Ph.D from the University of Utah. From 1978 to 1997 he was chief director of the Norwegian Bank Association.

Reinertsen chaired the State Ownership Select Committee which presented its recommendations (NOU 2004:7) in March 2004. He has been on the board of Norges Bank, and was a state secretary in the Ministry of Finance and Customs from 1989 to 1990, during the Norwegian banking crisis. He also headed the ministry's Finance and Credit Department in the 1970s.

Reinertsen owns Smith Stål as well the trading company E. A. Smith where he is also the president. E. A. Smith owns the Norwegian building materials chain Bygger'n. Reinertsen is a descendant of Elias Anton Smith and thus related to the Cappelen family.

References

1945 births
Living people
University of Utah alumni
Norwegian economists
Norwegian businesspeople
Corporate executives
Businesspeople in construction
Norwegian state secretaries
Conservative Party (Norway) politicians
Place of birth missing (living people)