The Portal Bridge is a two-track moveable swing-span railroad bridge over the Hackensack River in Kearny and Secaucus, New Jersey, United States. It is on the Northeast Corridor just west of Secaucus Junction and east of the Sawtooth Bridges. Owned and operated by Amtrak and used extensively by NJ Transit, it is the busiest train span in the Western Hemisphere, carrying between 150,000 and 200,000 passengers per day on approximately 450 daily trains (an average of one train every six minutes over a 24-hour period).

Originally opened in 1910, the bridge was built by the Pennsylvania Railroad in conjunction with service to the newly constructed Pennsylvania Station in New York City. It is  long. The bridge clearance of  requires it to swing open to allow even small commercial boats to pass underneath it. By the 2000s, the Portal Bridge was considered obsolete and train speeds are limited to .

Replacement of the bridge is the first phase of the Gateway Project. After initially refusing to provide any funding for the project, the Trump administration allowed the project to move forward in February 2020. The bridge replacement is estimated to cost $1.8 billion. Funding comprises $811 million from the State of New Jersey, $766.5 million from the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), $261.5 million from Amtrak and $57.1 million from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Construction of the new bridge was given final approval to proceed in April 2022 and later began on August 1, 2022. The first track on the new bridge is scheduled to be operational in November 2025.

Design and construction
The bridge was built by the Pennsylvania Railroad as part of its New York Tunnel Extension project, which also included the Sawtooth Bridges, North River Tunnels, and Manhattan Transfer station.

The Portal Bridge is a  steel structure with masonry abutments. The bridge consists of a  through-truss swing span and six  open-deck girder approach spans (three on each side of the center span). The bridge itself is partially made of wood.

Construction of the bridge was begun in August 1905, and the bridge was placed in service on November 27, 1910, based on bridge designs from the 1840s. The bridge was designed to last 100 years. Overhead catenary to supply power to electric locomotives was installed in the 1930s.

Some of the bridge machinery was updated in 1931. Minor repairs were made in the 1970s, and major repairs to structural, mechanical and electrical equipment were completed as part of Amtrak's Northeast Corridor Improvement Project between 1982 and 1984. Timbers were replaced in 2019.

Operation

Rail service
Rail traffic is carried over the swing bridge when it is closed. Rail service is currently at capacity, having grown from 40,000 daily passengers in 2005 to 150,000 to 200,000 daily passengers in 2015 on approximately 450 daily trains for Amtrak and New Jersey Transit.

, Amtrak operated some 293 scheduled trains a week in both directions (about 42 per day) over this segment of the Northeast Corridor between Newark Penn Station and New York Penn Station. Five NJ Transit rail lines (Northeast Corridor Line, North Jersey Coast Line, Morris and Essex Lines, Montclair-Boonton Line, and Raritan Valley Line) with 388 trains use the bridge each weekday in both directions.

River traffic
River traffic along the Hackensack River can flow under the swing bridge when it is open. Schedules prohibit the Portal Bridge from opening weekdays 5 am to 10 am and 3 pm to 8 pm, during peak commuter travel periods over the bridge. At other times, the bridge opens on signal if a vessel gives two-hour notice, also in the hours leading up to peak periods, which can affect train schedules.

When closed to river traffic, the bridge bears upon six wedge blocks. Two blocks are at each end of the bridge while two more sit adjacent to the center of the bridge. After the wedges are withdrawn the center-bearing supports the structure as the bridge is opened and returns it to its closed position once the river traffic has passed through one or both of the navigation channels.

, the only regularly scheduled commercial traffic on the river was a barge transporting sludge from the Bergen County Utilities Authority sewage treatment plant in Little Ferry to the Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission plant in Newark. For the last four months of 2014, of the 90 times the bridge was opened, 75 were to provide service to the sludge barge. The bridge has caused numerous delays in train service in order to allow for river service, though Amtrak does not keep specific records of delays. All sludge had been trucked since 2016. In 2021, it was announced that the sludge barges would resume.

Operational issues
The Portal Bridge has been called the Achilles' heel of the Northeast Corridor for several reasons. Currently, the bridge limits train speeds to  The bridge's lowest beams are just  above the surface of the Hackensack River at high tide. As a result, the bridge often has to be opened to allow commercial boats to pass underneath it, which causes more delays for both train and boat traffic.

The Portal Bridge fails to close properly one out of seven times it opens, because the rails can fail to lock into place. In extreme cases, rail crews must bang the rails into place with sledgehammers before trains can cross. One report in 2019 estimated that the North River Tubes and the Portal Bridge contributed to 2,000 hours of delays between 2014 and 2018.

Accidents and incidents

1996 derailment
The bridge was site of a derailment on November 23, 1996 when the swing bridge failed to close properly. Amtrak's northbound  train #12, with twelve passenger and mail coaches pulled by two locomotives on a Washington-to-Boston run with 88 passengers and 20 crew members, derailed as it reached the bridge. It sideswiped the southbound , but continued across the bridge, prevented from plunging through the trestles into the river by guide rails that parallel the main tracks. Then its twin locomotives, a baggage car, and three passenger coaches plunged over an embankment.

There were no deaths. Thirty-four people were hospitalized. The reason for the derailment was that a rail was 5 inches higher than it was supposed to be, and acted as a ramp. As a result of the derailment, the maximum speed on the bridge was lowered to , making the bridge a choke point for the entire Northeast Corridor. The cost of the derailment was estimated at $3.6 million.

Fires
On May 13, 2005, the bridge caught on fire. NJ Transit engineers believe that the 13kV overhead electrical wires overheated, sending shards of metal towards the creosote-covered wooden fenders at the base of the bridge. The immediate result of the fire was to block all traffic until the next morning. The cost of the incident was $5 million.

On August 4, 2014, the bridge caught on fire, interrupting rail traffic for half an hour.

Replacement

Planning
The bridge requires millions of dollars of yearly maintenance. According to several officials, the bridge is considered a "choke-point" which reduces the potential speed and capacity of the line. These officials include U.S. Sen. Bob Menendez (NJ); Drew Galloway, Amtrak Assistant V.P. of Planning and Development and the chief of Planning and Performance for the Northeast Corridor; New Jersey Transit Executive Director Richard Sarles.

In December 2008, the Federal Railroad Administration approved a $1.34 billion project to replace the Portal Bridge with two new bridges: a three-track bridge to the north, and a two-track bridge to the south. The new bridges were then scheduled to be completed in 2017, at which time the Portal Bridge was to be dismantled. In course of design work the number of tracks on the north bridge has been reduced from three to two.

Design work progressed in 2009 and 2010. In 2009, New Jersey applied for $38.5 million in funding for the replacement from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. On January 28, 2010, the federal funds were released as a TIGER grant as part of a larger package of $112 million for the entire Northeast Corridor. The $38.5 million in federal funds were intended for final design for the new bridge.

The original timeline for the project called for construction of the new bridge to begin in 2010, with the bridge replacement to be complete by 2017. Due to cancellation of the Access to the Region's Core project by New Jersey governor Chris Christie in 2010, as well to as funding issues, this original plan was reduced to a single two-track bridge constructed north of the current bridge with room for a new bridge south of the current bridge left open to follow.

In 2014, design work for the new Portal Bridge North had been completed. The proposed Portal Bridge North would be a fixed span rising over  above mean water level, and would allow train speeds of at least . The new bridge would be a part of the Amtrak Gateway Project—itself a partial replacement of the Access to the Region's Core—estimated to cost $13.5 billion.

Preliminary site-preparation work for one span, Portal Bridge North, began in October 2017 and was expected to be complete in 2019.

Delays
Progress on the Portal Bridge North had stalled due to lack of funding. In April 2011, Amtrak applied for federal funding of $570 million for construction, with New Jersey expected to commit $150 million. , however, the project was lacking $940 million in funding. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey planned to contribute $300 million to the project.

Funding
In October 2015, a $16 million TIGER grant was awarded for use to support early construction activities such as realignment of a 138kV transmission monopole, constructing a temporary fiber optic cable pole line, building a finger pier construction access structure, a service access road and a 560-foot retaining wall. The work was completed in February 2019.

, the expected schedule was for engineering phase to begin in 2017 and revenue service to start in 2024. In May 2017, NJ Transit awarded a contract to carry out this work. In June 2017, the Gateway Development Corporation formally applied for federal funding for the project. The Federal Transit Administration (FTA) approved the Environmental Impact Statement for the replacement bridge in August 2017. Construction on the first of two replacement bridges began in October 2017. Amtrak has estimated the cost of the bridge's replacement to be $1.5 billion.

Jersey City, which owns a  parcel originally earmarked for preservation and recreation, will sell it to make way for construction of the bridge.

In June 2018, the State of New Jersey approved $600 million in bonds to finance the project. Despite state funding, the federal government withheld funds for the project. On June 24, 2019, the state governments of New York and New Jersey passed legislation to create the bi-state Gateway Development Commission, whose job it is to oversee the planning, funding, and construction of the rail tunnels and bridges of Gateway Program. In September 2019, NJ Transit submitted a revised plan to the federal government clarifying the "local" contribution, which includes funding from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Amtrak.

On February 10, 2020, the replacement project was upgraded to "medium-high" priority by the FTA, thereby becoming eligible for funding under the Capital Investment Grants Program. Despite his skepticism of the Gateway Program, President Donald Trump signaled that he would not stand in the way of the Portal Bridge Replacement Project after dinner with New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy. In early July 2020, the FTA approved $767 million in funding for the project. In late May, Amtrak received $55 million from the same agency for the replacement bridge.

Construction
On October 12, 2021, the NJ Transit board awarded a $1.56 billion construction contract for the new bridge. The first track on the new bridge will be operational in November 2025. The second track will be operational in July 2026, with the project completed in 2027. Construction of the new bridge was given final approval to proceed in April 2022. After multiple delays, construction on the new bridge began on August 1, 2022.

See also

 List of crossings of the Hackensack River
 Sawtooth Bridges
 List of bridges, tunnels, and cuts in Hudson County, New Jersey
 List of NJ Transit movable bridges

References

External links

 Amtrak - Portal North Bridge Project
 "The Portal Bridge Link" - Enhancement project newsletter, January 2007
 NTSB Special Investigation Report regarding 1997 derailment
 Movable Railroad Bridges of New Jersey-photo catalog
 Record of Decision (2008) - Federal Railroad Administration

Amtrak bridges
Bridges completed in 1910
Bridges over the Hackensack River
NJ Transit bridges
Pennsylvania Railroad bridges
Railroad bridges in New Jersey
Swing bridges in the United States
Bridges in Hudson County, New Jersey
Steel bridges in the United States
Pratt truss bridges in the United States
Kearny, New Jersey
Secaucus, New Jersey


This is a full list of color palettes for notable video game console hardware.

For each unique palette, an image color test chart and sample image (original True color version follows) rendered with that palette (without dithering unless otherwise noted) are given. The test chart shows the full 8-bit, 256 levels of the red, green and blue (RGB) primary colors and cyan, magenta and yellow complementary colors, along with a full 8-bit, 256 levels grayscale. Gradients of full saturation of intermediate colors (orange, yellow-green, green-cyan, blue-cyan, violet, and red-magenta), and a full hue spectrum are also present. Color charts are not gamma corrected.

Atari

Atari 2600

The Television Interface Adaptor (TIA) is the custom computer chip that generated graphics for the Atari Video Computer System game console.
It generated different YIQ color palettes dependent on the television signal format used.

NTSC
With the NTSC format, a 128-color palette was available, built based on eight luma values and 15 combinations of I and Q chroma signals (plus I = Q = 0 for a pure grayscale):

{|
|
|
| style="vertical-align:top;" |
|}

{|class="wikitable"
! Hue
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 0
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 1
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 2
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 3
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 4
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 5
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 6
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 7
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 8
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 9
| 10
| 11
| 12
| 13
| 14
| 15
|-
!Luma
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 0, 1
| style="color:white; background:#000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#440;" |
| style="color:white; background:#702800;" |
| style="color:white; background:#841800;" |
| style="color:white; background:#880000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#78005c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#480078;" |
| style="color:white; background:#140084;" |
| style="color:white; background:#000088;" |
| style="color:white; background:#00187c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#002c5c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#003c2c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#003c00;" |
| style="color:white; background:#143800;" |
| style="color:white; background:#2c3000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#442800;" |
|-
| 2, 3
| style="color:white; background:#404040;" |
| style="color:white; background:#646410;" |
| style="color:white; background:#844414;" |
| style="color:white; background:#983418;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9c2020;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8c2074;" |
| style="color:white; background:#602090;" |
| style="color:white; background:#302098;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c209c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c3890;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c4c78;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c5c48;" |
| style="color:white; background:#205c20;" |
| style="color:white; background:#345c1c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#4c501c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#644818;" |
|-
| 4, 5
| style="color:white; background:#6c6c6c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#848424;" |
| style="color:white; background:#985c28;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ac5030;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b03c3c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a03c88;" |
| style="color:white; background:#783ca4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#4c3cac;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3840b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3854a8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#386890;" |
| style="color:white; background:#387c64;" |
| style="color:white; background:#407c40;" |
| style="color:white; background:#507c38;" |
| style="color:white; background:#687034;" |
| style="color:white; background:#846830;" |
|-
| 6, 7
| style="color:white; background:#909090;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a0a034;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ac783c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c06848;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c05858;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b0589c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8c58b8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6858c0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#505cc0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5070bc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5084ac;" |
| style="color:white; background:#509c80;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5c9c5c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6c9850;" |
| style="color:white; background:#848c4c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a08444;" |
|-
| 8, 9
| style="color:white; background:#b0b0b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b8b840;" |
| style="color:white; background:#bc8c4c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0805c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d07070;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c070b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a070cc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7c70d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6874d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6888cc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#689cc0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#68b494;" |
| style="color:white; background:#74b474;" |
| style="color:white; background:#84b468;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9ca864;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b89c58;" |
|-
| 10, 11
| style="color:white; background:#c8c8c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0d050;" |
| style="color:white; background:#cca05c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e09470;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e08888;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d084c0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b484dc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9488e0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7c8ce0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7c9cdc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7cb4d4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7cd0ac;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8cd08c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9ccc7c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4c078;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0b46c;" |
|-
| 12, 13
| style="color:white; background:#dcdcdc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e8e85c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#dcb468;" |
| style="color:white; background:#eca880;" |
| style="color:white; background:#eca0a0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#dc9cd0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c49cec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a8a0ec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90a4ec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90b4ec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90cce8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90e4c0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4e4a4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4e490;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ccd488;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e8cc7c;" |
|-
| 14, 15
| style="color:white; background:#ececec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fcfc68;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ecc878;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fcbc94;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fcb4b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ecb0e0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d4b0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#bcb4fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4b8fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4c8fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4e0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4fcd4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b8fcb8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c8fca4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e0ec9c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fce08c;" |
|}
The above image assumes there is no limit on the number of colors per scan line. With the system's actual color restrictions (and proper change in aspect ratio), the same image would look very different:
{|
|
|}

PAL
With the PAL format, a 104-color palette was available. 128-color entries could still be selected, but due to the different color encoding scheme, 32 color entries results in the same eight shades of gray:

{|
|
|
|style="vertical-align:top;" |
|}

{|class="wikitable" style="border-style: none" border="1" cellpadding="5"
! Hue
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 0
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 1
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 2
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 3
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 4
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 5
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 6
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 7
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 8
|style="width: 16px; text-align: center;" | 9
| 10
| 11
| 12
| 13
| 14
| 15
|-
!Luma
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| 0, 1
| style="color:white; background:#000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#805800;" |
| style="color:white; background:#445c00;" |
| style="color:white; background:#703400;" |
| style="color:white; background:#006414;" |
| style="color:white; background:#700014;" |
| style="color:white; background:#005c5c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#70005c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#003c70;" |
| style="color:white; background:#580070;" |
| style="color:white; background:#002070;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3c0080;" |
| style="color:white; background:#000088;" |
| style="color:white; background:#000;" |
| style="color:white; background:#000;" |
|-
| 2, 3
| style="color:white; background:#282828;" |
| style="color:white; background:#282828;" |
| style="color:white; background:#947020;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5c7820;" |
| style="color:white; background:#885020;" |
| style="color:white; background:#208034;" |
| style="color:white; background:#882034;" |
| style="color:white; background:#207474;" |
| style="color:white; background:#842074;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c5888;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6c2088;" |
| style="color:white; background:#1c3c88;" |
| style="color:white; background:#542094;" |
| style="color:white; background:#20209c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#282828;" |
| style="color:white; background:#282828;" |
|-
| 4, 5
| style="color:white; background:#505050;" |
| style="color:white; background:#505050;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a8843c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#74903c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a0683c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3c9850;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a03c50;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3c8c8c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#943c88;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3874a0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#803ca0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3858a0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6c3ca8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#3c3cb0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#505050;" |
| style="color:white; background:#505050;" |
|-
| 6, 7
| style="color:white; background:#747474;" |
| style="color:white; background:#747474;" |
| style="color:white; background:#bc9c58;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8cac58;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b48458;" |
| style="color:white; background:#58b06c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4586c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#58a4a4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a8589c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#508cb4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9458b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5074b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8058bc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#5858c0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#747474;" |
| style="color:white; background:#747474;" |
|-
| 8, 9
| style="color:white; background:#949494;" |
| style="color:white; background:#949494;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ccac70;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a0c070;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c89870;" |
| style="color:white; background:#70c484;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c87084;" |
| style="color:white; background:#70b8b8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b470b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#68a4c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a470c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#6888c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9470cc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7070d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#949494;" |
| style="color:white; background:#949494;" |
|-
| 10, 11
| style="color:white; background:#b4b4b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4b4b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#dcc084;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b0d484;" |
| style="color:white; background:#dcac84;" |
| style="color:white; background:#84d89c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#dc849c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#84c8c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c484c0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7cb8dc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b484dc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#7ca0dc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a884dc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#8484e0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4b4b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b4b4b4;" |
|-
| 12, 13
| style="color:white; background:#d0d0d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0d0d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ecd09c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c4e89c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ecc09c;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9ce8b4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ec9cb4;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9cdcdc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d09cd0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90ccec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c49cec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#90b4ec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b89cec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#9c9cec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0d0d0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d0d0d0;" |
|-
| 14, 15
| style="color:white; background:#ececec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ececec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fce0b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d4fcb0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fcd4b0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b0fcc8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#fcb0c8;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b0ecec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#e0b0e0;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4e0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#d4b0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#a4c8fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#c8b0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#b0b0fc;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ececec;" |
| style="color:white; background:#ececec;" |
|}

The above image assumes there is no limit on the number of colors per scanline. With the system's actual color restrictions (and proper change in aspect ratio), the same image would look very different:
{|
|
|}

SECAM
{|
|
|
|}
The SECAM palette was reduced to a simple 3-bit RGB, containing only 8 colors (black, blue, red, magenta, green, cyan, yellow and white) by mapping the luma values:

{|class="wikitable" style="border-style: none; text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="5"
| style="width: 16px; color:white; background:#000;"| 0, 1
| style="width: 16px; color:white; background:#2121ff;"| 2, 3
| style="width: 16px; color:white; background:#ff0000;"| 4, 5
| style="width: 16px; color:black; background:#ff50ff;"| 6, 7
| style="width: 16px; color:black; background:#7fff00;"| 8, 9
| style="width: 16px; color:black; background:#7fffff;"| 10, 11
| style="width: 16px; color:black; background:#ffff3f;"| 12, 13
| style="width: 16px; color:black; background:#fff;"| 14, 15
|}

Lynx

The Atari Lynx used a 4096-color palette. The video hardware was custom built and designed by Jay Miner and David Morse It used two chips, named Mikey and Suzy.
Resolution was 160×102 pixels and it was possible to use 16 simultaneous colors per scanline.

{|
|
|
|}

Nintendo

Nintendo Entertainment System
The Picture Processing Unit (PPU) used in the Nintendo Entertainment System generates color based on a composite video palette.

The 54-colors can be created based on four luma values, twelve combinations of I and Q chroma signals and two series of I = Q = 0 for several pure grays.
There are two identical whites, one of the blacks has less-than-zero brightness, and one of the lighter grays is within 2% of another, so sometimes the palette has been reported to have 52 to 55 colors.

In addition to this, it had 3 color emphasis bits which can be used to dim the entire palette by any combination of red, green and blue. This extends the total available colors to 448, but inconveniently divided into 8 variations of the base 56. Because it affects the whole palette at once it may be considered more of a filter effect applied to the image, rather than an increased palette range.

The PPU produces colors outside of the TV color gamut, resulting in some colors being presented differently on different TV systems.

{|
|
|
|style="vertical-align:top;" |
|}

{|class="wikitable" style="border-style: none; text-align: center;" border="1" cellpadding="5"
|-
| style="width: 10pc;" | Hex Value
| style="width: 4pc;" | 0
| style="width: 4pc;" | 1
| style="width: 4pc;" | 2
| style="width: 4pc;" | 3
| style="width: 4pc;" | 4
| style="width: 4pc;" | 5
| style="width: 4pc;" | 6
| style="width: 4pc;" | 7
| style="width: 4pc;" | 8
| style="width: 4pc;" | 9
| style="width: 4pc;" | A
| style="width: 4pc;" | B
| style="width: 4pc;" | C
| style="width: 4pc;" | D
| style="width: 4pc;" | E
| style="width: 4pc;" | F
|-
| 0x00
| style="color:white; background:#59595f;"|
| style="color:white; background:#00008f;"|
| style="color:white; background:#18008f;"|
| style="color:white; background:#3f0077;"|
| style="color:white; background:#505;"|
| style="color:white; background:#501;"|
| style="color:white; background:#500;"|
| style="color:white; background:#420;"|
| style="color:white; background:#330;"|
| style="color:white; background:#130;"|
| style="color:white; background:#031;"|
| style="color:white; background:#044;"|
| style="color:white; background:#046;"|
| style="color:white; background:#000;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
|-
| 0x10
| style="color:black; background:#aaa;"|
| style="color:white; background:#04d;"|
| style="color:white; background:#51e;"|
| style="color:white; background:#70e;"|
| style="color:white; background:#90b;"|
| style="color:white; background:#a05;"|
| style="color:white; background:#930;"|
| style="color:white; background:#840;"|
| style="color:white; background:#660;"|
| style="color:white; background:#360;"|
| style="color:white; background:#060;"|
| style="color:white; background:#065;"|
| style="color:white; background:#058;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
|-
| 0x20
| style="color:black; background:#eee;"|
| style="color:black; background:#48f;"|
| style="color:black; background:#77f;"|
| style="color:black; background:#94f;"|
| style="color:black; background:#b4e;"|
| style="color:black; background:#c59;"|
| style="color:black; background:#d64;"|
| style="color:black; background:#c80;"|
| style="color:black; background:#ba0;"|
| style="color:black; background:#7b0;"|
| style="color:black; background:#2b2;"|
| style="color:black; background:#2b7;"|
| style="color:black; background:#2bc;"|
| style="color:white; background:#444;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
|-
| 0x30
| style="color:black; background:#eee;"|
| style="color:black; background:#9cf;"|
| style="color:black; background:#aaf;"|
| style="color:black; background:#b9f;"|
| style="color:black; background:#d9f;"|
| style="color:black; background:#e9d;"|
| style="color:black; background:#eaa;"|
| style="color:black; background:#eb9;"|
| style="color:black; background:#ed8;"|
| style="color:black; background:#bd8;"|
| style="color:black; background:#9d9;"|
| style="color:black; background:#9db;"|
| style="color:black; background:#9de;"|
| style="color:black; background:#aaa;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
| style="color:white; background:#080808;"|
|}

The NES PPU uses a background palette with up to 13 of these colors at a time, consisting of one common backdrop color and four subpalettes of three colors, chosen from the above set. The PPU's video memory layout allows choosing one subpalette for each 16×16 pixel area of the background. (A special video mode of the MMC5 mapper overrides this, assigning a subpalette to each 8×8-pixel tile.) Sprites have an additional set of four 3-color subpalettes (with color 0 being transparent in each) and every 8x8 or 8x16 pixels can have their own subpalette, allowing for a total of 12 different colors to use for sprites at any given time, or a total of 25 on-screen colors.

Because of the constraints mentioned above, converting a photograph often results in attribute clash at 16×16-pixel boundaries. Conversions with and without dithering follow, using the hex palette 0F160608 0F162720 0F090010 0F0A1910 (the repeated 0F represents black as the common backdrop color).

{|
| Without dithering
| With dithering
|-
|
|
|}

Game Boy
The original Game Boy uses a monochrome 4-shade palette. Because the non-backlit LCD display background is greenish, this results in a "greenscale" graphic display, as it is shown in the simulated image (at Game Boy display resolution), below. The Game Boy Pocket and Game Boy Light uses a monochrome 4-shade palette using actual gray.

{|
| Original Game Boy
| Game Boy Pocket/Light
|-
|
|
|}

Super Nintendo Entertainment System
The Picture Processing Unit (PPU) used in the Super Nintendo Entertainment System has a 15-bit RGB (32,768 color) palette, with up to 256 simultaneous colors.

However, while the hardware palette can only contain 256 entries, in most display modes the graphics are arranged into between 2 and 4 layers, and these layers can be combined using additive or subtractive color blending.
Because these blended colors are calculated by the hardware itself, and do not have to be represented by any of the existing palette entries, the actual number of visible colors onscreen at any one time can be much higher.

The exact number depends on the number of layers, and the combination of colors used by these layers, as well as what blending mode and graphical effects are in use. In theory it can show the entire 32,768 colors, but in practice this is rarely the case for reasons such as memory use. Most games use 256-color mode, with 15-color palettes assigned to 8x8 pixel areas of the background.

{|
| Theoretical 32768-color
| Practical 256-color
|-
|
|
|}

Game Boy Color
The Game Boy Color systems use a 15-bit RGB (32,768 colors) palette.

The specific Game Boy Color (Type 3) game cartridges presents up to 56 colors without the use of special programming techniques from the full 32,768. From these, 32 are for a background palette, plus 8 hardware sprite palettes, with 3 colors plus transparent each. Typically sprite palettes share some colors (black, white or others), so the total colors displayed may be less than 56.

Though there is a 56 color limit, this in of itself is a palette storage limit and not an actual hardware limitation. As such, the programmer can swap out the palettes on a per-scanline basis. Because of this ability to swap out the palettes each scanline, over eight thousand colors can actually appear on screen per frame when programmed on a per-scanline basis.

{|
|Simulated
|-
|
|}

When an older monochrome original Game Boy game cartridge (Type 1) is plugged-in, if certain combinations of the controls are held during startup (or if the game is recognized from a hard-coded list in the device's ROM), the games are colorized with one of the factory 12 false color palettes. In this mode, games can have from 4 to 10 colors, four are for the background plane palette and there are two more hardware sprite plane palettes, with three colors plus transparent each. If the system does not have a palette stored for a game, it defaults to the "Dark green" palette.

The following shows these startup palettes (background plus both sprite planes) and the combination of controls used (the names are taken from the Game Boy Color user's manual; the colors are simulated):

{|
! Combo
! Up
! Down
! Left
! Right
|-
|
| Brown
| Pale yellow
| Blue
| Green
|-
! A
| Red
| Orange
| Dark blue
| Dark green
|-
! B
| Dark brown
| Yellow
| Gray
| Reverse
|}

{|
|Game Boy color palette mapping
|-
|
|}

Game Boy Advance
The Game Boy Advance/Advance SP/Micro systems also uses a 15-bit RGB palette, and along with the original and Color modes, they have also a specific Highcolor 32,768 colors mode. The LCD displays of the Micro and some models of the SP are backlit, giving brighter images.

{|
| Compatible mode
| 32,768-color
|-
|
|
|}

Nintendo DS

The Nintendo DS has a display capable of using 18-bit RGB color palette, making a total of 262,144 possible colors; of these, 32,767 simultaneous colors can be displayed at once. The 18-bit color palette is only available in 3D video mode or in 2D modes when blending effects are used. The other video modes are similar to the GBA, but feature some enhancements. For example, the DS provides a number of 16 extended 256 color palettes for backgrounds as well as sprites on each of the two screens, allowing for a total of 8192 colors per frame (the practical number may be less due to some of the colors being considered transparent). The handheld's successor, Nintendo DS Lite, has brighter screens which makes some old GBA and NDS titles look different.

{|
|
|
|}

Nintendo 3DS
The Nintendo 3DS has a 24-bit RGB palette.

Sega

Master System
The Master System had a 6-bit RGB palette (64 colors), with 31 colors on-screen at once. It is possible to display all 64 colors at once using raster effects (line interrupts). The console used a proprietary chip called Video Display Processor (VDP) with the same internal design as the Texas Instruments TMS9918 (used in the SG-1000), although with enhanced features such as extra colors.

There are only 512 different 8x8 tile patterns to cover the screen though, when 768 would be required for a complete 256x192 screen. This means that at least 1/3 of the tiles will have to be repeated. To help maximize tile reuse, they can be flipped either vertically or horizontally. The 64 sprites of 8x16 pixels can also be used to help to cover the screen (max 8 per scanline).

Because of the constraints mentioned above, there are no current accurate simulated screen images available for the Sega Master System.

{|
|
|
|style="vertical-align:top;" |
|}

Mega Drive/Genesis and Pico
The Mega Drive/Genesis and Pico used the Sega 315-5313 (Yamaha YM7101) Video Display Processor, providing a 9-bit RGB palette (512 colors, up to approximately 1500 including shadow and highlight mode) with up to 61 colors on-screen at once without raster effects (4 palette lines of 16 colors each, palette indices $x0 are definable but considered as transparent, and can only be used as the background color).

{|
|
|
|}

Game Gear
The Game Gear had a 12-bit RGB palette (4096 colors), with 32 colors on-screen at once.

{|
|
|
|}

32X

The Sega 32X had a 15-bit RGB palette (32768 colors), with all colors available for display.

{|
|
|
|}

NEC

TurboGrafx-16
The TurboGrafx-16 used a 9-bit RGB palette consisting of 512 colors with 482 colors on-screen at once (16 background palettes of 16 colors each, with at least 1 common color among all background palettes, and 16 sprite palettes of 15 colors each, plus transparent which is visible as the overscan area).

{|
|
|
|}

Fairchild

Channel F
The Fairchild Channel F is able to use one plane of graphics and one of four background colors per line, with three plot colors to choose from (red, green, and blue) that turned into white if the background is set to black, at a resolution of 128 × 64, with approximately 102 × 58 pixels visible. In total there are 8 possible colors.
{|
|
|
|
|}

Mattel Electronics

Intellivision

The Intellivision graphics are powered by the Standard Television Interface Chip (STIC), generating a 16-color palette.

Epoch

Super Cassette Vision

The Super Cassette Vision, equipped with an EPOCH TV-1 video processor, uses a 16-color palette.

Magnavox

Odyssey 2

The Magnavox Odyssey 2 is equipped with an Intel 8244 (NTSC) or 8245 (PAL) custom IC, and uses a 4-bit RGBI color palette. Bits 0 to 2 define Grid color, bits 3 to 5 define Background color, bit 6 defines Grid luminance (0=dim/1=bright) and bit 7 is unused.
{|
|
|
|}

See also
Color depth
Computer monitor
Indexed color
List of 8-bit computer hardware palettes
List of 16-bit computer hardware palettes
List of color palettes
List of home computers by video hardware
List of monochrome and RGB color formats
List of software palettes
Palette (computing)

References

Computer graphics
Color depths
Computing output devices


In probability and statistics, the 97.5th percentile point of the standard normal distribution is a number commonly used for statistical calculations. The approximate value of this number is 1.96, meaning that 95% of the area under a normal curve lies within approximately 1.96 standard deviations of the mean. Because of the central limit theorem, this number is used in the construction of approximate 95% confidence intervals. Its ubiquity is due to the arbitrary but common convention of using confidence intervals with 95% probability in science and frequentist statistics, though other probabilities (90%, 99%, etc.) are sometimes used. This convention seems particularly common in medical statistics, but is also common in other areas of application, such as earth sciences, social sciences and business research.

There is no single accepted name for this number; it is also commonly referred to as the "standard normal deviate", "normal score" or "Z score" for the 97.5 percentile point, the .975 point, or just its approximate value, 1.96.

If X has a standard normal distribution, i.e. X ~ N(0,1),

and as the normal distribution is symmetric,

One notation for this number is z.975. From the probability density function of the standard normal distribution, the exact value of z.975 is determined by

History

The use of this number in applied statistics can be traced to the influence of Ronald Fisher's classic textbook, Statistical Methods for Research Workers, first published in 1925:

In Table 1 of the same work, he gave the more precise value 1.959964.
In 1970, the value truncated to 20 decimal places was calculated to be
1.95996 39845 40054 23552...

The commonly used approximate value of 1.96 is therefore accurate to better than one part in 50,000, which is more than adequate for applied work.

Some people even use the value of 2 in the place of 1.96, reporting a 95.4% confidence interval as a 95% confidence interval. This is not recommended but is occasionally seen.

Software functions
The inverse of the standard normal CDF can be used to compute the value. The following is a table of function calls that return 1.96 in some commonly used applications:

See also
Margin of error
Probit
Reference range
Standard error (statistics)
68–95–99.7 rule

References

Further reading

Estimation theory
Normal distribution
Mathematical constants


Floyd Holmes (March 6, 1910 – January 1, 1970), better known as Salty Holmes, was an American country musician, harmonica player and Western B-movie actor.

Biography
Holmes was born in Glasgow, Kentucky. He became a virtuoso on the harmonica, specializing in the style known as "talking harp" which imitated the human voice (much like Sonny Terry). He also played the jug and guitar. He formed the group The Kentucky Ramblers in 1930, who changed their name to The Prairie Ramblers in 1933 and began broadcasting on Chicago radio station WLS-AM with new vocalist Patsy Montana. They continued performing and recording under this name until 1952, playing country, hillbilly music, gospel, and pop songs. They were the backing group on Montana's platinum hit "I Want to Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart". Group members included Jack Taylor on bass, Chick Hurt on mandolin, and Alan Crocket and, later, Tex Atchison on fiddle. They made over 100 recordings between 1933 and 1940, including as session musicians.

The Prairie Ramblers have been called a "hot string band" and "a hot fiddler band". Both their "aggressive rhythms" and Chick Hurt's mandolin playing inspired Bill Monroe, the "father of bluegrass", and a mandolin virtuoso.

While a member of the Prairie Ramblers, Holmes befriended Gene Autry, who invited him to Hollywood to star in Westerns in 1936 and 1944; among the films Holmes appeared in are Arizona Days and Saddle Leather Law. In a scene of Arizona Days, Holmes played two harmonicas using his mouth and nose. The Prairie Ramblers also backed Autry on some of his recordings in the 1930s.

He collaborated with Jean Chapel as Mattie & Salty, playing regularly on the Grand Ole Opry; the two married in 1947 and divorced in 1956 and had two daughters named Barbara Holmes Hale and Lana (Chapel) who was part of their act as a young child.

References
Citations

Sources

 Neil V. Rosenberg & Charles K. Wolfe. The Music of Bill Monroe (Music in American Life). University of Illinois, 2007.

External links

1910 births
1970 deaths
American country harmonica players
Country musicians from Kentucky
People from Glasgow, Kentucky
Four Star Records artists
Vocalion Records artists
20th-century American musicians


Gregory A. Presnell (born November 10, 1942) is a senior United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida.

Education and career

Presnell received his Bachelor of Arts degree in economics from the College of William & Mary in 1964. He received his Juris Doctor from the Fredric G. Levin College of Law at the University of Florida in 1966. He was in private practice in Orlando, Florida from 1966 until 2000, serving also for part of that time in the United States Army Reserve from 1967 to 1973.

Federal judicial service

On June 8, 2000, he was nominated by President Bill Clinton to a new seat on the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida established by 113 Stat. 1501. He was confirmed by the Senate on July 21, 2000, and received his commission on July 31, 2000. On April 1, 2012, he assumed senior status. He was succeeded by Judge Sheri Polster Chappell.

Notable cases

 In the 2006 case Avista Management, Inc. v. Waussau Underwriters Insurance Company, Judge Presnell ordered the representatives of the two parties to compete in a game of "rock, paper, scissors" to determine which party could select the location for a pre-trial deposition, a matter he considered should have been trivially simple to come to agreement on. Presnell's comments on the crack/powder sentencing disparity were also noted by the media in that year.

 In October 2016, he dismissed the H-1B visa lawsuit that two IT workers brought against Disney for  outsourcing their jobs.

 In June 2023 Presnell granted a preliminary injunction in a case challenging the constitutionality of Florida's statutory ban on drag show performances. He ruled that the statute both failed to survive strict scrutiny, which is necessary since it regulated speech on the basis of content, and that it was vague and over-broad.

References

External links

1942 births
20th-century American judges
21st-century American judges
College of William & Mary alumni
Fredric G. Levin College of Law alumni
Judges of the United States District Court for the Middle District of Florida
Living people
Lawyers from Tampa, Florida
United States Army reservists
United States district court judges appointed by Bill Clinton


This is a list of notable RGB hardware color palettes used on 16-bit computers, which were primarily manufactured from 1985 to 1995. Due to mixed-bit architectures, the n-bit distinction is not always a strict categorization.

{|
| Sample image
| Color test chart
| 12-bit, 4096-color palette
| 15-bit, 32768-color palette
|-
|
|
|
|
|}

Atari

ST series
The Atari ST series has a digital-to-analog converter of 3-bits, eight levels per RGB channel, featuring a 9-bit RGB palette (512 colors).
Depending on the (proprietary) monitor type attached, it displays one of the 320×200, 16-colors and 640×200, 4-colors modes with the color monitor, or the high resolution 640×400 black and white mode with the monochrome monitor.

{|
|2 colors
|4 colors
|16 colors
|-
|
|
|
|}

2-color mode color values:
{| class="wikitable" style="color: white;"
|-
| style="color:white; background:black; width:8.5pc;"| 0 – black
| style="color:black; background:white; width:8.5pc;"| 1 – [user-defined]
|}

The STE series has a digital-to-analog converter of 4-bits, sixteen levels per RGB channel, featuring a 12-bit RGB palette (4096 colors) (similar to the Commodore Amiga).

Commodore

Amiga OCS
The Original Chip Set (OCS) of the Commodore Amiga features a 12-bit RGB, 4,096-color palette. As the Amiga Copper programmable graphics coprocessor is capable of changing color lookup table entries on the fly during display, in practice the number of distinct colors visible on-screen may exceed static color lookup table sizes documented here.

5-bit
The picture is divided in a series of bit planes, between 1 and 6 for horizontal resolutions of 320 (or up to 384 with overscan), and between 1 and 4 for horizontal resolutions of 640 (or up to 768 with overscan). For either horizontal resolution, the vertical resolution is either 200 (or up to 240 with overscan), or 400 (or up to 480 with overscan) if interlaced, for NTSC-compatible video modes; or 256 (or up to 288 with overscan), or 512 (or up to 576 with overscan) if interlaced, for PAL-compatible video modes. The color lookup table has up to 32 entries. So the different indexed color modes are from 1 to 5 bits pixel depth, 2-, 4-, 8-, 16- or 32-color out of 4,096.

{|
|2 colors
|4 colors
|8 colors
|16 colors
|32 colors
|-
|
|
|
|
|
|}

6-bit
When the sixth bit-plane is used, two extra color modes can be set: Extra Half-Brite (EHB) and Hold-And-Modify (HAM).

In the EHB mode, when the sixth bit is set to on for any given pixel, the display hardware halves the brightness of said pixel. This allows the Amiga to display 64 colors instead of the standard 32, with the caveat being that the 32 extra colors cannot be arbitrarily selected, and must be darker versions of those already being displayed on screen

In the HAM mode, the two higher bits of the 6-bits pixels are used as a four state command. Three of the states changes only the red, green or blue component of the pixel respect of the precedent in the scan line, and hold the other two RGB components. The new value for the modified color component is in the four lower bits. The remaining command state forces the pixel value to be one of the 16 first values of the palette, whose indice is in the four lower bits of the pixel. So it is very important to have a well selected palette, or the color will spread easily among consecutive pixels in the scan line of the image. This mode can display all of the 4,096 colors simultaneously.

{|
|64 colors (EHB mode)
|4096 colors (HAM mode)
|-
|
|
|}

Amiga ECS

Apple

Apple IIGS
Apple IIGS, along with full compatible graphic modes with the Apple II, features a custom Video Graphics Chip (VGC) which supports a 12-bit RGB, 4,096-color palette. It has an extended set of 320×200 and 640×200 graphic modes, (called Super High-Res modes by Apple) with different (and a bit complex) color modes:
 320×200 with 16 palettes of 16 selected colors out of 4,096 each. Every single scan line can be assigned to one of the sixteen palettes, so it can have up to 16×16=256 different simultaneous colors (although some common colors like black and white are usually shared among the different palettes, giving fewer than 256 total different colors). The most simple way to use this mode is having a unique 16-color selection for the entire screen and assign it to all scan lines. Here are shown the sample image both using a single shared palette and using all the 16 palettes (in this case, by dividing the image into 16 strips):

 640×200 with 16 palettes of 8 selected colors out of 4,096 each. Every single scan line can be assigned to one of the sixteen palettes, so it can have up to 8×16=128 different simultaneous colors (usually less due to shared colors). In a single scan line, even column pixels can have one of the first four colors of the line's assigned palette, and odd column pixels one of the last four colors of the eight. The most simple way to use this mode is having a unique 8-color selection for the entire screen with four duplicate colors (the same to both even and odd pixel columns) and assign it to all scan lines. Here are shown the sample image both with a single shared custom 4-color palette and with a single 8-color palette (black, blue, yellow, white, black (again), red, green, white (again)) to produce 13 dithered-by-hardware colors, ("dark blue", "dark yellow", "gray", "dark red", "magenta", "orange", "light red", "dark green", "cyan", "lime green", "light green", "light blue", and "light yellow") plus pure black and white. The last was the Apple IIGS Finder default mode and palette.

Also, along with the one of 16 palettes, to each scan line the Apple IIGS VGC is able to assign individual 320 or 640 horizontal resolution independently. The closest output would be:

Sharp

Sharp X68000
The Sharp X68000, released in 1987, uses a 16-bit RGB palette. All 65,536 colors can be displayed simultaneously in resolutions up to 512x512, or 16 out of 65,536 colors at the highest resolution of 1024x1024.

{| style="border-style: none" border="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
||
||
|}

IBM PC/AT and compatible systems

EGA
The Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) supports all CGA modes and add three more: two 320×200 and 640×200 graphic modes, both with the full CGA 16-color palette (intended to be used with the same "digital RGB" CGA color monitor of 200 scan lines) and an extra 640×350 graphic mode with 16 colors chosen from a 6-bit RGB (64 colors) palette for what IBM then called an "analog RGB" type monitor.

The word analog means here that the RGB signals can have more than the bare two possible levels 0 and 1; (as the so-called —by IBM— "digital RGB" CGA monitor type has) despite of its name, colors are produced digitally, so there exist binary (quantized) steps for every primary RGB signal (two bits, four levels per primary, in this case). Thus, the EGA signal from the computer to this kind of monitor had two wires for each primary red, green and blue. IBM developed a true analog video interface later, for the more advanced MCGA and VGA display adapters and monitors (and earlier, for the Professional Graphics Controller, announced simultaneously with the EGA) which are unrelated to (and incompatible with) the EGA "analog" monitors; see the next section.

Some early EGA cards shipped with only 64 KB of video memory—the nominal was 128 KB, up to a maximum of 256 KB to allow more screen pages in memory.  With only 64 KB, the EGA 640×350 graphic mode provides only four colors.  4-color 640×350 graphics was never a proper mode by itself (merely a conditional downgrade of the 640×350 16-color mode) and therefore was not popular.

Monochrome "analog" monitors also existed for EGA. The colors are then mapped internally to the correspondent luminance gray, (the sum of the 30% of the red signal, the 59% of the green and the 11% of the blue) giving a 16-shades from a 64-grayscale palette. "Positive" class monitors inverts the signal, providing that the default EGA colors for text modes (black background and white foreground) displays reversed, (white background and black foreground) as if were a printed document.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|+ EGA color palette
|- style="color:white;"
| style="background:#000; width:3pc;" title="#000"| 0x00
| style="background:#005; width:3pc;" title="#005"| 0x01
| style="background:#500; width:3pc;" title="#505"| 0x02
| style="background:#505; width:3pc;" title="#505"| 0x03
| style="background:#050; width:3pc;" title="#050"| 0x04
| style="background:#055; width:3pc;" title="#055"| 0x05
| style="background:#550; width:3pc;" title="#550"| 0x06
| style="background:#555; width:3pc;" title="#555"| 0x07
|- style="color:white;"
| style="background:#00a; width:3pc;" title="#00A"| 0x08
| style="background:#00f; width:3pc;" title="#00F"| 0x09
| style="background:#50a; width:3pc;" title="#50A"| 0x0A
| style="background:#50f; width:3pc;" title="#50F"| 0x0B
| style="background:#05a; width:3pc;" title="#05A"| 0x0C
| style="background:#05f; width:3pc;" title="#05F"| 0x0D
| style="background:#55a; width:3pc;" title="#55A"| 0x0E
| style="background:#55f; width:3pc;" title="#55F"| 0x0F
|-
| style="color:white; background:#a00; width:3pc;" title="#A00"| 0x10
| style="color:white; background:#a05; width:3pc;" title="#A05"| 0x11
| style="color:white; background:#f00; width:3pc;" title="#F00"| 0x12
| style="color:white; background:#f05; width:3pc;" title="#F05"| 0x13
| style="color:white; background:#a50; width:3pc;" title="#A50"| 0x14
| style="color:white; background:#a55; width:3pc;" title="#A55"| 0x15
| style="color:white; background:#f50; width:3pc;" title="#F50"| 0x16
| style="color:black; background:#f55; width:3pc;" title="#F55"| 0x17
|-
| style="color:white; background:#a0a; width:3pc;" title="#A0A"| 0x18
| style="color:white; background:#a0f; width:3pc;" title="#A0F"| 0x19
| style="color:white; background:#f0a; width:3pc;" title="#F0A"| 0x1A
| style="color:white; background:#f0f; width:3pc;" title="#F0F"| 0x1B
| style="color:white; background:#a5a; width:3pc;" title="#A5A"| 0x1C
| style="color:white; background:#a5f; width:3pc;" title="#A5F"| 0x1D
| style="color:black; background:#f5a; width:3pc;" title="#F5A"| 0x1E
| style="color:black; background:#f5f; width:3pc;" title="#F5F"| 0x1F
|-
| style="color:white; background:#0a0; width:3pc;" title="#0A0"| 0x20
| style="color:white; background:#0a5; width:3pc;" title="#0A5"| 0x21
| style="color:white; background:#5a0; width:3pc;" title="#5A0"| 0x22
| style="color:black; background:#5a5; width:3pc;" title="#5A5"| 0x23
| style="color:white; background:#0f0; width:3pc;" title="#0F0"| 0x24
| style="color:black; background:#0f5; width:3pc;" title="#0F5"| 0x25
| style="color:black; background:#5f0; width:3pc;" title="#5F0"| 0x26
| style="color:black; background:#5f5; width:3pc;" title="#5F5"| 0x27
|-
| style="color:white; background:#0aa; width:3pc;" title="#0AA"| 0x28
| style="color:white; background:#0af; width:3pc;" title="#0AF"| 0x29
| style="color:black; background:#5aa; width:3pc;" title="#5AA"| 0x2A
| style="color:black; background:#5af; width:3pc;" title="#5AF"| 0x2B
| style="color:black; background:#0fa; width:3pc;" title="#0FA"| 0x2C
| style="color:black; background:#0ff; width:3pc;" title="#0FF"| 0x2D
| style="color:black; background:#5fa; width:3pc;" title="#5FA"| 0x2E
| style="color:black; background:#5ff; width:3pc;" title="#5FF"| 0x2F
|- style="color:black;"
| style="background:#aa0; width:3pc;" title="#AA0"| 0x30
| style="background:#aa5; width:3pc;" title="#AA5"| 0x31
| style="background:#fa0; width:3pc;" title="#FA0"| 0x32
| style="background:#fa5; width:3pc;" title="#FA5"| 0x33
| style="background:#af0; width:3pc;" title="#AF0"| 0x34
| style="background:#af5; width:3pc;" title="#AF5"| 0x35
| style="background:#ff0; width:3pc;" title="#FF0"| 0x36
| style="background:#ff5; width:3pc;" title="#FF5"| 0x37
|- style="color:black;"
| style="background:#aaa; width:3pc;" title="#AAA"| 0x38
| style="background:#aaf; width:3pc;" title="#AAF"| 0x39
| style="background:#faa; width:3pc;" title="#FAA"| 0x3A
| style="background:#faf; width:3pc;" title="#FAF"| 0x3B
| style="background:#afa; width:3pc;" title="#AFA"| 0x3C
| style="background:#aff; width:3pc;" title="#AFF"| 0x3D
| style="background:#ffa; width:3pc;" title="#FFA"| 0x3E
| style="background:#fff; width:3pc;" title="#FFF"| 0x3F
|}
Note: The colors underlined exist in the CGA palette; as well as it is used as default 16-color EGA color palette.

PGC (Professional Graphics Controller)
The Professional Graphics Controller used a 12-bit RGB palette (4096 colors), from which 256 could be displayed. Targeted at the CAD market this mode has limited software support, although some clone boards exist.

MCGA and VGA
The Multi-Color Graphics Array (MCGA) and Video Graphics Array (VGA) used a 6-bits per channel, 64 level digital-to-analog converter to give an 18-bit RGB palette (262,144 colors), from which can be selected any 2, 16, or 256 at a time. They both provided full compatibility with CGA modes, while VGA included all the EGA modes as well as the MCGA modes. When connected to analog monochrome monitors, they offered 64 levels of grey. Some of the first portable PCs featured a flat monochrome plasma display with a VGA in shades of red.

{|
|16 colors
|256 colors
|64 shades on grayscale display
|64 shades on red plasma display
|-
|
|
|
|
|}

8514/A and XGA

The 8514/A uses the 18-bit RGB palette from which the user could select any 256 at a time in both 640×480 and 1024×768 graphic modes. It does not support compatibility with VGA modes, but a VGA card is usually already installed and bridged to the 8514/A to provide a single output cable for a single monitor which can display any of all VGA and 8514/A possible modes.

The Extended Graphics Array (XGA) supports all 8514/A modes plus an 800×600 16-bit RGB Highcolor mode, with 65,536 simultaneous colors on screen.

Super VGA (SVGA)

Enhanced clones of the IBM VGA, known as Super VGA, (SVGA) support 256 simultaneous colors in 640×480 and higher pixel resolutions (800×600, 1024×768) in both 16 and 256 picked colors from the VGA 18-bit RGB palette, depending on the model and the manufacturer. Also, some SVGA cards support 15- and 16-bit RGB Highcolor modes, with 32,768 or 65,536 simultaneous colors on screen in 640×480 and higher resolutions. Some later models reach the 24-bit RGB true-color modes.

In the 1990s, most manufacturers adhered to the VESA BIOS Extensions (VBE), used for enabling standard support for advanced video modes (at high resolutions and color depths).

They are the direct predecessors, not the IBM 8514/A nor XGA, of actual graphic display PC hardware.

Super XGA (SXGA)

32-bit mixed architecture

IBM PC/AT and compatible systems

XGA
See 8514/A and XGA above

SVGA
See Super VGA above

See also
 List of color palettes
 List of software palettes
 List of video game console palettes
 List of monochrome and RGB color formats
 List of 8-bit computer hardware palettes
 Palette (computing)
 Indexed color
 Color Lookup Table
 Color depth

References

Computer graphics
Color depths
Computing output devices


Nightcrawler or nightcrawlers may refer to:

Earthworms
Nightcrawler, any large earthworm, especially those favored in angling
Lumbricus terrestris, a globally-distributed species of earthworm, known in North America as nightcrawler or Canadian nightcrawler
Eudrilus eugeniae, the African night crawler, native to tropical West Africa
European nightcrawler, Eisenia hortensis

Literature
"The Night Crawler", a 1959 short story by Charles G. Finney
Nightcrawler (comics), a Marvel Comics superhero
"The Case of the Night Crawler", a Sherlock Holmes short story by George Mann
Nightcrawling (novel), novel by Leila Mottley longlisted for 2022 Booker Prize

Film and television
Nightcrawler (film), a 2014 American film
"Nightcrawler", an episode of X-Men (TV series)
"Nightcrawlers" (The Twilight Zone), an episode of the 1980s TV series
"The Night Crawler", an episode of The Bold Ones: The New Doctors
"The Night Crawler", a 1950 episode of The Adventures of Frank Race

Music
Nightcrawlers (band), a Scottish dance music project
The Nightcrawlers, a Daytona Florida band
New Orleans Nightcrawlers, a jazz and rhythm and blues group
Nghtcrwlrs, a New Jersey band

Albums
Nightcrawler (album), by Pete Yorn, 2006
Night Crawler (album), by Sonny Stitt with Don Patterson, 1965, and the title track
Nightcrawler, by The Retrosic, 2006

Songs
"Nightcrawler", a 2010 single by Nosaj Thing
Nightcrawler (Travis Scott song), from the 2015 album Rodeo
"Nightcrawler", a 2017 single by Zhu
"Nightcrawler", a 2018 single by InCrest
"Nightcrawler" by Rebelution from the 2007 album Courage to Grow
"Nightcrawler" by Aye Nako from the 2017 album Silver Haze
"Nightcrawler" by Czarface from the 2015 album Every Hero Needs a Villain
"Night Crawler", a 2012 single by Lucid featuring SwizZz
"Night Crawler", a 2017 single by Chris Webby
"Night Crawler", by Judas Priest from the 1990 album Painkiller
"Night Crawler", by Bob James from the 1976 album Heads
"Night Crawler", a cover by Powerwolf on the 2015 album Blessed & Possessed
"Night Crawler", by Starz from the 1976 album Starz
"Night Crawler", by Ezo from the 1989 album Fire Fire
"Night Crawler", by Lisa Maffia from the 2003 album First Lady
"Night Crawler", by Jimsaku from the 1993 album Wind Loves Us
"Night Crawler", by Thee Oh Sees from the 2013 album Floating Coffin

Other uses
Nightcrawlers, fictional characters in video game F.E.A.R. Perseus Mandate
Night Crawler, a game by Rabbit Software
The Night Crawler, nickname of Shoshone, a Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad train
The Nightcrawler, a ring name of wrestler The Boogeyman
Yobai (Japanese, 'Night crawling'), an ancient Japanese custom of young unmarried men and women

See also

Diggs Nightcrawler, a video game for the PlayStation 3
Night photography


Houghton Saint Giles is a village and former civil parish, now in the parish of Barsham, in the North Norfolk district, in the English county of Norfolk. It has also been referred to  as Houghton-le-Dale or Houghton-in-the-Hole. In 1931 the parish had a population of 142.

The villages name means 'hill-spur farm/settlement'.

The village is one of four settlements that are within the parish of Barsham; the other villages are West Barsham, East Barsham and North Barsham. Originally all four villages had their own parishes, but these were merged to create a single civil parish on 1 April 1935.

Houghton Saint Giles is 4.2 miles north of the town of Fakenham, 21.2 miles west of Cromer and 118 miles north of London. The nearest railway station is at Sheringham for the Bittern Line. The nearest airport is Norwich International Airport. A regular bus service is provided as Houghton is on the Coastliner bus route (service number 36) with destinations including Fakenham, Wells-next-the-Sea, Hunstanton and King's Lynn.

In the parish is the Basilica of Our Lady of Walsingham, also known as the Slipper Chapel. Built in 1340, it was the last chapel on the pilgrim route to Walsingham.

Parish church
The Church of England parish church of Saint Giles was largely rebuilt by William Eden Nesfield in 1877 and much of the building materials for the new church were reused from an older church on the site. At the western end of the church there is a low tower with a pyramid cap. The nave and the chancel are under one tiled roof. The church is a Grade I listed building.

References

http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Norfolk/Houghton%20St%20Giles

Villages in Norfolk
North Norfolk


Bolsover is a village in Canada, located in the city of Kawartha Lakes, west of the village of Kirkfield at the junction of Kawartha Lakes Road 48 and Kawartha Lakes Road 46. The village is located to the south of Canal Lake. The community is likely named for Bolsover in Derbyshire, England.

History
By 1869, Bolsover was a village with a population of 150 in the township of Eldon, County Victoria. It was established on the Talbot River. It was on the line of the proposed Toronto and Nipissing Railway. There was a stagecoach service to Woodville. The average price of land was $5 to $16.

Sports
Bolsover is home to the Western Trent Golf Club.

Notable residents
Dave Devall, well-known former meteorologist who worked for the television station CFTO-TV (CTV Toronto) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, resides in Bolsover.

References

Communities in Kawartha Lakes


The manga series Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl was written by Satoru Akahori and illustrated by Yukimaru Katsura. Its original character designs were designed  by Sukune Inugami and the school uniforms by Cospa. The story focuses on Hazumu Osaragi, a normal, albeit effeminate, high-school boy who is killed when an alien spaceship crash-lands on him and is revived as a girl. As Hazumu adjusts to her new life, she enters a same-sex love triangle with her two best female friends.

Chapters were serialized in the monthly manga magazine Dengeki Daioh between the July 2004 and May 2007 issues. The thirty-five main chapters plus five "special" chapters and one "bonus track" chapter were collected in five bound volumes by MediaWorks under their Dengeki Comics imprint; each volume contains seven main chapters and at least one bonus chapter. The first volume was published on January 27, 2005 and the last volume on May 26, 2007.

Kashimashi was adapted as a 12-episode anime television series plus a single original video animation (OVA) episode by Studio Hibari. The series aired in Japan on TV Tokyo from January 11 to March 29, 2006, and the OVA was released on October 27, 2006. The Kashimashi manga was licensed for an English-language release in North America by Seven Seas Entertainment. Starting on December 25, 2006, volumes were released every three to four months until the fifth was published on March 18, 2008. Seven Seas re-released the manga in a two-volume omnibus collection of about 500 pages each; volume one was published in June 2009, and volume two in December 2009. The series is licensed in French by Ki-oon and in Chinese in Taiwan by Kadokawa Media.

Volume list

See also

List of Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl characters
List of Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl episodes

References

External links
Kashimashi: Girl Meets Girl manga at Seven Seas Entertainment

Chapters
Kashimashi


Celilo may refer to:

Celilo Canal
Celilo Falls
Celilo Village, Oregon
Celilo Converter Station
The Celilo (tribe) of Native Americans


Jeff Leka is an American racing driver who won the NASCAR Weekly Series national championship in 1999.

Driving a dirt Modified owned by Jim and John Livingston, Leka won 15 of the 18 races that he entered at Macon Speedway in Illinois.

References

NASCAR drivers
American racing drivers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)


Julien Malzieu (born 4 May 1983 in Le Puy-en-Velay, Haute-Loire, Auvergne) is a French rugby union and sevens player for  in the Top 14 competition.

Career
A tall and rangy wing, Malzieu burst onto the international scene in the 2008 Six Nations Championship, scoring a try on his debut for France against Scotland.

However, despite his promising start he did not gain a regular spot in the side with coach Marc Lievremont giving many other players a chance. The next time he scored was during the 34–10 loss to England in the 2009 Six Nations Championship. He scored another try the next week against Italy, but missed the 2009 Autumn internationals.

He was recalled for the 2010 Six Nations Championship after injuries to Aurélien Rougerie and Benjamin Fall but just played a bit part role coming off the bench a few times.

There is much competition in his position for France which has limited his time on the pitch so far.

At club level he has played an integral role in the rise Clermont Auvergne to the forefront of European rugby. He is seen as a reliable points source for them as his prolific try scoring record shows.

His brother, Jérémy Malzieu was in the Clermont Auvergne squad, but now plays for Saint-Etienne in the Pro D2.

His other successes include being played as a starter in most of the recent 2012 Six Nations Championship games in which he scored a try in the first game against Italy.

References

External links
RBS 6 Nations profile
official site (French)
statistics on itsrugby.co.uk

1983 births
Living people
People from Le Puy-en-Velay
Rugby union players from Haute-Loire
French rugby union players
France international rugby union players
Male rugby sevens players
ASM Clermont Auvergne players
Rugby union centres
Rugby union wings


Helmut Woltersdorf (15 November 1915 – 2 June 1942) was a German Luftwaffe flying ace and night fighter ace of the World War II. Woltersdorf is credited with 24 victories, including 20 Royal Air Force (RAF) bomber aircraft. Woltersdorf claimed eight victories as Zerstörer (destroyer or heavy fighter) pilot operating the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and 16 as a night fighter pilot—including 15 at night and one in daylight. Woltersdorf also flew Dornier Do 215 night fighter.

World War II
Woltersdorf initially joined II. Gruppe (2nd Group) Zerstörergeschwader 141 (Destroyer Wing 141), based at Padubitz until May 1939, when it was renamed I.Zerstörergeschwader 76. Woltersdorf made his first claim on 2 September 1939 over Poland during the German invasion when he escorted Dornier Do 17s he shot down a Polish Air Force PZL P.11 fighter. He was to score his second victory against this type on 9 September. During the Norwegian Campaign, in April 1940, Woltersdorf scored four victories against Royal Air Force (RAF) Vickers Wellington bombers, two on the 12 April. They were claimed near Stavanger, Norway and one was identified as No. 38 Squadron RAF P9296. Piloted by Squadron Leader Maurice Nolan. Two killed in action four captured. A further two claims were made on 30 April 1940.

During the Battle of Britain Woltersdorf claimed two Supermarine Spitfires on 15 August 1940 Claimed near Blyth, Northumberland, England. The claim cannot be verified. No Spitfire was shot down or damaged in this air battle in this area on this day. Only one RAF fighter was lost in north-eastern England throughout the 15 August—Pilot Officer K.S Law of No. 605 Squadron RAF was wounded in action after crash-landing his Hawker Hurricane. Woltersdorf's unit claimed nine victories.

Night fighting
Woltersdorf was posted to 4./Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 (1st Squadron of Night Fighter Wing 1). On 12 May 1941 Woltersdorf claimed a Handley Page Hampden over Enkhuizen at 02:57. Identified as Hampden AD900 (PL-?) attacking Hamburg. Crashed at Hoogkarspel. The pilot Acting Squadron Leader Colin Guy Champion Rawlins of No. 144 Squadron RAF was wounded and captured. On 24/25 June 1941 he claimed his second night victory against another Wellington north of Schiermonnikoog at 01:40.

On the night of 6/7 July 1941 Woltersdorf, now flying a Dornier Do 215B-5 night fighter equipped with the infra-Red "Spanner-Anlage" detection apparatus, detected a Wellington and shot it down west of Texel at 03:43. He was hit by return-fire and Woltersdorf ditched his aircraft into the Wadden Sea. In October 2007 the Dornier was discovered largely intact. Woltersdorf was moved 7 staffel and claimed a victory against a Wellington over Ruurlo at 00:11 on 7 September 1941. The following night at 01:22 on the 8 September, Woltersdorf claimed another Wellington shot down northeast of Nienborg. Twelve days later, at 22:46 west of Hengelo, Woltersdorf claimed his sixth night victory over another Wellington. On 29 December 1941 Woltersdorf claimed a Handley-Page Hampden 22:45 near Winterswijk. It has been identified as the No. 408 Squadron RCAF Hampden piloted by Pilot Officer Stuart Brackenbury who was captured.

On the night of the 9/19 March 1942, east Münster, Woltersdorf accounted for another Wellington. On 26 March 1942, while flying a Dornier Do 215, Woltersdorf claimed an Avro Manchester at 00:32 near Bocholt, Germany. It was possibly the aircraft, L7465, piloted by Sergeant Markides from No. 207 Squadron RAF. All seven of the crew were killed. The victory was recorded on the  Dornier's gun camera, which shows the aircraft engulfed in flames. The clock records 00:09:30 as the time of the victory. It has also been suggested his victim was L7497, Code QK, of No. 61 Squadron RAF crashed killing all seven crew members; Sergeants C. G Furby, J.R Dow (RCAF), J. E Smart, D. C Brockley, J. Buckley, W. A Roberts, H. H Fetherston. The bomber crashed in Wertherbruch only several miles from Bocholt.

Woltersdorf scored again on 6/7 April 1942 when he claimed a Wellington southwest of Zwolle at 04:13. The victim was probably a Hampden from No. 455 Squadron RAAF, coded UB-T, which was flying an operation Essen. Sergeant A. H Wincott, Flying Officer T. E Roberts, Sergeant C. Gammie and Sergeant K. W McIlrath were all killed in action. It was the first of several claims made by Woltersdorf this month. On 21 April 1942 he was the only Luftwaffe night fighter pilot to claim a victory over a Lockheed Ventura at 14:02 in an unknown location. On 24/25 April Wolterdorf downed an Avro Manchester south of Ameland at 23:32.

On the night of the 30/31 May 1942, Air Officer Commanding RAF Bomber Command, Arthur Harris, began his campaign of area bombing over Germany. It was the first of the 1,000-bomber air raids and it targeted the city of Cologne. Woltersdorf scrambled to intercept the armada in a Messerschmitt Bf 110. Southeast of Apeldoorn he spotted, engaged and shot down a Wellington at 02:25. Thirty minutes later southeast of Zutphen he claimed another Wellington. One of these machines was Wellington Mk. Ic N2894, code AA-?, of No. 75 Squadron RNZAF. Pilot Officer David Malcolm Johnson, Warrant Officer Oldrich Jambor (a Czech co-pilot), Flight Lieutenant Hector Austin Charles Batten, Flight Sergeants Josiah Robert Connor and John McKenzie Mclean were killed. Only G. J. Waddington-Allwright survived to be taken prisoner of war.

On 1/2 June 1942 Woltersdorf intercepted a Handley-Page Halifax southeast of Winterswijk and claimed it shot down at 02:08. Soon after this contact, Woltersdorf was shot down and killed in turn by a Hawker Hurricane piloted by New Zealander Sergeant Peter Gawith of No. 3 Squadron. The RAF unit had been conducting night fighter sorties over Europe since 11 December 1941. Gawith survived just two more months. On 28 July he was posted as missing in action over Noordwijk, Netherlands.

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Flypast, October 2007, No. 315
 Flypast, March 2008, No. 320

1915 births
1942 deaths
German World War II flying aces
Luftwaffe personnel killed in World War II
Luftwaffe pilots
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Burials at Ysselsteyn German war cemetery
Aviators killed by being shot down


Alexander Vladimirovich Popov (, born 10 January 1984) is a Russian former pair skater. He teamed up with Arina Ushakova in 2000. After training under Liudmila Kalinina, they moved to the husband-and-wife team of Valentina and Valeri Tiukov, who coached them in Perm. Ushakova/Popov won four medals on the JGP series – one gold, two silver, and one bronze – and qualified twice for the JGP Final. Their partnership ended in 2005.

Results
JGP: Junior Grand Prix

With Ushakova

Programs
(with Ushakova)

References

External links

 Tracings.net profile

Russian male pair skaters
Living people
1984 births
Sportspeople from Perm, Russia


Registration is the technique of choosing and combining the stops of a pipe organ in order to produce a particular sound. Registration can also refer to a particular combination of stops, which may be recalled through combination action. The registration chosen for a particular piece will be determined by a number of factors, including the composer's indications (if any are given), the time and place in which the piece was composed, the organ the piece is played upon, and the acoustic environment within which the organ resides.

Pitch and timbre

The pitch produced by a pipe is a function of its length. An organ stop may be tuned to sound (or "speak at") the pitch normally associated with the key that is pressed (the "unison pitch"), or it may speak at a fixed interval above or below this pitch (an "octave pitch"). Some stops are tuned to notes "in-between" the octaves and are called "Mutations" (see below).  The pitch of a rank of pipes is denoted by a number on the stop knob. A stop that speaks at unison pitch (the "native pitch" for that note; the pitch you would hear if you pressed that same key on a piano) is known as an 8′ (pronounced "eight foot") stop. This nomenclature refers to the approximate length of the longest pipe in that rank.

The octave sounded by a given pipe is inversely exponentially proportional to its length ( the length = double the pitch), meaning that a 4′ stop speaks exactly one octave higher than an 8′ stop. Likewise, a 2′ stop speaks exactly one octave higher than a 4′ stop. Conversely, a 16′ stop speaks exactly one octave below an 8′ stop; and a 32′ stop speaks exactly one octave below a 16′ stop. Lengths used in actual organs include 64′, 32′, 16′, 8′, 4′, 2′, 1′, and ′.

Example:

Mutations
Ranks that do not speak at a unison or octave pitch, but rather at a non-octave interval to the unison pitch, are called mutation stops (or, simply, "mutations"). Because they sound at intervals other than an octave (2:1 ratio) above or below the unison sound, they are rarely used on their own; rather, they are combined with unison stops to create different tone colors.

Like the unison and octave stops, the length label of a mutation stop indicates what pitch the rank sounds. For example, a stop labeled 2' sounds at the interval of a twelfth (one octave plus a fifth; or 3:1 ratio) above unison pitch. That is, with a 2' stop drawn, pressing middle C sounds the G that is the 12th diatonic note above.

Mutations usually sound at pitches in the harmonic series of the unison pitch.  In some large organs, non-harmonic mutations are occasionally used, sounding pitches from the harmonic series of one or two octaves below unison pitch.  Such mutations that sound at the fifth above (or fourth below) the fundamental can create the impression of a stop an octave (or two) lower than the fundamental, especially when low frequencies are involved; these are often called resultants.

Mutations are tuned an exact just interval away from the fundamental, with no beats. (This is not possible in mutation stops unified from other ranks, such as an 8' or 4' rank also used for a 2' stop.)

Mixtures
Certain stops called mixtures contain multiple ranks of pipes sounding at consecutive octaves and fifths (and in some cases, thirds) above unison pitch. The number of ranks in a mixture is denoted by a Roman numeral on the stop knob; for example, a stop labeled "Mixture V" would contain five pipes for every note. So for every key pressed, five different pipes sound (all controlled by the same stop).

National styles of registration
In the seventeenth century, national styles of organ building began to emerge. Organs had certain unique characteristics that were common to organs in the country in which they were built. Registration techniques developed that mirrored the characteristics in the organs of each national style.

Combination action

A combination action is a system designed to store specific organ registrations to be recalled instantaneously by the player while they are playing.  It usually consists of several numbered pistons (buttons) situated in the space between the manuals at the organ console. The pistons control either the stops of the whole organ (in which case they are called general pistons or generals) or the stops of a particular division (in which case they are called divisional pistons or divisionals). Each piston is programmed by the organist with a particular registration to be activated when it is pressed. This allows the organist to change registrations on the fly, without the assistance of a registrant.

Mechanical systems
Over the years, organ builders have designed various combination action systems. The simplest combination actions are toe studs that move a predetermined combination of stop knobs when pressed. Depending on the way in which the mechanism operates, these toe studs may or may not be reversible (i.e., pressing a toe stud again may or may not turn off the stops that were turned on when it was first pressed). More complex versions of this system are reversible, and furthermore can activate a predetermined registration without moving the stop knobs. Certain large organs of the romantic era (such as the organ built by Friedrich Ladegast for the cathedral in Merseburg, Germany) feature this kind of combination action. Often, the toe studs will be labeled with dynamic markings reflecting the loudness of the registrations which result when they are pressed. For example, an organ may have two of these combinations, one labeled p (for piano, Italian for "soft") and one labeled ff (for fortissimo, Italian for "very strong"). This system allows the organist to set the stops to a specific registration (very quiet, for example) and then suddenly change it for a short period of time (to very loud, for example) simply by pressing the appropriate toe stud. The organist can then return to the original registration by pressing the toe stud again. This is especially helpful when playing the organ works of German romantic composers such as Max Reger and Franz Liszt.

Saint-Sulpice
The combination action in the organ at the church of Saint-Sulpice in Paris deserves special mention. It was designed by the renowned French organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. Because the organ predates the advent of electricity, the entire system operates through mechanical and pneumatic means. There are no pistons or toe studs. The combination action consists of six stop knobs, one for each division of the organ, connected to a system of pneumatics. When one of these knobs is pulled, the registration on its respective division may be altered without the stop changes taking effect. When the knob is pushed back in, the new registration sounds. Using this system along with the pédales de combinaison, an organist (and an assistant or two) can prepare elaborate registrations in advance of their use during a performance. Unlike a modern electrical combination action, this system cannot retain combinations to be recalled later; registrations must be prepared on the spot. In spite of its shortcomings (which are apparent only in light of present-day combination actions), it is an ingeniously designed system that was groundbreaking for its time.

Early twentieth century

When electricity became commonplace, organ builders realized that it could be used to create more complex and capable combination actions. Large setterboards consisting of a grid of switches were built inside the console or the organ case. The piston numbers formed one axis of the grid, and the stop names formed the other axis. To set a combination, the organist would have to go to the setterboard and flip the switches for each stop corresponding to the desired piston number. This process was quite time-consuming, and in most cases required the organist to leave his position at the console entirely to change even one stop on a piston. Setterboard setups did not always result in the actual stop knobs moving---such a system was called a blind system, and stops added manually during a performance would add to the preset setting. Occasionally provision would be made for Pedal stops to be affected by manual pistons, allowing for a suitable bass.

A more advanced system which is still in use in some organs is the electropneumatic capture system. To set a piston, the organist must press and hold the desired piston while pulling the desired stops. The motion of the stop control sets a mechanical on/off tab or lever on a rocker arm inside the combination action, allowing the configuration to be recalled from the set tabs.  Since this "hold-and-set" system depended on manipulation of the stop controls, it was always located within the console.  It represented an improvement over the setterboard in that the organist could remain seated at the console while altering registrations. These combination actions were actually early mechanical digital-memory storage devices.

An additional system which was usually used on large instruments was often called "remote capture" (although it could be either in the console or in a remote location).  Combinations were set by pressing a "setter" button and then the desired piston. Its advantage over push-and-set was that a carefully worked-out combination could be instantly recorded, without having to push a piston already set to another combination and change it. Neither the setterboard system nor the electropneumatic system is built in new organs today; they have both been supplanted by the modern solid-state combination action.

Modern
The most widely used combination action in newly built organs has at its heart a system of electronics. The combinations are stored in a computer memory. To set a combination, the organist pulls the desired stops, holds the setter button (usually labeled "Set"), and presses the desired piston. Larger organs, especially in the academic realm, as well as organs played by several organists or guest artists sometimes feature a system of memory levels: each organist is assigned a level or a range of levels and is able to keep his registrations separate from those of other organists who play the instrument. This is especially useful in academic and concert settings, as it makes it unnecessary for organists to write down their registrations and reset the pistons every time they sit down at the organ. Some organs feature a disk drive, enabling the organist to save combinations to a floppy disk or other removable media. More recent ones include a USB port for devices such as flash drives.

Sequencers

In recent times, sequencers have become an integral part of combination actions, primarily on large organs. A sequencer allows an organist to program a list of registration changes and advance through it by pressing a piston labeled "+" (or regress through it using a "–" piston). It becomes unnecessary for the organist to push the proper piston; he must only press the "+" piston and the next registration in the sequence will be activated. Some sequencers have an "all pistons plus" feature, which makes all the pistons on the console (excepting the General Cancel and the "–" pistons) function like the "+" piston; in this case the organist can press any piston which is in convenient reach to advance through the sequence.

Adding a piston change in the midst of an already established sequence of stop changes is difficult or not possible with some sequencing systems.

Using a sequencer can remove many of the complications related to changing registrations during a performance that have traditionally plagued organists.

See also
Organ pipe

References

Organ stops
Pipe organ components


Sir John Riggs-Miller, 1st Baronet (c. 1744 – 28 May 1798) was an Anglo-Irish politician who championed reform of the customary system of weights and measures in favour of a scientifically founded system.

Early life
He was born John Miller in County Clare, Ireland. His father was John Miller and his mother, John's wife, Anne née Browne. He was educated at Dalston School and Eton College before joining the British Army in 1760 as a cornet. He was on active service in the Battle of Emsdorf and at Belleisle, France in 1761, before retiring from the army in 1763. He was admitted to study at the Middle Temple in 1765, though does not seem to have made any progress with his legal studies. He also studied at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, though he did not graduate. In August 1765 he married Anna née Riggs (1741–1781), adding her name to his own. They had a son and a daughter. In July 1762 he inherited his family estates; they were worth little, but his wife brought substantial wealth to the marriage, enabling him to build a prestigious house at Batheaston, Somerset. The couple there held a fortnightly literary salon along with competitions and prizes. The prizes were drawn from an ornately decorated Roman vase and the affair was mocked as Lady Miller's Vase, though that did not dissuade distinguished contributions from the like of David Garrick and Christopher Anstey. In 1778 he was created a Baronet, of Ballicasey in the County of Clare. Anna died on 24 June 1781; on 9 September 1795 he married Jane née Sell, widow of Sir Thomas Davenport. He was elected Member of Parliament for Newport, Cornwall in 1784.

Weights and measures
He made a careful study of the contemporary state of weights and measures before proposing reform in the British House of Commons on 5 February 1790. In France, Charles Maurice Talleyrand was pursuing similar goals with a unit of length based on the seconds pendulum, as was Thomas Jefferson in the US having been charged by President George Washington with measurement reform. Talleyrand had ambitions that France would establish itself at the centre of a new international measurement system that would form the basis of global trade and, on hearing of Riggs-Miller's initiative, proposed a tripartite collaboration. After some diplomatic manoeuvring by Talleyrand, the definitive pendulum measurement was agreed to take place in France. However, France's official approach for collaboration was then rejected by Foreign Secretary the Duke of Leeds. Riggs-Miller continued to campaign on the matter but, when parliament was dissolved in 1790, he was not re-elected. Ultimately, in 1791, the French National Assembly vetoed the pendulum in favour of the meridional definition of the metre, bringing an effective end to hopes of collaboration. France unilaterally adopted the metric system in 1793.

After parliament
After parliament, Riggs-Miller settled in Bloomsbury Square, London. He allegedly became known in society as an inveterate gossip and newsmonger, and was a well-known figure in many gentlemen's clubs. He died suddenly and was succeeded in the baronetcy by his son by his first marriage, John Edward Augustus Miller (1770–1825). Riggs-Miller was buried in Bath Abbey.

Notes

References

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Attribution
 The entry cites:
Allibone, ii. 1286;
Miss Seward's preface to her Poem in Memory of Lady Miller;
Collinson's Somerset, i. 103;
Notes and Queries, 2nd ser. v. 495

Further reading

1744 births
1798 deaths
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for constituencies in Cornwall
British MPs 1784–1790
People educated at Eton College
Politicians from County Clare
Baronets in the Baronetage of Ireland