A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity, a solar inverter to convert the output from direct to alternating current, as well as mounting, cabling, and other electrical accessories to set up a working system. It may also use a solar tracking system to improve the system's overall performance and include an integrated battery.

PV systems convert light directly into electricity, and are not to be confused with other solar technologies, such as concentrated solar power or solar thermal, used for heating and cooling. A solar array only encompasses the ensemble of solar panels, the visible part of the PV system, and does not include all the other hardware, often summarized as balance of system (BOS). PV systems range from small, rooftop-mounted or building-integrated systems with capacities from a few to several tens of kilowatts, to large utility-scale power stations of hundreds of megawatts. Nowadays, most PV systems are grid-connected, while off-grid or stand-alone systems account for a small portion of the market.

Operating silently and without any moving parts or environmental emissions, PV systems have developed from being niche market applications into a mature technology used for mainstream electricity generation. A rooftop system recoups the invested energy for its manufacturing and installation within 0.7 to 2 years and produces about 95 percent of net clean renewable energy over a 30-year service lifetime.

Due to the growth of photovoltaics, prices for PV systems have rapidly declined since their introduction; however, they vary by market and the size of the system. In 2014, prices for residential 5-kilowatt systems in the United States were around $3.29 per watt, while in the highly penetrated German market, prices for rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to €1.24 per watt. Nowadays, solar PV modules account for less than half of the system's overall cost, leaving the rest to the remaining BOS-components and to soft costs, which include customer acquisition, permitting, inspection and interconnection, installation labor and financing costs.

Modern system

Overview

A photovoltaic system converts the Sun's radiation, in the form of light, into usable electricity. It comprises the solar array and the balance of system components. PV systems can be categorized by various aspects, such as, grid-connected vs. stand alone systems, building-integrated vs. rack-mounted systems, residential vs. utility systems, distributed vs. centralized systems, rooftop vs. ground-mounted systems, tracking vs. fixed-tilt systems, and new constructed vs. retrofitted systems. Other distinctions may include, systems with microinverters vs. central inverter, systems using crystalline silicon vs. thin-film technology, and systems with modules.

About 99 percent of all European and 90 percent of all U.S. solar power systems are connected to the electrical grid, while off-grid systems are somewhat more common in Australia and South Korea. PV systems rarely use battery storage. This may change, as government incentives for distributed energy storage are implemented and investments in storage solutions gradually become economically viable for small systems. A typical residential solar array is rack-mounted on the roof, rather than integrated into the roof or facade of the building, which is significantly more expensive. Utility-scale solar power stations are ground-mounted, with fixed tilted solar panels rather than using expensive tracking devices. Crystalline silicon is the predominant material used in 90 percent of worldwide produced solar modules, while its rival thin-film has lost market-share. About 70 percent of all solar cells and modules are produced in China and Taiwan, only 5 percent by European and US-manufacturers. The installed capacity for both small rooftop systems and large solar power stations is growing rapidly and in equal parts, although there is a notable trend towards utility-scale systems, as the focus on new installations is shifting away from Europe to sunnier regions, such as the Sunbelt in the U.S., which are less opposed to ground-mounted solar farms and cost-effectiveness is more emphasized by investors.

Driven by advances in technology and increases in manufacturing scale and sophistication, the cost of photovoltaics is declining continuously. There are several million PV systems distributed all over the world, mostly in Europe, with 1.4 million systems in Germany alone– as well as North America with 440,000 systems in the United States. The energy conversion efficiency of a conventional solar module increased from 15 to 20 percent since 2004 and a PV system recoups the energy needed for its manufacture in about 2 years. In exceptionally irradiated locations, or when thin-film technology is used, the so-called energy payback time decreases to one year or less.
Net metering and financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have also greatly supported installations of PV systems in many countries. The levelised cost of electricity from large-scale PV systems has become competitive with conventional electricity sources in an expanding list of geographic regions, and grid parity has been achieved in about 30 countries.

As of 2015, the fast-growing global PV market is rapidly approaching the 200 GW mark – about 40 times the installed capacity in 2006. These systems currently contribute about 1 percent to worldwide electricity generation. Top installers of PV systems in terms of capacity are currently China, Japan and the United States, while half of the world's capacity is installed in Europe, with Germany and Italy supplying 7% to 8% of their respective domestic electricity consumption with solar PV. The International Energy Agency expects solar power to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar thermal contributing 16% and 11% to the global demand, respectively.

Solar grid-connection

A grid connected system is connected to a larger independent grid (typically the public electricity grid) and feeds energy directly into the grid. This energy may be shared by a residential or commercial building before or after the revenue measurement point, depending on whether the credited energy production is calculated independently of the customer's energy consumption (feed-in tariff) or only on the difference of energy (net metering). These systems vary in size from residential (2–10 kWp) to solar power stations (up to tens of MWp). This is a form of decentralized electricity generation. Feeding electricity into the grid requires the transformation of DC into AC by a special, synchronizing grid-tie inverter. In kilowatt-sized installations the DC side system voltage is as high as permitted (typically 1000 V except US residential 600 V) to limit ohmic losses. Most modules (60 or 72 crystalline silicon cells) generate 160 W to 300 W at 36 volts. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to connect the modules partially in parallel rather than all in series. An individual set of modules connected in series is known as a 'string'. A set of series-connected "strings" is known as an "array."

Scale of system

Photovoltaic systems are generally categorized into three distinct market segments: residential rooftop, commercial rooftop, and ground-mount utility-scale systems. Their capacities range from a few kilowatts to hundreds of megawatts. A typical residential system is around 10 kilowatts and mounted on a sloped roof, while commercial systems may reach a megawatt-scale and are generally installed on low-slope or even flat roofs. Although rooftop mounted systems are small and have a higher cost per watt than large utility-scale installations, they account for the largest share in the market. There is, however, a growing trend towards bigger utility-scale power plants, especially in the "sunbelt" region of the planet.

Utility-scale

Large utility-scale solar parks or farms are power stations and capable of providing an energy supply to large numbers of consumers. Generated electricity is fed into the transmission grid powered by central generation plants (grid-connected or grid-tied plant), or combined with one, or many, domestic electricity generators to feed into a small electrical grid (hybrid plant). In rare cases generated electricity is stored or used directly by island/standalone plant. PV systems are generally designed in order to ensure the highest energy yield for a given investment. Some large photovoltaic power stations such as Solar Star, Waldpolenz Solar Park and Topaz Solar Farm cover tens or hundreds of hectares and have power outputs up to hundreds of megawatts.

Rooftop, mobile, and portable

A small PV system is capable of providing enough AC electricity to power a single home, or an isolated device in the form of AC or DC electric. Military and civilian Earth observation satellites, street lights, construction and traffic signs, electric cars, solar-powered tents, and electric aircraft may contain integrated photovoltaic systems to provide a primary or auxiliary power source in the form of AC or DC power, depending on the design and power demands. In 2013, rooftop systems accounted for 60 percent of worldwide installations. However, there is a trend away from rooftop and towards utility-scale PV systems, as the focus of new PV installations is also shifting from Europe to countries in the sunbelt region of the planet where opposition to ground-mounted solar farms is less accentuated. Portable and mobile PV systems provide electrical power independent of utility connections, for "off the grid" operation. Such systems are so commonly used on recreational vehicles and boats that there are retailers specializing in these applications and products specifically targeted to them. Since recreational vehicles (RV) normally carry batteries and operate lighting and other systems on nominally 12-volt DC power, RV systems normally operate in a voltage range that can charge 12-volt batteries directly, so addition of a PV system requires only panels, a charge controller, and wiring. Solar systems on recreation vehicles are usually constrained in wattage by the physical size of the RV's roof space.

Building-integrated

In urban and suburban areas, photovoltaic arrays are often used on rooftops to supplement power use; often the building will have a connection to the power grid, in which case the energy produced by the PV array can be sold back to the utility in some sort of net metering agreement. Some utilities use the rooftops of commercial customers and telephone poles to support their use of PV panels. Solar trees are arrays that, as the name implies, mimic the look of trees, provide shade, and at night can function as street lights.

Performance

Uncertainties in revenue over time relate mostly to the evaluation of the solar resource and to the performance of the system itself. In the best of cases, uncertainties are typically 4% for year-to-year climate variability, 5% for solar resource estimation (in a horizontal plane), 3% for estimation of irradiation in the plane of the array, 3% for power rating of modules, 2% for losses due to dirt and soiling, 1.5% for losses due to snow, and 5% for other sources of error. Identifying and reacting to manageable losses is critical for revenue and O&M efficiency. Monitoring of array performance may be part of contractual agreements between the array owner, the builder, and the utility purchasing the energy produced.  A method to create "synthetic days" using readily available weather data and verification using the Open Solar Outdoors Test Field make it possible to predict photovoltaic systems performance with high degrees of accuracy. This method can be used to then determine loss mechanisms on a local scale - such as those from snow or the effects of surface coatings (e.g. hydrophobic or hydrophilic) on soiling or snow losses. (Although in heavy snow environments with severe ground interference can result in annual losses from snow of 30%.)
Access to the Internet has allowed a further improvement in energy monitoring and communication. Dedicated systems are available from a number of vendors. For solar PV systems that use microinverters (panel-level DC to AC conversion), module power data is automatically provided. Some systems allow setting performance alerts that trigger phone/email/text warnings when limits are reached. These solutions provide data for the system owner and the installer. Installers are able to remotely monitor multiple installations, and see at-a-glance the status of their entire installed base.

Components

A photovoltaic system for residential, commercial, or industrial energy supply consists of the solar array and a number of components often summarized as the balance of system (BOS). This term is synonymous with "Balance of plant" q.v. BOS-components include power-conditioning equipment and structures for mounting, typically one or more DC to AC power converters, also known as inverters, an energy storage device, a racking system that supports the solar array, electrical wiring and interconnections, and mounting for other components.

Optionally, a balance of system may include any or all of the following: renewable energy credit revenue-grade meter, maximum power point tracker (MPPT), battery system and charger, GNSS solar tracker, energy management software, solar irradiance sensors, anemometer, or task-specific accessories designed to meet specialized requirements for a system owner. In addition, a CPV system requires optical lenses or mirrors and sometimes a cooling system.

The terms "solar array" and "PV system" are often incorrectly used interchangeably, despite the fact that the solar array does not encompass the entire system. Moreover, "solar panel" is often used as a synonym for "solar module", although a panel consists of a string of several modules. The term "solar system" is also an often used misnomer for a PV system.

Solar array

The building blocks of a photovoltaic system are solar cells. A solar cell is the electrical device that can directly convert photons energy into electricity. There are three technological generations of solar cells: the first generation (1G) of crystalline silicon cells (c-Si), the second generation (2G) of thin-film cells (such as CdTe, CIGS, Amorphous Silicon, and GaAs), and the third generation (3G) of organic, dye-sensitized, Perovskite and multijunction cells.

Conventional c-Si solar cells, normally wired in series, are encapsulated in a solar module to protect them from the weather. The module consists of a tempered glass as cover, a soft and flexible encapsulant, a rear backsheet made of a weathering and fire-resistant material and an aluminium frame around the outer edge. Electrically connected and mounted on a supporting structure, solar modules build a string of modules, often called solar panel. A solar array consists of one or many such panels. A photovoltaic array, or solar array, is a linked collection of solar modules. The power that one module can produce is seldom enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert the DC power produced by the modules into alternating current that can power lights, motors, and other loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to obtain the desired voltage; the individual strings are then connected in parallel to allow the system to produce more current. Solar panels are typically measured under STC (standard test conditions) or PTC (PVUSA test conditions), in watts. Typical panel ratings range from less than 100 watts to over 400 watts. The array rating consists of a summation of the panel ratings, in watts, kilowatts, or megawatts.

Modules and efficiency

A typical 150 watt PV module is about a square meter in size. Such a module may be expected to produce 0.75 kilowatt-hour (kWh) every day, on average, after taking into account the weather and the latitude, for an insolation of 5 sun hours/day. Module output degrades faster at increased temperature. Allowing ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this problem. Effective module lives are typically 25 years or more. The payback period for an investment in a PV solar installation varies greatly and is typically less useful than a calculation of return on investment. While it is typically calculated to be between 10 and 20 years, the financial payback period can be far shorter with incentives.

The temperature effect on photovoltaic modules is usually quantified by means of some coefficients relating the variations of the open‐circuit voltage, of the short‐circuit current, and of the maximum power to temperature changes. In this paper, comprehensive experimental guidelines to estimate the temperature coefficients.

Due to the low voltage of an individual solar cell (typically ca. 0.5V), several cells are wired (see Copper in renewable energy#Solar photovoltaic power generation) in series in the manufacture of a "laminate". The laminate is assembled into a protective weatherproof enclosure, thus making a photovoltaic module or solar panel. Modules may then be strung together into a photovoltaic array. In 2012, solar panels available for consumers had an efficiency of up to about 17%, while commercially available panels can go as far as 27%. By concentrating the sunlight it is possible to achieve higher efficiencies. A group from The Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems has created a cell that can reach 44.7% efficiency using the equivalent of "297 suns".

Shading and dirt
Photovoltaic cell electrical output is extremely sensitive to shading (the so-called "Christmas light effect"). When even a small portion of a cell or of a module or array of cells in parallel is shaded, with the remainder in sunlight, the output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting' (the electrons reversing course through the shaded portion). When connected in series, the current drawn from a string of cells is no greater than the normally small current that can flow through the shaded cell, so the current (and therefore power) developed by the string is limited. If the external load is of low enough impedance, there may be enough voltage available from the other cells in a string to force more current through the shaded cell by breaking down the junction. This breakdown voltage in common cells is between 10 and 30 volts. Instead of adding to the power produced by the panel, the shaded cell absorbs power, turning it into heat. Since the reverse voltage of a shaded cell is much greater than the forward voltage of an illuminated cell, one shaded cell can absorb the power of many other cells in the string, disproportionately affecting panel output. For example, a shaded cell may drop 8 volts, instead of adding 0.5 volts, at a high current level, thereby absorbing the power produced by 16 other cells. It is thus important that a PV installation not be shaded by trees or other obstructions. There are techniques to mitigate the losses with diodes, but these techniques also entail losses.

Several methods have been developed to determine shading losses from trees to PV systems over both large regions using LiDAR, but also at an individual system level using 3D modeling software.
Most modules have bypass diodes between each cell or string of cells that minimize the effects of shading and only lose the power that the shaded portion of the array would have supplied, as well as the power dissipated in the diodes. The main job of the bypass diode is to eliminate hot spots that form on cells that can cause further damage to the array, and cause fires.

Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, snow, or other impurities at the surface of the module (collectively referred to as soiling). Soiling reduces the light that strikes the cells, which in turn reduces the power output of the PV system. Soiling losses aggregate over time, and can become large without adequate cleaning. In 2018, the global annual energy loss due to soiling was estimated to at least 3–4%.
However, soiling losses vary significantly from region to region, and within regions.
Maintaining a clean module surface will increase output performance over the life of the PV system. In one study performed in a snow-rich area (Ontario), cleaning flat mounted solar panels after 15 months increased their output by almost 100%. However, 5° tilted arrays were adequately cleaned by rainwater.
In many cases, especially in arid regions, or in locations in close proximity to deserts, roads, industry, or agriculture, regular cleaning of the solar panels is cost-effective. In 2018, the estimated soiling-induced revenue loss was estimated to between 5 and 7 billion euros.

The long‐term reliability of photovoltaic modules is crucial to ensure the technical and economic viability of PV as a successful energy source. The analysis of degradation mechanisms of PV modules is key to ensure current lifetimes exceeding 25 years.

Insolation and energy

Solar insolation is made up of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation. The absorption factor of a PV cell is defined as the fraction of incident solar irradiance that is absorbed by the cell. When the sun is at the zenith on a cloudless day, the power of the sun is about 1 kW/m2, on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can track the sun through each day to greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed mounts that tilt the array and face due south in the northern hemisphere or due north in the southern hemisphere. The tilt angle from horizontal can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical year for a stand-alone system. This optimal module tilt angle is not necessarily identical to the tilt angle for maximum annual array energy output. The optimization of the photovoltaic system for a specific environment can be complicated as issues of solar flux, soiling, and snow losses should be taken into effect. In addition, later work has shown that spectral effects can play a role in optimal photovoltaic material selection. For example, the spectrum of the albedo of the surroundings can play a significant role in output depending on the surface around the photovoltaic system and the type of solar cell material. A photovoltaic installation in the northern latitudes of Europe or the United States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m2/day. A typical 1 kW photovoltaic installation in Australia or the southern latitudes of Europe or United States, may produce 3.5–5 kWh per day, dependent on location, orientation, tilt, insolation and other factors. In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one could ideally obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m2/day provided the nearly ever present wind would not blow sand onto the units. The area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km2. 90,600 km2, or about 1%, could generate as much electricity as all of the world's power plants combined.

Mounting

Modules are assembled into arrays on some kind of mounting system, which may be classified as ground mount, roof mount or pole mount. For solar parks a large rack is mounted on the ground, and the modules mounted on the rack.
For buildings, many different racks have been devised for pitched roofs. For flat roofs, racks, bins and building integrated solutions are used. Solar panel racks mounted on top of poles can be stationary or moving, see Trackers below. Side-of-pole mounts are suitable for situations where a pole has something else mounted at its top, such as a light fixture or an antenna. Pole mounting raises what would otherwise be a ground mounted array above weed shadows and livestock, and may satisfy electrical code requirements regarding inaccessibility of exposed wiring. Pole mounted panels are open to more cooling air on their underside, which increases performance. A multiplicity of pole top racks can be formed into a parking carport or other shade structure. A rack which does not follow the sun from left to right may allow seasonal adjustment up or down.

Cabling

Due to their outdoor usage, solar cables are designed to be resistant against UV radiation and extremely high temperature fluctuations and are generally unaffected by the weather. Standards specifying the usage of electrical wiring in PV systems include the IEC 60364 by the International Electrotechnical Commission, in section 712 "Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems", the British Standard BS 7671, incorporating regulations relating to microgeneration and photovoltaic systems, and the US UL4703 standard, in subject 4703 "Photovoltaic Wire".

A solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation. Solar cables interconnect solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system. Solar cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant.  They can be used within a large temperature range.

Specific performance requirements for material used for wiring a solar panel installation are given in national and local electrical codes which regulate electrical installations in an area.  General features required for solar cables are resistance to ultraviolet light, weather, temperature extremes of the area and insulation suitable for the voltage class of the equipment. Different jurisdictions will have specific rules regarding grounding (earthing) of solar power installations for electric shock protection and lightning protection.

Tracker

A solar tracking system tilts a solar panel throughout the day. Depending on the type of tracking system, the panel is either aimed directly at the Sun or the brightest area of a partly clouded sky. Trackers greatly enhance early morning and late afternoon performance, increasing the total amount of power produced by a system by about 20–25% for a single axis tracker and about 30% or more for a dual axis tracker, depending on latitude.
Trackers are effective in regions that receive a large portion of sunlight directly. In diffuse light (i.e. under cloud or fog), tracking has little or no value. Because most concentrated photovoltaics systems are very sensitive to the sunlight's angle, tracking systems allow them to produce useful power for more than a brief period each day. Tracking systems improve performance for two main reasons. First, when a solar panel is perpendicular to the sunlight, it receives more light on its surface than if it were angled. Second, direct light is used more efficiently than angled light. Special anti-reflective coatings can improve solar panel efficiency for direct and angled light, somewhat reducing the benefit of tracking.

Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as optional, but they can increase viable output by up to 45%. Arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers. Considering clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar power is insolation – the average number of kilowatt-hours per square meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and Europe, typical insolation ranges from 2.26 kWh/m2/day in northern climes to 5.61 kWh/m2/day in the sunniest regions.

For large systems, the energy gained by using tracking systems can outweigh the added complexity. For very large systems, the added maintenance of tracking is a substantial detriment. Tracking is not required for flat panel and low-concentration photovoltaic systems. For high-concentration photovoltaic systems, dual axis tracking is a necessity. Pricing trends affect the balance between adding more stationary solar panels versus having fewer panels that track.

As pricing, reliability and performance of single-axis trackers have improved, the systems have been installed in an increasing percentage of utility-scale projects. According to data from WoodMackenzie/GTM Research, global solar tracker shipments hit a record 14.5 gigawatts in 2017. This represents growth of 32 percent year-over-year, with similar or greater growth projected as large-scale solar deployment accelerates.

Inverter

Systems designed to deliver alternating current (AC), such as grid-connected applications need an inverter to convert the direct current (DC) from the solar modules to AC. Grid connected inverters must supply AC electricity in sinusoidal form, synchronized to the grid frequency, limit feed in voltage to no higher than the grid voltage and disconnect from the grid if the grid voltage is turned off. Islanding inverters need only produce regulated voltages and frequencies in a sinusoidal waveshape as no synchronisation or co-ordination with grid supplies is required.

A solar inverter may connect to a string of solar panels. In some installations a solar micro-inverter is connected at each solar panel. For safety reasons a circuit breaker is provided both on the AC and DC side to enable maintenance. AC output may be connected through an electricity meter into the public grid. The number of modules in the system determines the total DC watts capable of being generated by the solar array; however, the inverter ultimately governs the amount of AC watts that can be distributed for consumption. For example, a PV system comprising 11 kilowatts DC (kWDC) worth of PV modules, paired with one 10-kilowatt AC (kWAC) inverter, will be limited to the inverter's output of 10 kW. As of 2019, conversion efficiency for state-of-the-art converters reached more than 98 percent. While string inverters are used in residential to medium-sized commercial PV systems, central inverters cover the large commercial and utility-scale market. Market-share for central and string inverters are about 44 percent and 52 percent, respectively, with less than 1 percent for micro-inverters.

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid connected inverters use to get the maximum possible power from the photovoltaic array. In order to do so, the inverter's MPPT system digitally samples the solar array's ever changing power output and applies the proper impedance to find the optimal maximum power point.

Anti-islanding is a protection mechanism to immediately shut down the inverter, preventing it from generating AC power when the connection to the load no longer exists. This happens, for example, in the case of a blackout. Without this protection, the supply line would become an "island" with power surrounded by a "sea" of unpowered lines, as the solar array continues to deliver DC power during the power outage. Islanding is a hazard to utility workers, who may not realize that an AC circuit is still powered, and it may prevent automatic re-connection of devices. Anti-Islanding feature is not required for complete Off-Grid Systems.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 4px auto; max-width: 80%;"
|+ Inverter/Converter market in 2019
|-
! Type
! Power
! style="font-weight: normal;" | Efficiency(a)
! style="font-weight: normal;" | MarketShare(b)
! style="width: 45%;" |Remarks
|-
|  String inverter
| up to 150 kWp(c)
| align="center" | 98%
| align="center" | 61.6%
| Cost(b) €0.05-0.17 per watt-peak. Easy to replace.
|-
|  Central inverter
| above 80 kWp
| align="center" | 98.5%
| align="center" | 36.7%
| €0.04 per watt-peak. High reliability. Often sold along with a service contract.
|-
|  Micro-inverter
| module power range
| align="center" | 90%–97%
| align="center" | 1.7%
| €0.29 per watt-peak. Ease-of-replacement concerns.
|-
|  DC/DC converter (Power optimizer)
| module power range
| align="center" | 99.5%
| align="center" | 5.1%
|€0.08 per watt-peak. Ease-of-replacement concerns. Inverter is still needed.
|-
| colspan=5 style="font-size: 0.85em; padding: 6px; background-color: #f2f2f2;" | Source: data by IHS Markit 2020, remarks by Fraunhofer ISE 2020, from: Photovoltaics Report 2020, p. 39, PDF Notes: (a)best efficiencies displayed, (b)market-share and cost per watt are estimated, (c)kWp = kilowatt-peak, (d) Total Market Share is greater than 100% because DC/DC converters are required to be paired with string inverters
|}

 Battery

Although still expensive, PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night. Batteries used for grid-storage also stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads, and play an important role in a smart grid, as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high.

Common battery technologies used in today's PV systems include the valve regulated lead-acid battery – a modified version of the conventional lead–acid battery – nickel–cadmium and lithium-ion batteries. Compared to the other types, lead-acid batteries have a shorter lifetime and lower energy density. However, due to their high reliability, low self discharge as well as low investment and maintenance costs, they are currently (as of 2014) the predominant technology used in small-scale, residential PV systems, as lithium-ion batteries are still being developed and about 3.5 times as expensive as lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, as storage devices for PV systems are stationary, the lower energy and power density and therefore higher weight of lead-acid batteries are not as critical as, for example, in electric transportation Other rechargeable batteries considered for distributed PV systems include sodium–sulfur and vanadium redox batteries, two prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery, respectively. In 2015, Tesla Motors launched the Powerwall, a rechargeable lithium-ion battery with the aim to revolutionize energy consumption.

PV systems with an integrated battery solution also need a charge controller, as the varying voltage and current from the solar array requires constant adjustment to prevent damage from overcharging. Basic charge controllers may simply turn the PV panels on and off, or may meter out pulses of energy as needed, a strategy called PWM or pulse-width modulation. More advanced charge controllers will incorporate MPPT logic into their battery charging algorithms. Charge controllers may also divert energy to some purpose other than battery charging. Rather than simply shut off the free PV energy when not needed, a user may choose to heat air or water once the battery is full.

 Monitoring and metering

The metering must be able to accumulate energy units in both directions, or two meters must be used. Many meters accumulate bidirectionally, some systems use two meters, but a unidirectional meter (with detent) will not accumulate energy from any resultant feed into the grid. In some countries, for installations over 30 kWp a frequency and a voltage monitor with disconnection of all phases is required. This is done where more solar power is being generated than can be accommodated by the utility, and the excess can not either be exported or stored. Grid operators historically have needed to provide transmission lines and generation capacity. Now they need to also provide storage. This is normally hydro-storage, but other means of storage are used. Initially storage was used so that baseload generators could operate at full output. With variable renewable energy, storage is needed to allow power generation whenever it is available, and consumption whenever needed.
The two variables a grid operator has are storing electricity for when it is needed, or transmitting it to where it is needed. If both of those fail, installations over 30kWp can automatically shut down, although in practice all inverters maintain voltage regulation and stop supplying power if the load is inadequate. Grid operators have the option of curtailing excess generation from large systems, although this is more commonly done with wind power than solar power, and results in a substantial loss of revenue. Three-phase inverters have the unique option of supplying reactive power which can be advantageous in matching load requirements.

Photovoltaic systems need to be monitored to detect breakdown and optimize operation. There are several photovoltaic monitoring strategies depending on the output of the installation and its nature. Monitoring can be performed on site or remotely. It can measure production only, retrieve all the data from the inverter or retrieve all of the data from the communicating equipment (probes, meters, etc.). Monitoring tools can be dedicated to supervision only or offer additional functions. Individual inverters and battery charge controllers may include monitoring using manufacturer specific protocols and software. Energy metering of an inverter may be of limited accuracy and not suitable for revenue metering purposes. A third-party data acquisition system can monitor multiple inverters, using the inverter manufacturer's protocols, and also acquire weather-related information. Independent smart meters may measure the total energy production of a PV array system. Separate measures such as satellite image analysis or a solar radiation meter (a pyranometer) can be used to estimate total insolation for comparison.
Data collected from a monitoring system can be displayed remotely over the World Wide Web, such as OSOTF.CSI—Metering and Performance Monitoring SolarGuard

Sizing of the photovoltaic system
Knowing the annual energy consumption in Kwh  of an institution or a family, for example of 2300Kwh, legible in its electricity bill, it is possible to calculate the number of photovoltaic panels necessary to satisfy its energy needs. By connecting to the site https://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvg_tools/en/ , after selecting the location in which to install the panels or clicking on the map or typing the name of the location, you must select "Grid connected" and "Visualize results" obtaining the following table for example relating to the city of Palermo:

 Provided inputs:;
 Location [Lat/Lon]:;38.111,13.352
 Horizon:;Calculated
 Database used:;PVGIS-SARAH2
 PV technology:;Crystalline silicon
 PV installed [kWp]:;1
 System loss [%]:;14
 Simulation outputs:;
 Slope angle [°]:;35
 Azimuth angle [°]:;0
 Yearly PV energy production [kWh]:;1519.1
 Yearly in-plane irradiation [kWh/m2]:;1944.62
 Year-to-year variability [kWh]:;47.61
 Changes in output due to:;
 Angle of incidence [%]:;-2.68
 Spectral effects [%]:;0.88
 Temperature and low irradiance [%]:;-7.48
 Total loss [%]:;-21.88
 PV electricity cost [per kWh]:;

Using the wxMaxima program, the number of panels required for an annual consumption of 2300 kWh and for a crystalline silicon technology with a slope angle of 35°, an azimut angle of 0° and total losses equal to 21.88% is 6 rounded up:

E_d : 2300 ;
E_s : 1519.1 ;
P : 300 ;
Number_panels : 1000 * E_d / ( P * E_s ) ;

5.046847914335243

On average, each family manages to consume 30% of energy directly from the photovoltaic. The storage system can bring its self-consumption to a maximum of 70%, therefore the battery storage capacity that should be in the specific case is: 4.41 Kwh which rounded up is 4.8 Kwh

Battery_capacity : 0.70 * E_d/365 ;

4.410958904109589

If the price of energy is 0.5 €/Kwh then the cost of energy excluding taxes will be 1150€ per year:

Energy_cost : E_d * 0.5;

1150.0

So if a 300W panel costs €200, the 4.8Kwh battery costs €3000, the inverter to convert the direct current into alternating current €1000, the charge regulator €100, the installation costs €1000 the total cost will be €6,300 :

Total_cost :  200*6 + 3000 + 1000 + 100 + 1000  ;

3150

which are amortized over 5.46 years:

Years : Total_cost / Energy_cost ;

5.46...

having the battery a life of 10 years and the panels 25–30 years

 Other systems

This section includes systems that are either highly specialized and uncommon or still an emerging new technology with limited significance. However, standalone or off-grid systems take a special place. They were the most common type of systems during the 1980s and 1990s, when PV technology was still very expensive and a pure niche market of small scale applications. Only in places where no electrical grid was available, they were economically viable. Although new stand-alone systems are still being deployed all around the world, their contribution to the overall installed photovoltaic capacity is decreasing. In Europe, off-grid systems account for 1 percent of installed capacity. In the United States, they account for about 10 percent. Off-grid systems are still common in Australia and South Korea, and in many developing countries.

 CPV

Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and high concentrator photovoltaic (HCPV) systems use optical lenses or curved mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto small but highly efficient solar cells. Besides concentrating optics, CPV systems sometime use solar trackers and cooling systems and are more expensive.

Especially HCPV systems are best suited in location with high solar irradiance, concentrating sunlight up to 400 times or more, with efficiencies of 24–28 percent, exceeding those of regular systems. Various designs of systems are commercially available but not very common. However, ongoing research and development is taking place.

CPV is often confused with CSP (concentrated solar power) that does not use photovoltaics. Both technologies favor locations that receive much sunlight and directly compete with each other.

 Hybrid

A hybrid system combines PV with other forms of generation, usually a diesel generator. Biogas is also used. The other form of generation may be a type able to modulate power output as a function of demand. However more than one renewable form of energy may be used e.g. wind. The photovoltaic power generation serves to reduce the consumption of non renewable fuel. Hybrid systems are most often found on islands. Pellworm island in Germany and Kythnos island in Greece are notable examples (both are combined with wind).. Pellworm island website (in German) The Kythnos plant has reduced diesel consumption by 11.2%.

In 2015, a case-study conducted in seven countries concluded that in all cases generating costs can be reduced by hybridising mini-grids and isolated grids. However, financing costs for such hybrids are crucial and largely depend on the ownership structure of the power plant. While cost reductions for state-owned utilities can be significant, the study also identified economic benefits to be insignificant or even negative for non-public utilities, such as independent power producers.

There has also been work showing that the PV penetration limit can be increased by deploying a distributed network of PV+CHP hybrid systems in the U.S. The temporal distribution of solar flux, electrical and heating requirements for representative U.S. single family residences were analyzed and the results clearly show that hybridizing CHP with PV can enable additional PV deployment above what is possible with a conventional centralized electric generation system. This theory was reconfirmed with numerical simulations using per second solar flux data to determine that the necessary battery backup to provide for such a hybrid system is possible with relatively small and inexpensive battery systems. In addition, large PV+CHP systems are possible for institutional buildings, which again provide back up for intermittent PV and reduce CHP runtime.

 PVT system (hybrid PV/T), also known as photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors, convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy. Such a system combines a solar (PV) module with a solar thermal collector in a complementary way.
 CPVT system. A concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid'' (CPVT) system is similar to a PVT system. It uses concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) instead of conventional PV technology, and combines it with a solar thermal collector.
 CPV/CSP system is a proposed novel solar hybrid system, combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non-PV technology of concentrated solar power (CSP), or also known as concentrated solar thermal.
 PV diesel system combines a photovoltaic system with a diesel generator. Combinations with other renewables are possible and include wind turbines.

Floating solar arrays

Direct current grid
DC grids are found in electric powered transport: railways trams and trolleybuses. A few pilot plants for such applications have been built, such as the tram depots in Hannover Leinhausen, using photovoltaic contributors and Geneva (Bachet de Pesay). The 150 kWp Geneva site feeds 600 V DC directly into the tram/trolleybus electricity network whereas before it provided about 15% of the electricity at its opening in 1999.

Standalone

A stand-alone or off-grid system is not connected to the electrical grid. Standalone systems vary widely in size and application from wristwatches or calculators to remote buildings or spacecraft. If the load is to be supplied independently of solar insolation, the generated power is stored and buffered with a battery. In non-portable applications where weight is not an issue, such as in buildings, lead acid batteries are most commonly used for their low cost and tolerance for abuse.

A charge controller may be incorporated in the system to avoid battery damage by excessive charging or discharging. It may also help to optimize production from the solar array using a maximum power point tracking technique (MPPT). However, in simple PV systems where the PV module voltage is matched to the battery voltage, the use of MPPT electronics is generally considered unnecessary, since the battery voltage is stable enough to provide near-maximum power collection from the PV module.
In small devices (e.g. calculators, parking meters) only direct current (DC) is consumed. In larger systems (e.g. buildings, remote water pumps) AC is usually required. To convert the DC from the modules or batteries into AC, an inverter is used.

In agricultural settings, the array may be used to directly power DC pumps, without the need for an inverter. In remote settings such as mountainous areas, islands, or other places where a power grid is unavailable, solar arrays can be used as the sole source of electricity, usually by charging a storage battery. Stand-alone systems closely relate to microgeneration and distributed generation.

Costs and economy

The cost of producing photovoltaic cells has dropped because of economies of scale in production and technological advances in manufacturing. For large-scale installations, prices below $1.00 per watt were common by 2012. A price decrease of 50% had been achieved in Europe from 2006 to 2011, and there was a potential to lower the generation cost by 50% by 2020. Crystal silicon solar cells have largely been replaced by less expensive multicrystalline silicon solar cells, and thin film silicon solar cells have also been developed at lower costs of production. Although they are reduced in energy conversion efficiency from single crystalline "siwafers", they are also much easier to produce at comparably lower costs.

The table below shows the total (average) cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kWp), of a photovoltaic installation. Photovoltaic system costs have been declining and in Germany, for example, were reported to have fallen to USD 1389/kWp by the end of 2014. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kWp. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.
Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output.

The calculated values in the table reflect the total (average) cost in cents per kWh produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25-year warranty.

Learning curve
Photovoltaic systems demonstrate a learning curve in terms of levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), reducing its cost per kWh by 32.6% for every doubling of capacity. From the data of LCOE and cumulative installed capacity from International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) from 2010 to 2017,  the learning curve equation for photovoltaic systems is given as

 LCOE : levelized cost of electricity (in USD/kWh)
 Capacity : cumulative installed capacity of photovoltaic systems (in MW)

Regulation

Standardization

Increasing use of photovoltaic systems and integration of photovoltaic power into existing structures and techniques of supply and distribution increases the need for general standards and definitions for photovoltaic components and systems. The standards are compiled at the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and apply to efficiency, durability and safety of cells, modules, simulation programs, plug connectors and cables, mounting systems, overall efficiency of inverters etc.

National regulations

United Kingdom

In the UK, PV installations are generally considered permitted development and do not require planning permission. If the property is listed or in a designated area (National Park, Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Site of Special Scientific Interest or Norfolk Broads) then planning permission is required.

United States

In the United States, article 690 of the National Electric Code provides general guidelines for the installation of photovoltaic systems; these may be superseded by local laws and regulations. Often a permit is required necessitating plan submissions and structural calculations before work may begin. Additionally, many locales require the work to be performed under the guidance of a licensed electrician.

The Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ) will review designs and issue permits, before construction can lawfully begin. Electrical installation practices must comply with standards set forth within the National Electrical Code (NEC) and be inspected by the AHJ to ensure compliance with building code, electrical code, and fire safety code. Jurisdictions may require that equipment has been tested, certified, listed, and labeled by at least one of the Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTL). Many localities require a permit to install a photovoltaic system. A grid-tied system normally requires a licensed electrician to connect between the system and the grid-connected wiring of the building. Installers who meet these qualifications are located in almost every state. Several states prohibit homeowners' associations from restricting solar devices.

Spain
Although Spain generates around 40% of its electricity via photovoltaic and other renewable energy sources, and cities such as Huelva and Seville boast nearly 3,000 hours of sunshine per year, in 2013 Spain issued a solar tax to account for the debt created by the investment done by the Spanish government. Those who do not connect to the grid can face up to a fine of 30 million euros (US$40 million). Such measures were finally withdrawn by 2018, when new legislation was introduced banning any taxes on renewable energy self-consumption.

Limitations

Impact on electricity network
With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes two-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the two-way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland, Australia, there have been more than 30% of households with rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The famous Californian 2020 duck curve appears very often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may come out as the electricity flows back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at electricity distributor level, re-conductor the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions. A way to calculate these costs and benefits is to use the concept of 'value of solar' (VOS), which includes the avoided costs/losses including: plant operations ans maintenance (fixed and variable); fuel; generation capacity, reserve capacity, transmission capacity, distribution capacity, and environmental and health liability. Popular Mechanics reports that VOS results show that grid-tied utility customers are being grossly under-compensated in most of the U.S. as the value of solar eclipses the net metering rate as well as two-tiered rates, which means "your neighbor's solar panels are secretly saving you money".

Implications for electricity bill management and energy investment
Customers have different specific situations, e.g. different comfort/convenience needs, different electricity tariffs, or different usage patterns. An electricity tariff may have a few elements, such as daily access and metering charge, energy charge (based on kWh, MWh) or peak demand charge (e.g. a price for the highest 30min energy consumption in a month). PV is a promising option for reducing energy charge when electricity price is reasonably high and continuously increasing, such as in Australia and Germany. However, for sites with peak demand charge in place, PV may be less attractive if peak demands mostly occur in the late afternoon to early evening, for example residential communities. Overall, energy investment is largely an economic decision and investment decisions are based on systematical evaluation of options in operational improvement, energy efficiency, onsite generation and energy storage.

See also

Copper conductor
Polyolefin
Low smoke zero halogen
MC4 connector
Solar micro-inverter
Tinning
 Energy demand management
 List of photovoltaic power stations
 List of rooftop photovoltaic installations
 Photovoltaic power station
 Renewable energy
 Rooftop photovoltaic power station
 Solar energy
 Solar vehicle

References

Further reading

External links
 Summary of Photovoltaic Wire Requirements as Outlined in UL 4703
 Photovoltaic Energy Factsheet by the University of Michigan's Center for Sustainable Systems
 Home Power Magazine
 Solar project management
 Best Practices for Siting Solar Photovoltaics on Municipal Solid Waste Landfills: A Study Prepared in Partnership with the Environmental Protection Agency for the RE-Powering America's Land Initiative: Siting Renewable Energy on Potentially Contaminated Land and Mine Sites National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Photovoltaics


Veerasamy is a 2007 Indian Tamil-language masala film written, produced, and directed by Vijaya T. Rajender who also stars alongside Mumtaj and Meghna Naidu.

Plot

Veerasamy is a lawyer, party leader and MLA in Chennai. He tries to do good things for people. His sister Senthamizh falls in love with a pimp's brother, and a neighbour Sarasu falls in love with Veerasamy.

Even though Sarasu's family background and the job she does like selling black ticket in the theatre is against his ideology, he still accepts her to work in his house which she wishfully volunteers but she constantly flirts with him. In one confrontation she confesses her love towards him which he refuses and on anger she tells him that she cannot live without him, fearing she would go to some extreme measures he gets her to promise not to attempt suicide which she agrees.

Later Veerasamy learns that his sister is in love with his arche nemesis brother and does not agree with their love and he doesn't speak to her. Frustrated she breaks up with him. To prove his love towards her he goes to her house to meet her but is eventually caught by her brother and he starts to hit him. Fearing that his brother would kill him she asks him to leave but he insists that he needs to prove that he is worthy of Veerasamy's sister. Convinced, he agrees to the marriage and goes to the boy's house to talk about the marriage. However, they are greeted by the arrogant sister who tells them that the marriage will only happen when Veerasamy falls to her legs and begs her to forgive him in front of the court. Furious, Veerasamy's sister tells that her brother is the most important and precious person to her that she can even live without the love of her life but she cannot bear to humiliate her brother and tells everyone that she isn't interested in marriage.

Later, Sarasu family who only cares about money sells their daughter to a druggie in exchange for souvenir. She abuses her by constantly tormenting her. Veerasamy is filled with guilt, and it is revealed that he was also secretly in love with her. At some point, the druggie sells her to another man and asks her to sleep with him. Frustrated she kills her husband and comes to Veerasamy crying.

Meanwhile, when this was happening Veerasamy sister wants her brother to look for a groom for marriage as it will make the pain bearable. He looks for a groom and also tells them about her previous love life which they didn't mind much. Later, learning that the pimps brother gets frustrated and the girl who was also the one side lover of his who was ironically the one who plotting schemes to separate both of them couldn't bear to see him in this state. So, they visit Veerasamy, and she confesses and pleads him to get his sister to marry him. He also weeps saying that he has already arranged for a groom for his sister and their reception is today. At the same time Sarasu comes to see Veerasamy and confesses to him that she had killed her husband. Overwhelming with guilt, Veerasamy who also witnessed how painful it was to not be living with your soulmate allows his sister to marry her lover.

The groom's parents who were furious confront him. During this confrontation, the family used some harsh words which made him feel very ashamed to the point where he literally loses his life unable to bear their venomous words sprouting out of their tongue. Later Sarasu realises that Veerasamy is dead unable to bear the shock she loses her life fainting breaking her anklet. This proves her love towards him and how she immediately left the world when he left. The film ends with both of their demises and a weeping Veerasamy's sister.

Cast

 Vijaya T. Rajender as Veerasamy
 Mumtaj as Sarasu
 Sheela Kaur as Senthamizh
 Meghna Naidu
 Santhanam as Veerasamy's friend
 M. S. Bhaskar as Advocate
Aziz as Arun, Senthamizh's lover
Vennira Aadai Moorthy as Avasarakudukkai Arunachalam
Charu Haasan
Sharmili as Nylon Nalina (Sarasu's stepmother)
Padma Narayanan as Rousu Rani
S. N. Parvathy
Sharmili
Pandu
Madhan Bob as Fraud
Bobby as Minister
Kottachi
Benjamin
Alex
Muthukaalai
Bonda Mani
Cool Suresh
Supergood Lakshmanan
Citizen Mani
Winner Ramachandran

Music

The music was composed by T. Rajendar who also wrote the lyrics.

Reception

Rediff.com wrote "The story breaks into a song every few minutes and watching Rajendar romancing in his rainbow coloured costumes and clumsy dancing is sure to tickle your funny bone. The action sequences, however, are well choreographed. The movie has a number of monologues of varying durations from Rajendar -- he launches into a soliloquy at the drop of a hat. Making no secret of his political inclinations, Rajendar makes liberal references to his son Simbu, which is totally unrelated to the story". Kollywood Today wrote "Too many characters and parallel story makes story too difficult to understand, and T.R lengthy dialogue tuned down well too". The Hindu wrote, "Not that the film is devoid of good aspects but they are nullified with Rajendar as the hero". Ananda Vikatan stated that marks could be given to test, but wondered how to give marks to a poisonous test, and refused to give marks to this film. Chennai Online wrote "One can admire TR for his persistence and extreme confidence in handling so many departments. But it's another matter that the result is far from satisfactory and from what he may have intended".

References

External links

2000s masala films
2007 films
Films directed by T. Rajendar
Films scored by T. Rajendar
Films with screenplays by T. Rajendar


William Richards Castle Jr. (June 19, 1878 – October 13, 1963) was an American educator and diplomat. He rose rapidly to the highest levels of the United States Department of State and took a strong interest in Pacific issues, in part because of his family's background in Hawaii.

Life
William Richards Castle Jr. was born in Honolulu on June 19, 1878, when it was the Kingdom of Hawaii. His father, William Richards Castle, served King David Kalākaua as attorney general and later as Hawaiian Minister to the United States, where he was an active proponent of annexation. His grandfather, Samuel Northrup Castle, founded the giant agricultural corporation Castle & Cooke. William Richards Castle Jr. graduated from Punahou School and then Harvard College in 1900, where he was a founding member of the Fox Club. His mentor was Professor Barrett Wendell. He remained at Harvard as an English instructor and assistant dean in charge of freshmen from 1904 to 1913. In 1910 he was President and one of the founders of the Hawaiian Trail & Mountain Club. From 1915 through 1917, he was editor of the Harvard Graduates' Magazine and wrote several articles for it. He published two novels and a book on Hawaiian history.

During World War I he opened an American Red Cross bureau in Washington, DC, to assist in reuniting families and locating U.S. citizens missing overseas. As Director of Communications, his department handled 10,000 letters per day.

Historian Robert H. Ferrell described Castle as "a handsome, genial man, who ... had a way of disarming people. When he fixed his friendly eyes upon a minister or ambassador the envoy often would completely forget diplomacy and pour out his heart. But behind the friendly eyes lurked a razor-sharp mind which soon afterward mercilessly recorded all confessions in official State Department memoranda. Not without reason did the French journalist Pertinax characterize him as the 'subtil Mons. Castle.'"

Diplomat
In 1919 Castle joined the U.S. State Department, rising quickly in part because of his Harvard connections.  He served as assistant chief of the division of Western European affairs and from 1921 as its chief. He was appointed Assistant Secretary of State on February 26, 1927, during the administration of Calvin Coolidge. During this time he was instrumental behind the scenes in the creation of the Kellogg-Briand Pact. Castle managed to overcome French objections through his discussions with the French ambassador, replacing the narrow Franco-American agreement with a treaty that attracted almost all major and minor nations.

Japan
He was U.S. Ambassador to Japan for five months during 1930 to negotiate the changes in warship limits that Japan requested from the five-power London Naval Conference 1930. He was named to this position on December 11, 1929, in large part because he had a private income sufficient to defray the costs of an ambassadorship while the State Department salaries and funds provided for entertainment were so low. Tokyo, with the highest cost of living of any post, had been vacant since Charles MacVeagh (1860–1931) resigned on December 6, 1928. Castle's appointment to Japan was only for the duration of the conference. The press called him a "pinch hitter". He presented credentials on January 24, 1930, and left on May 27, 1930, but in that short time had developed a sympathetic  view of Japan's foreign policy. The day before departing he laid the cornerstone of a new American Embassy in Tokyo to replace the structure destroyed in the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. Japanese dignitaries attending the ceremonies included Prince Tokugawa Iesato (President of the America-Japan Society), Kijūrō Shidehara (Japanese Foreign Minister), and industrialist Shibusawa Eiichi.

Although the modification of the treaty was supported by Japanese Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi, the Japanese military was outraged at any restrictions. Naval Chief of Staff Admiral Kanji Katō refused to attend a farewell dinner for Castle. When Naval Minister Takarabe Takeshi repeated the invitation, the Admiral resigned rather than attend. Another Japanese Naval officer Yeiji Kusakari committed the traditional suicide known as Seppuku, widely thought to be in protest of the treaty.

Castle returned to his post of Assistant Secretary of State on May 27, 1930. The position of U.S. Ambassador to Japan remained vacant until William Cameron Forbes (1870–1959) presented his credentials on September 25, 1930.

Under Secretary
On April 1, 1931, Castle was appointed Under Secretary of State following the death of Joseph Potter Cotton. He was confirmed on December 17, 1931, and served until March 5, 1933. It was the second-ranking post in the department to Henry L. Stimson in the Herbert Hoover administration. Castle was acting Secretary of State during negotiation of the Hoover Moratorium on World War I reparations in 1931. The press appreciated his communications on the negotiations.
In September 1931 Castle tried to defuse the tense situation that developed in the aftermath of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria.
With the election of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, Castle was replaced by William Phillips (1878–1968) as Under Secretary.

Later years
From 1933, Castle wrote numerous articles and speeches  especially as an outspoken critic of the New Deal. He opposed conflict with Japan, in part because he feared its impact on Hawaii, fears borne out by the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. During World War II he continued to oppose Roosevelt's policies. However, Secretary of State Cordell Hull often consulted Castle behind-the-scenes as one of the few experts on Japanese affairs. Castle spoke out against misleading propaganda. He advocated realistic dialog with compromises from negotiation and mutual trade. He also influenced the Treaty of San Francisco and occupation of Japan after the war.

He married Margaret Farlow on June 3, 1902. Their only child, Rosamond Castle, was born March 4, 1904, married Alan Francis Winslow on October 20, 1923, and died February 26, 1932, leaving three young sons.

Castle was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1932.
He received honorary degrees from the University of Rochester in 1932, Doctor of Civil Law from the University of the South in 1935, and Bryant College in 1936. He was elected to the Harvard Board of Overseers from 1935 to 1941.
In 1937 he worked for John Hamilton on the Republican National Committee to rebuild the party after the defeats of the 1936 elections. He served as president of Garfield Memorial Hospital in Washington, DC, from 1945 to 1952. He died on October 13, 1963, in Washington, DC.

His diaries were donated to Harvard and other papers were donated to the Herbert Hoover Presidential Library by his grandsons in April 1970.

His house in Washington DC, designed in 1929 by Carrere & Hastings, survives on 2200 S Street NW in the Kalorama neighborhood.

Works

References

Further reading
  The author is Castle's grand-nephew.

Family tree

1878 births
1963 deaths
People from Honolulu
Harvard College alumni
Harvard University faculty
United States Department of State officials
Hawaii Republicans
Ambassadors of the United States to Japan
Punahou School alumni
Writers from Hawaii
Washington, D.C., Republicans
Old Right (United States)
20th-century American diplomats


The Best of Ken Mellons is an album, released in 2001, by American country music artist Ken Mellons. Despite its title, it is not a compilation album, but rather a studio album composed of nine new tracks and a dance mix of his 1994 hit "Jukebox Junkie". Prior to this album, Mellons had released a non-charting single in "Mr. DJ" for Curb, and after the release of this album, Mellons left the label.

Track listing
"Jukebox Junkie (Dance Mix)" (Ken Mellons, Jerry Cupit, Janice Honeycutt) – 4:40
"Shame on Me" (Mellons, Buddy Brock) – 3:07
"Home Team" (Mellons, Cupit, Lee Thomas Miller) – 3:54
"Farmer's Daughter" (Mellons, Cupit) – 2:29
"Ladies Night" (Mellons, Cupit, Randy Roberts) – 3:51
"Can You Feel It" (Mellons, Cupit, Jobe Memarie) – 3:21
"Down to a Crawl" (Mellons, Cupit, David Brewer, Faye Brewer) – 3:24
"Bundle of Nerves" (Mellons, Cupit, Miller) – 2:55
"Was It Good for You" (Mellons, Cupit) – 3:11
"Cool as You" (Larry Boone, Billy Lawson) – 2:58

Ken Mellons albums
2001 greatest hits albums
Curb Records compilation albums


was a Japanese actor, singer, and model affiliated with Stardust Promotion. After modeling in various campaigns, he made his acting debut in the 2004 television series Water Boys 2 and later appeared as Fumizō Sōma from Tadashii Ōji no Tsukurikata, Shōzō Akaike from the Takumi-kun film adaptation series, and Akira Hayase from Kamen Rider Drive.

In addition to television and film projects, Takiguchi has appeared in multiple stage plays. He played Shuichiro Oishi in Musical: The Prince of Tennis (2006). After leaving production, Takiguchi played the roles of Yūzō Kashima in Mankai Stage: A3! and Miroku in InuYasha. In addition to acting, Takiguchi was part of the project boy band PureBoys from 2007 to 2008.

Career
Takiguchi attended an all-boys high school, and, during his senior year, he was scouted to become a model. Takiguchi accepted the offer, after concluding that the job would be more rewarding than "graduating out of college to become a salaryman." He was signed on to Stardust Promotion in Section 3. In 2004, he debuted as an actor in the television series Water Boys 2.

From 2006 to 2007, Takiguchi played Shuichiro Oishi in Musical: The Prince of Tennis. In June 2007, Takiguchi became a member of the project group PureBoys. In March 2008, he announced he was leaving the group and continued to make appearances on their online show until June 27, 2008.

His final appearance before his death was in the musical Seishun Aoharu Tetsudō, which ended its run on November 4, 2019.

Personal life

Takiguchi's father is a chef. In December 2008, Takiguchi became a certified chef.

Death

Takiguchi died from heart failure on November 13, 2019, at the age of 34. Prior to his death, Takiguchi had been preparing to appear in the stage plays Meijiza no Hen: Kirin ni No-ru in December 2019 and Mankai Stage: A3! August 2020 in January 2020. Takiguchi's funeral was held privately with close relatives.

Discography

Soundtrack appearances

Filmography

TV series

Theatre

Movies

Radio/Webcast

PVs

References

External links

Japanese male actors
1985 births
2019 deaths
Stardust Promotion artists


Heinrich Friedrich Theodor Kohlrausch (November 5, 1780 – January 30, 1867) was a German educator and historian.

He was the father of physicist Rudolf Kohlrausch (1809–1858) and surgeon Otto Kohlrausch (1811–1854).

Biography
He was born in Landolfshausen. He was a student at the University of Göttingen, later continuing his education at the universities of Berlin, Kiel, and Heidelberg.  He was then a teacher in Barmen (from 1810), Düsseldorf (from 1814), and Münster (from 1818).

In 1830 he was appointed Generalschuldirektor (Director General of Schools) by the Royal Hanoverian government. In this role he introduced several administrative reforms and standards to the curriculum, and he stressed the importance of subjects such as natural sciences, history and gymnastics.

Writings
Kohlrausch published several textbooks, including the 1816 Die deutsche Geschichte für Schule und Haus ("German history for school and home"), a work that was published over fifteen editions. Other writings associated with Kohlrausch include:
 Die Geschichte und Lehre der Heiligen Schrift ("The history and teachings of Holy Scripture", 1811).
 Chronologischer Abriss der Weltgeschichte ("Chronological outline of world history"; 15th edition, 1861).
 Kurze Darstellung der deutschen Geschichte ("Brief account of German history"; 15th edition, 1894).

References
 Historische Tabellenwerke (translated from German)

 Parts of this article are based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia.

1780 births
1867 deaths
People from Göttingen (district)
University of Göttingen alumni
German academic administrators


No. 1325 (Transport) Flight comprising three Douglas Dakota aircraft, formed at RAF Dishforth, North Yorkshire, on 1 August 1956 to support Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler British nuclear tests at Maralinga. 1325 Flight was soon relocated to Christmas Island (Kiritimati) to support the Grapple series of nuclear tests in that remote Pacific region.

Squadron Leader W.J. (Joe) Hurst was placed in command of 1325 Flight and was awarded the AFC for his exemplary service. He was CO for 'Grapple' and part of 'Grapple X'. The CO for the remaining 'Grapple X' and all 'Grapple Y' was a Squadron Leader Wood.

While at Christmas Island, regular supply flights were made to support the weather and observation sites located at Fanning and Malden Islands for the nuclear tests. Because some islands had no landing strips, 1325 Flight devised a "bouncing palette" system (similar to Barnes Wallis’s bouncing bomb) to deliver supplies. Occasional flights were also made to Nandi in Fiji, Faleolo (Apia) in Western Samoa, Rarotonga Island, and New Caledonia Island.

Because of limited maintenance facilities at Christmas Island, the Dakota aircraft were rotated to the de Havilland aircraft works at Bankstown, Sydney, Australia for "Base servicing". On these flights, the 1325 Flight Dakotas were routed via Canton Island, Fiji and Brisbane. The 1325 Flight Dakotas had extra fuel tanks mounted within the fuselage to extend the range to 2,400 miles. The Dakotas had servicing facilities on the Island. While at Christmas Island 1325 Flight became known as "Christmas Airways", a nickname created by the CO, Squadron Leader W J Hurst, and had that legend painted on both sides of the aircraft fuselage. The ground crew serviced various civilian aircraft ferrying food to the island. The ground crew were merged with the Transport Command Servicing Team groundcrew, who serviced the RAF Hastings aircraft which were used to transport service personnel as well as food that was flown from Hickam USAF field in Honolulu.

Once the tests had been completed and operations at Christmas Island terminated, 1325 flight was disbanded at RAF Changi in Singapore, on 1 May 1960.

Aircraft operated

Another Dakota Mk4, KN649, not on the strength of 1325 Flight but being used to train its aircrew, crashed near RAF Dishforth on 27 August 1957 with the loss of three crew members.
Loaned to Dishforth for this training program, the aircraft was based at Bovingdon where it had been used as personal transport by the C in C Coastal Command.

Flight bases

References
Notes

Bibliography

 Delve, Ken. The Source Book of the RAF. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. .
 CO 1325 Flight Squadron Leader W J Hurst
 Lake, Alan. Flying Units of the RAF. Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1999. .
 Sturtivant, Ray, and John Hamlin. RAF Flying Training And Support Units since 1912. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 2007. .

1325 Flight
Military units and formations established in 1956
Military units and formations disestablished in 1960
1956 establishments in the United Kingdom
1960 disestablishments in the United Kingdom


Anni Becker (1926 in Kaiserslautern – 22 June 2009) was a German musician, writer, poet, and performer of popular and folk songs. She was a teacher by profession, and taught actively until 1991.

Early life
Becker was born in 1926 to Jakob and Magdalena Moessel in Kaiserslautern, Germany. As a child, she sang frequently in choir groups and churches in the area. At the age of 20, she graduated from a women's school in Kaiserslautern, and moved to the Suedwestfunk studio to work the following autumn. While working at the studio, she also studied at the Pedagogical Academy in Kirchheimbolanden, and completed the Staatsexamen for German language, arts, and religion in 1952. She married Hans Becker the same year, with whom she would raise four children.

Music
Becker's songs take inspiration from Palatinate folk music tradition and the German cabaret. Many of her songs are sung in the Palatine dialect, which was spoken in her hometown and played a dominant role in her identity. Her early musical endeavors consisted mostly of setting traditional Palatine poems to song—for example, the writings of Liesel Ott.

Becker formed a musical-literary cabaret with fellow musicians Michael Bauer and Gerd Forster in the late '60s and early '70s, in keeping with her passion for literature and song. She and her performance group quickly gained recognition in Kaiserslautern and beyond. For several years, she performed with her son Jocken Beckert, until he was killed in an auto accident in 1985.

Awards and accomplishments
Anni Becker has received a number of awards for her music and life's work, including but not limited to:
 The Environmental Song Prize of Ludwigshafen (1973)
 The Nürnberger Bard's Prize (1976 & 1977)
 The Bockenheimer Emichsburg Prize (1986)
 The Palatinate Medal of Honor (1998)
 Ehrenmedaille des Bezirksverbandes Pfalz (1998)
 Medal of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (2000)

Becker published 11 song books and released several records. Becker's songs frequently contain or allude to contemporary political and social content. In particular, her music incorporates themes of equal rights for women and environment.

References

1926 births
German schoolteachers
German women musicians
2009 deaths
20th-century German musicians
Recipients of the Medal of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
20th-century German women


Tenacious D: Time Fixers is a short film that was used as a promotional tool on the iTunes website. The film stars Tenacious D as well as Michael Keaton and longtime collaborators JR Reed and Paul F. Tompkins. The first half of the film was available as a free download on iTunes, while the second half could only be accessed after pre-ordering the album The Pick of Destiny.

The film can also be found on YouTube, as well as the second disk of The Complete Masterworks Part 2.

Plot
At an open mic night, Tenacious D are performing "Training Medley" to an indifferent crowd, one of whom (Dan Harmon) heckles the band. After the show, they get a message from Michael Keaton as himself, saying that the time-space continuum has been disrupted in the Ford's Theater in the 1850s. After they travel there, they discover that Abraham Lincoln (Justin Roiland) has walked out of the play, which would prevent his assassination. Kyle Gass attempts to convince him to get shot and bribes him with seven cents, which he thinks must be worth a significant amount due to inflation, but Lincoln refuses. The two confront the Time Goblin (JR Reed) who staged the scenario so he could confront Tenacious D and take their "time machine" (a normal-looking car with time-travel capabilities, much like the DeLorean time machine). They fight, and the Time Goblin wins. He ties them into the presidential party box, so that John Wilkes Booth will assassinate them instead, and steals their time machine. The two break free and discover Lincoln is willing to get shot, since he discovered from Kyle's seven cents his face is on the future penny and is grateful. Jack and Kyle realize they still do not have a time machine, but meet H.G. Wells, who offers them the use of the time machine from his book and they leave with it.

The Time Goblin, in prehistoric times, is about to kill a butterfly to distort the future when Jack and Kyle arrive and beat him, presumably to death. Before they go back to the present, they travel into the future and pay a visit to the grave of the heckler from before, and take a photo of themselves in front of the headstone, which they take back to the present and show to the heckler before he can voice his insult.

References

External links
Time Fixers at Channel 101
Time Fixers on YouTube

Tenacious D
2006 short films
Channel 101
Films about time travel
2000s English-language films


Sweet is the fourth studio album released by American country music artist Ken Mellons. Released in 2004, it contains the song "Paint Me a Birmingham", which was also recorded by Tracy Lawrence and released as a single. Mellons's rendition was also released shortly before Lawrence's. "Smack Dab" was previously recorded by George Jones on his 1998 album It Don't Get Any Better Than This.

Track listing
"Smack Dab" (Kerry Kurt Phillips, T.W. Hale) – 3:02
"Just What I'm Wantin' to Do" (Ken Mellons, John Northrup) – 2:56
"Paint Me a Birmingham" (Buck Moore, Gary Duffy) – 3:48
"Climb My Tree" (Northrup, Billy Lawson, Dean Dillon) – 2:33
"Interstate Gypsy" (Mellons, Northrup, David Vowell) – 3:23
"You Can't Make My Heart Believe" (Mellons, Dillon, Northrup) – 3:39
"Sweet" (Walt Aldridge, Gary Baker, Greg Barnhill) – 4:00
"All I Need Is a Bridge" (Mellons, Northrup) – 4:24
"Single Again" (Billy Davis, David Rivers, Doug Graham) – 2:37
"Any Time, Any Place" (M.C. Potts, Northrup) – 3:11
"Institute of Honky Tonks" (Mellons, Northrup, Larry Alderman) – 3:03
Duet with George Jones
"If I've Learned Anything at All" (Mellons, Northrup, Dale Dodson) – 2:35

Personnel
 Mike Chapman - bass guitar
 Larry Cordle - background vocals
 Glen Duncan - fiddle
 Terry Eldredge - background vocals
 Larry Franklin - fiddle
 Vince Gill - background vocals
 Owen Hale - drums
 Wes Hightower - background vocals
 Rebecca Lynn Howard - background vocals
 Bill Hullett - acoustic guitar
 Carl Jackson - banjo
 George Jones - background vocals
 Liana Manis - background vocals
 Brent Mason - electric guitar
 Ken Mellons - lead vocals
 Gordon Mote - keyboards
 John Wesley Ryles - background vocals
 Scotty Sanders - steel guitar
 Earl Scruggs - banjo
 Steve Turner - drums

References

[ Sweet] at Allmusic

2004 albums
Ken Mellons albums


Search and Rescue is an Australian observational documentary series that first aired on the Nine Network on 7 May 2008.

Search and Rescue follows the search and rescue operations of several different Victoria Police divisions, such as the Victoria Police Air-Wing and Victoria Police Diving Squad.

Nine Network original programming
2008 Australian television series debuts
2008 Australian television series endings
Australian factual television series


The Scientists of Modern Music were an electronic group from Hobart, Australia, consisting of Cal Young and Simon McIntosh.

History

In 2004, Cal Young & Simon McIntosh started wagging audio design classes together, in order to jam on a very old drum kit and an un-tunable guitar just for kicks. They later progressed into electronic music, hoarding bits and pieces off eBay to start a band which became The Scientists of Modern Music. The duo came second in a college band competition, strangely listed under 'acoustic rock', but still managed to make an impact which scored them a couple of local shows in late 2005. From there Cal and Simon wrote a handful of songs in the space of two weeks and released a home brew EP, which gained them a special mention on Triple J and secured TSOMM a place on various radio stations around Australia. After performing around the mainland multiple times, the head of Rubber Records (Melbourne) spotted the duo and signed to the label to release their debut commercial EP 'Electronic Sunset'.

The band then embarked on various shows, and played the festival circuit including both Falls Festivals and Golden Plains Festival, and toured with bands such as Midnight Juggernauts, The Presets and the Dukes of Windsor. They then re-released their EP as an album length CD which scored them rotation on Triple J for their song 'Easy'.

TSOMM's debut album A Personal Universe was released via Rubber/Shock on Friday 18 May 2012. It was produced between September 2008 and December 2010. The duo went to London to complete the record with Rob Haggett and David Treahearn of The Slips, and it was mastered by the late Nilesh Patel and Simon Davey at The Exchange.

Live
The band is known for its energetic and exciting live shows.
Young and McIntosh have even been known to get off stage and join the crowd to mosh, while the music keeps playing.
When performing live, the band have a distinctive dress: Cal Young wears a black suit, black shirt and black shoes and Simon McIntosh wears all white in a similar fashion.

Band members
Cal Young - Synthesiser, Vocoder, Vocals
Simon McIntosh - Synthesiser, Vocoder, Vocals, Guitar

Discography
 Number One (EP) (2006)
 Robot On (single) (2006)
 Electronic Sunset (EP) (2007)
 Electronic Sunset (Album length) (2008)
 Because If I Die (Single) (2011)
 Girl On Top (Single) (2011)
 A Personal Universe (Debut album) (18 May 2012)

Performances

Festivals
Falls Festival (2006)
MS Fest (2007)
Southern Roots Festival (2007)
Falls Festival (2007)
Soundscape Festival (2008)
Golden Plains Festival (2008)
Climate Festivals (2008)
Grazzhopper Festival (2008)
Pyramid Rock Festival (2008)
Meredith Music Festival (2008)
Kiss My Grass (2009)
MS Fest (2009)
Hot Barbeque (2010)
Sandcastles (2010)
MONA FOMA (2011)
Falls Festival (2011/12)
Breath Of Life Festival (2012)

Supports
The Presets
Infusion
Gerling
Midnight Juggernauts
Van She
Crazy Penis
Girl Talk
Regurgitator
Dukes of Windsor
The Galvatrons
JD Samson & MEN
The Adults

References

External links
Official Myspace
Triple J Page

2005 establishments in Australia
2012 disestablishments in Australia
Musical groups established in 2005
Musical groups disestablished in 2012
Tasmanian musical groups
Australian electronic musicians
Culture in Hobart


Theagenis Dionysatos (; born 17 December 1975) is a Greek football defensive midfielder who has appeared in over 100 matches in Gamma Ethniki.

Career
Born in Mytilene, Dionysatos has spent most of his career with local side Aiolikos F.C., playing in over 100 matches in the third-tier of Greek football. In December 2008, the 33-year-old joined Kalloni F.C. from Aiolikos. He had played for Aiolikos in the Gamma Ethniki during the 1995–96, 1997–98 and 2007–08 seasons.

He has since returned to Aiolikos and was voted captain of the Delta Ethniki side in 2011.

References

1975 births
Living people
Greek men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Aiolikos F.C. players
People from Mytilene
Sportspeople from the North Aegean


A Thousand Miles Behind is an album by English singer-songwriter David Gray. Released in August 2007, it contains twelve live covers recorded between 2001 and 2007. The album title comes from a line in Bob Dylan's song "One Too Many Mornings" (1964). The compilation is only available from Gray's official website or at Gray's live performances. There are four versions of the album available for purchase, at different prices: as a CD, a 128 kbit/s mp3 download, a 256 kbit/s mp3 download, or a flac format. The tracks can also be downloaded individually in all of the digital formats.

Track listing

References

External links
 David Gray's official home page
 David Gray collection at the Internet Archive's live music archive

David Gray (musician) albums
2007 compilation albums
Self-released albums


Robinson Crusoe, Jr. is a musical with a book by Edgar Smith, lyrics by Harold Atteridge, and music by Sigmund Romberg and James Hanley.

Production

Robinson Crusoe, Jr. was an extravaganza that opened at the Winter Garden Theatre on 17 February 1916.
The original Broadway production was produced by Lee Shubert and Jacob J. Shubert, directed by J. C. Huffman and choreographed by Helen Tamiris.
Music was by Sigmund Romberg and the book and lyrics were by Harold R. Atteridge.
The show was the last major musical that Jacob J. Shubert staged during World War I, and he instructed Romberg to avoid any of his Austro-Hungarian musical idioms.

The cast included Al Jolson, Kitty Doner, Claude Flemming, and Isabelle Rodrigues.
The show was built around Jolson, and was a vehicle for Jolson.
A company of two hundred supported Al Jolson in ten major scenes.
The show included songs from a number of sources, including some written by Jolson. He often added or removed songs from one show to another.
Atteridge created a simple framing story that unified the acts.
The show ran on Broadway for 139 performances.
It then went on the road in the fall. Jolson sometimes performed twice or three times in one day in one city before moving on.

Synopsis

Setting: Long Island, New York and Robinson Crusoe's Island

Hiram Westbury, a millionaire, is exhausted by some film makers who want to use his estate as a film location.
He falls asleep. In his dream, he imagines he is Robinson Crusoe, Jr.
His chauffeur, played by Al Jolson, is his Good Friday.
Jolson played the chauffeur in blackface.
The dreams make up most of the show.
After the opening scene the pair travel to Crusoe's island, which is given a haunted forest, and to a pirate ship crewed by chorus girls.
The "glittering galaxies of gorgeous, glorious, gladsome girlies mirthfully monopolized the mad, merry hours and the ten tremendous tumultuous scenes of Robinson Crusoe, Jr."
At one point in the story trees woke up and began to sway to the music.
Jolson has comic interactions with a goat and a crocodile.
The shorter second act was set back in the millionaire's home.

There were 27 musical numbers in the show, including five specialty dances. Many of the huge cast danced in Minstrel Days. Jolson himself did not play a major role in the musical numbers, and was always alone on the stage when he sang.
According to Jolson's biographer Michael Freedland, Robinson Crusoe, Jr. was "the nearest Jolson had yet come to a show with a real plot ... although from opening night on, it was quite plain that the story was not going to interfere with his domination on stage."

Songs
 Where Did Robinson Crusoe Go with Friday on Saturday Night? (Sam M. Lewis & Joe Young (w), George W. Meyer (m))
 Yaaka Hula Hickey Dula (E. Ray Goetz & Joe Young (w), Pete Wendling (m))
 Where the Black-Eyed Susans Grow (by Dave Radford and Richard Whiting)

References
Notes

Citations

Sources

External links

1916 musicals
Blackface minstrel shows and films
Broadway musicals
Musicals by Harold Atteridge
Musicals by Sigmund Romberg
Musicals set in New York
Musicals set on fictional islands
Musicals by Edgar Smith


Kootenay Pass, known locally as "the Salmo–Creston" is a mountain pass in the Selkirk Mountains of British Columbia, Canada.
The pass summit divides the drainage basin of the Pend d'Oreille River on the west (via tributaries Stagleap Creek, the South Salmo River and the Salmo River) from that of Kootenay River/Kootenay Lake to the east (via tributary Summit Creek). It is used by the Crowsnest Highway to transverse the Selkirks, connecting the communities of Salmo and Creston.  At its opening the highway route was also dubbed the Kootenay Skyway.

The pass summit is located within Stagleap Provincial Park near Bridal Lake. A webcam  operates year-round showing the current conditions of the pass.

The Kootenay Pass is one of the highest highway-served passes in Canada that is open year-round, although it is frequently closed in bad weather for avalanche control and clearing of debris. Bow Summit on the Icefields Parkway in Banff National Park, Alberta, is higher at . Highwood Pass in Kananaskis Country, Alberta, is even higher at , but it is traversed by Highway 40, which closes from December 1 to June 15 every year.

Avalanche control
Most avalanche control at Kootenay Pass is done by a Gazex system that allows avalanche technicians to trigger avalanches remotely from the comfort of their office at the summit, visible from the summit webcam. This Gazex system has allowed for the removal of large artillery stations that were used to fire ballistic shells into start zones. On occasion, artillery shells would not explode and had to be found and destroyed during summer months with considerable expense and danger.

References

External links
Bivouac.com entry

Selkirk Mountains
Kootenays
Mountain passes of British Columbia


Blow is a controversial energy drink notable for its use of drug culture in its marketing, such as the name of the drink itself, which is a slang term for cocaine.  Rather than being sold in liquid form, it was distributed as vials of white powder similar in appearance to cocaine, which were to be mixed with water or any other beverage, and can be bought in large Styrofoam containers made to resemble cocaine bricks.  Additional packages on the drink's website were referred to by names such as "The Recreational User Pack" or "The Fiender's Hook-Up" for various quantities.  Cases on the website also included free stickers, tattoos, or shirts sporting the brand's logo.  The powder has also been distributed along with a mirror and imitation credit card to simulate the "cutting" of cocaine.

Blow's producers have come under fire from parents and other concerned parties, who allege that its marketing targets adolescents and glorifies illegal drug abuse, citing the use of rock music and women in seductive poses on the drink's website, as well as the inclusion of a Myspace link.

FDA Action
On January 31, 2008, the Food and Drug Administration sent a Warning Letter to Blow.  According to the FDA, Blow is a drug under 21 U.S.C. §321(g)(l) of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act and violates the Act because it was not approved by the FDA.

References

Energy drinks


Owensville High School, sometimes referred to as Owensville Montgomery High School or Owensville Montgomery Township School was a K-12 Public learning facility located in Owensville, Indiana.

History
Owensville High School was one of the three high schools under South Gibson School Corporation that merged into Gibson Southern High School in 1974. Like the current Owensville Community School, the mascot is the Kickapoos and school colors were Black and Gold. Owensville High School was one of the nine founding members of the Pocket Athletic Conference in 1938 and its membership was transferred to Gibson Southern High School along with Fort Branch High School and Haubstadt High School.

Owensville High School had the first high school gymnasium in Indiana with a glass backboard. One of those backboards is now in the Indiana High School Basketball Hall of Fame proudly located in New Castle, Indiana.
The school continued to be used as Owensville Community School until the current building was completed in 1992. The School was subsequently demolished.

Owensville High School's gym still exists as the REH Center. The school was located on the southwest corner of Walnut and Mill Streets in Owensville.

Famously, 'Remember Pearl Harbor!' was once printed out in huge, white chalked letters on the Owensville High School's front sidewalk. The prankster's graffiti was discovered on the morning of December 7, 1939. At 0755 the first bell rang and two years later the first bomb fell on Pearl Harbor at 0755!

References

Former Indiana High School Athletic Association members
Owensville, Indiana
Defunct schools in Indiana
Pocket Athletic Conference
Schools in Gibson County, Indiana
Educational institutions disestablished in 1974