Wales in the High  Middle Ages covers the 11th to 13th centuries in Welsh history. Beginning shortly before the Norman invasion of the 1060s and ending with the Conquest of Wales by Edward I between 1278 and 1283, it was a period of significant political, cultural and social change for the country.

History

United Wales

Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite Wales under his rule. In 1055, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn killed his rival Gruffydd ap Rhydderch in battle and recaptured Deheubarth.

Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1057 he was the ruler of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. He ruled Wales with no internal battles. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.

Historian John Davies stated that Gruffydd was, "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales... Thus, from about 1057 until his death in 1063, the whole of Wales recognised the kingship of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. For about seven brief years, Wales was one, under one ruler, a feat with neither precedent nor successor." During this time, between 1053 and 1063, Wales lacked any internal strife and was at peace.

Anglo-Norman conflict
At the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the dominant ruler in Wales was Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, who was king of Gwynedd and Powys. While the Normans consolidated their power in England, in the judgement of historian Rees Davies, Wales was "utterly peripheral to their ambitions and concerns". Welsh support for Eadric the Wild and Edwin of Mercia in their efforts opposing Norman rule led the Normans to turn their attention to Wales. The initial Norman successes were in the south, where William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford overran the Kingdom of Gwent before 1070. By 1074 the forces of the Earl of Shrewsbury were ravaging Deheubarth.

The killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 led to civil war and gave the Normans an opportunity to seize lands in northern Wales. In 1081, Gruffudd ap Cynan, who had just won the throne of Gwynedd from Trahaearn ap Caradog at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, was enticed to a meeting with the Earl of Chester and Earl of Shrewsbury and promptly seized and imprisoned, leading to the seizure of much of Gwynedd by the Normans.

Rhys ap Tewdwr of Deheubarth was killed in 1093 in Brycheiniog, and his kingdom was seized and divided between various Norman lordships. The Norman conquest of Wales appeared virtually complete.

In 1094, however, there was a general Welsh revolt against Norman rule, and gradually territories were won back. Gruffudd ap Cynan was eventually able to build a strong kingdom in Gwynedd. His son, Owain Gwynedd, allied with Gruffydd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, won a crushing victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 and annexed Ceredigion. Owain followed his father on the throne of Gwynedd the following year and ruled until his death in 1170. He was able to profit from the Anarchy in England to extend the borders of Gwynedd further east than ever before as Stephen of Blois and the Empress Matilda were engaged in a struggle for the English throne.

The Kingdom of Powys also had a strong ruler at this time in Madog ap Maredudd, but when his death in 1160 was quickly followed by the death of his heir, Llywelyn ap Madog, Powys was split into two parts and never subsequently reunited.

Norman England held control of much of the Welsh borders and southern agricultural land. This area began, by the 12th century, to be referred to as the Marches (from the French word for a border), whereas the uplands became known as Pura Wallia. The Normans spoke Norman French, but they imported English speaking peasants into lands they controlled, and acted as colonial overlords. Henry I invited Flemish immigrants into Pembrokeshire, fleeing their recently inundated homelands. Here they established a cloth industry. It is not clear what happened to the local populations when these immigrant colonies were created, but medieval writers write of ethnic tensions and conflict, and a century later Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great), Prince of Gwynedd, attacked the area, and slaughtered the Flemish people.

In the south, Gruffydd ap Rhys was killed in 1137, but his four sons, who all ruled Deheubarth in turn, were eventually able to win back most of their grandfather's kingdom from the Normans. The youngest of the four, Rhys ap Gruffydd, ruled from 1155 to 1197. In 1171 Rhys met Henry II of England and came to an agreement with him whereby Rhys had to pay a tribute but was confirmed in all his conquests and was later named Justiciar of South Wales. Rhys held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176, which is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod. Owain Gwynedd's death led to the splitting of Gwynedd between his sons, while Rhys made Deheubarth dominant in Wales for a time.

Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn the Last

Out of the power struggle in Gwynedd eventually arose one of the greatest of Welsh leaders, Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, also known as Llywelyn Fawr (the Great), who was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200 and by his death in 1240 was effectively ruler of much of Wales. Llywelyn made his 'capital' and headquarters at Abergwyngregyn on the north coast, overlooking the Menai Strait. In 1200 Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great) became King of Gwynedd and agreed to a treaty of peace with King John of England, marrying his illegitimate daughter Joan. 1208 Llywelyn claimed the Kingdom of Powys after the arrest of Gwenwynwyn ap Owain. Powys was left vulnerable following Gwenwynwyn's arrest by King John, who disapproved of his attacks on Marcher Lords of the South.

King John achieved greater dominance over Wales and in 1211, he took the son of Llywelyn the Great as hostage, and also forced the surrender of territory in north-east Wales. Llywelyn's son, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, and other hostages were used as security by the king. However the Welsh and Scots joined English rebel Barons in forcing John to sign the Magna Carta of 1215. The document therefore holds specific Welsh provisions. These included the return of lands and liberties to Welshmen if those lands and liberties had been taken by English (and vice versa) without a law abiding judgement of their peers. Also the immediate return return of Gruffydd and the other Welsh hostages.

Llywelyn went on to gain dominance over all Wales the following year and in 1218, after the death of John in 1218, Llywelyn and King Henry II agreed to the treaty of Worcester which again confirmed Llywelyn's right to Wales until his death in 1240. His son Dafydd ap Llywelyn followed him as ruler of Gwynedd, but King Henry III of England would not allow him to inherit his father's position elsewhere in Wales. War broke out in 1241. On 29 August 1241, under the terms of the Treaty of Gwerneigron, Dafydd II gave up all his lands outside Gwynedd. The conflict broke out again in 1245, and was still in the balance when Dafydd died suddenly at Abergwyngregyn, without leaving an heir in early 1246. Llywelyn the Great's other son, Gruffudd had been killed trying to escape from the Tower of London in 1244. Gruffudd had left four sons, and a period of internal conflict between three of these ended in the rise to power of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (also known as Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf; Llywelyn, Our Last Leader).

The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 confirmed Llywelyn in control, directly or indirectly, over a large part of Wales. Edward I disapproved of Llywelyn's alliance with Simon de Montfort, who revolted along with other barons against the English king in the second barons' war of 1264-1267 and war followed in 1277. Llywelyn was obliged to seek terms, and the Treaty of Aberconwy greatly restricted his authority. War broke out again when Llywelyn's brother Dafydd ap Gruffudd attacked Hawarden Castle on Palm Sunday 1282. On 11 December 1282, Llywelyn was lured into a meeting in Cilmeri in Builth Wells castle with unknown Marchers, where he was killed and his army subsequently destroyed. His brother Dafydd ap Gruffudd continued an increasingly forlorn resistance. He was captured in June 1283 and was hanged, drawn and quartered at Shrewsbury. This ended Welsh independence and in effect, Wales became England's first colony until it was finally annexed through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542.

See also
 History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages

Notes

References

Bibliography

.02
High Middle Ages
England in the High Middle Ages


The 1983 San Diego Chargers season was the franchise's 14th season in the National Football League (NFL) and its 24th overall. The Chargers fell from their 1982 6–3 record to 6–10. It was their first losing season since 1976, to date the most points the Chargers have surrendered in a sixteen-game season, and began an era in the wilderness for the Chargers, who would not place higher than third in the AFC West, nor win more than eight games in a season, until 1992.

Despite San Diego's disappointing 6–10 record, they led the NFL in passing yardage for the sixth consecutive season, which remains an NFL record.

This was the last season for the Chargers before Gene Klein; the team's owner since 1966, sold the team to Alex Spanos.

Offseason

NFL Draft

Roster

Regular season

Schedule

Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.

Game summaries

Week 1: vs. New York Jets

Week 2: at Kansas City Chiefs

Week 3: at Seattle Seahawks

Week 4: vs. Cleveland Browns

Week 5: at New York Giants

Gill Byrd had an interception for San Diego.

Week 6: vs. Seattle Seahawks

Week 7: at New England Patriots

Week 8: at Denver Broncos

Week 9: vs. Washington Redskins

Week 10: at Pittsburgh Steelers

Week 11: vs. Dallas Cowboys

Week 12: at St. Louis Cardinals

Week 13: vs. Denver Broncos

Week 14: vs. Los Angeles Raiders

Week 15: vs. Kansas City Chiefs

Week 16: at Los Angeles Raiders

Standings

References

External links
1983 San Diego Chargers at pro-football-reference.com

San Diego Chargers
San Diego Chargers seasons
San Diego Chargers f


Outzone is an action strategy game developed and published by Lankhor and was released in 1991 for the Atari ST, Amiga and Commodore 64.

Gameplay
Outzone is a arcade shoot 'em up game which the game set in a futuristic setting. The player controls a spacecraft whose role is to escort and protect a smaller one which they move at a constant speed right in front of the player's craft which must destroy or avoid obstacles. The game had 28 levels which are escort mission. The player which had to break blocks to protect the smaller spacecraft from getting hit.

Reception

References

External links

1991 video games
Action games
Strategy video games
Atari ST games
Amiga games
Commodore 64 games
Video games developed in France
Lankhor games
Single-player video games


Ailsa Craig Engines was a manufacturer of marine and specialist made-to-order engines from 1891 to 1972. Named after the island off the coast of Ayr, Scotland, Ailsa Craig, the company began as a bicycle manufacturer in Glasgow in 1891, later moving to Putney, London, where the then owner went into partnership and set about building early vehicles, going on in 1904 to produce the world's first V12 engine intended for a Russian airship and even a petrol engined vacuum cleaner for Hubert Cecil Booth in 1904.

Car production
Trading as the Putney Motor Company around 12 cars were made between 1902 and 1912. Each was individually designed to order. The smallest was a single cylinder engined light car made in 1902. At the other extreme was a 50 hp four-cylinder fitted with a luxury body and supplied to the Earl of Norbury.

Between 1906 and 1907 they also sold the Mayfair car which was imported from an unknown source probably French.

Overview

A little later, Ellis Kisch took over and the company moved to 46/47 Strand-on-the-Green, Chiswick in West London. There was a concentration on reliable marine engineering with a Royal Appointment being granted in 1926. Following successful work for the Ministry of Munitions and the Admiralty during the First World War, there was a massive war commitment in 1939 when 5000 engines were to be supplied from an additional factory site in Twickenham. Harold Linford, who was the chief designer and general manager, was killed when an aerial bomb exploded over the Factory at Strand-on-the-Green in 1941. John Watson took over the running of the factory until the move to Ashford in 1949/1950 and there produced further quality diesel engines, with the help of Ricardo Engineering, under the direction of Robert Kisch – son of Ellis, between 1958 and 1963/4 when he was taken ill and moved ultimately to Jersey. This ultimately resulted in the company being sold to the Warsop's Fram Group in 1964.

Closure

In 1972, Ailsa Craig ceased trading, although Dr Kisch and his son Christopher Kisch, continue to offer advice where appropriate.

References

External links
http://www.ailsacraig.org/

Engine manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Marine engine manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Glasgow
Manufacturing companies based in London
Defunct manufacturing companies of Scotland
Manufacturing companies established in 1891
1891 establishments in Scotland
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of Scotland
British companies established in 1891
1972 disestablishments in Scotland
British companies disestablished in 1972


DASB, also known as 3-amino-4-(2-dimethylaminomethylphenylsulfanyl)-benzonitrile, is a compound that binds to the serotonin transporter.
Labeled with carbon-11 — a radioactive isotope — it has been used as a radioligand in neuroimaging with positron emission tomography (PET) since around year 2000.
In this context it is regarded as one of the superior radioligands for PET study of the serotonin transporter in the brain,
since it has high selectivity for the serotonin transporter.

The DASB image from a human PET scan shows high binding in the midbrain, thalamus and striatum, moderate binding in the medial temporal lobe and anterior cingulate, and low binding in neocortex.
The cerebellum is often regarded as a region with no specific serotonin transporter binding and the brain region is used as a reference in some studies.

Since the serotonin transporter is the target of SSRIs used in the treatment of major depression it has been natural to examine DASB binding in depressed patients.
Several such research studies have been performed.

There are a number of alternative PET radioligands for imaging the serotonin transporter: [11C]ADAM, [11C]MADAM, [11C]AFM, [11C]DAPA,  [11C]McN5652, and [11C]-NS 4194.
A related molecule to DASB, that can be labeled with fluorine-18, has also been suggested as a PET radioligand.
With single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) using the radioisotope iodine-123 there are further radioligands available: [123I]ODAM, [123I]IDAM, [123I]ADAM, and [123I]β-CIT.
A few studies have examined the difference in binding between the radioligands in nonhuman primates,
as well as in pigs.

Other compounds that can be labeled to work as PET radioligands for the study of the serotonin system are, e.g., altanserin and WAY-100635.

Methodological issues

The binding potential of DASB can be estimated with kinetic modeling on a series of brain scans.

A test-retest reproducibility PET study indicates that [11C]DASB can be used to measure the serotonin transporter parameters with high reliability  in receptor-rich brain regions.

When the DASB neuroimages are analyzed the kinetic models suggested by Ichise and coworkers can be employed to estimate the binding potential.
A test-retest reproducibility experiment has been performed to evaluate this approach.

Studies
Besides the studies listed below a few occupancy studies have been reported.

References

Treatment of bipolar disorder
Nitriles
Thioethers
PET radiotracers


The 1982 San Diego Chargers season was the team's 23rd year, and 13th in the National Football League. The team had a 10–6 record in 1981. 1982 was a strike-shortened season so the league was divided up into two conferences instead of its normal divisional alignment - the Chargers finished 6-3, qualifying for the playoffs as the #5 seed. Their run ended with a second round loss to the Dolphins. This would be the team's last playoff appearance until 1992.

The 1982 Chargers were the top-scoring team in the NFL. They scored a total of 288 points, 32 per game. They led the league in passing touchdowns (19), rushing touchdowns (15, tied with the Raiders) passing yards (2,927), and yards per attempt (8.9).

The Chargers defense, however, surrendered the most passing yards (2,292), and second-most first downs (119) in the league.

Chargers quarterback Dan Fouts was named the Pro Football Writers of America MVP, and 1982 AP Offensive Player of the Year. While the shortened season prevented him from breaking the passing yardage record for the fourth season in a row, his mark of 320.3 yards per game would not be surpassed until 2011. Wes Chandler missed one game through injury but still led the league with 1,032 receiving yards; his average of 129.0 yards per game remains a record, and his nine touchdown receptions led the league. In support, Kellen Winslow had the second-most receptions (54) and the third-most yards (721) in the NFL; veteran Charlie Joiner saw a small drop-off in production but still contributed 545 yards.

At running back, Chuck Muncie had another strong all-around year, rushing for 569 yards, catching passes for a further 207, and scoring nine touchdowns while throwing for two more. James Brooks added 430 rushing yards and, with his receiving and kick returns, gained a league-leading 1,383 all-purpose yards.

San Diego's defensive line was unchanged, and helped the team rank ninth against the run. Keith Ferguson led the team with 4.5 sacks, half a sack ahead of Gary "Big Hands" Johnson. Three new starters were brought into the defensive backfield in an attempt to strengthen the pass defense, but they were ranked dead last for the second consecutive season. The unit did rank seventh for turnovers with 25; newly-signed free safety Tim Fox led the team with four interceptions. Rolf Benirschke made his lone Pro Bowl after converting 16 of 22 kicks, including all seven of his attempts in the 40-49-yard range.

Offseason

NFL Draft

Personnel

Staff

Roster

Regular season

Schedule

Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.

Game summaries

Week 1: at Denver Broncos

San Diego won the turnover battle 6-0 as they defeated their closest rivals from the 1981 AFC West race. The Broncos were stymied by three fumbles in the first half, one of those coming in the Charger red zone. While the San Diego offense wasn't at its best, Benirschke made two of four field goal attempts in before halftime, and another in the 3rd quarter after Bob Gregor had intercepted Craig Morton and Wes Chandler had caught a 40-yard pass from Dan Fouts. Debutant Andre Young added another interception on the next Denver drive, and San Diego drove 88 yards in 13 plays to take a 16-3 lead. Chandler twice lined up in the backfield and converted third downs by running the ball, and Fouts found Scott Fitzkee in the end zone for his only Charger touchdown.

Later, the Broncos block a punt, and reached 2nd and goal at the Charger 3 with about five and a half minutes to play; a fumbled handoff then bounced into the end zone for Mike Preston to make his second fumble recovery of the day. Chandler's 39-yard reception then set up an insurance touchdown, when Chuck Muncie went in from 10 yards out on a sweep.

Young had an interception and recovered two fumbles. Chandler gained 120 yards on just four receptions.

Week 2: at Kansas City Chiefs

The Charger offense was held to less than 300 yards for the first time in over a year as they slipped to defeat. San Diego were forced to punt on their first possession, and Maury Buford's kick was blocked and recovered in the end zone to set the tone for the first half. Fumbles by Brooks and Fouts set up Chief field goals, a Benirschke kick was wiped out by a holding penalty, and it was 16-0 at the break.

San Diego began the second half in better fashion, forcing a punt and then reaching the Kansas City 17 with a 23-yard Winslow reception. From there, Muncie threw an HB pass to Chandler for the touchdown. Wilbur Young sacked Bill Kenney on the next drive - backed up near to their own goal line, the Chiefs then committed a penalty in their own end zone, resulting in a safety and pulling the Chargers within seven. However, a Fouts interception checked their momentum, and the Chiefs again converted the turnover into three points. Benirschke pulled the Chargers back within range, and they reached Kansas City territory on their next drive, only to be pushed back by a key holding penalty on Russ Washington. They punted, and the Chiefs ran out the final 3:57 by gaining three first downs.

Week 3: at Los Angeles Raiders

San Diego's first game back after the players' strike saw them blow a 24–0 lead on Monday Night Football. They moved the ball with ease in the first half, opening up with a 72-yard field goal drive, and following that by going 83 yards in just four plays, Dwight Scales scoring with a 29-yard reception. Jim Plunkett was intercepted by Tim Fox and Cliff Thrift as the first half wore on, and Muncie added a pair of short touchdowns runs to make it a four-score game with barely 22 minutes played. The Raiders missed a field goal on the next drive, but Muncie fumbled on the next play, and the tide began to turn. Plunkett threw a 1-yard touchdown pass on 4th and goal, giving Los Angeles something to build on in the second half.

The Raiders' momentum continued after the break, with Marcus Allen scoring touchdowns either side of a Winslow fumble. San Diego drove into scoring position early in the 4th quarter, only for Benirschke to miss from 32 yards out. Los Angeles then drove 80 yards to take the lead with 5:54 to play.

Fouts responded by leading San Diego from their own 20 to the Raider 15; en route, Chandler converted a 3rd and 15 with a 24-yard catch. The drive ended when Fouts through a pass off his back foot while under heavy pressure - Vann McElroy made a comfortable end zone interception. After Allen ran for a first down, three further rushes left the Raiders facing a 4th down with 10 seconds on the clock. Ray Guy then struggled to handle a low snap, and was tackled at the Los Angeles 29 with 4 seconds still to play. Fouts threw a Hail Mary into the back of the end zone, which the Raiders batted down; Joiner was in the area, but couldn't make up the ground in time, catching the ball on the first bounce.

Fouts was 25 of 42 for 357 yards. Chandler caught 7 passes for 118 yards, while Winslow caught 8 for 105 yards.

Week 4: vs. Denver Broncos

Kellen Winslow was the star as San Diego swept Denver for the first time since 1968. Muncie's 29-yard catch-and-run had the Chargers moving on the game's opening possession, but Brooks fumbled at the goal line. Denver recovered, and drove 65 yards the other way for a field goal. San Diego came straight back with a 13-play, 86-yard drive, ending with Winslow bobbling the ball multiple times before possessing it for just long enough to claim a 3-yard touchdown. Leroy Jones recovered a fumble two plays later, setting up a Benirschke field goal, before Winslow capped a 9-play, 86-yard drive by taking a catch over the middle and breaking away for a 28-yard touchdown.

Down 17-3, Denver recovered with consecutive touchdown drives either side of half time: Steve DeBerg threw for one touchdown and ran for another to tie the scores. Muncie's 34-yard reception was nullified by a penalty on the next drive, and the Chargers were forced to punt. Five consecutive possessions then resulted in turnovers, the last of these coming when Rick Ackerman sacked DeBerg, forcing a fumble that Keith Ferguson recovered at the Denver five-yard line. Muncie was stopped at the goal line on 3rd and goal, and the Chargers settled for a chip shot field goal.

After Denver levelled the scores early in the 4th quarter, Fouts led his team 87 yards to another touchdown, with completions of 28 yards to Joiner and 22 to John Cappelletti accounting for much of the yardage. Winslow pulled in a fade on 3rd and goal for what proved to be the winning score. Fox intercepted DeBerg on the next drive - he fumbled on the return but King recovered. After Brooks converted a 4th and 1, Benirschke hit the clinching field goal from 42 yards out with 55 seconds to play.

Fouts completed 27 of 40 for 337 yards, three touchdowns and an interception. It was his 27th 300-yard game, breaking a tie with former teammate Johnny Unitas for the most in a career. Winslow had 8 catches for 107 yards and 3 touchdowns, while Joiner had 7 for 121 yards.

Week 5: at Cleveland Browns

Four first half rushing touchdowns saw the Chargers to a comfortable win. A Mike Williams interception and a 24-yard Brooks punt return set up the Charger offense with short fields for consecutive 1st quarter drives, both of which ended with 1-yard Muncie touchdowns. In the 2nd quarter, Muncie caught a 39-yard pass on an 80-yard touchdown drive - this time, it was Brooks who finished it from a yard out. Tim Fox intercepted Brian Sipe on the ensuing drive, and Brooks burst through the middle for an 11-yard score four plays later; it was 27–3 at halftime.

Cleveland possessed the ball for over 13 minutes on two 3rd quarter drives that saw them knock ten points off their deficit, but would get no closer, with Benirschke's insurance field goal the only score in the final quarter.

Keith Ferguson had two of the Charger's 4 sacks. Brooks gained 198 all-purpose yards.

Week 6: at San Francisco 49ers

The lone career meeting between future Hall of Famers Dan Fouts and Joe Montana proved to be record-breaking. When it was over, San Diego had beaten the defending Super Bowl champions and dropped them to 2-4 on the year.

Following an early exchange of punts, the next seven drives all produced points. The Chargers struck first, going 80 yards in 7 plays; Fouts found a diving Chandler in the end zone for a 31-yard touchdown on 3rd and 8. Montana led San Francisco 74 yards in 8 plays in response, scoring himself when he spun out of an attempted Ferguson sack and scrambled in from the 11. Chandler appeared to have struck again on the next drive, but former Charger Fred Dean had drawn a holding penalty from Billy Shields; the score was wiped out, and San Diego settled for a field goal.

Running back Jeff Moore caught a 43-yard pass to open the next drive, and a 6-yard touchdown pass to finish it. James Brooks returned the ensuing kickoff 35 yards to the San Diego 40; after missing on one pass, Fouts then strung together four completions in a row, the final one a 25-yard touchdown to Eric Sievers. San Francisco responded with a game-tying field goal, leaving Fouts 2:07 to work with before halftime. He led the Chargers 85 yards in 11 plays, finding Chandler for a 25-yard completion and a 14-yard touchdown with 20 seconds on the clock.

Three plays into the second half, Montana was intercepted by Jeff Allen. The Chargers capitalised with a 59-yard touchdown drive to go 31-17 up: Chandler caught his third touchdown of the game from 20 yards, bobbling the ball before pulling it in while being pulled over by the back of his shirt. Montana responded on the next drive, converting a 4th and 3 with a 4-yard pass to Moore, before finding Freddie Solomon in the end zone for a 14-yard score. Benirschke's 50-yard field goal attempt missed narrowly to the right on the next drive, and San Francisco went 68 yards to score again, Bill Ring rushing 9 yards for a touchdown. However, Ray Wersching missed the extra point attempt, leaving San Diego up 31-30.

Fouts began the next drive with back-to-back 16- and 27-yard completions to Joiner, but Dean stuffed Muncie for a 5-yard loss on the next play. Two passes then fell incomplete in the end zone, Ronnie Lott dropping an interception on the first of these, and Benirschke kicked a 41-yard field goal to stretch the lead to four. San Francisco responded with their third consecutive touchdown drive, Dwight Clark catching the go-ahead pass in the front of the end zone, on 3rd and goal from the 7.

This time, the Chargers responded in kind. Joiner caught a 43-yard pass up the left sideline, and Muncie caught a 3-yard touchdown with 3:22 on the clock. Moore converted a 4th and inches on the next drive, but San Francisco soon found themselves facing a 4th and 10 on their own 31. Woodrow Lowe then intercepted Montana; Cappelletti ran for 17 yards on the next play, and the Chargers ran the clock out.

Fouts was 33 of 48 for 444 yards, five touchdowns and no interceptions, tying his career-high for single-game yards. Montana was 31 of 46 for 356 yards, three touchdowns and two interceptions. Neither quarterback was sacked. With Montana's backup also completing a ten-yard pass, there were 65 completions in total, a new NFL record. Montana broke a Fouts record with his fifth consecutive 300-yard game. San Diego had three 100-yard receivers: Joiner, 8 for 145; Chandler, 7 for 125, 3 touchdowns; Winslow, 9 for 101. The teams combined for 1003 offensive yards, with San Diego gaining 538.

Week 7: vs. Cincinnati Bengals

For the second week in a row, San Diego defeated a reigning Conference Champion in a record-breaking passing duel. Unlike San Francisco, the Bengals entered the game in good form, 5-1 with their lone defeat having come in overtime.

Ken Anderson attempted passes on the first eight plays of the game, completing six of them as the Bengals reach 2nd and goal from the Charger one. Louie Kelcher then stuffed Pete Johnson for no gain, Anderson threw incomplete and Cincinnati settled for a field goal. Three plays into the Chargers' response, Muncie swept right before pulling up and launching a 66-yard touchdown pass to Chandler, who was wide open inside the 30. Anderson began the next drive with completions on five consecutive plays, and ended it by dodging Gary Johnson in the backfield and scrambling up the middle for a 12-yard touchdown.

Following an exchange of punts, both sides missed opportunities. Fouts converted a 3rd and 19 with a 22-yard completion to Joiner, but was intercepted going for the same player in the end zone. Cincinnati then moved to a 4th and 2 on the Chargers 33, but Johnson could only gain one yard and the ball was turned over on downs. Three plays later, an errant Fouts pass went straight to Bo Harris for an interception he returned 62 yards for a touchdown. The Chargers responded when Brooks swept left with a delayed handoff for a 17-yard touchdown, but Anderson was 9 of 9 on the next drive, including a 6-yard touchdown pass to Cris Collinsworth with 29 seconds to play in the half. That was just long enough for Fouts, who immediately found Chandler for 27 yards, and completed two more to reach the Bengal 24 with a second to play. Benirschke's kick made it 24-17 at halftime.

San Diego turned the game their way with 16 points in the first five minutes of the 3rd quarter. They went 82 yards with the first possession, Winslow gaining 40 of them with a single catch, and Muncie scored from a yard out. A penalty wiped out a long return of the ensuing kickoff, forcing the Bengals to start at their own 7; Gary Johnson burst into the backfield on the next play, and brought Anderson down for a go-ahead safety. Three plays after that, Chandler broke a tackle and took a short slant in for a 38-yard touchdown and a 33-24 lead. A 49-yard catch-and-run by Collinsworth set up a Bengal field goal, before Winslow appeared to have extended the lead with a 38-yard touchdown. It was ruled out by a holding penalty, but the Chargers scored anyway, Brooks going straight up the middle on a 48-yard rush with the Bengals caught in a blitz.

Late in the 3rd quarter, a Muncie fumble set up Anderson's second touchdown pass, but the Chargers took over from there. A 32-yard Winslow reception led to a Benirschke field goal, and a 43-34 lead. Anderson led his team to the Charger 28, but then committed the lone Bengal turnover of the day - Fox's interception and 41-yard return gave San Diego the ball in Cincinnati territory. Catches of 19- and 20-yards by Chandler were followed by Brooks' one-yard touchdown to make the game safe.

Fouts was 25 of 40 for 435 yards, a touchdown and two interceptions; Anderson completed 40 of 56 for 416 yards, two touchdowns and an interception. With Muncie's touchdown pass, there were 66 completions in total, breaking the record set in the previous Charger game. It was the first regular season game in which both quarterbacks passed for over 400 yards (it had also happened in the Epic in Miami); Fouts became the first man to pass for 400 yards in consecutive games. Chandler caught 10 passes for 260 yards (still a club record) and two touchdowns; Winslow caught 6 balls for 116 yards. Brooks had his lone 100-yard rushing game as a Charger, gaining 105 yards on 12 carries, with two touchdowns. The Chargers gained 661 yards, the most by any team for 24 years, and still a club record. The teams combined for 1102 yards, second-most in NFL history at the time, and 883 passing yards, a new record (since surpassed). The Chargers clinched a playoff berth with the win, the third consecutive season in which they'd done so on Monday Night Football.

Week 8: vs. Baltimore Colts

For the third consecutive week, San Diego piled up 40+ points and 500+ yards; unlike their previous two opponents, the winless Colts lacked the firepower to make a close contest of it. Baltimore did manage to drive into Chargers territory on their first two possessions, but lost fumbles both times, with Cliff Thrift recovering both of them. Following the second of these, the Chargers drove 76 yards for the opening points, Winslow catching a 30-yard touchdown from Fouts. Benirschke added a field goal on the next Charger possession; this was followed by consecutive 4-play, 65-yard touchdown drives, with Chandler scoring his first touchdown (covering 41 yards) and Winslow his second (13 yards).

Down 23-0, the Colts produced a mini-comeback, taking advantage of a pair of Charger turnovers and scoring 13 points on three possessions sandwiched around halftime. The Chargers quickly shut down the threat, driving 75 yards in 9 plays without facing a third down, with Brooks running it in from the Baltimore 8. Following a Mike Williams interception, Chandler hauled in a 44-yard touchdown, and Winslow later added a 28-yarder.

Fouts was 18 of 30 for 298 yards, five touchdowns and an interception. Winslow caught 7 for 120 yards and three touchdowns, while Chandler scored twice and gained 118 yards on just 4 catches. Chuck Muncie gained 126 yards on 16 carries. San Diego became the first team to gain at least 500 yards in three consecutive games; their total of 1,706 yards from week 6 through week 8 remains a record for a three-game span.

Week 9: vs. Los Angeles Raiders

Both teams had long-since clinched spots in the expanded playoffs, and were jockeying for position: the Chargers would be #2 with a win and #5 with a loss; Los Angeles could be as high as #1 or slip as far as #4. Wes Chandler continued his excellent form on the first San Diego drive, with catches of 27 yards (on 3rd and 17) and 21 yards setting up a Benirschke field goal. After Los Angeles put up the next ten points, Chandler drew a 43-yard pass interference penalty, giving San Diego a 1st and goal at the six. The drive stalled, and Benirschke missed a 20-yard chip shot.

Brooks returned the opening kickoff of the second half for 42 yards, but Mike Davis intercepted Fouts on the next play, and returned it 56-yard for a touchdown; when Los Angeles added a field goal on their next drive, it was 20-3. San Diego began their comeback quickly, Chandler starting their next drive with a 31-yard catch and finishing it two plays later with a 25-yard touchdown, catching the ball despite it being noticeably deflected by a defensive back en route. Carries of 15 and 13 yards by Muncie set up a field goal on the next drive, and Pete Holohan recovered a fumble on the ensuing kickoff. Starting at the Raider 19, Muncie caught a 16-yard pass (he lost the ball, but was controversially ruled down by contact) and finished the drive with a couple of runs up the middle. Level now, San Diego forced a punt after Keith Ferguson sacked Jim Plunkett, then went 80 yards in 7 plays to take the lead. Muncie had a 15-yard run, Winslow caught a 22-yard pass, and Muncie finished the job from a yard out.

Just as in their previous meeting with the Raiders, San Diego had achieved a run of 24 unanswered points. However, they would win neither game. Oakland tied the scores when Marcus Allen finished off an 87-yard drive with 5:24 to play. San Diego then reached a 3rd and 7 on their own 48, but Fouts threw another pick six, James Davis with a 52-yard runback. The Chargers failed on downs, and Allen added another touchdown. Fouts ran the ball in himself in response, but only 8 seconds remained, and San Diego didn't get the ball back.

Fouts completed 18 of 38 for 303 yards, a touchdown and two interceptions. Chandler had his fourth straight 100-yard game, with 6 catches for 138 yards and a touchdown. Muncie rushed 26 times for 129 yards and two touchdowns. Ferguson finished with 2.5 sacks. It was the fourth straight Charger game with at least 70 points scored, an unprecedented run.

Standings

Postseason

Game summaries

1st round: at Pittsburgh Steelers

Two 4th quarter touchdowns by Kellen Winslow gave San Diego their first win at Three Rivers Stadium.

2nd round: at Miami Dolphins

The powerful San Diego passing attack was shut down in the final playoff game for the principal stars of Air Coryell.

References

Notes

External links
1982 San Diego Chargers at pro-football-reference.com

San Diego Chargers
San Diego Chargers seasons
San Diego Chargers f


USS Sibley (APA-206) was a  in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1975.

History
Sibley  was of the VC2-S-AP5 Victory ship design type. Sibley was named for Sibley County, Minnesota, which was itself named after Henry H. Sibley, an early pioneer in the territory and first Governor of the state. She was laid down on 17 May 1944, under Maritime Commission (MARCOM) contract, MC hull 554, Permanente Metals Corporation, Yard No. 2, Richmond, California; launched on 19 July 1944; sponsored by Mrs. Leo Gottleib;  and acquired from MARCOM on loan-charter and commissioned on 2 October 1944.

Pacific War
Immediately after commissioning, Sibley moved from the builder's yard to the Naval Supply Depot in Oakland, California, to load supplies and provisions. On 16 October, she departed San Francisco for San Pedro, where she underwent shakedown from 20 October to 2 November, followed by amphibious training at Coronado, California from 3 to 10 November. Sailing from San Diego on 20 November, Sibley loaded cargo at San Francisco and sailed on 25 November, for Pearl Harbor, where she arrived on 2 December. From 6 December to 18 January 1945, she underwent intensive training in amphibious operations off Maui, Territory of Hawaii.

Invasion of Iwo Jima

Sibley sailed from Pearl Harbor on 27 January for the assault on Iwo Jima. After stopping at Eniwetok from 5 to 7 February, she arrived at Saipan on 11 February, and underwent a final period of amphibious training on 12 and 13 February, at nearby Tinian. Sailing on 16 February, she arrived off Iwo Jima early on 19 February. Orders to debark troops were received in the middle of the afternoon; and, two hours later, all the troops were off the ship.

Sibley remained off Iwo Jima for the next eight days, unloading cargo by day and retiring by night. Also, while unloading cargo, she received casualties for return to rear areas; and, when she sailed for Saipan on 27 February, she carried 194 Marine casualties. Sibley briefly stopped at Saipan on 2 March, and arrived at Guam two days later and discharged her casualties.

Invasion of Okinawa

She returned to Saipan on 7 March, and loaded marines and cargo for the assault on Okinawa. After training from 16 to 19 March and a final rehearsal on 24 March, Sibley sailed on 27 March, for the assault. During the approach early on 1 April, attack transport  was struck by a kamikaze, but the task group continued to carry out its assignment, which was to stage a demonstration off the coast of Okinawa to lead the Japanese to expect a landing on the southern part of the island. For two days, Sibley participated in this demonstration, and then the task group retired to a waiting area south of the island.

On 11 April, Sibley was ordered to return to Saipan, where she unloaded her troops and cargo, but remained on call for possible use in the Okinawa operation until 4 June. That day, Sibley sailed for Tulagi harbor in the Solomon Islands. She arrived there on 12 June, and three days later, proceeded to Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides Islands. Arriving on 17 June, she loaded passengers and cargo, cleared Espiritu Santo on 28 June, and arrived at Guam on 5 July. Then, on 14 July, she received orders to return to the United States and sailed the same day, arriving at San Francisco on 28 July.

Post-war
On 9 August 1945, Sibley sailed, this time with passengers and cargo for the Philippines. She stopped at Eniwetok and Ulithi on the way and reached Samar on 1 September. She then proceeded to Manila Bay, Subic Bay, and finally Lingayen Gulf, where she arrived on the 10th to load troops and cargo of the 33rd Infantry Division for the occupation of Japan.

After a rehearsal landing a week later, she sailed on 20 September, and arrived on 25 September, at Wakayama, Japan, where she rapidly put her troops and cargo ashore. Sailing the next day, she returned to the Philippines for more troops, which she delivered at Hiro Wan, Japan, on 22 October.

Operation Magic Carpet
On 25 October, Sibley reported for duty with Operation Magic Carpet, the transportation of servicemen back to the United States. Departing Japan on 27 October, she loaded homeward-bound troops at Manus from 2 to 4 November, and delivered them at San Francisco on 19 November. Sailing again on 5 December, she embarked more troops at Guam from 19 to 22 December and returned with them to San Francisco on 4 January 1946.

Decommissioning and fate
After a round-trip voyage to Pearl Harbor between 19 February and 4 March, Sibley reported to the Stockton Group, Pacific Reserve Fleet, on 8 April for inactivation, and was decommissioned there on 27 November 1946. Transferred to the custody of MARCOM, she was placed in the National Defense Reserve Fleet at Suisun Bay, California, 10 September 1958. Sibley was struck from the Navy List on 1 October 1958.

On 18 April 1975, the Nicolai Joffe Corporation bought Sibley for $224,489.78 to be scrapped. She was withdrawn from the fleet on 16 May 1975.

Awards
Sibley received two battle stars for her World War II service.

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Online resources

External links

Sibley County, Minnesota
Haskell-class attack transports
World War II amphibious warfare vessels of the United States
Ships built in Richmond, California
1944 ships
Suisun Bay Reserve Fleet


Wales in the Middle Ages covers the history of the country that is now called Wales, from the departure of the Romans in the early fifth century to the annexation of Wales into the Kingdom of England in the early sixteenth century. This period of about 1,000 years saw the development of regional Welsh kingdoms, Celtic conflict with the Anglo-Saxons, reducing Celtic territories, and conflict between the Welsh and the Anglo-Normans from the 11th century.

Early Middle Ages: 411–1066

When the Roman garrison of Britain was withdrawn in 410, the various British states were left self-governing. Evidence for a continuing Roman influence after the departure of the Roman legions is provided by an inscribed stone from Gwynedd dated between the late 5th and mid-6th centuries commemorating a certain Cantiorix who was described as a citizen (cives) of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate (magistratus). There was considerable Irish colonisation in Dyfed, where there are many stones with ogham inscriptions. Wales had become Christian under the Romans, and the 'age of the saints' (approximately 500–700) was marked by the establishment of monastic settlements throughout the country, by religious leaders such as Saint David, Illtud and Saint Teilo.

One of the reasons for the Roman withdrawal was the pressure put upon the empire's military resources by the incursion of barbarian tribes from the east. These tribes, including the Angles and Saxons, gradually took control of eastern and southern Britain. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other British kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith, with king Selyf ap Cynan among the dead.  It has been suggested that this battle finally severed the land connection between Wales and the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd ("Old North"), the Brittonic-speaking regions of what is now southern Scotland and northern England, including Rheged, Strathclyde, Elmet and Gododdin, where Old Welsh was also spoken. From the 8th century on, Wales was by far the largest of the three remnant Brittonic areas in Britain, the other two being the Hen Ogledd and Cornwall.

Wales was divided into a number of separate kingdoms, the largest of these being Gwynedd in northwest Wales and Powys in the east. Gwynedd was the most powerful of these kingdoms in the 6th and 7th centuries, under rulers such as Maelgwn Gwynedd (died 547) and Cadwallon ap Cadfan (died 634/5) who in alliance with Penda of Mercia was able to lead his armies as far as the Kingdom of Northumbria and control it for a period. Following Cadwallon's death in battle the following year, his successor Cadafael Cadomedd ap Cynfeddw also allied himself with Penda against Northumbria but thereafter Gwynedd, like the other Welsh kingdoms, was mainly engaged in defensive warfare against the growing power of Mercia.

Rise of Gwynedd: 700–1066

Powys as the easternmost of the major kingdoms of Wales came under the most pressure from the English in Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. This kingdom originally extended east into areas now in England, and its ancient capital, Pengwern, has been variously identified as modern Shrewsbury or a site north of Baschurch. These areas were lost to the kingdom of Mercia. The construction of the earthwork known as Offa's Dyke (usually attributed to Offa of Mercia in the 8th century) may have marked an agreed border.

For a single man to rule the whole country during this period was rare. This is often ascribed to the inheritance system practised in Wales. All sons received an equal share of their father's property (including illegitimate sons), resulting in the division of territories. However, the Welsh laws prescribe this system of division for land in general, not for kingdoms, where there is provision for an edling (or heir) to the kingdom to be chosen, usually by the king. Any son, legitimate or illegitimate, could be chosen as edling and there were frequently disappointed candidates prepared to challenge the chosen heir.

The first to rule a considerable part of Wales was Rhodri the Great, originally king of Gwynedd during the 9th century, who was able to extend his rule to Powys and Ceredigion. On his death his realms were divided between his sons. Rhodri's grandson, Hywel Dda (Hywel the Good), formed the kingdom of Deheubarth by joining smaller kingdoms in the southwest and had extended his rule to most of Wales by 942. He is traditionally associated with the codification of Welsh law at a council which he called at Whitland, the laws from then on usually being called the "Laws of Hywel". Hywel followed a policy of peace with the English. On his death in 949 his sons were able to keep control of Deheubarth but lost Gwynedd to the traditional dynasty of this kingdom.

Wales was now coming under increasing attack by Vikings, particularly Danish raids in the period between 950 and 1000. According to the chronicle Brut y Tywysogion, Godfrey Haroldson carried off two thousand captives from Anglesey in 987, and the king of Gwynedd, Maredudd ab Owain is reported to have redeemed many of his subjects from slavery by paying the Danes a large ransom.

Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the only ruler to be able to unite the Welsh kingdoms under his rule. Originally king of Gwynedd, by 1055 he was ruler of almost all of Wales and had annexed parts of England around the border. However, he was defeated by Harold Godwinson in 1063 and killed by his own men. His territories were again divided into the traditional kingdoms.

High Middle Ages: 1067–1283

At the time of the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the dominant ruler in Wales was Bleddyn ap Cynfyn, who was king of Gwynedd and Powys. While the Normans consolidated their power in England, in the judgement of historian Rees Davies Wales was "utterly peripheral to their ambitions and concerns". Welsh support for Eadric the Wild and Edwin of Mercia in their efforts opposing Norman rule led the Normans to turn their attention to Wales. The initial Norman successes were in the south, where William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford overran the Kingdom of Gwent before 1070. By 1074 the forces of the Earl of Shrewsbury were ravaging Deheubarth.

The killing of Bleddyn ap Cynfyn in 1075 led to civil war and gave the Normans an opportunity to seize lands in northern Wales. In 1081, Gruffudd ap Cynan, who had just won the throne of Gwynedd from Trahaearn ap Caradog at the Battle of Mynydd Carn, was enticed to a meeting with the Earl of Chester and Earl of Shrewsbury and promptly seized and imprisoned, leading to the seizure of much of Gwynedd by the Normans. Rhys ap Tewdwr of Deheubarth was killed in 1093 in Brycheiniog, and his kingdom was seized and divided between various Norman lordships. The Norman conquest of Wales appeared virtually complete.

In 1094, however, there was a general Welsh revolt against Norman rule, and gradually territories were won back. Gruffudd ap Cynan was eventually able to build a strong kingdom in Gwynedd. His son, Owain Gwynedd, allied with Gruffydd ap Rhys of Deheubarth, won a crushing victory over the Normans at the Battle of Crug Mawr in 1136 and annexed Ceredigion. Owain followed his father on the throne of Gwynedd the following year and ruled until his death in 1170. He was able to profit from the Anarchy in England to extend the borders of Gwynedd further east than ever before as Stephen of Blois and the Empress Matilda were engaged in a struggle for the English throne.

The Kingdom of Powys also had a strong ruler at this time in Madog ap Maredudd, but when his death in 1160 was quickly followed by the death of his heir, Llywelyn ap Madog, Powys was split into two parts and never subsequently reunited.

In the south, Gruffydd ap Rhys was killed in 1137, but his four sons, who all ruled Deheubarth in turn, were eventually able to win back most of their grandfather's kingdom from the Normans. The youngest of the four, Rhys ap Gruffydd, ruled from 1155 to 1197. In 1171 Rhys met Henry II of England and came to an agreement with him whereby Rhys had to pay a tribute but was confirmed in all his conquests and was later named Justiciar of South Wales. Rhys held a festival of poetry and song at his court at Cardigan over Christmas 1176, which is generally regarded as the first recorded Eisteddfod. Owain Gwynedd's death led to the splitting of Gwynedd between his sons, while Rhys made Deheubarth dominant in Wales for a time.

Out of the power struggle in Gwynedd eventually arose one of the greatest of Welsh leaders, Llywelyn the Great (), who was sole ruler of Gwynedd by 1200 and by his death in 1240 was effectively ruler of much of Wales. Llywelyn made his 'capital' and headquarters at Abergwyngregyn on the north coast, overlooking the Menai Strait. His son, Gruffydd ap Llywelyn Fawr, followed him as ruler of Gwynedd, but Henry III of England would not allow him to inherit his father's position elsewhere in Wales. War broke out in 1241 and then again in 1245, and the issue was still in the balance when Dafydd died suddenly in early 1246 at Abergwyngregyn without leaving an heir. Gruffydd had been killed trying to escape from the Tower of London in 1244.

Gruffudd had left four sons, and a period of internal conflict between three of these ended in the rise to power of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, known as "Llywelyn Our Last Leader" () or "Llywelyn the Last". The Treaty of Montgomery in 1267 confirmed Llywelyn in control, directly or indirectly, over a large part of Wales. However, Llywelyn's claims in Wales conflicted with Edward I of England, and war followed in 1277. Llywelyn was obliged to seek terms, and the Treaty of Aberconwy greatly restricted his authority. War broke out again when Llywelyn's brother Dafydd ap Gruffydd attacked Hawarden Castle on Palm Sunday 1282. On 11 December 1282, Llywelyn was lured into a meeting in Builth Wells castle with unknown Marchers, where he was killed and his army subsequently destroyed. Dafydd continued an increasingly forlorn resistance but was captured in June 1283 and was hanged, drawn and quartered at Shrewsbury. In effect, Wales became England's first colony until it was formally annexed through the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

Late Middle Ages: 1283–1542

After passing the Statute of Rhuddlan, which restricted Welsh law, King Edward's ring of impressive stone castles assisted the domination of Wales, and he crowned his conquest by giving the title Prince of Wales to his son and heir in 1301. Wales became, effectively, part of England, even though its people spoke a different language and had a different culture. English kings appointed a Council of Wales, sometimes presided over by the heir to the throne. This Council normally sat in Ludlow, now in England but at that time still part of the disputed border area in the Welsh Marches. Welsh literature, particularly poetry, continued to flourish however, with the lesser nobility now taking over from the princes as the patrons of the poets. Dafydd ap Gwilym, who flourished in the middle of the 14th century, is considered by many to be the greatest of the Welsh poets.

There were a number of rebellions including ones led by Madog ap Llywelyn in 1294–1295 and by Llywelyn Bren, Lord of Senghenydd, in 1316–1318. In the 1370s the last representative in the male line of the ruling house of Gwynedd, Owain Lawgoch, twice planned an invasion of Wales with French support. The English government responded to the threat by sending an agent to assassinate Owain in Poitou in 1378.

In 1400, a Welsh nobleman, Owain Glyndŵr, revolted against Henry IV of England. Owain inflicted a number of defeats on the English forces and for a few years controlled most of Wales. Some of his achievements included holding the first Welsh Parliament at Machynlleth and plans for two universities. Eventually the king's forces were able to regain control of Wales and the rebellion died out, but Owain himself was never captured. His rebellion caused a great upsurge in Welsh identity and he was widely supported by Welsh people throughout the country.

As a response to Glyndŵr's rebellion, the English parliament passed the Penal Laws against the Welsh people in 1402. These prohibited the Welsh from carrying arms, from holding office and from dwelling in fortified towns. These prohibitions also applied to Englishmen who married Welsh women. These laws remained in force after the rebellion, although in practice they were gradually relaxed.

In the Wars of the Roses, which began in 1455, both sides made considerable use of Welsh troops. The main figures in Wales were the two Earls of Pembroke, the Yorkist William Herbert and the Lancastrian Jasper Tudor. A Council of Wales and the Marches was created to rule Wales, by the Lancastrian Henry VI for his son Edward of Westminster in 1457. The Council was created again in 1471 by Edward IV for his son Edward V.

In 1485 Jasper's nephew, Henry Tudor, landed in Wales with a small force to launch his bid for the throne of England. Henry was of Welsh descent, counting princes such as Rhys ap Gruffydd among his ancestors, and his cause gained much support in Wales. Henry defeated King Richard III of England at the Battle of Bosworth Field with an army containing many Welsh soldiers and gained the throne as Henry VII of England. Henry VII again created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Prince Arthur.

Under his son, Henry VIII of England, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 were passed, integrating Wales with England in legal terms, abolishing the Welsh legal system, and banning the Welsh language from any official role or status, but it did for the first time define the Wales–England border and allowed members representing constituencies in Wales to be elected to the English Parliament. They also abolished any legal distinction between the Welsh and the English, thereby effectively ending the Penal Code although this was not formally repealed.

See also

King of the Britons
King of Wales
List of rulers of Wales
Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
Sub-Roman Britain

Notes

References

 02
History of Wales
Middle Ages by country
Medieval England
1st millennium in Wales
2nd millennium in Wales
Middle Ages


"Intimidation Game" is the fourteenth episode of the sixteenth season of the police procedural television series Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. The episode aired on February 11, 2015 on NBC. In the episode, which was loosely inspired by the Gamergate controversy, a female video game developer is harassed and threatened by a group of misogynistic cyber terrorists. The episode featured guest appearances from  Logan Paul, Toby Turner, Jack Vale and James Ciccone.

Synopsis
Video game developer Raina Punjabi (Mouzam Makkar) ignores warnings from online predators as the release date of her game arrives. When a female employee is soon assaulted at a game convention, the detectives ask Punjabi to halt the game's release. When she refuses, Fin and SVU must race to protect her from technically skilled predators that want to see Punjabi out of the gaming business.

Reception

Critical response
Announced on January 29, 2015 and aired on NBC in the United States on February 11, 2015, the episode received negative reviews for its portrayal of gaming culture and sexism in video games.

Ratings
According to TV by the Numbers, the episode's original broadcast was watched by 6.12 million viewers and acquired a 1.4 rating/4% share in the 18–49 demographic.

References

External links

 Law & Order: SVU–Episode Guide–Intimidation Game

Law & Order: Special Victims Unit episodes
2015 American television episodes
Internet memes introduced in 2015
Television episodes directed by Jean de Segonzac