The  "Ornament of/for Realization[s]", abbreviated AA, is one of five Sanskrit-language Mahayana śastras which, according to Tibetan tradition, Maitreya revealed to Asaṅga in northwest India circa the 4th century AD. (Chinese tradition recognizes a different list of Maitreya texts which does not include the AA.) Those who doubt the claim of supernatural revelation disagree (or are unsure) whether the text was composed by Asaṅga himself, or by someone else, perhaps a human teacher of his.

The AA is never mentioned by Xuanzang, who spent several years at Nalanda in India during the early 7th century, and became a savant in the Maitreya-Asaṅga tradition. One possible explanation is that the text is late and attributed to Maitreya-Asaṅga for purposes of legitimacy. The question then hinges on the dating of the earliest extant AA commentaries, those of Arya Vimuktisena (usually given as 6th century, following possibly unreliable information from Taranatha) and Haribhadra (late 8th century).

The AA contains eight chapters and 273 verses. Its pithy contents summarize—in the form of eight categories and seventy topics—the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras which the Madhyamaka philosophical school regards as presenting the ultimate truth. Gareth Sparham and John Makransky believe the text to be commenting on the version in 25,000 lines, although it does not explicitly say so. Haribhadra, whose commentary is based on the 8,000-line PP Sūtra, held that the AA is commenting on all PP versions at once (i.e. the 100,000-line, 25,000-line, and 8,000-line versions), and this interpretation has generally prevailed within the commentarial tradition.

Several scholars liken the AA to a "table of contents" for the PP. Edward Conze admits that the correspondence between these numbered topics, and the contents of the PP is "not always easy to see..."; and that the fit is accomplished "not without some violence" to the text. The AA is widely held to reflect the hidden meaning (sbas don) of the PP, with the implication being that its details are not found there explicitly. (Sparham traces this tradition to Haribhadra's student Dharmamitra.)  One noteworthy effect is to recast PP texts as path literature. Philosophical differences may also be identified. Conze and Makransky see the AA as an attempt to reinterpret the PP, associated with Mādhyamaka tenets, in the direction of Yogacara.

The AA is studied by all lineages of Tibetan Buddhism, and is one of five principal works studied in the geshe curriculum of the major Gelug monasteries. Alexander Berzin has suggested that the text's prominence in the Tibetan tradition, but not elsewhere, may be due to the existence of the aforementioned commentary by Haribhadra, who was the disciple of Śāntarakṣita, an influential early Indian missionary to Tibet. Je Tsongkhapa's writings name the AA as the root text of the lamrim tradition founded by Atiśa.

Georges Dreyfus reports that "Gelug monastic universities... take the Ornament as the central text for the study of the path; they treat it as a kind of Buddhist encyclopedia, read in the light of commentaries by Je Dzong-ka-ba, Gyel-tsap Je, and the authors of manuals [monastic textbooks]. Sometimes these commentaries spin out elaborate digressions from a single word of the Ornament." Dreyfus adds that non-Gelug schools give less emphasis to the AA, but study a somewhat larger number of works (including the other texts of the Maitreya-Asanga corpus) in correspondingly less detail.

Title of the work

The text's full title is:

Sanskrit:
Tibetan:

Which means:

abhisamaya () - "Realization(s)"
 () -- "Ornament" (Berzin prefers "Filigree")
nāma () -- "called"
prajñāpāramitā () - "Perfection of Wisdom"
upadeśa () -- "Instructions" (literally, "an up-close look")
śāstra ()-- "Treatise"

Thus, a "Treatise [of] Instructions [on the] Perfection of Wisdom, called [the] Ornament [of / for] Realization[s]."

Sparham explains:

"The word abhisamaya is made up of the prefix abhi ("toward, over"), the prefix sam ("together with"), and the root i, a verb of motion with the secondary meaning "to understand." Generally speaking, abhisamaya means a coming together, a "re-union," particularly of a knower with something to be known, hence a "clear realization." In a title abhisamaya may just mean "chapter," hence the title  means Ornament for the Clear Realizations or Ornament for the Chapters.

Conze adds some details about the term's origins:

In the Pali scriptures the term is used to designate the stage when we comprehend the four holy truths. In the Abhidharmakośa (VI 122) it is interpreted as the correct (sam = samyak) knowledge (aya) which is turned toward (abhi) Nirv. In the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra itself it is invariably coupled with prāpti, "attainment," and in one place...it is a synonymn for sāksātkriya (realization).

As to whether we are speaking of one realization, or of eight, Sparham offers the following explanation by , a 14th-15th century Tibetan commentator:

An admirer views a naturally beautiful woman adorned with golden ornaments reflected in a mirror. The Perfection of Wisdom Sūtras are the naturally beautiful woman. The systematization of the contents of the Sūtras into eight subjects and seventy topics are the golden ornaments, and the Ornament the mirror through which they view her.

Elaborating on the metaphor, Geshe Jampa Gyatso distinguishes between a "natural ornament" (the beautiful woman, the Perfection of Wisdom), "beautifying ornament" (her jewelry, the eight categories and seventy topics), "clarifying ornament" (the mirror, the AA), and "joyful ornament" (the joy of the beholder or AA devotee).

Philosophical perspective

The PP Sūtras form the basis for the Mādhyamika ("Middle Way") school of Indian Buddhist philosophy, which Tibetan consensus acknowledges as the "highest" (truest, best) tenet system. Other writings by Maitreya and Asaga, however, form the basis for the rival Yogācāra ("Yoga Adepts") or Cittamātra ("Mind Only" or "Consciousness Only") school. It is therefore perhaps understandable that the AA, as Sparham writes, "straddles the ground between Indian Middle Way and Mind Only..." Conze concurs, ascribing to the AA "an intermediate position between Mādhyamikas and Yogācārins..."

Conze discovers in the AA "some affinities with other Yogācārin works" and suggests a number of precise correspondences. At the same time, he notes, "Two of the specific doctrines of the Yogācārins, i.e. the 'storeconsciousness' and the three kinds of own-being (svabhāva) are quite ignored." Eugène Obermiller on the other hand writes that "The main philosophical view expressed in the  is that of strictest Monism and of the Non-substantiality and Relativity (śūnyatā) of all separate elements of existence, i.e. the standpoint of the Mādhyamikas." Obermiller sees the AA as the product of interaction between Mahāyāna Buddhism and the Hindu Vedānta philosophy.

Gelugpa writers, following Bu ston, affirm Maitreya's text to represent the Prāsaṅgika viewpoint, but consider Haribhadra and later commentators to have taught something called "Yogācāra Svātantrika Madhyamaka." The category is often criticized as artificial, even by the standards of Tibetan doxography. Nyingma and Sakya writers agree that the AA contains Madhyamaka teachings, without necessarily endorsing the subdivisions proposed by Gelugpas.

In an aside, Ian Charles Harris finds it "curious" that

"...Maitreya is generally considered to be the mythical instructor of Asaga, and therefore for those who see Māhāyana Buddhism in terms of schools [as Harris does not], to be the founder of the Yogācāra-Vijñānanavāda. One wonders why someone seeking to establish a rival school to Nāgārjuna should wish to write a treatise on the Prajñāpāramitā if, as many authors believe, it is amenable only to an interpretation from the standpoint of the Prāsa-Madhyamaka."

Harris goes on to note the "strange fact" that Tsongkhapa would be a self-avowed Prasangika, despite his system's assignment of  "all the great Madhyamaka authorities on the Prajñāpāramitā" to Yogācāra Svātantrika Madhyamaka.

According to Makransky, the AA was designed to impose a Yogācāra framework and vocabulary onto the PP. AA commentator Arya Vimuktisena preserves this Yogācāra reading; however, Makransky sees Haribhadra's reading as an attempt to "Mādhyamika-ize" the AA. Later Tibetan commentators broadly follow Haribhadra.

The Eight Categories and Seventy Topics

The AA is divided into eight categories, which correspond to the eight chapters of the work, and (with one technical exception in chapter eight)  to the eight "realizations" said to be necessary for full enlightenment. (Conze remarks that these eight are "not attested elsewhere.")

This division into eight appears thus at the beginning of the AA itself:

[The Buddhas] proclaim the Perfection of Wisdom [Sūtra] by way of eight subjects. These eight are the knowledge of all aspects, knowledge of paths, and all knowledge. Then there is the awakening to all aspects, when culmination is attained, serial, awakening in an instant, and the Truth Body. [AA verses 1.4 and 1.5, Sparham translation]

These eight categories naturally fall into three groups, as shown below. The seventy topics (here enumerated but not shown) are their subdivisions. Obermiller traces this list to a manual attributed to 'Jam dbyangs Bzhad pa, who also created the various definitions and category-boundaries familiar to Tibetan debaters. The text may be subdivided further still, into 1,200 items.

Unless otherwise indicated, the English terms below follow Sparham's translation (which revises Conze's).

The Three Knowledges

The first three categories represent the objects or goals of practice, whose attainment leads to peace for the four classes of Buddhist practitioner. Obermiller calls them "the 3 Kinds of Omniscience," while Toh prefers "the Three Exalted Knowers" and Berzin, "the Three Sets of Realized Awareness."

1. Knowledge of all aspects
(Sarvākārajñatā, rnam pa tham cad mkhyen pa).............................10 topics
(Wisdom attained by Buddhas; inclusive of categories two and three below)

2. Knowledge of paths
(Mārgākārajñatā, lam shes pa)....................................................11 topics
(Wisdom attained by bodhisattvas; inclusive of category three below)

3. All-knowledge
(Sarvajñatā, gzhi shes pa)...........................................................9 topics
(Wisdom attained by sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, i.e., Hinayana practitioners)

Berzin explains these categories as

"...groupings of realizations gained by the three sets of aryas ('phags-pa, highly realized beings), those who have gained nonconceptual cognition of the sixteen aspects of the four noble truths. The three are organized into basis, pathway, and resultant stages and thus, in a complex manner, are cumulative. They are studied, however, in reverse order to their attainment, in order to inspire interest in developing them."

Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas, in order to discern the truths of anitya (impermanence), anatman (selflessness), and dukha (suffering), must acquire knowledge of the fundamental constituents of reality (vastu)--namely the skandhas, ayatanas, and dhatus which are the subjects of Abhidharma. This is the "all-knowledge" of chapter three. A bodhisattva, in order to benefit all sentient beings, must additionally cognize the various possible paths by which others may progress, so that he may, for example, teach in different ways in accordance with their various situations and capacities. This is the "knowledge of paths" of chapter two. According to the Mahayana understanding, only a fully enlightened Buddha has eliminated obstacles to omniscience (jneyavaranaheya) as well as obstacles to liberation (kleshavaranaheya). "Knowledge of all aspects" in the first chapter refers to this ultimate state. The AA begins with this as the most impressive of the three, and the ultimate goal of the Mahayana practitioner.

The Four Practices

Categories four through seven (in this order) represent progressive stages of spiritual practice en route to enlightenment. Conze calls them four "understandings"; Obermiller, "practical methods"; Toh, "applications"; and Berzin (who notes the close connection to "yoga," ngal sbyor), "applied realizations."

4. Full awakening to all aspects
(Sarvākārābhisambodha, )..........................11 topics

5. Culmination clear realization
(Murdhābhisamaya, )..........................8 topics

6. Serial clear realization
(Anupurvābhisamaya, )............................13 topics

7. Clear realization in a single instant
(Ekaksanābhisamaya, )..............................4 topics

Referring to the above, Dreyfus explains that

"...the Ornament presents the four practices or realizations [chapters 4-7], emphasizing particularly 'the practice of all the aspects' (), which is treated in the fourth chapter. In fact, that practice is the central topic of the text and may have been an actual practice in which all the aspects of the three wisdoms [chapters 1-3] are brought together... But--and this point is crucial--no teacher I have ever met seems to have practiced this meditation, or even to have been clear on how to do so... Clearly the work's central themes are not practiced in the Tibetan scholastic traditions."

Tibetan tradition lays special emphasis on chapter four, perhaps because it is the longest and most complex, and therefore best suited to commentary and debate. This fourth chapter enumerates, and extensively describes, (in Obermiller's words) "173 forms of the Bodhisattva's yoga as realizing respectively the 173 aspects (of the 3 forms of Omniscience)."

The Resultant Truth Body

The last Category concerns the result of spiritual practice:

8. The Resultant Truth Body
(Dharmakāyābhisambodha, chos sku)........................................4 topics
 --------------
70 topics

By this is meant the Dharmakāya, one of several glorified spiritual bodies (Makransky prefers "embodiments") which a Buddha is said to possess. A commentarial tradition beginning with Arya Vimuktisena interprets the AA as teaching the existence of three such bodies (the trikaya doctrine); a rival tradition follows Haribhadra in identifying four such bodies, with the fourth, disputed kāya being the Svabhāvikakāya (Tib. ngo bo nyid kyi sku) or "Nature / Essence Body". (Other writers interpret this last term as a synonym for Dharmakaya, or else as symbolizing the unity of the three.) Makransky, whose Buddhism Embodied focuses on this eighth chapter of the AA, writes that

"Haribhadra had read AA 8 as a systematic treatise whose purpose was to present a logically coherent model of Buddhahood. His perspective owed much to Buddhist logic and Abhidharma traditions that had sought such systematic coherence. Ratnākarāśānti, basing himself instead on the perspective on nondual yogic traditions, specifically understood the terms svābhāvikakāya and dharmakāya in AA 8 (and throughout Mahāyana literature) to refer to a Buddha's own perspective on the nature of his attainment, not to a human perspective on it. [...] Tsong kha pa, influenced by the logico-epistemological approach expressed in Haribhadra's work, supported his interpretation of AA 8. Go ram pa, drawing from a perspective framed by nondual yogic praxis, supported Ratnākorāśānti's call to return to Arya Vimuktisena's previous interpretation. Tsong kha pa and Go ram pa's interpretations are closely related to their differing perspectives on a Buddha's awareness, which was an explicit topic of discussion in Candrakirti's Mādhyamikāvatāra, upon which they both commented."

For Makransky, the controversy reflects a fundamental tension between immanent and transcendent aspects of Buddhism, which is also reflected in debate over the Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma, or gradual vs. sudden enlightenment (as at Samye). In his view, all these controversies stem from a fundamental difficulty in reconciling the transcendent nature of Buddhahood with the immanent nature of bodhicitta.

Ancillary Topics

Obermiller, describing the curriculum of Drepung's (’Bras spungs) Go mang college, reports that the monks studied the AA in a four-year sequence (after certain preliminary subjects); and that each class also studied a prescribed "secondary subject" (zur-bkol) for that year:

First class: Introduction to the AA as well as the special topic, the "Twenty Sangha."

Second class: Finished through the seventh topic of the first AA chapter; the supplementary topic was dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda)

Third class: Finished the first AA chapter and continued; also studied the Yogacara theory of the storehouse consciousness (ālāyavijñāna), and the difference between definitive and interpretable scripture as taught by Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra.

Fourth class: Focused on the fourth chapter of the AA ("which is regarded as the most difficult"), supplemented with "the teaching about the four degrees of trance in the sphere of Etherial Bodies...and the four degrees of mystic absorption in the Immaterial Sphere." The fourth-year students would conclude with a celebratory feast.

Obermiller adds that "All these studies are conducted in the form of lectures which are accompanied by controversies between the different groups of students according to the method of 'sequence and reason' (thal-phyir)."

Twenty Sangha
The subject of "Twenty Sangha" (vimsatiprabhedasamgha, dge 'dun nyi shu) aims at schematizing the various spiritual levels through which one might pass on the way to enlightenment. Here "Sangha" refers not so much to actual monks and nuns (the term's most common meaning), but to an idealized, gradated schema of all the types of accomplished Buddhist. The AA explains that it is the latter sense of "Sangha" which constitutes the object of Buddhist Refuge, and in an especially cryptic verse, offers the following subdivision into twenty types:

There are Twenty [categories]: those with dull and sharp faculties, those who have attained faith and vision, those who are born from family to family, those born with one interval, those who are born in the intermediate state, those who are born, with effort and effortlessly, those who go to Akanistha, three who leap, those who go to the upper limit of the world, those who destroy attachment to the form [realm], those who pacify visual phenomena, the bodily witness, and the rhinoceros. [AA verses 1.23-24, James Apple translation]

What does this mean? "Akanistha" is the name of the highest Buddha-field in the Form Realm, inhabited by pious gods and tenth-ground bodhisattvas. The solitary nature of the rhinoceros made that animal a traditional symbol for pratyekabuddhas ("solitary Buddhas"). Beyond that, the list is quite difficult to decipher.

The basic project seems to have been inspired by an earlier typology of four (Stream-Enterer, Once-Returner, Non-Returner, Arhat), which may be expanded to eight by distinguishing between approachers to (zhugs pa), or abiders at ('bras gnas), each level. Unfortunately the list of twenty does not correspond very well with this earlier one. Furthermore, Tibetan exegetical tradition estimates the actual number of types of Sangha (including combinations and subdivisions) to approach the tens of thousands. Such difficulties seem to account for much of the subject's popularity in debate.(See Apple's monograph on the subject.)

Definitive and Interpretable Scriptures

Tibetan tradition accepts the common Mahayana view that Sakyamuni Buddha (the historical Buddha) taught various kinds of teachings that do not seem to agree—hence the various discrepancies between nikaya Buddhism and the Mahayana scriptures—and following the Sandhinirmocana Sutra, hold that the Buddha taught three grand cycles called "Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma." According to the sutra, the first of these consists of Hinayana teachings; the second, of Mahdyamaka teachings; and the third, of Yogacara teachings. The sutra seems to assume the third cycle to consist of the "highest" teachings. However, Tibetan tradition generally sides with Madhyamaka, and therefore must read the sutra in this light.

The issue becomes more pressing since Tibetan Buddhist doctrine in fact combines elements from all three cycles, and is therefore faced with the task of defending its authorities while simultaneously minimizing contradictions between them.

Form and Formless Realm Absorptions (Trances)

Commentarial literature

In India

The oldest extant commentary is that of Ārya Vimuktisena (Grol sde), called Illuminating the Twenty Thousand: A Commentary on the Ornament (Pañcavimsatisāhasrikāprajñāparamitopadesasāstrabhisamāyalakāravrtti, ). Written in a different style from its successors, it makes frequent reference to Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośaśāstra.

Even more influential have been the commentaries of Haribadra (Seng ge Bzang Po), especially his Blossomed Meaning (Sphuṭārthā,  'grel pa don gsal) and Light for the Ornament. (Abhisamāyalakāralokāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyā, ). Haribhadra also edited an abridgment of this work, called the "Short Commentary" (Sphuṭārtha, 'grel pa don gsal/'grel chung).

Altogether, 21 ancient Indian AA commentaries are said to have been translated into Tibetan, although it is possible to doubt the existence of some of the titles listed. For example, an ambiguous reference at the beginning of Haribhadra's prefatory homage is sometimes interpreted to mean that Asanga wrote an AA commentary. If so, the work is no longer extant. Haribhadra also mentions an AA commentary by Vasubandhu entitled Padhati ("The Well-Trodden Path"), and one by Bhadanta Vimuktisena ("the Intelligent" Vimuktisena—not to be confused with Ārya, "the Noble" Vimuktisena) called Excellent Explanation of the Twenty Thousand (, ). However, the commentaries by Ārya Vimuktisena and Haribhadra are most fundamental to the subsequent commentarial tradition. Sparham writes that

...practically speaking, the Light [Haribhadra's commentary] is the more readable explanation. It has fewer words to explain [since it is based on the 8,000-line PP rather than the 25,000-line version]. Ārya may well be the more profound thinker, but Hari's is the better book. This perhaps explains why Hari, not Ārya, became the most influential Indian figure in the study of the Perfection of Wisdom in Tibet, even though Ārya is more admired. It also perhaps explains why Hari's own abridgement of his Light is the basis of nearly every Tibetan Perfection of Wisdom commentary.

Makransky, on the other hand, feels that Arya Vimuktasena's commentary better captures the AA's Yogācāra assumptions.

In Tibet

The AA was extremely influential in Tibet, resulting in the production of numerous commentaries. The first were those of "Ngok Lotsawa" or "Ngok the Translator" (Rngog Lo tsa ba Bal ldan Shes rab, 1059–1109):  (a summary),  (a "small" commentary), and an 8000-line Prajnaparamita summary called Yum brgyad stong pa'i 'grel pa'i don bsdus (possibly a sub-commentary to Haribhadra's Short Commentary).

Well known Nyingma commentaries on the AA include the  by Dza Patrul Rinpoche, Orgyen Jikmé Chökyi Wangpo which forms the whole of the sixth volume of his Collected Works; and The Words of the Invincible Maitreya, (ma pham zhal lung) by Pöpa Tulku Dongak Tenpé Nyima.

Sakya commentators on the AA include 'Go rams pa bsod nams seng ge (four commentaries), Sakya Chokden, Shes ba Kun rig (seven commentaries and treatises), and G.Yag ston (, 1350–1414). The latter's work is King of Wish-Fulfilling Jewels (), in eight volumes.

Kagyu commentaries on the AA include Padma Karpo's "The Words of Jetsun Maitreya"; the "Short and Clear" commentary  by Shamar Konchok Yenlag; "Introducing the Lamp of the Three Worlds: A commentary on the Ornament of Realization" ( by Karma Thinleypa

Tsongkhapa's teacher Don grub Rin chen encouraged him to study the five texts of Maitreya, especially the AA. One of Tsongkhapa's major works, Golden Garland (gSer-phreng), is an AA commentary. His disciple Gyaltsab () also wrote an AA subcommentary, called Ornament of the Essence ().

In East Asia

The AA seems not to have been translated into Chinese until the 1930s. At this time the Chinese monk Fazun (法尊), an associate of Taixu (太虛), produced a translation entitled 現觀莊嚴論, for use by the Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Institute (漢藏教理院) in Sichuan. The institute's leaders sought to harmonize the Buddhisms of China and Tibet, and improve relations between the Khampas and Han Chinese immigrants to Eastern Tibet. Fazun had studied in the geshe program of the Drepung ('Bras spungs) college () of Loseling (Blo gsal gling), near Lhasa, and possibly even obtained the degree. The institute failed to survive the Chinese Civil War.

In the West

The AA seems not to have attracted the attention of Western scholars until the 1930s, when Eugène Obermiller and Theodore Stcherbatsky produced an edition of the Sanskrit / Tibetan text. Obermiller, a specialist in Yogacara and Tathagatagarbha literature, also wrote a lengthy article on the AA ("The Doctrine of PP...") and was in the process of composing Analysis of the AA when he died. While Obermiller approached the AA from the perspective of "Monism," which he associated with Vedanta, his studies in the Buryat Mongolian monastery of Dgah ldan dar rgyas gling (Chilutai) exposed him to a more traditional hermeneutic framework. Along with a translation of the AA (or the three-fifths of it which he finished), he also provided a summary of Haribhadra's commentary for each section.

Edward Conze, who was active from the 1950s to the 1970s, devoted his career to PP translations and commentaries, his AA translation being an early example. An especially significant work was his translation of the PP Sutra in 25,000-lines, which he organized according to the AA topics. This required a certain amount of creative editing on his part—for example, his translation does not strictly follow the 25,000-line AA, but incorporates text from other PP Sutras. Like Obermiller, Conze's writings betray a certain German idealistic influence, hence his references to "Union with the Absolute."

During the 2000s, several Western scholars with experience as Buddhist monks living among the Tibetan exile community in Dharamsala, who had participated in traditional geshe studies, published articles and books related to the AA. Their ranks included Gareth Sparham (who translated the AA anew, along with the commentaries of Arya Vimuktisena, Haribhadra, and Tsongkhapa) and Geshe Georges Dreyfus (whose writings describe the contemporary social context of AA study). In addition, studies and translations by Karl Brunnhölzl and the Padmakara Translation Group have focused on non-Gelug readings of this text, which the earlier literature had neglected. The AA has also received attention from several Western dharma centers (notably those associated with the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition, whose FPMT Masters Program devotes several years to its study), with the result that the AA has now been transmitted to the West not only as a text, but as a living spiritual tradition.

Bibliography

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Amano, Hirofusa. A Study on the Abhisamaya-Alaṅkara-Karika-Sastra-Vṛtti. Tokyo, 1975.

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Dreyfus, Georges. "Tibetan scholastic education and the role of soteriology." In Paul Williams (ed.), Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, vol. VI, pp. 32–57. Originally published in the Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies vol. 20, no. 1 (1997), pp. 31–62. This is an early (and extended) version of material later incorporated into The Sound of Two Hands Clapping. Dreyfus's discussion of the Abisamayalankara begins on pp. 46, and continues to the end of the article.

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Makransky, John J. Buddhism Embodied: Sources of Controversy in India and Tibet. SUNY Press, 1997. Focuses on the eighth chapter of the AA. Instead of three or four "bodies" (kāya), Makransky prefers to speak of "embodiments."

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Obermiller, E. & T[heodore] I. Shcherbatskoi. Abhisamahalankara-Prajnaparamita-Upadesa-Sastra: The Work of Bodhisattva Maitreya. Sri Satguru Publications, 1992.

Sparham, Gareth (translator). Abhisamayalamkara with Vrtti and Aloka (in four volumes). Jain Publishing Company, 2006 (vol. 1) and 2008 (vol. 2).

Sparham, Gareth (editor). Golden Garland of Eloquence, vols. 1 and 2. Jain Publishing Company. 2008. Translation of an AA commentary by Tsongkhapa.

Toh Sze Gee (translator). The Explanation Ornament of the Essence along with (i) the Root Text of the Treatise of Quintessential Instructions of the Perfection of Wisdom: Ornament for Clear Realization and (ii) the Commentary Clear Meaning, by Gyaltsab Darma Rinchen. FPMT Masters Program Translation, 2009. Available from FPMT Education Services.

References

Sources

 — (First Abhisamaya - with the Vrtti of Arya Vimuktisena and the Aloka of Haribhadra)
 — (Second and Third Abhisamayas- with the Vrtti of Arya Vimuktisena and the Aloka of Haribhadra)

 — a study of interpretations of the Abhisamayalankara.
 - reprint edition of 1936 publication

 — (First Abhisamaya) — the first part of Tsongkhapa's legs-bshad gser-phreng commentary on the AA.
 — (Second and Third Abhisamaya)

External links
Berzin, Alexander. "The Five Paths" February 2002, revised April 2006.
Berzin, Alexander. "The Five Pathway Minds (The Five Paths): Advanced Presentation." March 2004, revised April 2006.
Berzin, Alexander. "Overview of the Eight Sets of Realizations in Abhisamayamankara". February 2002, revised July 2006.
Rigpa Shedra (wiki). "Abhisamayalankara."
Shenga, Khenchen. "Prologue to the Abhisamayalankara."
Tsöndrü, Khenpo. "The Seventy Points: The Words of Jikmé Chökyi Wangpo: A Commentary Presenting the Subject Matter of the Great Treatise, the Abhisamayalankara."
Tsulga, Geshe. Oral Commentaries on the Ornament of Clear Realizations and its Seventy Topics, given to the Kurukulla Center. (Scroll about halfway down the page for audio files.)

In Chinese
 現觀莊嚴論

羅時憲, 現觀莊嚴論略釋講義 (Concise Translation and Course Notes on the Abhisamayalankara). Hong Kong: Dharmalakshana Buddhist Institute (佛教法相學會), 2005. Includes traditional and simplified character versions (free) as well as audio lectures in the form of MP3 files.

Mahayana texts
Yogacara
Buddhist commentaries
Buddhist texts
Yogacara shastras


The LeFevres, or The Singing LeFevres, were an American Southern gospel singing group, active for nearly 50 years in the middle of the twentieth century.

The LeFevres were a family from Smithville, Tennessee, and their singing group centered on brothers Urias (1910–1979) and Alphus (1912–1988). As children, they sang with their sister Maude until she married, then their sister Omega (Peggy) until she married; their career as an ensemble began in 1921. Both sang in quartets at the Bible Training School in Cleveland, Tennessee. Urias and Eva Mae Whittington (1917–2009) married in 1934; she became the pianist and alto in their newly formed trio.

They moved to Charleston, South Carolina, in 1937 and then Atlanta in 1939, where they would remain for the rest of their professional career, aside from a short stint in Philadelphia in the middle of the 1950s. They won slots performing on WGST radio as The LeFevre Trio, but as they added other family members and accompanists, they decided to refer to themselves simply as The LeFevres.

Though they had previously recorded transcription discs, their first commercial recordings were made in the 1940s and released on Bibletone Records. Later releases were issued on Word Records and their own label, Sing Music Company. As the new medium of television became more popular, the group started appearing on local stations such as WAGA and traveled to other regional stations to appear on their programs as well. In the 1960s, the group's Gospel Singing Caravan, a syndicated program, was aired nationwide. In addition to this, the group toured relentlessly in the U.S. and Canada, notching as many as 250 shows a year.

The LeFevres became instrumental in the gospel music industry in Atlanta, Georgia; they owned and operated their own recording studio, LeFevre Sound and also published sheet music for the gospel market. Additionally, they produced syndicated television shows for gospel and country music singers, and owned a booking agency that operated regionally.

The LeFevres retired in the 1970s, and sold off their interests to group member Rex Nelon who formed the Rex Nelon Singers in 1977. Eva Mae and Urias LeFevre were inducted into the Southern Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 1997; Alphus was inducted in 2002. Urias's youngest son, Mylon, went on to have a highly successful solo career. Popular LeFevre alumni including Big Jim Waits, Rex Nelon, and Jimmy Jones were inducted into the Southern Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 1997, 1999, and 2007, respectively.

Eva Mae LeFevre died on May 18, 2009, in Atlanta, at the age of 91.

Discography

 1957: Songs of Happiness (Sing Records)
 1959: Sing and Be Happy (Sing Records)
 1959: Featuring Pierce LeFevre (Sing Records)
 1960: Travel with the Lefevres (Sing Records)
 1960: The LeFevres in Stereo (Sing Records)
 1961: Rainbow of Love (Sing Records)
 1962: He's Wonderful (Sing Records)
 1963: The Lefevres Sing (Sing Records)
 1964: Without Him (Sing Records)
 1964: Lord It's Me Again (Sing Records)
 1965: Sing the Gospel (Sing Records)
 1966: You Need the Lord (Sing Records)
 1967: A Visit with the LeFevres (Sing Records)
 1968: A Man Who Is Wise (Sing Records)
 1969: The Best is Yet to Come (Canaan Records)
 1969: Play Gospel Music (Canaan Records)
 1969: Color Him Father and 'Amen, Brother' (released on the Metromedia imprint)
 1970: Moving Up (Canaan Records)
 1970: The LeFevres, Vol. 1 & 2 (Bibletone)
 1970: Pierce & Mylon (Canaan)
 1971: Fifty Golden Years (Canaan)
 1972: The New Sounds of The LeFevres (Canaan Records)
 1972: Now and Always (Canaan Records)
 1972: The Best of the LeFevres (Sing Records)
 1973: Happiness Is Gospel (Canaan Records)
 1974: Stepping on the Clouds (Canaan Records)
 1975: Experience (Canaan Records)
 1975: The LeFevres (Power Pak) (compilation)
 1976: Gospel Music USA (Canaan Records)
 1976: Whispering Hope (Pickwick)
 1977: Singing 'Til He Comes (Canaan Records)
 1977: 16 All-Time Favorites (Starday Records)
 1983: Come into the Light (Calvary)
 1985: The Old Rugged Cross (Golden Circle Records)
 2000: Echoes From the Forties (Bibletone Records)

References

External links
 The LeFevres, Georgia Encyclopedia.
 The LeFevres, Southern Gospel Music Association.
 Urias LeFevre, SGMA
 Alphus LeFever, SGMA
 http://www.sghistory.com/index.php?n=L.LeFevres

1921 establishments in Tennessee
Family musical groups
Musical groups established in 1921
Musical groups from Georgia (U.S. state)
Musical groups from Tennessee
Southern gospel performers
People from Smithville, Tennessee


Ilie Nico Baicu (born 5 December 1974) is a Romanian former footballer who played as a left back for teams such as Dacia Mioveni, FC Argeș Pitești or FC Vaslui. He made 116 appearances in Liga I.

References

External links

 Ilie Baicu at frf-ajf.ro

1974 births
Living people
Footballers from Argeș County
Romanian men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Liga I players
Liga II players
CS Mioveni players
FC Argeș Pitești players
CS Sporting Vaslui players
FC Internațional Curtea de Argeș players


Iulian Mihai Ilie, (born 29 November 1972, Ploieşti, Romania), is a Romanian football player, who plays as a goalkeeper. He is currently a free agent.

External links

1972 births
Living people
Footballers from Ploiești
Romanian men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
FC Petrolul Ploiești players
CS Mioveni players


In Australian rugby league, FootyTAB is the name of the legal betting agency, operating in both the NRL and the Brisbane Rugby League since betting on league was legalised. Betting is also offered on other games including the pre-season, State of Origin and Test matches.

FootyTAB offers three types of bet, "Pick The Winners", "Pick The Margins", and "Pick The Score".

Pick The Winners
In Pick The Winners, punters are required to select all the winning teams in a round. In order to make selection more difficult, points start are given by a panel appointed by the TAB to the team considered less likely to win. So that the scores could never possibly be exactly equal after the start is added, points start are always given as half points. This points start is summed to the actual score for the match to create a total score and the team with the greater total score is declared the winner. For example, in the first round of the 1993 season, the results and total score were as follows:

For split rounds coinciding with State of Origin matches, "Pick The Winners" and "Pick The Margins" are conducted separately for each week of the split round. However, punters betting on the first week of a split round were also required to bet on the State of Origin match in the appropriate format.

Since the introduction of golden point to resolve draws in 2003, these points have been taken into account in all forms of FootyTAB betting.

Pick The Margins
In "Pick The Margins", punters are required to select the results of every game played during a round. This involved determining who will win and by what margin they will win. For "Pick The Margins", points start given by FootyTAB are not considered. Thus, using the points spreads then current, the correct results for the opening round of 1993 would have been:

Originally "Pick The Margins" had two-point spreads, 1-12 and 13+. However, with the increase of scoring due to the 10-metre rule introduced during 1993 and the popular desire for larger dividends, FootyTAB increased the number of point spreads to three (1-10, 11-20 and 21+) for the 2001 season. Before draws were largely eliminated by extra time in 2003, it was possible also to bet on a match being drawn as a fifth selection.

The larger number of possible selections in "Pick The Margins" has meant that dividends have always been much larger than the modest "Pick The Winners" prizes. It has always been common for no punter to successfully pick every correct margin in a round. Up until the end of 1993, prizes were paid when this occurred to punters with one or even two incorrect selections. However, on 7 March 1994, FootyTAB announced Pick The Margins prize money would jackpot unless some punter selected every correct margin in a round. However, if no one selected all correct margins in the last week of "Pick The Margins" betting for a season, then prizes would be (and are still) paid out to the punter with the most correct margins since the jackpot began.

Jackpots brought about a major increase in the popularity of "Pick The Margins" betting so that it became the most popular type of bet on rugby league in Australia. Today, "Pick The Margins" prizes are usually greater than the largest available from betting on horse racing, with the record being $2,006,217 awarded to one punter after three successive jackpots on 8 July 1996. (it is noteworthy that this punter only won as a result of a last minute Sydney City penalty goal).

Pick The Score
In "Pick The Score", punters are required to predict the exact number of points a team will score in a match. "Pick The Score" has typically been available on matches televised on Channel 9 and previously the ABC only. As rounds became spread over a greater number of days, the number of games on which "Pick The Score" was available increased.

Dividends in "Pick The Score", though higher than for "Pick The Winners", are not usually as high as "Pick The Margins" because each game is a separate prize. Although there have been some cases where no correct entry has been drawn - usually occurring where a losing team scored an odd number of points through kicking a field goal before the opposition scored several tries, there have never been jackpots on "Pick The Score", because S18.3.21 of The Totalizator Rules specifies countback procedures that enable a dividend to be declared. In cases where nobody selected a game's full-time score, prizes are paid out to those punters who were closest, as in the following examples:

In recent years as "Pick The Margins" has become more popular, "Pick The Score" has declined considerably.

History
Although there is a lot of evidence that betting on rugby league in Australia has been common ever since the game began in 1908, governments of the period were strongly dedicated to outlawing sports betting and betting on league was thus illegal until the Wran Government legalised it for the 1983 season, in response to the lucrative illegal betting market since race meetings were banned for one week a month during World War II. Betting in the period between the war had always been based on selecting the winners after points start were added, and a report commissioned by the State Government in late 1981 showed that illegal bookmakers were offering set odds for picking the winners of each round and that this allowed these bookmakers to make large profits. Thus it was recommended that a system of legal betting in which dividends offered depended upon the proportion of punters predicting the correct winners was to be preferred. This system was instigated for the 1983 season.

Initially only "Pick The Winners" was offered, but FootyTAB was such a success that it garnered news space in the Sydney Morning Herald rarely allocated to betting on horse or dog racing. Almost eight million dollars was bet on FootyTAB in its first year, and expansion with "Pick The Margins" and "Pick The Score" followed in 1984. The growth of legal betting on league was slow but steady until 1993, but "Pick The Margins" became the chief focus when jackpots were introduced in 1994 and produced much larger prize pools: as a result of two weeks of jackpots, a pool of $1,618,401 was available for the third premiership round that season. With the 20-team competition of 1995 and 1996, "Pick The Margins" prizes reach record levels, in one case exceeding two million dollars after successive jackpots. "Pick The Score", which declined in popularity during this period, was also modified to accommodate higher scores from the 10-metre rule by allowing a 49+ score - which occurred only eleven times between 1984 and 1992.

After the game's rationalisation following the Super League war, "Pick The Margins" dividends declined, and FootyTAB consequently added more points spread, with considerable success as shown by a 1.35 million dollar dividend in 2004.

Other developments of FootyTAB since the reunification of rugby league have been multiple bets, in which a punter can select more than one margin or score for a game with bets of more than one dollar.

References
 Middleton, David; Rugby League 1994; pp. 23–29.
 Middleton, David; Rugby League 1995; p. 122 and p. 159.
 Sydney Morning Herald (various issues)
 Windross, Allen; Introduction of Legal Betting on Rugby League; in G. Caldwell, B. Haig, M. Dickerson, and L. Sylvan (editors.), Gambling in Australia, pp. 276–281.

FootyTAB
Gambling companies of Australia


The Pennsylvania State Treasurer is the head of the Pennsylvania Treasury Department, an independent department of state government. The state treasurer is elected every four years. Treasurers are limited to two consecutive terms.

The Pennsylvania Treasury Department
As the name "Treasury" suggests, the department's paramount responsibility is safeguarding and managing the state's financial assets, but Pennsylvania's constitution and statutes place additional specific responsibilities on the office.

Taxes and other sources of revenue collected by the state are deposited with the Treasury. The department uses that money to make payments on behalf of state government, including payroll for state employees and charges incurred by government agencies. Before issuing payments, Treasury's Bureau of Fiscal Review must carefully examine invoices to make certain the charges are lawful and correct.

While managing cash flow to ensure that enough money is on hand to meet financial obligations, Treasury also places funds in widely diversified short-term and long-term investments to earn income for state taxpayers. It also holds and/or invests funds for other government agencies, such as the state pension boards. As of 2014, Treasury is custodian of approximately $100 billion in public assets.

PA 529 College Savings Program
The PA 529 College Savings Program gives families a tax-advantaged way to make college possible for their children.

Unclaimed property
Treasury's Unclaimed Property Bureau works to reunite more than $2 billion in lost, forgotten and abandoned property with its rightful owners. Since 2009, Treasury has collected $1.134 billion in abandoned property and returned $518 million back to the rightful owners, netting $616 million for the state General Fund budget.

INVEST
The INVEST program helps local governments and nonprofits invest their money with flexibility, security, and confidence. INVEST uses Treasury's professional investment expertise, minus the high costs of other investment programs. With less money spent on management fees, more money is spent on Pennsylvania's communities.

Responsibilities
 Conducting investigations of loss, theft, or fraud involving commonwealth checks.
 Reviewing and approving real estate leases and sole source contracts entered into by commonwealth agencies before such leases and contracts can become effective.
 Housing the Pennsylvania Contracts e-Library. In response to the new Right-to-Know Law signed by Governor Ed Rendell on February 14, 2008, Treasury is required to make available certain government contract information for public inspection by posting it on a publicly accessible Web site.

State boards
The department's reach also extends to the many state boards on which the treasurer serves. For example, as the chairperson of the Board of Finance and Revenue, the treasurer directs the selection of the banks where state funds are deposited and sets the interest rates paid on them. The treasurer also serves on boards that oversee state pension funds and has a voice in how these funds are managed and invested. Other board-related activities allow the treasurer to help provide Pennsylvania schools with tax-exempt financing for modernization, make grants to distressed communities, and finance the purchase of rental housing for residents in need.

Other services
The Treasury provides several other services to state residents, such as financial education programs for individuals and businesses, and a debit card for recipients of unemployment compensation and workers compensation benefits. It makes low-interest loans available for energy efficiency improvements in residential homes through Keystone HELP, and invests in energy upgrades in college and university buildings through its Campus Energy Efficiency Fund.

List of Pennsylvania Treasurers

References

External links

 The Pennsylvania Treasury Department

Treasurer


Quarterly Journal may refer to:
 AIPLA Quarterly Journal
 Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics
 Quarterly Journal of Economics
 Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology & Hydrogeology
 Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology
 Quarterly Journal of Mathematics
 Quarterly Journal of Medicine
 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science
 The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics
 Quarterly Journal of Science
 Quarterly Journal of Speech
 Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol
 Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society
 Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London
 Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
 Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
The Quarterly Journal, published by Personal Freedom Outreach, Christian organisation


Santalum murrayanum, commonly known as the bitter quandong, is an Australian plant in the sandalwood family, Santalaceae. The Noongar name for the plant is coolyar.

It bears a bitter fruit, from which a common name derives, in contrast to congener Santalum acuminatum - sweet quandong.
The plant is also known as Ming.
It occurs in a hemi-parasitic relationship with the roots of several other plants, in a non-destructive way, as with all the species of the genus Santalum.

The shrub or small tree typically grows to a height of . It blooms between October and January producing white to yellow-green flowers. It is found on sandplains and dunes and has a scattered distribution through the Wheatbelt, Great Southern and Goldfields-Esperance regions of Western Australia where it grows in sandy or gravelly lateritic soils.

References

Bushfood
Australian Aboriginal bushcraft
murrayanum
Eudicots of Western Australia
Flora of South Australia
Flora of New South Wales
Flora of Victoria (state)


Hovie Franklin Lister (September 17, 1926 – December 28, 2001) was an American gospel musician, Baptist Minister, and politician. Lister was best known for his time as the front man of the Statesmen Quartet, perhaps the most well known and renowned Southern Gospel quartet in the decades of the 1950s and 1960s, as well as one of the most respected groups of all time.

Biography
Lister was born in Greenville, South Carolina, and learned piano from the age of six. He accompanied a singing group composed of his father and three of his uncles (The Lister Brothers Quartet) at 14, and toured with Mordecai Ham at the same age. He attended the Stamps-Baxter School of Music in Dallas.

Following his education, Lister served as an accompanist for The Lefevres, The Homeland Harmony, and The Rangers Quartet in the 1940s. In 1948, he formed The Statesmen Quartet, and remained the group's anchor for decades. Lister's style, which differed from his predecessor's styles in its incorporation of jazz, soul and ragtime idioms over the staid, solemn accompaniment of prior generations, influenced the sound of gospel and CCM in the later 20th century. From 1981 to 1988 Lister was part of the Masters V, in 1989, he joined the Palmetto State quartet. Lister remained a member of The Statesmen Quartet into the 2000s.

Aside from performing, Lister also had interests in music publishing and promotion. Lister was inducted into the Southern Gospel Hall of Fame in 1997.

References

External links

1926 births
2001 deaths
Gospel music pianists
Southern gospel performers
Politicians from Greenville, South Carolina
Musicians from Greenville, South Carolina
American music publishers (people)
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
20th-century American male musicians


Determination is a positive emotional feeling that promotes persevering towards a difficult goal in spite of obstacles. Determination occurs prior to goal attainment and serves to motivate behavior that will help achieve one's goal.

Empirical research suggests that people consider determination to be an emotion; in other words, determination is not just a cognitive state, but an affective state. In the psychology literature, researchers study determination under other terms, including challenge and anticipatory enthusiasm; this may explain one reason for the relative lack of research on determination compared to other positive emotions.

In the field of psychology, emotion research focuses on negative emotions and the behaviors they prompt. However, positive psychology delves into determination as a positive emotion driving people toward action, leading to significant results like persistence and success.

Etymology
The word determination comes from the Latin word , meaning "limit" or "determination, end result". It is derived from the verb , meaning "confine; designate," with the abstract noun suffix -. The meaning shifted from "end result, decision" to its present meaning.

Major theories

Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a theory of motivation and dedication towards an ambition. It focuses on the interplay between personalities and experiences in social contexts that results in motivations of both autonomous and controlled types. An example of autonomous motivation would be doing something because of intrinsic motivation, or because there is an internal desire to accomplish something. An example of controlled motivation would be doing something because there is outside pressure to accomplish a goal.

Social environments seem to have a profound effect on both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and self-regulation. Self-determination theory proposes that social and cultural factors influence a person's sense of volition and initiative in regards to goals, performance, and well-being. High levels of determination and volition are supported by conditions that foster autonomy (e.g., a person has multiple options), competence (e.g., positive feedback) and relatedness (e.g., stable connection to the group a person is working within).

Bio-psychosocial model
Emotions researchers search for physiological patterns associated with particular positive emotions. However, the blending of emotions makes drawing such distinctions difficult. In relation to challenge and determination, psychologists focus on physiological activation in relation to the individual's intended actions (what he/she is determined to do) rather than how the individual subjectively feels.

Researchers associate effort (action tendency) with challenge and determination. So a challenged/determined individual should experience physiological arousal that reflects effort. By focusing on the sympathetic nervous system, researchers can measure systolic blood pressure (SBP) as a proxy for increased effort. People who are introduced to a challenging task experience an increase in SBP when they become determined to complete that task. This is coupled with lowered total peripheral resistance (while the heart is pumping faster, the vasculature is relaxed). This demonstrates an important difference between the physiological reaction of a person motivated by challenge and one motivated by threat or fear.

There seems to be a specific physiological pattern associated with determination. The identification of this pattern is valuable as it can be used in research aimed at eliciting and studying the antecedents and consequences of this common positive emotion.

Appraisal theory
Appraisal theory posits that determination is evoked by three cognitive motivation-appraisal components—evaluations of how the environment and situational circumstances interact with aspects of the individual to create meaning and influence emotional experience:

motivational relevancewhether a situation is relevant to a person's commitments and goals
motivational incongruencewhether a situation is incongruent with a person's commitments and goals
high problem-focused coping potentialwhether a situation is one that a person can deal with by using active coping strategies such as planning and problem-solving
These appraisal components combine to evoke experiences of determination that then motivate one to persevere and strive towards mastery. Appraisal theory proposes that determination is associated with effortful optimism, referring to the belief that a situation can be improved upon with enough effort from the person.

Empirical findings

Emotional experience
Research showed that electrical brain stimulation to the anterior midcingulate cortex elicits a response that mirrors the emotional experience of determination. In this study of two epileptic seizure patients, they reported feeling determined to overcome an approaching challenge; this emotion was reported to feel pleasant. Following electrical stimulation, participants exhibited elevated cardiovascular activity and reported a warm feeling in their upper chest and neck. This work supports the idea that determination is a positive emotion that prepares an individual to overcome obstacles.

Another study compared determination and pride to see how these two positive emotions differentially influenced perseverance in the context of a mathematical problem-solving task. Using a directed imagery task in which participants listened to and imagined a particular scenario, each emotion was differentially induced in participants. The results suggested that determination enhanced task engagement and perseverance, with participants in the determination group spending significantly more time on the most difficult problem in the task. In contrast, pride decreased task engagement and perseverance relative to a neutral condition, with participants in the pride group spending significantly less time on the most difficult problem in the task. This research further supports the notion that determination motivates perseverance, perhaps more so than other positive emotions that have been theorized to be associated with perseverance.

Emotional expression
Experiences of determination are linked to a recognizable facial expression that involves frowning of the eyebrows, an expression that is perceptually similar to anger. This eyebrow frown is associated with the perception of goal obstacles, supporting the notion that determination is associated with the action tendency of preparing to overcome difficult obstacles in goal pursuit.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Internal motivation is an internal drive, curiosity, or desire to learn that is within human beings. It drives people to learn new things or to put things into action. Intrinsic motivation is often evident when people desire to try new things or find ways to overcome challenges. Intrinsic motivation is often what drives a person to start something, but extrinsic motivation is often what helps people to accomplish their goals. Extrinsic motivation is the external drive that motivates action. It can include things like going to work daily to pay one's bills, or obeying the law to stay out of trouble. This type of motivation is not driven by one's own desires but instead by outside sources.

Applications

Classroom, workplace, and family environment

Determination is believed to be shaped by the emotion of challenge and societal expectations. Environments like education, work, and family that promote encouragement play a role in fostering determination. When individuals have access to resources and supportive peers who believe in their capabilities, they tend to experience heightened determination, leading to improved performance and well-being.

Research shows that students enrolled in learning environments in which teachers incorporate strategies meant to meet students' motivational needs (e.g., encouragement aimed at intrinsic rewards, using student-directed forms of discipline) are more likely to become responsible learners who display a determination to succeed.

William Zinsser studied the pressures faced by college students at Yale, such as the need to develop time management and study skills appropriate for college and university work, the desire for good grades, the desire to meet parents' expectations, and the need to find employment in a competitive job market after graduation.

Health and well-being
Studies have linked challenge and determination to increases in physical health and mental well-being. Some specific positive outcomes include illness resistance, increased survival rates, and decreased levels of depression. A person experiences positive personal growth when that person can to proactively cope with a difficult situation. In such a case, a person can acknowledge a demanding situation, take action, and maintain high coping potential. They can acknowledge the benefits of a difficult experience and display a willingness to put forth an effort and achieve specific personal goals.

Interpersonal relationships
In interpersonal interactions, adopting challenge appraisals is crucial for effectively managing conflicts. For example, young children facing bullying often seek support and report the incidents. When a bullied child employs a challenge appraisal, they view bullying as a chance to rely on others and find positive solutions. This approach maintains their autonomy, as they act independently to involve others. Challenge and determination facilitate goal achievement and  increased confidence and decreased evaluation apprehension. Therefore, determined individuals who use challenge appraisals feel capable of handling tough situations while being open to seeking assistance when necessary.

See also

References

Leadership
Personality
Positive psychology
Virtue


Faru may refer to:

 Farukolhufushi or Faru, atoll in the Maldive
 Faru (monk), prominent Buddhist monk during the Tang Dynasty in China.


Robert Daniel Ghindeanu (born 23 September 1980 in Țuglui, Dolj) is a Romanian former professional footballer who played as a right-back.

External links

1980 births
Living people
Romanian men's footballers
Men's association football fullbacks
Liga I players
FC Progresul București players
CS Mioveni players
CS Pandurii Târgu Jiu players
CS Otopeni players
Footballers from Dolj County


A test match in rugby union is an international match, usually played between two senior national teams, that is recognised as such by at least one of the teams' national governing bodies.

Some teams do not represent a single country but their international games are still considered test matches (for example the British and Irish Lions). Likewise some countries award caps for games between their full national teams and some invitation teams such as the Barbarians.

History
The first men's international game of rugby football – between Scotland and England – was played at Raeburn Place, Edinburgh, the home ground of Edinburgh Academicals, on 27 March 1871. (This was six years before the first cricket test match, one year before the first association football international and 24 years before the first field hockey international.)

The first recorded use of the word in relation to sport occurs in 1861 when it was used, especially by journalists, to designate the most important (but at that stage non-international) games played as part of a cricket tour by an unofficial English team to Australia and it is thought to arise from the idea that the matches were a "test of strength and competency" between the sides involved. When official and fully representative Australian and English cricket and rugby teams began touring each other's countries a decade or so later the term gradually began to be applied by journalists exclusively to the international fixtures on each tour, though this was not widespread until well into the 1880s.

Recognising official test status
Unlike in cricket, where the ICC tightly controls the application of "test match" status, World Rugby's regulations do not define a "test match". They define an "international match" as "a Match played between National Representative Teams selected by Unions". In rugby union, test match status and caps may be awarded by either team's governing body regardless of the decision of their opponents.

Although both teams' governing bodies do not need to recognise the match as a test match for caps to be awarded, it is rare that they should disagree. The only existing example remaining in men's rugby involving two top-tier nations concerns games played by the New South Wales Waratahs against the New Zealand All Blacks in the 1920s. As there was very little rugby union played in Australia outside of New South Wales, the Australian Rugby Union retroactively awarded caps to the players from the 1920s Waratahs that played against the All Blacks, however the New Zealand Rugby Union has not done the same for All Blacks that played in those matches.

Differences in recognition now almost always involve matches between the senior national team of a nation outside the traditional top tier and an official developmental side of a top-tier nation. Depending on the policy of the lower-tier union, these matches may or may not be fully capped for that national team. For example, before a change in policy by USA Rugby after the 2008 Churchill Cup, it awarded full national caps when its senior national team played developmental sides, such as England Saxons, Ireland Wolfhounds, Scotland A, Argentina A and the Junior All Blacks.

However, in women's rugby matters are less clear. The first women's "test" took place in 1982 between the Netherlands and France, but the sport was not widely accepted or recognised by many existing national Unions or the International Rugby Board for many years, nor had it attracted significant media interest. Some unions do not officially recognise any tests played before they became responsible for the women's game – for example the French Union (FFR) does not list any games before 1989, and the IRB did not (until recently) recognise the first two women's World Cups.

See also
 History of rugby union: First international game
 List of rugby union terms
 Women's international rugby union
 List of rugby union test matches

Notes

Rugby union terminology
rugby union


Compression garments are pieces of clothing that fit tightly around the skin. In medical contexts, compression garments provide support for people who have to stand for long periods or have poor circulation. These come in varying degrees of compression, and higher degree compression sleeves, such as sleeves that provide compression of 20–30 mmHg or higher, typically require a doctor's prescription. Compression garments worn on the legs can help prevent deep vein thrombosis and reduce swelling, especially while traveling.

Compression can also be used for post surgeries, to help with the healing process. Garment usage varies per patient but can be worn up to a year. There is also second stage compression garments, that are every day wear.

In sports, form-fitting compression sportswear, usually made of spandex, is commonly worn by athletes and in exercise to prevent chafing and rashes.

Maternity wear
A bellyband, wrap, or abdominal binder is a compression garment which resembles a tubetop but worn over the abdomen of expectant mothers. Bellybands are also commonly worn post-childbirth to help provide abdominal and back support thereby making it easier to perform day to day tasks, and to help mothers with their posture.

Compression stockings and socks

Compression stockings and socks is hosiery specifically designed to help prevent the occurrence of various medical disorders relating to blood circulation in the legs. They can also be used to halt the progression of these disorders.

Compression gloves
Compression gloves are handwear designed to help prevent the occurrence of various medical disorders relating to blood circulation in the wrists and hands. They can be used to treat the symptoms of arthritis, though the medical benefits may be limited.

Sportswear

Compression sportswear (shirts, shorts, sleeves, socks or underwear) is usually worn by athletes who wish to enhance performance or recovery speed. Garments are form-fitting garments often made from a spandex-type material.

Depending on the material used and the requirements of the sport, compression garments can be designed to keep athletes cool or warm. For example, speedskaters can wear compression bodysuits on the cold rink, while beach volleyball players can wear a similar-looking suit made of a more breathable, lightweight blend. Both use moisture wicking materials like nylon and spandex in order to keep the garment lightweight.  Additionally, speed skaters can use the aerodynamic nature of wearing a skintight suit to their advantage, while a beach volleyball player has the added benefit of SPF 50+ garments to keep them protected during sunny days. The athletes pictured show some alleged benefits that make compression garments popular in a wide range of sports and different designs.

Performance
Although there are strong claims that compression garments could improve sports performance, methodological approaches and the direction of evidence regarding garments for use in high-intensity exercise settings are diverse and in certain scenarios do not show clear positive evidence.

The conclusion of this 2018 meta-analysis showed that lower-limb compression garments were not associated with improved running performance, vertical jump, VO2max, VO2submax, lactate concentration, or rating of perceived exertion during high-intensity exercise.

Shorts and tights

Compression shorts and tights are usually worn by athletes. They are form-fitting garments and cover the wearer's waist to mid or lower thigh, similar to cycling shorts. They are referred to as spats in Japan and safety shorts in South Korea.

Many are available with a cup pocket, a sewn-in pocket that can hold a protective cup.  It is arguable that compression shorts do not keep cups in the proper position, tight to the body and not moving, as a jockstrap can.  Some male players wear the compression shorts over the traditional jockstrap.

Compression shorts are also popular among female athletes, especially amongst those who wear skirts or kilts during games. In those situations, athletes wear compression shorts under the skirt so if they fall over and their skirts ride up, their underwear will not be exposed. This is seen particularly in women's lacrosse and field hockey (both being limited contact sports in which players often wear skirts). Women also wear compression shorts in tennis, where, most recently, compression shorts have been produced with ball pockets for convenience.

See also
Rugby shorts
Skin-tight garment
Sports clothing
Military anti-shock trousers

References

1990s fashion
21st-century fashion
Hosiery
Medical equipment
Protective gear
Rugby league equipment
Rugby union equipment
Sportswear
Trousers and shorts
Undergarments


Delphyne Peretto (born February 9, 1982 in Albertville, Savoie) is a former French biathlete. She was on the bronze-winning relay team in the 2006 Winter Olympics.

Peretto retired at the end of the 2007-08 season.

External links

1982 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Albertville
Biathletes at the 2006 Winter Olympics
Olympic biathletes for France
French female biathletes
Olympic bronze medalists for France
Olympic medalists in biathlon
Biathlon World Championships medalists
Medalists at the 2006 Winter Olympics
21st-century French women


Testolactone (, ) (brand name Teslac) is a non-selective, irreversible, steroidal aromatase inhibitor which is used as an antineoplastic drug to treat advanced-stage breast cancer.
The drug was discontinued in 2008 and is no longer available for medical use.

Medical uses
Testolactone is mainly used for treating various types of breast cancer in women who have been through menopause or whose ovaries no longer function. It works by blocking the production of estrogens, which helps prevent the growth of breast cancers that are stimulated by estrogens. It may also prevent tumor cells from being activated by other hormones. Testolactone has also been used to postpone precocious puberty because of its ability to block estrogen production. In addition, it has been used in the treatment of gynecomastia.

Testolactone is used to treat breast cancer at a dosage of 250 mg four times per day by mouth or 100 mg three times per week by intramuscular injection.

Available forms
Testolactone has been provided in the form of 50 mg and 250 mg oral tablets.

Side effects
The most common side effects include:

 Abnormal skin sensations
 Aches of the legs and arms
 General body discomfort
 Hair loss
 Loss of appetite
 Nausea
 Redness of the tongue

 Vomiting

Rare but serious side effects include:

 Allergic reactions
 New breast lumps
 Bone pain
 Menstrual changes, abnormal vaginal bleeding, abnormal vaginal discharge, pelvic pain or pressure
 Excessive nausea, vomiting, or thirst
 Glossitis
 Edema
 Paresthesia
 Erythema
 Alopecia

Pharmacology
The principal action of testolactone is reported to be inhibition of aromatase activity and the reduction in estrogen synthesis that follows. Androstenedione, a 19-carbon steroid hormone produced in the adrenal glands and the gonads, is where estrone synthesis originates and is the source of estrogen in postmenopausal women. In vitro studies report that the aromatase inhibition may be noncompetitive and irreversible, and could possibly account for the persistence of this drug's effect on estrogen synthesis after drug withdrawal. Testolactone at a dosage of 1,000 mg/day has been found to decrease estradiol levels in men by 25 to 50% after 6 to 10 days of use. This reduction is substantially less than with second- and third-generation aromatase inhibitors.

In addition to its activity as an aromatase inhibitor, testolactone also reportedly possesses some anabolic activity and weak androgenic activity via binding to and activation of the androgen receptor (AR). However, its affinity for the AR is very low; in one study, it showed 0.0029% of the affinity of the anabolic steroid metribolone (100%) for the human AR (Ki = 41 μM and 1.18 nM, respectively). In accordance, androgenic side effects such as hirsutism, acne, and voice changes have been reported in no women in clinical trials with testolactone.

Chemistry
Testolactone, also known as 13-hydroxy-3-oxo-13,17-secoandrosta-1,4-dien-17-oic acid δ-lactone, is a synthetic 18-oxasteroid and a D-homo-18-oxo analogue of androstenedione (androst-4-en-3,17-dione), with a six-membered lactone ring in place of the five-membered carbocyclic D-ring.

History
Testolactone was first approved for medical use in the United States in 1970.

References

Withdrawn drugs
Androgens and anabolic steroids
Androstanes
Aromatase inhibitors
Enones
Hormonal antineoplastic drugs
Delta-lactones


Robin L. Wiessmann is an American attorney and government official serving as the executive director and CEO of the Pennsylvania Housing Finance Agency. Wiessmann previously served as secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Banking and Securities from 2015 to 2020 and treasurer of Pennsylvania from 2007 to 2009.

Education

Wiessmann earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in government and law from Lafayette College in 1975 and a Juris Doctor from Rutgers Law School in 1978.

Career
Wiessmann is a public finance professional and has helped fund infrastructure, schools, and hospitals throughout her career. Prior to her term as Treasurer of Pennsylvania, served as a deputy director of finance for the city of Philadelphia, where she helped manage the city's debt offerings. She also served as a vice president of public finance at Goldman Sachs.

From 1990 through 1999, Wiessmann was a founding principal and president of Artemis Capital Group. The firm specialized in public finance and was ranked within the top ten municipal underwriters by the end of the decade. Later, she served as a director of public finance for Merrill Lynch, the International City Managers Retirement Corporation (ICMA), and Vantagepoint Funds.

Women Creating Change awarded Wiessmann the Civic Spirit Award in 1996. The National Women Executives in State Government Association awarded her the "Breaking the Glass Ceiling Award" in 1999. In January 2014 the organization Women in Public Finance honored Ms. Wiessmann for her service to the financial industry, and helping represent women in the industry.

Wiessmann endorsed Tom Wolf in the 2014 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election. Following Wolf's election as governor, she was nominated to serve as secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Banking. Her nomination was confirmed by the Pennsylvania State Senate on June 2, 2015.

On February 10, 2020, Wiessmann was named executive director and CEO of the Pennsylvania Housing Finance Agency. In April 2022, Wiessmann was nominated by President Joe Biden to serve as a member of the board of directors of Amtrak.

Personal life
Wiessmann and her husband live in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with their two children.

See also
 Pennsylvania Treasurer

References

External links

Biography and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart

Living people
Goldman Sachs people
Lafayette College alumni
Rutgers School of Law–Camden alumni
State treasurers of Pennsylvania
State cabinet secretaries of Pennsylvania
American women in business
Women in Pennsylvania politics
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women


The bowling at the 1985 SEA Games was held at the Star Bowl in Bangkok, Thailand between December 10 to December 15.

Medals by event

References
BASOC (1985) 13th SEA Games Official Report, Thailand

1985 SEA Games events
1985 Southeast Asian Games
1985 in bowling


Dauí Tenga Uma (died 500) was a King of Connacht from the Uí Briúin branch of the Connachta.

Biography

Dauí Tenga Uma ("Copper-Tongue"—for the beauty of his speech) is listed in the genealogies as a great-great-great grandson of Brión, the eponymous founder of his dynasty.  He is specifically stated to be the ancestor of the Uí Briúin Seóla branch. (His brothers Echu Tirmcharna and Feargna were the progenitors of the Uí Briúin Aí and Uí Briúin Bréifne branches respectively.)  Francis Byrne believes him to be a duplicate of his supposed great-great grandfather, Dauí Galach, that the early Uí Briúin genealogies are fabrications and that these two were the same person. Dauí succeeded Ailill Molt of the Ui Fiachrach (died 484) as king.

Keating mentions two marital relations of his family:
his daughter Duinseach ingen Duach married the high-king Muirchertach mac Ercae (died 532) of the Cenel nEogain and was mother of  his sons Domnall and Fergus;
his granddaughter Mugain ingen Cú Charainn was married to the high-king Diarmait mac Cerbaill (died 563) of the southern Ui Neill and mother of the high-king Áed Sláine (died 602).

In 500 Daui was defeated and slain at the Battle of Segsa (Seghais or Boyle River) by his own son-in-law Muirchertach mac Ercae. The annals record that the war was caused by his daughter Duinseach.

Notes

See also
Kings of Connacht

References

 Annals of Tigernach
 Annals of the Four Masters
 G.Keating, History of Ireland
 Francis J.Byrne, Irish Kings and High-Kings
 The Chronology of the Irish Annals, Daniel P. McCarthy

External links
CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

Kings of Connacht
500 deaths
Nobility from County Roscommon
5th-century Irish monarchs
Year of birth unknown


Team Tejas is a fictional superhero team created by Richard Dominguez and published by Azteca Productions. The group made its first appearance in Team Tejas #1, published in 1997.  The comic follows the story of three super-powered mutants and their government appointed leader in their fight against crime and superpowered terrorists. All members of the group receive government checks for their efforts, making their vigilante activities legal.

Characters

Lonestarr
Government appointed leader of Team Tejas. Lonestarr's true identity is that of Jonathan Gonzales, assistant mayor of Dallas, Texas and son of Senator Enrique Gonzales. Lonestarr has no superpowers, as all appointed leaders are intended to be normal humans, but wears a suit designed by Gonzales Industries granting him the ability to form a manipulative energy field and the ability to fly. Jonathan takes pride in the success of Team Tejas, but the government's ties to the group as well as the burden of leadership is slowly wearing on him.

Fictional character history
Jonathan Gonzales is the son of Senator Enrique Gonzales and assistant-mayor of Dallas, Texas making him the perfect candidate for the Hero Agency's newly formed superhero group of South Texas. Jonathan, being supplied a suit from Gonzales Industries, must lead four meta-humans in the fight against crime and rogue mutant terrorists. Despite taking pride in the efforts of the team, the burden of leadership is slowly beginning to wear on him.

Skills, abilities, and gadgets
Since all government-appointed leaders of superhero teams are normal humans, Lonestarr has no special powers of his own. He instead relies on his accumulative knowledge and access to advanced technology to accomplish his goals.

Costume
Lonestarr's suit was designed and constructed by Gonzales Industries specifically for his use. The suit gives him the ability to form a manipulative energy field which he can use to form barriers or fire concussive blasts. The suit grants him the power of flight as well.

Reata
Vanessa Castillo was born with the ability to teleport herself anywhere within a five-hundred-mile radius, along with people or objects weighing up to one ton. Vanessa and her brother Abel were tested at early ages for the "Hero Gene". Testing positive, both were promptly abducted by the INS and place in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years, both were allowed to reintegrate in to normal society, and were made members of Team Tejas. Donning the name of Reata, Vanessa proves herself to be a vital member of the team, but will often place herself in danger without considering the consequences.

Fictional character history
Discovered to have the "Hero gene" at the young age of six, Vanessa was abducted by the Hero Agency, an active branch of the government, and placed in to the Hero Program. After thirteen years of training by the Agency, Vanessa and her brother were allowed to return to regular society, on the condition that they both become members of Team Tejas. Both brother and sister accept their roles in the group, with Vanessa becoming a successful fashion designer. Vanessa proves herself a vital member of the group but often places herself in dangerous situations.

Calibre

Calibre's powers include super-strength and the ability to grow twenty feet tall, increasing his strength as he does so. Calibre is in fact Abel Castillo, a college student at Dallas University and defensive end for the football team. He, along with his older sister Vanessa, were taken in to the Hero Program at a young age to be released a few years later to fight crime with Team Tejas. Abel is characterized as a gentle giant, never quick to anger, but able to release a fury that only his sister can calm.

Fictional character history
Discovered at a young age to have the "Hero Gene" both Abel and his sister Vanessa were forcefully removed from their household and placed in the United States Government Hero Agency. After thirteen years of extensive training in the Hero Program, both brother and sister were allowed to return to regular society and stationed with Team Tejas. Donning the name Calibre, Abel and his team-mates are the first line of defense against terrorist meta-human attacks. Outside of his Team Tejas, Abel currently attends Dallas University and is a promising defensive end for the football team.

Plainsman
Daniel Brightfeather joined the Hero Program when he was eight years old, being forced from his reservation by the government. Although he surpassed the program's expectations, Daniel never forgot what they had done to him, and has a deep hatred for the government. Adopting the alternate identity of the Plainsman, Daniel is stationed with Team Tejas. The Plainsman has the unique ability to control "magical" artifacts or weapons of great power, one including the Tomahawk Crow which can turn in to a fireball when thrown and return to the Plainsman. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced in to the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect Lonestarr, and take special care to monitor both heroes.

Character history
Daniel Brightfeather was found to have the ability to control and manipulate reputed magical objects at the early age of eight. The INS quickly abducted the young boy and placed him in the Hero Program. Despite consistently surpassing the Agency's own expectations, Daniel has a deep hatred for the government. Despite his dislike of the government, Daniel has a deep respect for his teammates, seeing them as forced into the group as he himself was. The Hero Agency is worried that The Plainsman's outspoken views may affect the team's leader Lonestarr, and take special care to monitor both heroes.

Trinity
Born Zhang Xianhua, Trinity is an immigrant from China who was "traded" to the United States Hero Agency, and sent to live with a trainer in Ouray, Colorado until she was of appropriate age to enter the Hero Program. Trinity has the power to create up to three clones of herself, each stronger and faster than herself, and can act independently for up to fifty-miles from Zhang. Her unique ability does come with side effects, as each clone has a part of her personality multiplied by one hundred percent. Zhang attends college with Abel but has no ambitions of her own. Often moody and defiant, Trinity has become hard to control and harder to predict. Despite being an annoyance to Lonestarr, Plainsman often acts as her mentor and father-figure.

Fictional character history
Zhang was discovered by the Chinese government to have the reputed "Hero Gene" at an early age and was quickly apprehended to be "traded" in to the United States Hero Agency for some undisclosed item. Due to her young age, the girl was placed in the care of a "trainer" in Ouray, Colorado, until appropriate testing could begin. Despite failing to pass any of the Hero Program's rigorous testings, Zhang is currently stationed with Team Tejas and is a college student attending Dallas University. A rather defiant character, Trinity easily annoys her teammates, except for Plainsman who acts as her mentor.

Powers and abilities
Trinity has superhuman strength and the ability to self-duplicate up to three clones. Each clone has double her original strength and are able to act independently from up to fifty-miles away from each other. Her unique ability is not without its side-effects, as each clone retains a certain part of her personality multiplied by 100%.

References

External links
Official MySpace
Official Site of Richard Dominguez
Azteca Productions' Comicspace page

Azteca Productions comic book titles


James Hazen Hyde (June 6, 1876 — July 26, 1959) was the son of Henry Baldwin Hyde, the founder of The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States. James Hazen Hyde was twenty-three in 1899 when he inherited the majority shares in the billion-dollar Equitable Life Assurance Society. Five years later, at the pinnacle of social and financial success, efforts to remove him from The Equitable set in motion the first great Wall Street scandal of the 20th century, which resulted in his resignation from The Equitable and relocation to France.

Early life
James Hazen Hyde was born in New York City on June 6, 1876. He was the only surviving son of Henry Baldwin Hyde and Annie (née Fitch) Hyde. His older sister was Mary who was married to Sidney Dillon Ripley in 1886. After Ripley's death in 1905, she married banker Charles R. Scott in 1912.

He graduated from the Cutler School, and received his degree from Harvard University in 1898.  Hyde studied French history, language and literature, and was involved in efforts to establish an exchange program that enabled French authors and educators to lecture at universities in the United States, with American professors reciprocating at universities in France.  Hyde's efforts included the endowment of a fund to defray professor's expenses, and he received the Legion of Honor (Chevalier) from the government of France.

Career
Hyde was appointed a vice president of The Equitable after graduating from college.  In addition, he served on the boards of directors of more than 40 other companies, including the Wabash Railroad and Western Union.

Besides his business activities, Hyde pursued several other hobbies and pastimes.  His homes included a large estate on Long Island, where Hyde maintained horses, stables, roads, and trails to engage in coach racing.  In addition to coach racing, he also took part in horse shows and horse racing.  Hyde accumulated a collection of coaches and carriages, which he later donated to the Shelburne Museum.

Removal from The Equitable

Following his father's death, Hyde was the majority shareholder and in effective control of The Equitable.  By the terms of his father's will, he was scheduled to assume the presidency of the company in 1906.  Members of the board of directors, including E. H. Harriman, Henry Clay Frick, J.P. Morgan, and company President James Waddell Alexander attempted to wrest control from Hyde through a variety of means, including an unsuccessful attempt to have him appointed as Ambassador to France.

On the last night of January 1905, Hyde hosted a highly publicized Versailles-themed costume ball. Falsely accused through a coordinated smear campaign initiated by his opponents at The Equitable of charging the $200,000 party ($ today) to the company, Hyde soon found himself drawn into a maelstrom of allegations of his corporate malfeasance.  The allegations almost caused a Wall Street panic, and eventually led to a state investigation of New York's entire insurance industry, which resulted in laws to regulate activities between insurance companies, banks and other corporations.

Hyde's personal net worth in 1905 was about $20 million (($ today).  After the negative press generated by the efforts to remove him from The Equitable, Hyde resigned from the company later that same year, gave up most of his other business activities, and moved to France. There were published rumors that he would marry French actress Yvonne Garrick in 1906.

World War I
At the start of World War I, Hyde converted his home and a Paris rental property into French Red Cross hospitals, and he volunteered his services as an organizer and driver with the American Field Ambulance Service. When the United States entered the war Hyde was commissioned as a Captain and assigned as an aide to Grayson Murphy, the High Commissioner of the American Red Cross in France.

During and after the war Hyde also directed the Harvard and New England bureau of the University Union in Paris. Through this organization's auspices Hyde set up a series of annual lectures for American professors visiting French universities. He also helped win public support for aiding France by publishing several of his own lectures and monographs.

Later life

In 1941 Hyde returned from France as the result of Nazi Germany's occupation of France during World War II.  In retirement he resided at the Savoy-Plaza Hotel in New York City and hotels in Saratoga Springs, New York.

Personal life
In Paris on November 25, 1913, Hyde married Marthe (née Leishman) de Gontaut-Biron (1882–1944). The Countess de Gontaut-Biron, the widow of Count Louis de Gontaut-Biron, was a daughter of Ambassador John George Alexander Leishman and Julia (née Crawford) Leishman. Before their divorce in 1918, which was reportedly over her strong personal attachment to Germany and not the result of the involvement of another man or woman, they were the parents of:

 Henry Baldwin Hyde II (1915–1997), who married Marie de La Grange, a daughter of Baron Amaury De La Grange and Emily Eleanor, Baroness De La Grange (daughter of Henry T. Sloane), in 1941. Marie's brother was musicologist Henry-Louis de La Grange, known for his biography of Gustav Mahler.

His ex-wife died in 1944. Hyde died in Saratoga Springs on July 26, 1959.  He was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx.

Legacy and honors
Hyde was a collector of books and documents relating to Franco-American relations beginning in 1776.  He was a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, the American Antiquarian Society, and the New-York Historical Society. He formed a collection of allegorical prints illustrating the Four Continents that are now at the New-York Historical Society; Hyde's drawings and a supporting collection of sets of porcelain figures and other decorative arts illustrating the Four Continents were shared by various New York City museums.

For his efforts during the war, Hyde received the Grand-Croix de la Legion d'honneur. He was granted an honorary degree by the University of Rennes in 1920.

References

External links

The James H. Hyde Collection of Allegorical Prints of the Four Continents at the New-York Historical Society
James Hazen Hyde papers at New-York Historical Society

1876 births
1959 deaths
Harvard University alumni
American expatriates in France
American Field Service personnel of World War I
Knights of the Legion of Honour
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)


The 20/25TP (; "20-tonne Polish/25-tonne Polish") was a Polish medium tank concept that was never built. There were three projects designed by KSUS and BBTBr.Panc. and PZInż which even managed to build a wooden model of it. The name 20/25TP is not official; it was created by the author Janusz Magnuski analogously to nomenclature used for other Polish tanks of that period. According to different classification it could be medium tank or heavy tank.

Design

KSUS project was in two variants, assuming the usage of 75 mm anti-aircraft gun and 35 mm armor. As well as the main turret, there were two turrets at the front of the vehicle equipped with heavy machine guns. There was another heavy machine gun in the main turret. Weight of the tank was 22 tonnes. The drive consisted of two petrol engines of 300 hp each. The ability to cross the ditches reached 2.5 meters, wading depth reached up to 1.2 m. The tank would have a length of 7.3 m, width 2.6 m, height 2.8 m Assumed speed of travel on the road was . The crew was six people.

The tank designed by BBTBr.Panc. was armed with a 75 mm Bofors gun coupled to a 40 mm Bofors L/60 cannon. The remainder of the armament was three heavy machine guns. It would have 50 mm armor with a total weight of 23 tons. The project had a 500 hp engine for a planned top speed of  with the crew of five people. As the only one turret.

PZInż project was equipped with a 75 mm anti-aircraft gun wz.22/24, one heavy machine gun and 60 mm armor. It was also the heaviest - the weight would be 25 tons.

See also

 Neubaufahrzeug, a similar German tank
 T-28, a similar Soviet tank
 Polish armaments 1939-1945

Bibliography
 Mała Encyklopedia Wojskowa, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, wyd. I, W-wa 1967, T. I, str. 152
 Nowa Technika Wojskowa 9/2006

World War II medium tanks
World War II armoured fighting vehicles of Poland
Tanks of Poland