The North Laclo River ( or , ) is the longest river in East Timor. It flows northeast into Wetar Strait, reaching the coast near the city of Manatuto. It has no connection to the South Laclo, which flows into the Timor Sea.

Etymology
The river takes its name from the town of , which is located on its left bank, about  from its mouth.

English language sources conventionally refer to the river as the North Laclo River, as there is also another Laclo River, usually referred to in English as the South Laclo River, which discharges into the Timor Sea on the south coast of East Timor.

The two rivers are not connected to each other; both rise in the uplands near Turiscai in Manufahi municipality, where a drainage divide causes them to flow northwards and southwards, respectively, in each case later augmented by several tributaries.

Course
The headwaters of the river are in the portion of East Timor's central mountains ranging from Aileu municipality southwest of Manatuto city to Manatuto municipality to the city's south. From the headwaters, the river and its tributaries flow for the most part in a northeasterly to northern direction through Aileu, Ainaro, Manufahi, and Manatuto municipalities, and eventually into Wetar Strait just to the west of Manatuto, between the Ponta de Subaio and Lanessana Bay.

At around  in length, the river is the longest in East Timor. It is also one of the country's few perennial rivers. Near Laclo, it was about  wide prior to 1960; it then became around  wide, and difficult to cross during floods. In the second half of the twentieth century, the river's lower reaches widened by about . Its tributary the Sumasse River (see below) similarly became wider.

About  upstream of the river's mouth is the Manatuto Bridge, a -long prestressed concrete girder structure that carries the Dili to Baucau highway over the river. The bridge was built in the late 2010s as part of a project to reconstruct the highway. It replaced an earlier bridge that had been funded by the Australian aid program, built by Indonesian public works engineers, and opened in 1984. The first bridge over the river, built in the 1960s, was washed away by floods, and its replacement collapsed a few years later. Between the opening of the 1984 bridge and 2005, the river bed at that location rose by about .

There is no delta at the river's mouth, presumably because the offshore slope is very steep (a near-constant grade over the  from the mouth of about 1 in 5 or 20%), with the consequence that sediment has not been deposited sufficiently to break even the nearshore surface. In that respect, the river differs from some of the other rivers on the north coast and most on the south coast (such as the Caraulun River, where the grade over the same distance from the mouth is only about 1 in 20 or 5%, and the river has formed a delta, even though the wave climate is much more energetic).

During the rainy season, the river runs freely through the mouth, and large flows create turbid plumes that head eastwards. During the dry season, a bar forms across the mouth, and the baseflow of the river is directed to a fast-flowing channel on the mouth's western side.

The river has eight tributaries, two of which have a major branch. Some of the tributaries are intermittent. In order of entrance, the tributaries are as follows:

 Monofunihun River (or Manufonihun River): rises in central Aileu municipality; flows initially southwest past the town of Aileu, then eastwards to merge with the Daisoli River (see below) at the border between Aileu and Ainaro municipalities north of Turiscai in Manufahi municipality, to form the Eralibanaubere River (see below).
 Manotahe River (major branch of Monofunihun River): rises in western Aileu municipality; divided into the Liurai, Kulalan, and Malubui Rivers; flows approximately  eastwards to enter the Monofunihun River south of the town of Aileu, and approximately  upstream of where the latter river merges with the Daisoli River (see below).
 Daisoli River: rises in southwestern Aileu municipality near the  AMSL peak of the North Laclo catchment; flows approximately  eastwards, mainly along the border between Aileu and Ainaro municipalities, to merge with the Monofunihun River (see above) and form the Eralibanaubere River (see below).
 Eralibanaubere River: flows from the confluence of the Monofunihun and Daisoli Rivers initially southeast, and then northeast to where it merges with the Noru River (see below) to form the North Laclo River; main tributaries are the Malikan, Haru, Aibeli, Karama, Hatoarabau and Orlaquiric Rivers.
 Malikan River (major branch of Eralibanaubere River): rises in Ainaro municipality; flows approximately  eastwards, mainly along the border between Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities, to enter the Eralibanaubere River near the tripoint between Aileu, Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities.
 Noru River: rises in central Aileu municipality near the suco of ; flows via two branches (Coimai and Hatomero, respectively) approximately  eastwards, mainly along the border between the Remexio and Lequidoe administrative posts, to merge with the Eralibanaubere River (see above) and form the North Laclo River about  upstream of its mouth.
 Lohun River: rises in eastern Aileu municipality near the suco of ; flows approximately  eastwards, to enter the North Laclo River about  upstream of its mouth.
 Lihubani River: rises in northern Aileu municipality near ; flows approximately  eastwards, to enter the North Laclo River about  upstream of its mouth.
 Ue Coi River: rises in central Manatuto municipality a short distance north of Laclubar; flows approximately  northwards, to enter the North Laclo River about  upstream of its mouth.
 Sumasse River (or Sumasi River): rises in central Manatuto municipality a short distance northeast of Laclubar; flows approximately  northwards, to enter the North Laclo River in the southwest periphery of Manatuto city, about  upstream of the latter river's mouth.

Catchment

The river's catchment or drainage basin is the second largest in East Timor after the Loes River catchment, and also one of the few with a perennial stream. It is about  in length, and extends over four municipalities, namely Aileu, Ainaro, Manufahi, and Manatuto. Excluding the portion downstream of the Laclo irrigation system's intake, its area is around  or , with the eight tributaries.

East Timor has been broadly divided into twelve 'hydrologic units', groupings of climatologically and physiographically similar and adjacent river catchments. The North Laclo River catchment is one of the two major catchments in the Laclo hydrologic unit, which is about  in total area; the other one is the Comoro River catchment.

The major population centres in the Northern Laclo River catchment, from southwest to northeast, are Aileu, Lequidoe, Remexio, Laclo and Manatuto.

The elevation of the catchment ranges from  AMSL at its southwestern edge to sea level at the river's mouth. Its topography is generally steep. About half the catchment is classified as being lands of between 15% and 40% slopes, and about one quarter has more than 40% slopes. There are small floodplains along the major rivers in the catchment; smaller river channels not flanked by floodplains are, in general, directly abutted by hillslopes.

Almost all of the catchment's rivers have braided gravel beds, the widest of which, reaching a maximum of  across, are on the North Laclo River.

In April 2005, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry appointed the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to develop a community-based integrated watershed management plan for the Laclo and Comoro River catchments. JICA provided its report to the Ministry in March 2010.

The catchment's original vegetation was probably moist deciduous forest and semi-evergreen rainforest at high altitude, dry deciduous forest over the lower hills and valley floors, and thorn forest at the coast. However, large numbers of commercially valuable trees were removed during the Portuguese colonial era, and there was significant deforestation during the subsequent Indonesian occupation, when parts of the catchment, especially around military camps, were burned by the military in efforts to curtail and restrict the activities of armed Timorese resistance groups. Deliberate burning by local people also increased.

Over the last few decades of the twentieth century, the already degraded forest in the catchment became increasingly more degraded, due mainly to illegal cutting, firewood collection, wild fires and cattle grazing. The deforestation, in turn, caused tributaries in the upper reaches of the catchment to become intermittent, and is believed by local people to have led to the drying up of springs in those uplands. The catchment was also disturbed by cultivation, shifting agriculture, construction of roads, villages and towns, and Indonesian transmigration and relocation policies.

By contrast, in the early years of the twenty first century there was a reduction in local practices of deliberately burning grassland. In some parts of the catchment, burning was still used to flush out game for hunting, but in other areas, it was banned, in compliance with local  rules.

A 2012 study concluded that erosion (denudation) of the catchment had become up to 20 times higher than over the last few thousand years. According to the report of the study, the most likely reason for the increased erosion was land use. In particular, the removal of vegetation from riverbanks (riparian zones) had caused widespread erosion, and its removal from hill slopes had promoted landslides. By increasing the river's sediment load, the greater catchment erosion had made the river shallower and wider, and thus increased the erosion of its riverbanks. The two forms of erosion, in turn, had combined to increase flooding in the river, and, by making its channels wider and braided, had caused its flows to become more erratic.

Another factor in the erosion of the catchment is that Timor is the deformed northern margin of the Australian continent, where Australia is colliding with the Banda Arc. Due to the collision, much of the catchment is undergoing rapid uplift, at several mm/annum, and as a result, the natural erosion rate of the catchment, involving downcutting by rivers and erosion of steep hillslopes, is very high. In such erosion systems, physical erosion processes (such as landslides, river downcutting, and sheet erosion) normally dominate over releases of fine sediment by erosion of weathered rocks.

Observations of the catchment at the beginning of this century found evidence of widespread sheet erosion, on both grazing land and land used for shifting agriculture. Deep gullies were common, especially in the uplands. There were shallow landslides, and a few deep landslides, but they were not as common as sometimes claimed. Riverbank erosion was also clearly evident. In 2010, landslides/slope failures in the catchment were reported to be concentrated in the upper part of Ue Coi, Sumasse, Eraibanaubere, Malikan and Lohun sub-catchments.

East Timor's catchments are all exposed to a monsoon type climate, with a clear distinction between just two seasons, rainy and dry. The southwestern edges of the upper North Laclo catchment have an annual precipitation of around , with a rainy season from October to April; the coastal part has a lower precipitation ( annually), and the river mouth has the shortest rainy season (3–5 months, from about November to about March).

Based on records from 1952 to 1974, the average monthly discharge of the river is , with the lowest being  in September, and the highest being  in March.

Geology
The catchment's parent materials are limestone in its southern portion, and phyllite in its upper reaches. The phyllites in the catchment (between the central mountains at an elevation of about  AMSL and the river mouth at sea level) are somewhat geologically fragile, and are easily eroded on being exposed to air after surface soil removal.

In and around Manatuto city near the mouth of the river, the land is underlain by Quaternary River Valley Alluvium (Qa), a shallow formation about  deep deposited by water from the river. The underlay has a variety of generally unconsolidated textures ranging from poorly sorted silts to cobbles.

Economy

Agriculture
Most residents of the catchment are members of smallholder farmer households following a mix of extensive swidden agriculture. Upland farming focuses mainly on rainy season production of maize, which, for most rural families, is the food staple. Other cultivated products include pumpkin, sweet potato, cassava, and beans, often produced by shifting cultivation, and limited tree crops of coconuts, papaya, bananas and mangoes. Most of these products are grown on a small scale, and all are mostly for local consumption.

There are also limited areas of irrigated rice cultivation adjacent to the main channels of the river, mostly in its lower reaches between Laclo and Manatuto. The Sumasse River is the main provider of the water supply to the Laclo irrigation system, on the south and northwestern periphery of Manatuto city. The system supports extensive paddy fields, of about  in area.

Established during the Portuguese colonial era in the 1960s, the system was maintained by the Indonesian government during its occupation of East Timor until the end of 1999. However, it was damaged by a serious flood in 1996, and, as of the resumption of East Timorese independence in 2002, was not fully functional. In December 2001, the Government of Japan decided to extend emergency assistance for a UNDP project to rehabilitate the system. The project was completed in 2003. Subsequently, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) implemented a technical cooperation scheme, the "Irrigation and Rice Cultivation Project in Manatuto", to improve the productivity of rice growing in the area.

According to a 2014 evaluation report of the scheme, frequent flooding during the rainy season had caused damage to the irrigation and related facilities, roads and paddy fields. A follow-up evaluation report, dated December 2019, noted that as of the completion of the scheme in November 2015, rice productivity had exceeded the target value, but that since then productivity had been decreasing, due in part to a problem with sediments in the irrigation facilities.

As the agricultural growing season is short, many farming households pursue a variety of supplementary income producing activities during the dry season. In the uplands, these include limited production of dry season vegetables, and small scale trading activities such as handwoven textiles, livestock trading, manufacture of palm wine () and off-farm labouring. In the lowlands, the activities include fishing and gleaning, along with limited salt production.

Other sources of income and wealth for rural households in the catchment include the raising of livestock. As in the rest of East Timor, there is widespread reliance upon poultry and pigs, and herds of Bali banteng cattle, buffalo, sheep and goats. During the Portuguese colonial era, the catchment was used extensively for cattle grazing. More recently, such grazing has become difficult, because deforestation has promoted the growth of Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata), which is toxic to cattle and also suppresses other ground vegetation. However, even in the 2010s about 18,000 head of cattle and buffalo were being raised in the catchment. Additionally, the catchment's comparatively harsh and dry conditions are particularly suitable for goat husbandry, although goats also have a negative impact on vegetation cover and tend to degrade the land.

City water supply
Prior to the rehabilitation of Manatuto city's water supply system in the 2010s, the catchment was also the main source of water for that system. The river water intake of the system was located approximately  southwest of the city, on a bushy and swampy portion of the right bank of the Sumasse River, about  from its shoreline. Water was conveyed from the intake through a galvanised steel  pipe underneath the North Laclo River to a pumping station, from where it was pumped to the Saututum Reservoir, approximately  away.

The river water intake pipe was subject to erosion and damage, because it had been laid in a flood-prone riverbank in an area where sand mining activities took place. As of 2010, more than  of that pipe was eroded, and the city's water supply system was therefore out of operation. Additionally, the transmission pipe from the pumping station to the reservoir passed through paddy fields, where it was at a high risk of being damaged by tractors and other agricultural equipment.

In 2011, the East Timor government and the Asian Development Bank entered into an agreement for the funding of the District Capitals Water Supply Project, to improve the safety and quality of drinking water in Manatuto and Pante Macassar. The Project included the rehabilitation of a groundwater source at Weten Spring, about  south of Manatuto city, and the  transmission pipe from that intake. Other water source upgrade options, including a new river water intake structure, new pumps for the river water pipe, and a bigger transmission pipe between those pumps and the reservoir, had been considered but rejected on the basis of demand and supply and cost-benefit analyses. The Manatuto portion of the Project was completed in 2016.

Fishing
The sea near the mouth of the river offers good fishing, including for mackerel, Spanish mackerel and two different species of prawns, mostly within  of the shore after the rainy season. The productivity of the fishery appears to have little dependence (if any) upon river-derived materials; and the fishing is small-scale and of the subsistence variety. During the final years of the Portuguese colonial era, the fish that were being caught at that location were larger, and the prawns were more abundant. The local Sau clan now ritually manages the prawn fishery, according to its  rules.

In the twentieth century, fish and prawns could also be caught in the upper reaches of the catchment.

The long-term decline of the fisheries in the river and near its mouth is possibly due to habitat change by sedimentation, a reduction in the nutrients being released from sandier sediment deposited offshore, and the pressure of fishing in those two locations.

Hydroelectricity
The catchment has been assessed as having potential for the construction of a large scale multi-purpose dam to harvest raw water and generate hydroelectricity by hydropower.

See also
 List of rivers of East Timor

References

External links

Aileu Municipality
Ainaro Municipality
Manatuto Municipality
Manufahi Municipality
Rivers of East Timor


The Caraulun River ( or ,  or ) is a river in East Timor. It flows for the most part in a southerly direction, forms the southern part of the border between Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities, and discharges into the Timor Sea.

Etymology
The river's name has its origins in the Tetum expression Karau Ulun, which means buffalo head. The river itself is said to resemble buffalo horns. According to anthropologist Matthew Libbis:

Libbis went on to observe that there was another version of the story, involving two brothers, one of whom thrust a spear causing a spring to gush forth from the ground. In that version, the two brothers represented a division between earth and sky, with the older brother belonging in the mountains.

Course
The headwaters of the river are in the portion of East Timor's central mountains ranging from just to the south of Maubisse in Ainaro municipality to just to the south of Turiscai in Manufahi municipality.

For the most part, the river and its tributaries flow in a southerly direction, mainly through the latter of those two municipalities, until the river and its tributary the Asa (or Aiasa) River reach the southern tip of Suco  in Manufahi. There, at the tripoint between Ainaro municipality and the two sucos of Daisua and Betano in Manufahi municipality, the tributary enters the river. From the tripoint, the river continues generally in a southerly direction, and forms the border between the two municipalities, until it discharges into the Timor Sea  west of Betano.

The river's main channel is one of the four perennial rivers in Manufahi. After periods of heavy rain, its discharge can be very high. The main channel is also braided, as are the lower sections of its main tributaries. Its lower reaches are located within Manufahi's principal population centre, the Same administrative post, which also includes the municipality's capital city, Same, and most of its actively utilised irrigated rice paddies.

At the river's mouth, from which the grade over the first  into the Timor Sea is only about 1 in 20 or 5%, the river has formed a delta, even though the wave climate is quite energetic. In that respect, the river is similar to most of the other rivers on the south coast, and differs from some on the north coast (such as the North Laclo River, where the grade over the same distance from the mouth is very steep, a near-constant slope of about 1 in 5 or 20%).

Satellite imagery taken between 1986 and 2006 indicates that the total area of the delta did not change very much over the intervening period, but that some parts of the coastline at the delta had varied markedly. In 2004–2005, a major rainy season flood caused a substantial avulsion or change in the course of the river through the delta. Several hundred hectares of rice paddies were destroyed, and the river reoccupied an old river channel about  wide and several hundred metres to the west.

During the rainy season, plumes emerging from the river into the Timor Sea are carried both east and west by currents.

The river's main tributaries, in order of entrance, are as follows:

 Colihuno River: rises in northern Ainaro municipality south of Maubisse; flows initially eastwards and then southeast to form part of the border between Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities, and then, also at that border, merges with the Markis River (see below) to form the Caraulun River.

 Markis River: rises in northern Manufahi municipality; flows initially westwards and then generally southwards, forms part of the border between Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities, and then, also at that border, merges with the Colihuno River (see above) to form the Caraulun River.

 Emerin River: rises in western Manufahi municipality on the northern outskirts of Same; flows southeast to enter the Caraulun River southeast of Same.

 Caloco River: rises in western Manufahi municipality a short distance south of Same; flows southeast to enter the Caraulun River a little further southeast of Same.

 Sui River: rises mainly in northern Manufahi municipality near and south of Turiscai in the form of a number of sub-tributaries (some of which rise in Ainaro municipality); flows generally southwards, mostly forming parts of the borders between various sucos and administrative posts in Manufahi municipality, and then enters the Caraulun River near the border between Sucos  and Daisua.

 Asa (or Aiasa) River: rises in western Manufahi municipality west of Same; flows generally southeast, mostly forming part of the border between Ainaro and Manufahi municipalities, and then enters the Caraulun River at the southern tip of Suco Daisua in Manufahi.

History
The historical relationships forming the political community in Manufahi have been affected by an awareness of its association with the river's catchment or drainage basin. One ritual name for the municipality is , an expression referring to 'the headwaters and the mountain' of the catchment.  is the mountain range that forms the boundary between Manufahi and Ainaro municipality to its north (expressed ritually as ).

Traditionally, the region's political organisation was a diarchy known as the  and  ('head' and 'foot') of the land. The two diarchical rulers or  were later given the title of  by the Portuguese colonial government.  The highland  lived at  in the hamlet of  (part of the village of ) at the headwaters and mountain () of the catchment, and was known as . The lowland , who lived at the foot of the river, was  .

The relationship between the diarchical  also involved a marriage alliance, known as , according to which the highland ruling clan's daughters were given to the lowland ruler in marriage. Even in the 21st century, these traditional relationships and ritual exchange obligations remain significant.

During the Indonesian occupation of East Timor from 1975, the river was one of a number of rivers in East Timor that played an important role in the Timorese resistance. It was strategically important not only because it provided resources to guerillas, but also because towns and villages were located on its banks.

Also during that period, there were major changes in land use patterns. To counter armed resistance by the people of the catchment, the Indonesians gradually directed the scattered highland communities to move into concentrated settlements near the main population centres, ostensibly for security reasons. The principal camps for the relocated communities were at Turiscai, Maubisse, Alas, Fatuberliu, Same and Betano. By 1983, all settlements in the catchment were clustered around these places and forced to cultivate the areas surrounding them. Although that process reduced pressures on more distant areas, it caused increased clearing and erosion near the settlements. Eventually, by 1992, communities had been permitted to return to their original homelands.

Meanwhile, the Indonesian occupiers attempted to reinstate the boundaries of the area's Portuguese-implemented permanent forest reserve system. However, a growing local population has combined with the erosion of traditional protocols to place pressures on land resources in the area, leading to deforestation and increased clearing of the forest zone.

Between 1986 and 2006, the catchment lost  (or about 7%) of its dense vegetation, with nearly all of the loss occurring by 1996. There were several possible causes for the loss. In the upper and middle catchment, the Indonesians engaged in large scale logging, and the military burned substantial areas of forest as part of the relocation policy. Additionally, relocated families may have cleared vegetation, both when they were living in the new settlements and after they returned home. The reduction in vegetation loss after 1996 may have been due to natural rehabilitation following the cessation of wholesale logging and burning.

In the lower catchment, around Betano, vegetation loss was probably due to the expansion and development of rice paddies and also the town, along with flooding and the avulsion in the river delta. During the Indonesian occupation, transmigrants were relocated from other parts of Indonesia and East Timor to work in the rice paddies. By 1996, the Indonesians had constructed a weir about  south of Same to irrigate the rice paddies. In 1999, most of the transmigrants left the area, and in 2000 the irrigation works were destroyed by a large flood. Although the works were repaired by 2006/2007, fewer people were available to cultivate the agricultural plots in the area, and productivity reduced.

Catchment
The river's catchment is one of the 10 major catchments in East Timor. It is approximately  in area, and is divided between the Manufahi and Ainaro municipalities. Its main population centres, from north to south, are Maubisse, Same, and Betano.

East Timor has been broadly divided into twelve 'hydrologic units', groupings of climatologically and physiographically similar and adjacent river catchments. The Caralaun River catchment is one of the four major catchments in the Clere & Be-Lulic hydrologic unit, which is about  in total area; the others are the catchments of the Clere, Be-Lulic and South Laclo Rivers.

The uplands of the Caralaun River catchment near Maubisse were originally vegetated with grass, and on high ground there were Eucalyptus trees. In the final years of the Portuguese colonial era between 1963 and 1975, Casuarina seedlings were planted as shade trees for coffee plants. During the ensuing Indonesian occupation, many trees were removed, and local people were encouraged to grow both Casuarinas and coffee plants. However, they more commonly planted Acacia trees, which controlled erosion and landslides. By the early twenty first century, tree planting had stopped due to a lack of local support and problems with fire. Other upland areas near Turiscai and Same have been subject to deforestation, but removal of trees has not been uniform across the catchment.

Since the Portuguese colonial era, there has been much erosion (denudation), many landslides and some gullying in the catchment, especially after tree removal or heavy rainfall. Soil loss has been moderate to high in the upper catchment, especially in the north west, but low in the lower catchment. Some local people regard shifting agriculture as a cause of severe erosion; others consider it to be a 'non-problem'. The greatest source of river sediment is landsliding (48%; with 14% earthquake-induced); of lesser significance are bank erosion (34%), and sheet and rill erosion (17%). In the uplands, some river channels have widened (and a few have deepened). Downstream, the river has widened and become shallower, leading to greater flooding, riverbank erosion, and lateral movement of flow paths. Riverbank erosion has become a serious problem.

A 2012 study concluded that erosion of the catchment had recently become up to 20 times higher than over the last few thousand years. According to the report of the study, the most likely reason for the increased erosion was land use. In particular, the removal of vegetation from riverbanks (riparian zones) had caused widespread erosion, and its removal from hill slopes had promoted landslides. By increasing the river's sediment load, the greater catchment erosion had made the river shallower and wider, and thus increased the erosion of its riverbanks. The latter erosion, in turn, had led to bridge collapse and road damage. Additionally, the two forms of erosion had combined to increase flooding in the river, and, by making its channels wider and braided, had caused its flows to become more erratic.

At that time, the consensus among local people was that the traditional local  rules that had been applied to control use of the catchment had broken down during the Indonesian occupation, and needed to be reinstated. In particular, the application of  was said to be required to limit tree removal, prevent farming along rivers and regulate freshwater fishing. Reforestation was also thought by many to be necessary, although in some areas of the catchment the growing of trees would cause tension with the interests of graziers.

All of East Timor's catchments are exposed to a monsoon type climate, with a clear distinction between just two seasons, rainy and dry. The Caraulun catchment has a bimodal rainfall pattern, with two rainfall peaks: approximately from November to March, and from May to June. In the upper catchment, average annual temperatures are below 24°C, and at the coast they are above 24°C.  Rainfall varies from around  per annum at the Cablac Mountain Range to  per annum at Betano on the coast.

Geology
Timor is the deformed northern margin of the Australian continent, where Australia is colliding with the Banda Arc. Long term tectonic uplift rates have been estimated at 1.5 to 2 mm/annum, and rocks from both sides of the collision can be found throughout the island.

East Timorese rock types include a variety of deformed deep marine and shallow-marine sedimentary and volcanic rocks, and metamorphic core complexes. The catchment has four soil orders:

 Entisols: derived mostly from alluvial materials, and with little or no horizon development;
 Inceptisols: young, formed from alluvial and colluvial materials, and with limited profile development;
 Mollisols: prairie soils formed from calcareous and colluvial parent material, with a dark surface horizon; and
 Vertisols: dark clay soils formed typically from basic rocks.

In the upper catchment, the dominant soils are Mollisols, Entisols, and Vertisols; the lower catchment soils are predominantly Vertisols, Entisols, and Inceptisols.

Economy

Agriculture
The uplands of the catchment have significant agricultural production. In the catchment's higher reaches, including the foothills of , coffee is cultivated under canopies of Casuarina (Casuarina junghuhniana) shade trees, and candlenut (Aleurites moluccanus) and other tree crops are also grown. Throughout the highlands, and especially in the Turiscai and Fatuberliu administrative posts, scattered rural communities engage in near subsistence cultivation of food crops, with up to around 40% of the area of Manufahi municipality being utilised for food crop production.

The municipality produces maize in all four of its administrative posts. In the river's lower reaches within the Same administrative post, and especially at Betano, rice production is important. There are irrigated rice paddies in a number of sucos near Same, and also at Betano. In 2000, the catchment's irrigation scheme had a designated area of , of which only  was functional. As of the early 2010s, the Betano irrigation infrastructure was undergoing substantial rehabilitation, which was intended to facilitate an expansion of the area planted to irrigated rice. Beans, vegetables and fruits were also being produced in the municipality, along with other horticulture crops such as sweet potato and cassava.

Land management and access in Manufahi are based on informal or customary practices. Forms of share cropping and leasing arrangements are negotiated, but there is no significant real estate market. Land is inherited by maternal descent associated with the respective  (origin groups or clans) who hold traditional jurisdiction. Entitlements to land are transferred from mothers to daughters; men marry out of their  and cultivate their wives' land, while retaining some responsibilities towards their mother's and sisters' land.

City water supply
As of 2000, the catchment provided the three sources of the water supply system for the city of Same. The three intakes of the system were Carbulau (Darelau), about  north of the city, in a small stream; Kotalala, about  northwest of the city, in a small braided channel system of a tributary stream to the Uelala River; and Merbati, about  west of Kotalala in a stream flowing from a spring as another tributary to the Uelala River. The water supply system was made up mainly of galvanised steel pipes, and included several reservoirs and concrete break pressure tanks.

Fishing
 (small freshwater fish) are caught in the catchment's rivers near Same, and also further downstream along with  (prawns). During the Portuguese colonial era, local  rules were applied to regulate fishing in the catchment, but the use of those rules broke down during the Indonesian occupation. By the early 2010s, the catchment had fewer species and numbers of fish, and the fish and prawns in the lower reaches of the river were small. A likely cause of the reduction in species and numbers was habitat change due to riverbed sedimentation.

Just outside the river mouth, small pelagic species of fish such as  (Rastrelliger) and sardines (Sardinella) can be caught in the estuaries and at the beach, where the fishing is at its best during floods. Nutrients supplied by the river to the surf zone near the beach may promote growth of phytoplankton, which attracts fish, and nutrients may also be released by disturbance of offshore mud by the river. During the eastern monsoon between May and July, large  ('sea swells'), waves and sea currents surge along the coast and restrict fishing activity.

The numbers of fish caught in the surf zone near the river mouth appear not to have been reduced by the effects of the Indonesian occupation, although the large fish are less plentiful than before. During the 1990s, the Indonesian army damaged offshore coral reefs by using dynamite to catch fish, and that may have caused the reduction in numbers of large fish in the surf zone. Further damage to the coral was caused by sand accumulation.  By the early 2010s, the reefs were recovering.

Industry
A site  inland of Betano has been identified as the location of a proposed Betano petroleum refinery and petrochemicals complex, which would be part of the Tasi Mane south coast petroleum project. The site, which would be named Nova Betano and also host a new town if the proposed facility were constructed, abuts the eastern shore of the river, and is in a high flood risk region. The proposed facility, if constructed, may therefore require flood protection works, a suitable setback, or both.

See also
 List of rivers of East Timor

References

External links

Ainaro Municipality
Manufahi Municipality
Rivers of East Timor


WR 136 is a Wolf–Rayet star located in the constellation Cygnus.  It is in the center of the Crescent Nebula.  Its age is estimated to be around 4.7 million years and it is nearing the end of its life.  Within a few hundred thousand years, it is expected to explode as a supernova.

According to recent estimations, WR 136 is 600,000 times brighter than the Sun, 21 times more massive, and 5.1 times larger. Its surface temperature is around 70,000 kelvins.

WR 136 blew off a shell of material with a mass of around  when it became a red supergiant around 120,000–240,000 years ago and this is still expanding at 80 km/s.  Currently, its fast stellar wind, ejected from the star at around 3.8 million mph (1,700 km/s), is catching up to the material ejected from the star and shaping it into a shell. Ultraviolet rays emitted from WR 136's hot surface cause the shell to glow.

There is some evidence WR 136 may be a binary star. Its companion would be a low-mass star of spectral classification K or M that would complete an orbit around the Wolf-Rayet star each 5.13 days, being the progenitor of a low-mass X-ray binary system.

References

Further reading

External links
 http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/ngc6888/
 http://www.giga-parsec.de/WRspectra.html
 http://www.castfvg.it/stelle/spettri/O/wr_136_01.htm

Cygnus (constellation)
Wolf–Rayet stars
Cygni, V1770
192163
099546
Durchmusterung objects


Tyler Robert Rosenlund (born September 13, 1986) is a Canadian soccer player currently playing for Whitecaps FC 2 in the USL.

Career

College and amateur
Rosenlund played college soccer at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He was a member of the UCSB Gauchos squad that reached the 2004 NCAA Division I Men's Soccer Championship which lost to Indiana Hoosiers on penalties.  He eventually won a National Championship with the Gauchos by beating the UCLA Bruins in the 2006 NCAA Division I Men's Soccer Championship.

Professional

Scandinavia
After the 2006 NCAA season ended, Rosenlund left UC Santa Barbara early.  He trialed with Allmänna Idrottsklubben of the Swedish Premier Division Allsvenskan and later moved on another trial with IFK Mariehamn in the Finnish Premier Division, Veikkausliiga.  He failed to secure a contract with either club, but made one appearance for IFK Mariehamn in the Finnish League Cup.

After his short spell in Finland he headed back to Sweden and secured a contract with Åtvidabergs FF in the Swedish second tier, Superettan.  He made a couple of appearances for ÅFF before he was released by the club.

Canada
On March 21, 2008, Toronto FC announced Tyler Rosenlund was signed to a senior developmental contract.<  He made his Toronto FC debut on April 5, 2008, appearing as an 83rd-minute substitute during a 4–1 defeat to D.C. United.  He was the first Canadian-born player to score for Toronto FC, which happened at BMO Field against Chivas USA on September 6, 2008.

He was released by Toronto in February 2009 and signed later with Surrey United.

Rochester Rhinos
Rosenlund signed with USSF Division 2 Professional League club Rochester Rhinos in March 2010.  He was a mainstay of the club in 2010 and 2011, being named team most valuable player in the latter year.  Rochester re-signed Rosenlund for the 2012 season on November 21, 2011.

Whitecaps FC 2
Rosenlund played briefly for Surrey United Firefighters in the Vancouver Metro Soccer League following his departure from Rochester.  The stay was short-lived as it was announced on February 26, 2015, that Rosenlund had joined Whitecaps FC 2.

International
Rosenlund made his first international appearance with the Canadian men's national team on January 30, 2008.  Rosenlund entered Canada's friendly against Martinique in the 72nd minute in a 1-0 Friendly win.  He has also featured extensively for the U-17 and U-20 Canadian teams and was active for Canada's U-23 team for Olympic Qualifying.

Honors

Rochester Rhinos
 USSF Division 2 Pro League Regular Season Champions (1): 2010

UC Santa Barbara
 NCAA Men's Division I Soccer Championship (1): 2006

Individual
 2009: Toronto FC Vs. Chivas USA - Man of the Match
 2006: NCAA Division 1 College Cup Final Four All-Star Team
 2005: Named to the Missouri Athletic Club Hermann Trophy Watch List
 2004: Freshman All-American
 2003: B.C. Soccer Athlete Of The Year

References

External links
  (archive)
 Whitecaps FC 2 player profile
 Rochester Rhinos player profile
 Toronto FC player profile
 UC Santa Barbara player profile

1986 births
Living people
Men's association football midfielders
Åtvidabergs FF players
Canada men's international soccer players
Canadian expatriate men's soccer players
Canadian expatriate sportspeople in Finland
Canadian expatriate sportspeople in Sweden
Canadian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Canadian people of Scandinavian descent
Canadian men's soccer players
Expatriate men's footballers in Finland
Expatriate men's footballers in Sweden
IFK Mariehamn players
Major League Soccer players
Rochester New York FC players
Soccer players from Vancouver
Toronto FC players
UC Santa Barbara Gauchos men's soccer players
USSF Division 2 Professional League players
USL Championship players
Whitecaps FC 2 players


The Sahen River (, ) is a river in East Timor. It originates in central Manatuto municipality, flows in a mostly southerly direction, and then discharges into the Timor Sea at the southern tip of the border between Manatuto and Manufahi municipalities.

Course

The river rises in the portion of East Timor's central mountains situated in central Manatuto municipality. Its headwaters, located to just to the south of the town of Laclubar, are shared with two of its main tributaries, the Buarahum/Buarahuin and the Bun/Buti Rivers.

Further south, at the tripoint of Sucos  and , Laclubar administrative post, and Suco , Soibada administrative post, both in Manatuto, those two tributaries converge with each other to become the source confluence of the river itself.

From the source confluence, the river flows south-southwest to the border between Manatuto and Manufahi municipalities, and then runs along that border, mostly in a south-southeasterly direction, until it empties into the Timor Sea at the shore of the Quirás plain, near , Manufahi.

The river is spanned by two road bridges. One of them, east of the village of Soibada, provides access to the village from national road A09, which links Manatuto with  in Barique administrative post; the other one carries national road A14 across the river just to the west of Uma Boco. , the former bridge and the road leading to it were both damaged and in need of repairs.

The main tributaries of the river, in order of entrance, are as follows:

 Buarahum (or Buarahuin) River: rises as the Buarahum River on the border between Sucos Fatumaquerec and Funar, Laculabar administrative post, southwest of Laclubar; flows generally southeastwards, to the tripoint between Sucos Fatumaquerec, Funar and Manelima, all in Laculabar, and then almost immediately to the tripoint between Sucos Fatumaquerec and Manelima, Laclubar, and Suco , Sobibada administrative post; in this area, it becomes the Buarahuin River, which then flows southeastwards, as the border between Laclubar and Soibada administrative posts, and then as the border between Sucos Manelima, Laclubar, and Manlala, Soibada, until it reaches the tripoint of Sucos Manelima and , Laclubar, and Suco Manlala, Soibada, where it merges with the Bun (or Buti) River (see below) to become the source confluence of the Sahen River;
 Bun (or Buti) River: rises a short distance southeast of Laclubar, on the border between Sucos Manelima and Orlalan, Laclubar administrative post; flows initially southeastwards, and then southwards, along that border until it reaches the tripoint of Sucos Manelima and Orlalan, Laclubar, and Suco Manlala, Soibada, where it merges with the Buarahum (or Buarahuin) River (see above) to become the source confluence of the Sahen River.
 Quic River: rises in Suco , Soibada administrative post; flows a short distance southeastwards to the border between Sucos Samoro and , Soibada, where it enters the Sahen River;
 Motana River: rises in Suco , Barique administrative post, Manatuto; flows southwesterly, mostly along the border between that suco and Suco Leo-Hat, Soibada, until it enters the Sahen River at the tripoint between those two sucos and Suco Samoro, Soibada;
 Lianura (or Laniara) River: rises as the Lianura River on the border between Sucos Manehat and Uma Boco, Barique administrative post, southeast of Soibada and southwest of Barique; flows generally southwards, to the tripoint between Sucos Manehat, Uma Boco and , all in Barique, where it is augmented by a tributary, the Quec River, and becomes the Laniara River; then flows further southwards, as the border between Sucos Manehat and Fatuwaque, until it reaches the tripoint of those two sucos and Suco , Fatuberlio administrative post, Manufahi, where it enters the Sahen River.

Catchment
The catchment or drainage basin of the river is one of East Timor's 10 major catchments, and is approximately  in area.

East Timor has been broadly divided into twelve 'hydrologic units', groupings of climatologically and physiographically similar and adjacent river catchments. The Sahen River catchment is one of the four major catchments in the Tukan & Sahen hydrologic unit, which is about  in total area; the others are the catchments of the Tuco (Wetuai), Luca and Dilor Rivers.

Economy

The catchment has been assessed as having potential for the construction of a large scale multi-purpose dam to harvest raw water and generate hydroelectricity by hydropower.

See also
 List of rivers of East Timor

References

 Wheeler, T. (2004) East Timor. Footscray, VIC; Lonely Planet.

External links

Manatuto Municipality
Manufahi Municipality
Rivers of East Timor


The Comoro River ( or , ) is a river in East Timor. It flows north into Ombai Strait, reaching the coast in the north western suburbs of the capital, Dili. In its lower reaches, it is the main and largest of Dili's four major rivers.

Course

The headwaters of the river are in East Timor's central mountains south of Dili. From there, the river flows northeast to the southern edge of Dili's southwestern suburbs. It then turns north and heads through Dili's western suburbs, initially along the border between the municipalities of Dili and Liquiçá, and then by traversing the Dom Aleixo administrative post in Dili municipality, where it passes under the Hinode Bridge and,  further downstream, the CPLP Bridge.

In its lower reaches, the river is the main and largest of Dili's four major rivers, and is very wide, with steep banks. It has a bed of stone and gravel, is mostly dry, and is often braided when not either dry or in flood. A short distance north of the CPLP Bridge, it flows into Ombai Strait; between the bridge and its mouth, it marks the border between the sucos of  (to its west) and  (to its east).

The river mouth is flat and wide. When the river is flowing, the mouth commonly has multiple, shallow, tidally influenced channels with low to moderate flow. Immediately to the west of the mouth is Presidente Nicolau Lobato International Airport, and to its east is the Bay of Dili, of which it is the western end. The river mouth flows into an area containing a coral reef.

The river abuts the eastern end of the airport runway, and the possibility of bridging the river or diverting it to facilitate an eastern extension to the runway has been raised. However, various proposals to construct such an extension were rejected by the government in 2019.

During East Timor's rainy season, the river's lower reaches are prone to flooding and consequent damage to infrastructure and housing. In general, the riverbanks are protected by concrete or gabion walls, but have deteriorated by scouring, as the channels are not properly maintained.

The river has four tributaries. In order of entrance, they are as follows:

 Anggou River: rises in Liquiçá municipality; flows about  south east and then north east to the village of  in Ermera municipality;
 Buamara/Boera River: rises as the Buamara River in Ermera municipality; flows about , initially northwest, and then northeast as the Boera River, to merge with the Anggou River at Railaco and form the Balele or Hare River;
 Maulu River: rises in Ermera municipality; flows about  westwards to enter the Balele/Hare River about  east and downstream of Railaco (the Balele/Hare River becomes the Comoro River further downstream);
 : rises in Aileu municipality; flows about  westwards into the Comoro River, about  northeast and downstream of where the Maulu River flows into the Balele/Hare River, and about  south and upstream of the Comoro River's mouth.

A minor tributary, sometimes referred to as the Berloi River or the Berloi-Fatisi River, rises in Aileu municipality and passes over the Berloi Waterfall in Fatisi, Aileu. It then continues for about a further , until it flows into the main river some  downstream of Railaco (near both the point where the Balele/Hare River becomes the Comoro River, and the tripoint between Aileu, Ermera, and Liquiçá municipalities).

History
Both before and since East Timor resumed independence in 2002, the river's flood-prone channels in Dili have been improved and provided with revetments or riverbank protection. The improvements have been assessed as having a capacity to convey flood waters over a 25-year flood.

In April 2005, the  Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Forestry appointed the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) to develop a community-based integrated watershed management plan for the Laclo and Comoro River basins. JICA provided its report to the Ministry in March 2010.

A substantial flood of the river in 2010 was reported to have affected 2,467 people. In 2011, the East Timor government allocated about  to rehabilitation and maintenance of the river course in Dili. Between 2010 and 2012, the government also cooperated with the government of Victoria, Australia, to develop a master plan for drainage in Dili. Amongst other things, the plan proposed the construction of a flood control reservoir upstream of Dili to reduce the peak flow at the river mouth over a 50-year return period.

Also in 2012, construction began on the first of a pair of new road bridges, since named the CPLP Bridge, to replace the only existing bridge over the river. The following year, 2013, a further substantial flood reportedly affected 667 people. The first of the CPLP Bridge pairs was completed in May 2013, and the second was built between October 2013 and May 2014.

Meanwhile, in February 2014 a preparatory survey team  engaged by the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) proposed the installation of an additional road bridge  upstream of the CPLP Bridge. Work on that bridge, since named the Hinode Bridge, began in mid 2016, and the completed structure was opened to traffic in September 2018.

A 2017 study investigated the impact of floods and proposed countermeasures in the Comoro basin. The outcome of the study's hydrologic analysis was that the river was wide enough to flow its peak discharges under a 50-year return period. The report of the study recommended that existing countermeasures against flooding be strengthened by flood control, e.g. construction of an upstream check dam for sediment control and rehabilitation of the downstream levees, to mitigate flood risk.

In March 2019, the government urged more than 100 families living in unauthorised housing within  of the river to relocate "immediately", after flood water from heavy rains had destroyed seven houses on the riverbank the previous week. At the end of that year, 11 more houses were said to have been washed away in the suco of . Authorities then said that more than 200 homes built along the river were at risk of flooding, and repeated earlier calls for householders to move out. In April 2021, further flooding of the river triggered by Cyclone Seroja caused additional houses to be washed away.

According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), the Cyclone Seroja flooding affected 13 municipalities and 30,322 households throughout East Timor, destroyed 4,212 houses, took 34 lives, and was "... said to be the worst the country has seen in 50 years ...". The East Timor country coordinator for the Australian Humanitarian Partnership consortium said that it was "anything but typical". The country manager of Australian People for Health, Education and Development Abroad (APHEDA) attributed it to the obstruction of waterways by housing erected along them. She said that such housing blocks water canals, and that the government needed to enforce the country's pre-independence rule against building within  of bodies of water.

Catchment
The river's catchment or drainage basin is one of the 10 major catchments in East Timor. It has a total area of approximately 30,000 ha or , and extends over four municipalities, namely Dili, Aileu, Ermera, and Liquiçá. Excluding Dili's urban zone, it is  in area, with the four tributaries.

East Timor has been broadly divided into twelve 'hydrologic units', groupings of climatologically and physiographically similar and adjacent river catchments. The Comoro River catchment is one of the two major catchments in the Laclo hydrologic unit, which is about  in total area; the other one is the catchment of the North Laclo River.

Upstream of Dili's urban zone, the Comoro River catchment is formed by two valleys surrounded by steep mountains. The main upstream valley is bordered by mountains of  elevation to the south and  high to the north. Railaco Valley, formed by the Anggou and Boera Rivers, has an elevation of , while the mountain near Bazartete is  high.

Overall, the elevation of the catchment ranges from  AMSL at its highest point to sea level at the river's mouth. About half the catchment is classified as being lands of between 15% and 40% slopes, and about one quarter has more than 40% slopes.

The catchment system is composed mainly of sandy soil with a relatively high infiltration capacity. According to a 2011 groundwater study, 60% of the river flows in the upper reaches of the river are diverted to an underground river system; eventually, the diverted flows recharge the groundwater body in , central Dili.

There has been forest degradation in the catchment, mainly due to illegal cutting, firewood collection, wild fires and cattle grazing.

All of East Timor's catchments are exposed to a monsoon type climate, with a clear distinction between just two seasons, rainy and dry. The upper Comoro catchment has a relatively short dry season (5–6 months), and an annual precipitation of around  at Aileu, its southernmost point; the northwestern, coastal, part of the catchment has a lower precipitation ( annually). The lower reaches of the river that are often braided carry low flow during the dry season. The mean monthly discharge of the river as a whole is ; it decreases to less than  from July to November, and rises to  in March.

Geology
The catchment's parent materials are phyllite from its upper reaches. Phyllites in the catchment (between the central mountains at an elevation of about  AMSL and the river mouth at sea level) are somewhat geologically fragile, and are easily eroded on being exposed to air after surface soil removal.

Economy

Agriculture
Farming in the catchment focuses on the production of maize, along with lowland rice, cassava, other tubers, vegetables, and beans. Shifting cultivation is common. The vegetable types produced include mustard, cabbage, tomato, pumpkin, carrot, cucumber, snow pea, and spinach. Especially in Ermera, coffee beans are another important crop, although yields were very low as of the end of the 2010s, due to poor maintenance of coffee and shade trees. Fruits were produced on a small scale, and there were some industrial/tree crops, such as palm tree, candlenut, and coconut, also on a small scale.

Other sources of income and wealth for rural households in East Timor include the raising of livestock. In the 2010s, about 6,900 head of cattle and buffalo were being raised within the catchment. The major rearing practice was one-day grazing on native grasses in rangelands.  Animal feed was scarce during the dry season, especially towards its end. Partially deteriorated pastures on steep and fragile slopes were common. Additionally, Siam weed (Chromolaena odorata), a species poisonous to cattle, had invaded the catchment and reduced the availability of land viable for grazing.

City water supply

The supply of water to Dili is the most important use of the water in the catchment.

The Bemos River supplies industrial, drinking and domestic water to large parts of Dili, including drinking and domestic water to about 30% of the city's total population. The Bemos River water is taken from upstream of the confluence of the Bemos and Comoro Rivers, and passes through a raw water main to the Dili central water treatment plant. There is another water supply intake in the Maulu River.

Further supplies of water are obtained and distributed in the form of groundwater extracted from five bore holes in a large aquifer, the Dili Groundwater Basis (DGB), which is in the lower reaches of the catchment and formed from quaternary sedimentary deposits in the Dili alluvial plain.

In 2011, limited transient electromagnetic soundings were acquired of the catchment's aquifer at eight sites in the middle of the Comoro River, ranging from just upstream of the Comoro/Bemos confluence down to the mouth of the Comoro. The soundings suggested that the aquifer contained relatively good quality groundwater, presumably because it was being recharged from within the catchment during the monsoon season and remained fresh as a result of high recharge. However, more recent studies have concluded that development activities in the catchment area were placing stress on the aquifer by limiting the recharge. In particular, increasing extraction of groundwater had led to saltwater intrusion.

Fishing
In East Timor, involvement in fishing is low by comparison with other small island countries. Along the north coast of Timor, including near the mouth of the Comoro River, fishing levels are higher than elsewhere in the country, other than in pockets along parts of the south coast. Many of the north coast fishers fish part time or seasonally, and are otherwise occupied in additional activities such as carpentry, labouring or security work. Most of their fish landings are of small pelagic species, including short-bodied mackerel, sardines (Clupeidae), halfbeaks and scads (Carangidae).

A 2021 study focused in particular upon two north coast fishing sites, one of them being the fishery near the Comoro River mouth. It concluded that a number of species of sardines (and also other small pelagic fish) were caught in that fishery. Catches of these pelagic species varied moderately between years, and were larger during the rainy season and when medium-sized turbid plumes were extending from the river mouth. Fishers generally perceived a decline in landings over the previous 20 years. They attributed the decline to several human factors, including higher fishing effort, plastic pollution, motorisation of canoes and larger-scale, less selective fishing gear. Some sardine species were sold readily to traders; others were commonly kept for immediate home consumption.

Gravel and sand mining
In the lower reaches of the river, which have large and thick alluvium deposits, there is active small-scale artisanal mining excavation of gravel and sand.  In 2017, over one billion tonnes (980 million long tons; 1.1×109 short tons) of gravel and sands were extracted in East Timor for construction material, but the production amount from the Comoro River was not officially announced.

A report of a 2016 study of the Dili Urban Master Plan asserted that the gravel and sand mining in the Comoro River has an adverse effect on the downstream riverbanks, and suggested that the mining activity be controlled. As of 2019, one hundred people or more were involved in the gravel and sand mining, and a report on the upgrading of the runway at Dili airport recommended that mining activities be licensed by  (ANPM), the responsible government authority. The report also asserted that the sand and gravel mining was considered to be the cause of increased turbidity, suspended solids and other pollutants in the river water.

See also
 List of rivers of East Timor

References

Further reading
 Wheeler, T. (2004) East Timor. Footscray, VIC; Lonely Planet.

External links

Aileu Municipality
Dili Municipality
Ermera Municipality
Liquiçá Municipality
Rivers of East Timor


The Baroness is the fourth studio album by Canadian singer-songwriter and pianist Sarah Slean, released on March 11, 2008.

Track listing
 "Hopeful Hearts" – 3:32
 "Get Home" – 3:42
 "Euphoria" – 3:13
 "Goodnight Trouble" – 4:38
 "Notes from the Underground" – 4:03
 "Sound of Water / Change Your Mind" – 4:14
 "No Place at All" – 3:58
 "Please Be Good to Me" – 4:04
 "Willow" – 3:31
 "So Many Miles" – 3:35
 "Shadowland" – 4:07
 "Looking for Someone" – 3:51

All songs by Sarah Slean
All strings arranged and conducted by Sarah Slean
All horns arranged by Sarah Slean

Bonus tracks
 "Get Home (Demo)" – Was available for download when signing up for the new official mailing list.
 "Parasol" – Available for download after pre-ordering the album through Sarahslean.com.
 "The Rose" – Available on iTunes and The Baroness Redecorates.
 "Lonely Side of the Moon" – Available on iTunes and The Baroness Redecorates.

External links
Sarah Slean's official website

2008 albums
Sarah Slean albums


Jack Cockburn (26 December 1911 -  21 September 1990) was an Australian rules footballer who played for Essendon in the Victorian Football League (VFL) and for South Adelaide in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL).

Cockburn started his SANFL career with South Adelaide in 1934, having previously played for Blyth as a teenager and young man in the Stanley Football Association, where he won the A. E. Fryar Medal a record three times. He was a member of South Adelaide premiership teams in 1935 and 1938. The 1935 season also saw him win a Magarey Medal for the league's best and fairest player. By the time he retired in 1947 he had played 167 SANFL games and represented South Australia seven times at interstate football. He is a half back flanker in South Adelaide's official 'Team of the Century' and was inducted into the South Australian Football Hall of Fame in 2003.

During World War II he was stationed in Melbourne and in 1943 was signed up by Essendon. He played in Essendon's five point Grand Final loss to Richmond that year. After playing for Essendon again in 1944 he transferred to Williamstown in the VFA and was ruck-rover in the 1945 premiership side, playing 15 games and kicking 8 goals in his sole season with the Seagulls. Cockburn returned to South Australia in 1946.

Cockburn's daughter, Bronte Cockburn, played basketball for Australia women's national basketball team at the 1957 World Championship held in Brazil.

References

External links

Essendon Football Club players
South Adelaide Football Club players
Magarey Medal winners
Australian rules footballers from South Australia
Jack
South Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees
1911 births
1990 deaths


The Tono River ( or , ) is the principal river of Oecusse, an exclave of East Timor. The river and its major tributaries flow generally north, through the centre of the exclave, into the Savu Sea, reaching the sea near Lifau. Its alluvial flood plain in Pante Macassar administrative post is the main rice-producing place in Oecusse.

Course

The river is one of East Timor's few perennial streams. Its primary headwaters are in the portion of East Timor's central mountains located within the southern ends of Nitibe and Oesilo administrative posts in Oeucusse.

In general, the river's tributaries flow from the headwaters in a northeasterly direction, mostly along the border between Oesilo and Pante Macassar administrative posts, until two of the tributaries (the Ekai and Abanel Rivers, respectively) merge near the northwesternmost point of Suco  in Oesilo to form the river itself. From there, the river continues, as the principal river of the Oecusse exclave, in a different, northwesterly, direction, until it discharges into the Savu Sea a short distance southwest of Lifau, Pante Macassar administrative post.

Approximately  upstream and to the east of the river mouth is the  Noefefan Bridge over the river. The bridge connects Citrana, Passabe and other isolated regions west of the river to Oecusse's capital, Pante Macassar, providing them with permanent access to markets, the ferry, and airport, even during the rainy season (November to April).

The river's main tributaries, in order of entrance, are as follows:

 Bitaklele River: rises as its tributaries the Bao, Matin and Upun Rivers, respectively, in Suco , Nitibe administrative post, where it also has its source convergence; flows generally eastwards, to the tripoint between Nitibe, Oesilo and Pante Macassar administrative posts, where it merges with the Malelai (or Malelui) River (see below) to form the Toko River (see below);
 Malelai (or Malelui) River: rises not far from the southern end of the border between Nitibe and Pante Macassar administrative posts; flows generally northwestwards, to the Nitibe / Oesilo / Pante Macassar tripoint, where it merges with Bitaklele River (see above) to form the Toko River (see below);
 Toko River: flows from the confluence of the Bitaklele and Malelai (or Malelui) Rivers (see above) generally northwards, along the border between Oesilo and Pante Macassar administrative posts, until it merges with the Bena River (see below) to form the Columu River (see below);
 Bena River: rises in Suco Cunha, Pante Macassar administrative post; flows a short distance southeastwards to the border between Oesilo and Pante Macassar administrative posts, where it merges with the Toko River (see above) to form the Columu River (see below);
 Columu River: flows from the confluence of the Toko and Bena Rivers (see above) generally eastwards, along the border between Oesilo and Pante Macassar administrative posts, to the tripoint between Sucos  and , Oesilo administrative post, and Suco Cunha, Pante Macassar administrative post, where it enters the Ekai River (see below);
 Ekai River: rises as the Passabe River and its tributaries in the south of Passabe administrative post, East Timor; flows initially eastwards through Passabe and over the international frontier into North Central Timor Regency, Indonesia; continues northeastwards, and then northwestwards, through North Central Timor Regency; then, as the Ekai River, passes along and over the international frontier, and across Sucos Bobometo and Usitasae, Oesilo administrative post, East Timor, to the tripoint between Sucos Bobometo and Usitasae, and Suco Cunha, Pante Macassar administrative post (which is also the location of the Columu River mouth (see above)); and finally heads northwards, to the tripoint between Suco Bobometo, Oesilo administrative post, and Sucos Cunha and , Pante Macassar administrative post, where it merges with the Abanal River (see below) to form the Tono River;
 Kinloki River: rises as the Bimilo River near the international frontier between Naimeco, Pante Macassar administrative post, East Timor, and North Central Timor Regency, Indonesia; flows initially southwestwards along that frontier, and then northwestwards along the border between Suco Bobometo, Oesilo administrative post, and Suco Naimeco, to the tripoint between Sucos Bobometo and Naimeco, and Suco Cunha, Pante Macassar administrative post, where it enters the Ekai River (see above);
 Abanal River: rises as the Bussi River in Suco Costa, Pante Macassar administrative post, flows generally westwards, mainly as the Abanal River along the border between Sucos  and Naimeco, Pante Macassar, to the tripoint between Suco Bobometo, Oesilo administrative post, and Sucos Cunha and Naimeco, Pante Macassar, where it merges with the Ekai River (see above) to form the Tono River.

History
Lifau, a short distance northeast of the Tono River mouth, was the first place on the island of Timor to be settled by Europeans. Between 1512 and 1515, Portuguese traders were the first of the Europeans to arrive in the area; they landed near modern Pante Macassar, about  to Lifau's east. Only much later was a permanent Portuguese settlement established at Lifau.

By the seventeenth century, the Lifau settlement had become the centre of Portuguese activities on Timor, which had extended into the interior of the island. In 1702, Lifau officially became the capital of all Portuguese dependencies in the Lesser Sunda Islands. However, Portuguese control over Lifau's environs, known as Oecusse (which is also the traditional name of Pante Macassar), was tenuous, particularly in the mountainous interior. In 1769, the capital of Portuguese Timor was transferred from Lifau eastwards to Dili, due to frequent attacks from the local Eurasian Topass group. Most of West Timor was left to Dutch forces, who were conquering what is today Indonesia.

In the 1780s, a reconciliation took place between the governor in Dili and the Topasses of Oecusse, who henceforth usually supported the Portuguese government. In 1859, under the Treaty of Lisbon, Portugal and the Netherlands divided the island between them. For the most part, West Timor became Dutch, with its colonial seat at Kupang. East Timor became Portuguese, with its seat in Dili. Oecusse was confirmed as a Portuguese exclave, with the Savu Sea to its north west, but otherwise surrounded by Dutch territory.

As is the case throughout the Indonesian archipelago, human settlement in Oecusse, including in the Tono River catchment or drainage basin, has traditionally been concentrated in the mountainous interior, rather than near the coast. There are many likely reasons for this tradition: for example, altitude offers relief from coastal heat and much lower rates of malaria infection, and high ground is easier to defend against invaders. In Oecusse, areas of higher altitude also benefit from substantially greater rainfall over a rainy season that can be two months longer than along the coast, and groundwater reserves are more plentiful. Additionally, the channelling of water for small-scale cultivation is relatively simple in mountainous landscapes.

Many Oecusse communities were among the last in Timor to have contact with foreigners, as Portuguese colonialism after 1769 was focused on the eastern half of the island. Some mountain villages in Oecusse were not reached by Portuguese missionaries until as recently as the 1950s. However, Oecusse still identifies strongly with the former Portuguese Timor, even though the effect of the Portuguese on the culture of the exclave was shallow.

In 1975, Indonesia, which had become independent in 1949, began an invasion of Portuguese Timor, including Oecusse. The Indonesians then proceeded to occupy the former colony. During the occupation, Indonesia maintained Oecusse's administrative links to the rest of the former Portuguese Timor, but some of the residents of Oecusse's mountains were forcibly relocated to the low-lying alluvial flood plains along the Tono River, ostensibly to maximise use of cultivable land, but also to facilitate government control over the community.

In 1999, the East Timorese voted for independence from Indonesia. Before leaving, the Indonesian military and its allies inflicted a scorched earth policy over the whole of the occupied territory, and especially in Oecusse. Since then, some of the forcibly relocated members of Oecusse's community have returned to the mountains. Of those who have stayed in the lowlands, many still consider the mountains to be the centre of their family, social and ritual activities.

When East Timor became independent in 2002, the new Constitution of East Timor expressly provided, in recognition of Oecusse's very longstanding particular disadvantages, that the exclave would "...enjoy special administrative and economic treatment..." and "...be governed by a special administrative policy and economic regime". In 2013, the government of East Timor appointed former prime minister Mari Alkatiri to oversee the development of a special economic zone in Oecusse. The following year, the National Parliament of East Timor took a further step towards complying with the government's constitutional obligations towards Oecusse, by enacting a law for the creation of an Authority of the Oecusse Special Administrative Region ( – ARAEO), and for the designation of Oecusse as a Special Zone of Social Market Economy ( – ZEESM). On 23 and 24 January 2015, the central government formally handed over some of its powers to the ARAEO and the ZEESM.

Soon after his appointment as the overseer of the special economic zone, Alkatiri started publicising a fully formed plan for Oecusse's development. The plan comprised a substantial number of proposed buildings and capital investments, including a  bridge over the Tono River on the coastal road between Pante Macassar and Citrana. Construction of the bridge, since named the Noefefan Bridge, began in April 2015. The bridge was formally inaugurated in June 2017.

Meanwhile, in May 2016, a report published by the World Bank proposed a detailed Oecusse Agricultural Development Plan (OADP), costed at million over a ten year implementation period, to promote growth in agriculture and forestry in the exclave. By September 2017, the government had spent approximately million of that total amount, on rehabilitating and upgrading the Tono irrigation scheme, in particular by building a dam to provide more water, more reliably. The OADP also included provision for a  increase in the size of the area irrigated by the scheme, even though the report's authors considered that an increase would be uneconomic; the authors also felt that it was logical to focus on domestic production of import replacements of rice, and maize.

Catchment
The catchment of the Tono River is one of the 10 major catchments in the country. Sources vary as to its size. According to one source, the portion located within East Timor is  in area, and 20% of the catchment (ie another ) is situated in Indonesia. Another source quantifies the East Timorese portion as being about  in area.

East Timor has been broadly divided into twelve 'hydrologic units', groupings of climatologically and physiographically similar and adjacent river catchments. The Tono River catchment is one of the two major catchments in the Lifau & Tono Besi hydrologic unit, which is about  in total area; the other one is the Noel Besi River catchment.

Economy

Agriculture

The vast majority of the residents of Oecusse, including the catchment, have always relied on agriculture as their means of support. As of 2016, 78% of the exclave's population was engaged in agriculture. Subsistence farming is overwhelmingly the leading form of agriculture, and the bartering of goods is very common in its traditional markets. Many of the exclave's families are only marginally integrated into the cash economy; such integration has also lessened since 2002, because of a reduction in the spending power of civil servants, and the erection of border restrictions on imports into West Timor.

The cultivation of maize is the dominant form of agriculture in the upper part of the catchment. The alluvial flood plains of the river in Pante Macassar administrative post, of which about  are irrigated by the Tono irrigation scheme, make up Oecusse's 'rice belt', and are also the exclave's most productive agricultural area. The majority of Oecusse's farmers plant small quantities of a wide range of crops at different times to guard against the possibility of total crop failure. In general, inheritance of land and property in the exclave is patrilineal, but in the lowlands, female ownership of irrigated rice fields is common and men will move into their wives' homes upon marriage.

Agricultural or agro-forestry activity in the catchment is made difficult by its dry climate, poor soils and challenging topography, which is generally mountainous with little flat land for large-scale cultivation. The catchment has a long dry season, during which livestock food becomes scarce. The mostly steep topography not only limits arable land, but also causes run-off from heavy rains to remove much of the topsoil. The local people practise rotational cropping to counter the poor soils. However, rotational cropping requires constant clearing of new land, which leads to further environmental degradation, and the use of fertilizers as an alternative to rotational cropping is generally uncommon.

The catchment has also been degraded for centuries by commercial logging of various species, and especially of sandalwood. Oecusse’s sandalwood reserves, unlike those in the rest of Timor, were still substantial in 1975, but were then rapidly depleted, largely by more intrusive, and often corrupt, Indonesian logging practices. In the 2000s, the cutting of several protected tree species in Oecusse was prohibited to combat deforestation, and the allocation of private land to the planting of trees was recommended.

Residents of Oecusse also commonly raise cattle, chickens, pigs, goats and buffalo. They prefer to use livestock as a store of wealth that can be used, eg, to pay a bride price or as insurance against food shortages, and rarely slaughter cattle for their own consumption. After Oecusse's sandalwood industry closed down, cattle became the only significant exports from the exclave. Since 2002, however, difficulties in marketing cattle in Dili, and the effective closure of the borders to West Timor, have presented very substantial obstacles to the export of livestock.

Fishing
Very little fishing takes place either in or near the catchment, or in Oecusse generally. The people of Oecusse observe the tradition of pemali, which is the prohibition of the eating of certain foods by certain clan groups, and one of the most commonly prohibited foods is seafood. For that reason, there is little incentive to develop seafood markets in Oecusse, and also little historical knowledge that would assist with the easy capture and marketing of fish from the catchment.

Town water supply
The most reliable source of water for the water supply network in Pante Macassar is the Tono Bore, a deep well situated on the bed of the river near the town's south western corner. The bore was completed in 2003, and initially could be operated on only a limited basis, due to a lack of funding to buy fuel.

See also
 List of rivers of East Timor

References

Further reading

 Wheeler, T. (2004) East Timor. Footscray, VIC; Lonely Planet.

External links

Rivers of East Timor
Oecusse


Al Silvani (April 26, 1910 – January 10, 1996) was an American boxing trainer and actor.

As one of the most sought-after trainers in the business, Silvani trained over twenty world champions, including Jake LaMotta, Henry Armstrong, Carmen Basilio, Fritzie Zivic, Pone Kingpetch, Rocky Graziano, Ingemar Johansson, and Lou Ambers.

He also had a lengthy career in the film industry as an actor, stunt man, and as a technical advisor—most noteworthy a lead role in Robin and the Seven Hoods. He also appeared in From Here to Eternity, Ocean's Eleven, Stir Crazy, Every Which Way But Loose, The Gauntlet,  Rocky, Rocky II and Rocky III.

He was a close personal friend of Frank Sinatra and hung out with Sinatra's Rat Pack.

Inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame.

2006 California Boxing Hall of Fame Inductee.

Fighters trained

  Cisco Andrade
Alexis Argüello
  Billy Backus
Nino Benvenuti (Late in his Career 1968–71)
Tom Bogs
Mustafa Hamsho (For second Hagler fight)
Eddie Machen
Tami Mauriello
Buster Mathis
Floyd Patterson (Later in his Career)
Al Tribuani
Cleveland Williams
Robert De Niro (for his role in Raging Bull)

Death
Silvani died in the North Hollywood section of Los Angeles in 1996.

Filmography

References

The Ring magazine, Corner Men: Great Boxing Trainers - Ronald K. Fried

External links

American male film actors
Male actors from New York City
1910 births
1996 deaths
20th-century American male actors


The Noel Besi River is a river flowing in the west part of Timor island and forms part of the border between the East Timor exclave of Oecussi and Indonesian West Timor. It flows north into the Sawu Sea. Located 1900 km east of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta.

Hydrology
The river rises in the mountains of West Timor as Oelvab. It is formed from several tributaries, the longest and southernmost rises to about 820 m in height. After the merging of the tributaries, the river winds north through the mountains. Below the Kali Aplal the Oelvab continues to flow towards the northeast, where after a few kilometers it merges with two other rivers. As soon as it reaches the East Timorese Suco Malelat, it forms the border between Indonesia and East Timor.

From Suco Malelat, the river now called Rio Kusi flows in northwest direction along the border of the Sucos Banafi and Lela-Ufe, before reaching the Suco Usi-Taco. The river bends sharply to southwest and flows along the border of Suco Beneufe. Just south of the village Lamasi it bends again to the northwest. The river now widens, forming river islands and tributaries. Just south of the village Naktuka the river splits. While the left arm, forming several lakes, flows further northwest to Sawu Sea, the right arm bends to the northeast. Both arms are crossed by the northern coastal road, with two bridges over the right arm. This arm flows between Oehoso and Manan on the right side and Naktuka on the left, forming more river islands and several tributaries, and also flows into the Sawu Sea a little later

Geography

The river flows in the northwest part of Timor with predominantly tropical savanna climate (designated as Aw in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification). The annual average temperature in the area is 24 °C. The warmest month is October, when the average temperature is around 28 °C, and the coldest is February, at 22 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1621 mm. The wettest month is January, with an average of 331 mm rainfall, and the driest is August, with 7 mm rainfall.

Border

The Noel Besi forms the "Noel Besi-Citrana border" area between Kupang Regency, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, and Ambeno Regency, which belongs to East Timor. This area is watered Noel Besi river which discharges into Ombai Strait. In the period of Portuguese colonization, the river flowed on the east side of the disputed area, but due to the natural climate change, the river shifted to the right side of the disputed area, which has now become a fertile agricultural heritage land with the current Noel Besi river.

The small village Naktuka is in the eastern part of administrative village Netemnanu, District of Amfoang, Kupang Regency, and located exactly on the border between Indonesia and East Timor. Now the area of 1,069 hectare has a "free zone" status, cannot be entered by population of both country, although historically, Naktuka belonged to Indonesia, according to the agreement between Portugal and the Netherlands in 1904. In 2017, 63 families from East Timor occupied Naktuka, with immigration office, church, electric network and meeting place of the Oecusse people.

Originally the border between Amfoang and East Timor was the Noel Besi, but now the East Timor people has crossed the border up to 3 km until the stream of Nonomna. One meter from the stream is the Indonesian army outpost. This stream is claimed by East Timor as the border between Indonesia and East Timor. Indonesia wants the Noel Besi as its area according to toponym, whereas East Timor wants the Nono Nomna River based on compass azimuth.

References

Further reading
Wheeler, T. (2004) East Timor. Footscray, VIC; Lonely Planet.

Rivers of East Timor
East Timor–Indonesia border
International rivers of Asia
Rivers of Timor
Oecusse
Rivers of West Timor
Rivers of Indonesia
Border rivers


This is a list of countries and territories where Russian is an official language:

Highest nationwide status or nationwide status of the state language

Second highest nationwide status or nationwide status of the official language

Any other status defined by constitution, nationwide recognised minority language or similar status

Status in dependencies or regions

See also
 Geographical distribution of Russian speakers

References

Countries and territories


Citrana is a small town in the East Timor exclave of Oecusse Special Administrative Region. It is located in the far west of the exclave, close to the mouth of the Noel Besi River, which forms part of the border with Indonesia.

References
Wheeler, T. (2004) East Timor. Footscray, VIC: Lonely Planet.

Populated places in Oecusse


Charles Firth may refer to:
 Charles Firth (comedian), Australian comedian
 Charles Firth (coach), head coach of the Virginia Tech college football program
 Charles Firth (historian) (1857–1936), British historian
 Charles Firth (British Army officer) (1902–1991), British general


Arend Joachim Friedrich Wiegmann (30 March 1770 – 12 March 1853) was a German pharmacist and botanist born in Hadersleben.  He was the father of zoologist Arend Friedrich August Wiegmann (1802-1841).

Originally an apprentice pharmacist to his uncle in Braunschweig, he spent the following years working in several pharmacies in Germany and Switzerland. Following the death of his uncle in 1796, he inherited the Braunschweig pharmacy, serving as its manager until 1820. In 1821 he became a lecturer of natural sciences at the Collegium Carolinum in Braunschweig, later receiving the title of professor (1832).

In 1839 he published a manual on phytopathology called Die Krankheiten und krankhaften Missbildungen der Gewachse. He was the author of a treatise involving the origins, formation and nature of peat, titled Über die Entstehung, Bildung und das Wesen des Torfes. In 1842 he and L. Polstorff wrote on plant constituents that are not organic: Ũber die anorganischen Bestandteiele der Pflanzen.

In 1832, Franz Julius Ferdinand Meyen named the plant genus Wiegmannia in his son's honor.

References

 This article incorporates text based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia.

1770 births
1853 deaths
People from Haderslev Municipality
German pharmacists
19th-century German botanists
People from the Duchy of Schleswig
Academic staff of the Technical University of Braunschweig


Trikone () is a non-profit support, social, and political organization for South Asian bisexual, lesbian, gay, and transgender people. It was founded in 1986 in the San Francisco Bay Area and is one of the oldest groups of its kind in the world. South Asians affiliated with Trikone are from or trace their ancestry to the following countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Burma, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Tibet. Trikone published an eponymous magazine with an international base of subscribers several times a year.  The magazine was the oldest South Asian LGBT magazine in the U.S., and ran from 1986 to 2014.

Several metropolitan areas in North America aside from the San Francisco Bay Area also have organizations named "Trikone" (such as Trikone Northwest and Trikone Michigan), which have similar missions.

History and activities
The organization was co-founded in 1986 by Arvind Kumar and Suvir Das with the name "Trikon" and the first newsletter was published with that name in January 1986. (The name was later changed to "Trikone" due to a name conflict with an unrelated organization, "Tricon".) Following media coverage in both the United States and India, a group soon formed to continue the publication of the newsletter and to participate in local events such as the San Francisco Gay & Lesbian Pride Parade.

In 2000 and 2006, DesiQ, a South Asian queer conference of international scope was produced by the organization. In September 2001 QFilmistan, a film festival, was also produced.

About the name
"Trikone" (Hindi/Marathi/Sanskrit: , , , , , , ) means "triangle" in many South Asian languages. The pink triangle is a historical symbol employed in gay liberation movements.

Women of Trikone
Women of Trikone is a sub group and also has separate a list-serve for queer women of South Asian descent from the Bay Area.

See also

List of LGBT organizations

References

External links
Official site
Trikone Northwest
Women of Trikone Google Group
South Asian American organizations
International LGBT political advocacy groups
Organizations established in 1986
Non-profit organizations based in the San Francisco Bay Area
LGBT history in San Francisco
LGBT Asian-American culture
1986 in LGBT history
1986 establishments in the United States