Saint-Aubin () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

History
The name Saint-Aubin comes from that of the church Sanctus Albinus, already in existence in the 12th century.

The village depended on the Abbey of the Paraclete founded by Peter Abelard around 1121 and established as a nunnery by Héloïse around 1125, 1 km southeast of the village. The curacy of Saint-Aubin was assigned by the abbess of Le Paraclet. The conventual building, the old vaulted kitchen, the barns and the dovecote remain and are listed monuments.

A 1271 deed of partition mentions a fortified house at Saint-Aubin: "seigneury with keep, fossez and arrière-fossez". In 1603, a survey located the motte and its outbuildings on an area of "two and a half arpents 10 perches" between the cemetery, rue du Cormont, Grande rue and the "pré et aulnoy" where the river Ardusson runs.

Château de La Chapelle-Godefroy
Château de La Chapelle-Godefroy, 2.8 km northwest of the village, was acquired in 1697 by Jean Orry, who had it almost entirely rebuilt in 1706, at considerable expense, by the architect Jacques de Lajoue. Today's Tourne-Bride, on the north side of the D4422, corresponds to a former roadside outbuilding of the château, where servants and visitors' horses would disembark.

His son Philibert Orry, Master of Requests for Louis XIV, inherited the château in 1719. In 1730, he was appointed Controller-General of Finances  and in the same year commissioned Charles-Joseph Natoire to paint a famous group of 21 canvases for the chateau, created between 1731 and 1740. He also owned two paintings by Antoine Watteau (L'Enchanteur and L'Aventurière). Eventually, the château's collections also included a Robert (Ruines d'un pont romain); a Boucher (Les Génies des Beaux-Arts); and works by lesser-known artists such as Claude François Desportes, son of Alexandre-François Desportes, (who offers the only known view of the château grounds), Michelangelo Cerquozzi, and Antoine Coypel.

Louis XV slept at the château on November 12, 1744 on his return from Metz.

After Philibert Orry's death in 1747, the château passed to his brother Jean Henri Louis Orry de Fulvy (1703-1751), then to the latter's son, Philibert Louis Orry de Fulvy, who sold it in 1760 to Bouret de Valroche (brother of fermier général Bouret). The following year, he sold it to Jean de Boullonges (†1769), who bequeathed it to his son, Jean-Nicolas de Boullongne (†1787). The latter's son, Paul Esprit Charles de Boullongne, saw the château seized in 1792. During the winter of 1792, citoyen Lassertey, administrator of the Aube department, was commissioned to select works for the future Musée de Troyes10 , which thus acquired a unique collection of Natoire's paintings.

During the French Revolution, the commune was temporarily named Corquelin. A chapel of this name is shown to the west of the village on the Cassini map.

The château was pillaged and burnt down in 1814 during the battle of Nogent-sur-Seine. A few vestiges remain: pavilion, entrance gate, ruins in the former park.

According to the Aube archives, in death certificates from 1825 to 1862 (p. 185/219), Château de La Chapelle-Godefroy was inhabited by Madame Gabrielle Legras de Vaubercey, who died there on May 2, 1857, and her husband Adolphe Henri du Hamel.

Meteors
In 1968, a 170 kg meteorite fragment was discovered by farmers. On October 3, 2018, another fragment was discovered. This one weighs no less than 477 kg, making it the largest meteorite ever found in France. What's more, with a total of 7 tonnes of rock of extraterrestrial origin unearthed by researchers, this is the largest collection of celestial objects of this type ever uncovered in France. These meteorites had been lying one metre underground for 55,000 years.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Benoist-sur-Vanne () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Benoît-sur-Seine (, literally Saint-Benoît on Seine) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Christophe-Dodinicourt () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department
Parc naturel régional de la Forêt d'Orient

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Sainte-Maure () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Sainte-Savine () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department
 Croix la Beigne

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Étienne-sous-Barbuise (, literally Saint-Étienne under Barbuise) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Flavy () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Mont-Saint-Martin () is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Ardennes department

References

Communes of Ardennes (department)
Ardennes communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Germain () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Hilaire-sous-Romilly (, literally Saint-Hilaire under Romilly) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Jean-de-Bonneval () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France. It features a noted church, the Église paroissiale Saint-Jean-Baptiste, built in 1830 after the previous church collapsed.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Julien-les-Villas is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Léger-près-Troyes (, literally 'Saint-Léger near Troyes') is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Léger-sous-Brienne (, literally Saint-Léger under Brienne) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department
Parc naturel régional de la Forêt d'Orient

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Léger-sous-Margerie (, literally Saint-Léger under Margerie) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Loup-de-Buffigny () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Lupien () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


The Bugle is a satirical news podcast, created by John Oliver and Andy Zaltzman in 2007. It is currently hosted by Zaltzman and a rotating cast of co-hosts including Alice Fraser, Nish Kumar, Anuvab Pal, Hari Kondabolu, Tom Ballard, and Helen Zaltzman. It focuses on global news stories (but primarily on United Kingdom and United States news items).

Oliver and Zaltzman co-hosted the podcast from 2007 to 2015, and Zaltzman has hosted it with a rotating set of co-hosts since a relaunch in September 2016. The podcast was initially produced independently and distributed by TimesOnline before becoming independent in 2011. It was part of Radiotopia from 2016 to 2018, when it switched to independent production funded by a voluntary subscription model. As of April 2015, the podcast had received over 500,000 downloads a month.

History

John Oliver and Andy Zaltzman had previously partnered for satirical comedy radio programs Political Animal and The Department. Shortly after Oliver's move to New York to work on The Daily Show, the two were approached by The Times to do a satirical podcast. The first episode of The Bugle was released on 14 October 2007. New episodes of the podcast were generally recorded and published on Fridays with related material appearing on its official website.

At its launch, The Bugle was distributed by TimesOnline, which is owned by Rupert Murdoch's News International. During the News International phone hacking scandal of 2011, The Bugle satirised its parent company in a manner which the New York Times characterised as "blistering" in an article published 15 August. Over the course of a few weekly episodes prior to the New York Times' article, Zaltzman and Oliver had gone "straight for the jugular" regarding News International, its newspapers, and Murdoch himself. Their barbs included a comment that The News of the World "would not be missed at all", as well as the assertion by Oliver—in response to the shaving cream pie attack on Murdoch—that despite the humour inherent in the attack, "[you] just don't want to find yourself with any misplaced sympathy for Rupert Murdoch." The comedians jokingly marvelled with one another that no one in News International had yet shut down their podcast, with Oliver tapping his microphone and asking, "Should this not have been stopped by now? It doesn’t make sense!" In response to the report from the New York Times, in an episode of The Bugle released 19 August, Oliver gave this opening monologue:"Welcome to any first-time Buglers who are here because they might have read The New York Times' story on us earlier this week…but now that the story's in a newspaper that I'm guessing [Murdoch] reads cover to cover every day, I'm thinking there's an even smaller chance of us managing to not get fired now. So thanks very much, New York Times! Your trumpeting of this podcast may well turn into bugling the Last Post. I guess what I'm saying is—to our new listeners—'Hello and goodbye!'"

On 14 December 2011, it was announced on the podcast that Times Online would no longer be hosting and distributing The Bugle. It was made clear by the hosts and TimeOnline that decision was not based on the show's repeated satirisation of News Corp and the Murdoch family. Zaltzman noted that the never-broadcast pilot approved by News Corp executives in 2007 featured criticism of Rupert Murdoch.

The first episode of the newly independent Bugle was published on 20 January 2012 and the podcast was funded by donations and merchandise purchases by listeners from October 2012 to mid-2016.

In the summer of 2014 The Bugle was put on hiatus so that Oliver could focus on his then-forthcoming television show Last Week Tonight with John Oliver with weekly Bugle publication having resumed in October. From summer 2015 to June 2016 episodes were published intermittently when the hosts' work schedules permitted.

On 3 June 2016, it was announced that Oliver would be leaving The Bugle as a permanent co-host, no longer able to regularly host due to family and work commitments. The "fourth season" of The Bugle would continue to be hosted by Andy Zaltzman with various international guest hosts filling in for Oliver. The show was officially re-launched on 24 October 2016, supported by the Radiotopia podcast network. Producer Chris Skinner remained on the show along with Zaltzman, and the first set of new co-hosts were Wyatt Cenac (US), Hari Kondabolu (US), Nish Kumar (UK), Anuvab Pal (India) and Helen Zaltzman (UK). All except Cenac continued to appear on the show regularly through to 2020. Other co-hosts continue to be added to the roster, with some, including Tom Ballard (Australia) and Tiff Stevenson (UK) becoming long-term contributors. Alice Fraser (Australia), introduced in Bugle 4024, has become the most frequent presenter introduced since Oliver's departure, and was the creator and full time host of its first spin off The Last Post, which ran for more than 300 episodes in 2020.

The Bugle left Radiotopia in 2019 and is now funded through voluntary subscription. As a reward for donations, Zaltzman runs a Lies about Our Subscribers service, where he puts each donor's name to an unlikely fact. These are read in a list at the close of episodes.

Guest co-hosts

Since the 2016 relaunch, the show's most frequent co-hosts have been Alice Fraser, Nish Kumar, Anuvab Pal, Hari Kondabolu, Tiff Stevenson and Nato Green. Other regularly recurring co-hosts are Tom Ballard, Josh Gondelman and Helen Zaltzman.

Other co-hosts to have appeared more than once include Chris Addison, Wyatt Cenac, Neil Delamere, Alex Edelman, Matt Forde, Jena Friedman, Lloyd Langford, Aditi Mittal, Al Murray, James Nokise, David O'Doherty, Sami Shah, Mark Steel, Baratunde Thurston and Felicity Ward.

John Oliver has co-hosted twice since the 2016 relaunch, including in episode 4100.

Live shows

In 2017, the show began to add live shows, performed in front of an audience. Starting at the Melbourne Comedy Festival, followed by dates in London and Edinburgh, the live shows feature Zaltzman with regular co-hosts and Producer Chris. The show is similar in nature to the podcast, with added visuals, a listener Q&A and live audience-only content. These shows also are available in the podcasts feed for all listeners.

Producers

During the first several episodes of the show various "producers" are mentioned by name on air though none of them featured in the show's content.

Tom Wright, known solely on The Bugle as "Tom the Producer", was the producer of the show from episodes 1 to episode 107. He is first heard in Episode 21a, providing continuity to various out-takes from the first twenty episodes. Wright emigrated to Australia in 2010, and returned as a producer for the season 4 episodes recorded in Australia (4023, 4024, 4025).

Wright was replaced by Chris Skinner, who had previously worked with Zaltzman on the Yes, It's the Ashes radio show on BBC Radio 5 Live in 2009. In 2019 Skinner launched his own podcast, titled 'Richie Firth: Travel Hacker, with Absolute Radio's Richie Firth, which featured a cameo from Bugle co-host Alice Fraser.

Ped Hunter has subbed for Skinner when the latter is ill or on holiday. In 2020, Hunter was one of the producers of spin off series The Last Post.

Offshoots
 The Bugle Website – Created in January 2012, the site contains updates on new shows, funding information, notes from the producer and technical information. A site with the same URL had existed previously as an unofficial site.
 @hellobuglers, a Twitter account. Although it began as a complement to The Bugle, primarily publishing one-liner political jokes, it also serves as Andy Zaltzman's own Twitter feed. For example, Zaltzman has used it to announce his guest appearances on other programs.
 @ProducerChris, a Twitter account from show producer Chris Skinner, providing news and updates.
 In 2020, The Bugle launched a daily show titled The Last Post, a short form podcast "set in a parallel universe" and hosted by regular Bugle co-host Alice Fraser. Featuring Andy Zaltzman, Chris Skinner alongside other Bugle regulars (including John Oliver as the voiceover) the show has expanded on The Bugle universe, bringing in emerging talent including Alison Spittle, Charlie George and John Luke Roberts. In November 2020 Fraser confirmed on Bugle 4173 and on social channels that the series would come to an end upon completing a full year, to be replaced with a new show.
 In 2021, a second Alice Fraser spin off show, titled The Gargle' launched. This weekly show was billed as 'the glossy magazine to The Bugle's Audio Newspaper'. The show follows a similar format to The Bugle (with crossover guests from both The Bugle and The Last Post), with a focus on non-political news.
 The Bugle has also produced two Tiffany Stevenson series'; Tiny Revolutions, and Catharsis, which launched as part of The Bugle's 15th anniversary, in October 2022.
 To mark The Bugle's 15th anniversary, Top Stories, a new daily, short form podcast series was launched, featuring clips from classic episodes over the 15 years of the show's history.
 Zaltzman and Fraser appeared in the 2020 videogame Watch Dogs: Legion as hosts of in-game fictional podcast The Bug, styled after The Bugle, that aims to "analyse the latest blowflies to emerge from the corpse of a once-free Britain".

Reception
The Bugle has received many positive mentions in the media. A review by American blog Frozen Toothpaste described the podcast in a 2007 review as "a usually delightful, witty and deadpan satire". Computing website Philosophical Geek praised The Bugle for its unique wit, saying that the reviewer found himself "laughing too hard to concentrate on anything else". The Bugle, according to The Nerd Rage Blog, is "a thing of beauty" and "is quite simply, hilarious". Zaltzman's "bullshit facts" are complimented, as is Oliver's "biting sarcasm". BBC Comedy review show What's So Funny described The Bugle as the benchmark in satire, in an episode dated 27 May 2011.

The podcast has continued to gain positive press coverage in the "Season 4" era, a Financial Times review of its earliest episodes opining that "Anyone wondering if The Bugle would be a damp squib without Oliver needn’t have worried." More recently, there has been particular praise for the show's most frequent 'guest host' Alice Fraser. The Spectator stated Fraser "vibes perfectly with Zaltzman’s hyper-articulate and anarchic style", whilst Narc Magazine reviewed her live performance as "captivating, landing her punch lines every time with surreptitious asides into the mic, while Zaltzman whips factual news into delightful, fantastical nonsense, leaving you questioning what was real and what was not."

References

External links

Audio podcasts
Comedy podcasts
The Times
2007 podcast debuts
Radiotopia


Gold mining in Nevada, a state of the United States, is a major industry, and one of the largest sources of gold in the world. In 2018 Nevada produced , representing 78% of US gold and 5.0% of the world's production. Total gold production recorded from Nevada from 1835 to 2017 totals , worth US$322.6 billion at 2020 values. Much of Nevada's gold production comes from large open pit mining using heap leaching recovery.

The Nevada mining industry supported an average 14,787 direct employees in 2018, with about 75,000 additional jobs related to providing goods and services needed by the mining industry. The average pay for mining industry employees during this time was $97,600 per year, the third highest average private employment sector in the state.

Major mining companies such as Newmont Goldcorp and Barrick Gold Corporation operate many of the state's gold mines. Active mines include those at Jerritt Canyon and the Carlin Trend.

Although Nevada was known much more for silver in the 19th century, many of the early silver mining districts also produced considerable quantities of gold. The Comstock Lode produced  of gold through 1959, and the Eureka district produced .
The Robinson copper mine has produced well over  gold, along with over 4 billion pounds (1,500,000 tonnes) of copper.

Carlin Trend

Gold was discovered in the vicinity of Carlin in Eureka County in the 1870s, but production was small.  Glacier deposits were discovered in 1907, but the deposits were too small to cause much excitement.  It was not until 1961 that Newmont Mining Corporation discovered the large low-grade gold deposit at Carlin that the mining industry began to take notice. The Carlin mine began producing gold in 1965, but at a gold price of US$35 per troy ounce, ore grades were still too low to cause a rush to northern Nevada.  It was not until the gold price escalated in the 1970s that mining companies began to target similar deposits.

The Carlin Trend, part of what is also known as the Carlin Unconformity, is  wide and  long running northwest–southeast, has since produced more gold than any other mining district in the United States. Production from the trend surpassed  of gold in 2002.  The Carlin and other mines along the trend pioneered the method of open-pit mining with cyanide heap leach recovery that is today used at large low-grade gold mines worldwide.

New ore deposits are still being discovered and developed along the trend. The South Arturo deposit was discovered by Barrick Gold in 2005. The deposit contains an estimated  of gold.

Goldfield

Goldfield was discovered in 1902, and began major gold production in 1904.  The ore occurs in altered shear zones in Tertiary dacite and andesite.  Total gold production through 1959 was .

Robinson/Ely
The Robinson district at Ely, Nevada produced about  of gold through 1990, as a byproduct of copper mining.

In 2017 the Robinson Mine produced 112,633,428 pounds of copper, 37,897 troy ounces of gold and 652,763 pounds of molybdenite with 617 employees.

Gold royalties
All mineral and gold production on public and private lands in Nevada is subject to a Net Royalty payable to the State. The gross proceeds from the sale of minerals minus allowable deductions determine the taxable net proceeds.  If the net proceeds from sales by a mine in the taxable year total $4 million or more, the tax rate is 5%.  For less profitable mines the tax rate is graduated down to 2%. Miners' net proceeds are also subject to federal corporate income tax of 21%.

Because the NPM tax is an ad valorem property tax, the amount of the net proceeds times the property tax rate goes to the county where the mineral was extracted. Any additional amount of tax paid up to the 5% goes to the State.

In 2017-2018 the Nevada net proceeds royalty raised $155.1 million (down from $255.6 million in 2012) from gold and silver production, of which the counties received $87.5 million (down from $127 million in 2012).

Gold Mining Companies in Nevada

 Barrick Gold
 Coeur Mining
 Hecla Mining
 KGHM Polska Miedź
 Kinross Gold
 Newmont Corporation
 SSR Mining
 Sprott Mining

See also

 List of active gold mines in Nevada
 Bald Mountain mine
 Cortez Gold Mine
 Getchell Mine
 Goldstrike mine
 Marigold mine
 Nevada Gold Mines
 Robinson Mine
 Round Mountain Gold Mine
 Carlin–type gold deposit
 Gold mining in the United States
 Silver mining in Nevada

References

External links
Gold Districts of Nevada, map & a brief writeup for 36 lode and 16 placer districts with significant production
 Nevada Gold Mines, joint venture between Barrick & Newmont
 Barrick:  Goldstrike Property
 Southern Nevada: The Boomtown Years 1900-1925
 Nevada Mineral Industry 2006, by Nevada Bureau of Mines & Geology
 Major mines of Nevada 2006, by Nevada Bureau of Mines & Geology
 Nevada: A very modern gold rush  at Mining Journal, 30 Mar 2012


Saint-Lyé () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Mards-en-Othe () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Spas Bukhalov (Cyrillic: Спас Бухалов; born 14 November 1980) is a Bulgarian pole vaulter.

He won the 2001 Balkan Games and finished sixth at the 2007 European Indoor Championships. He also competed at the Olympic Games in 2004 as well as the World Championships in 2003 and 2007 without reaching the final.

His personal best jump is 5.82 metres, achieved in June 2007 in Sofia. This is the Bulgarian, and Balkan, record.

He was born in Plovdiv.

Competition record

References

1980 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Plovdiv
Bulgarian male pole vaulters
Olympic athletes for Bulgaria
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
World Athletics Championships athletes for Bulgaria


Saint-Martin-de-Bossenay is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


3 Doors Down is the fourth studio album by American rock band 3 Doors Down, released on May 20, 2008. "It's Not My Time" was the first single from the album and was released in February 2008. Another song on the album, "Citizen/Soldier" was released in 2007 as a tribute to the National Guard.

The album became the band's second consecutive number-one album on the Billboard 200, debuting at the top position with first week sales of 154,000. 3 Doors Down was certified Gold by the RIAA on June 26, 2008, and as of November 2009, it has sold 820,000 copies in the US. It is their first album to feature Greg Upchurch on drums.

Track listing

Personnel

3 Doors Down
 Brad Arnold – lead vocals
 Matt Roberts – lead guitar, backing vocals
 Chris Henderson – rhythm guitar, backing vocals
 Todd Harrell – bass
 Greg Upchurch – drums

Additional musicians
 David Davidson, David Angell, John Catchings and Kris Wilkinson – strings
 Kris Wilkinson - strings arrangement

Production
 Johnny K – producer, engineering, strings
 Kirk Kelsey – engineering, digital editing, additional production
 Andy Wallace – mixing at East Iris Recording Studio, Nashville, TN (assisted by John O'Mahoney)
 George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound, New York, NY
 Heather Sturm and Mike Paragone – engineering
 Steve Beers – assistant engineering
 Doug Sonders (DSp) – cover photo, staff photography
 Chapman Baehler – additional photographs
 Sandy Brummels – creative direction
 Christopher Kornmann – art direction and design at Spit and Image, NYC

Charts

Weekly charts

Year end charts

Certifications and sales

References

External links

3 Doors Down albums
2008 albums
Universal Records albums
Albums produced by Johnny K


Saint-Nabord-sur-Aube (, literally Saint-Nabord on Aube) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Nicolas-la-Chapelle () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Lesja Station is a railway station at Lesja, Norway on the Rauma Line. The station is located  from Dombås and is served by all trains on the Rauma Line. The station was opened as part of the first stretch of the railway in 1921.

External links
 Jernbaneverket entry
 NSB entry
 Norsk Jernbaneklub entry

Railway stations in Oppland
Railway stations on the Rauma Line
Railway stations opened in 1921
Lesja
Railway stations in Norway opened in the 1920s


Saint-Oulph () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France with the post code 10170.

Inhabitants of Saint-Oulph are known as Saint-Ulphiens or Saint-Ulphiennes.

Population

The municipal population of Saint-Oluph was 287 as of 2017, with a population density of 26 inhabitants per km².

Geography
Saint-Oulph is located in the Grand Est region  approximately a 2 hour and 15 minute drive South-East from Paris and is located on the East bank of the River Seine.

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Parres-aux-Tertres () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Geography
The Barse flows into the Vieille Seine, an arm of the Seine, in the commune.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Parres-lès-Vaudes (, literally Saint-Parres near Vaudes) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Phal () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Pouange is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Saint-Remy-sous-Barbuise is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


William Rowan Hamilton invented quaternions, a mathematical entity in 1843. This article describes Hamilton's original treatment of quaternions, using his notation and terms. Hamilton's treatment is more geometric than the modern approach, which emphasizes quaternions' algebraic properties. Mathematically, quaternions discussed differ from the modern definition only by the terminology which is used.

Classical elements of a quaternion
Hamilton defined a quaternion as the quotient of two directed lines in tridimensional space; or, more generally, as the quotient of two vectors.

A quaternion can be represented as the sum of a scalar and a vector. It can also be represented as the product of its tensor and its versor.

Scalar

Hamilton invented the term scalars for the real numbers, because they span the "scale of progression from positive to negative infinity" or because they represent the "comparison of positions upon one common scale". Hamilton regarded ordinary scalar algebra as the science of pure time.

Vector

Hamilton defined a vector as "a right line ... having not only length but also direction". Hamilton derived the word vector from the Latin vehere, to carry.

Hamilton conceived a vector as the "difference of its two extreme points." For Hamilton, a vector was always a three-dimensional entity, having three co-ordinates relative to any given co-ordinate system, including but not limited to both polar and rectangular systems. He therefore referred to vectors as "triplets".

Hamilton defined addition of vectors in geometric terms, by placing the origin of the second vector at the end of the first. He went on to define vector subtraction.

By adding a vector to itself multiple times, he defined multiplication of a vector by an integer, then extended this to division by an integer, and multiplication (and division) of a vector by a rational number. Finally, by taking limits, he defined the result of multiplying a vector α by any scalar x as a vector β with the same direction as α if x is positive; the opposite direction to α if x is negative; and a length that is |x| times the length of α.

The quotient of two parallel or anti-parallel vectors is therefore a scalar with absolute value equal to the ratio of the lengths of the two vectors; the scalar is positive if the vectors are parallel and negative if they are anti-parallel.

Unit vector
A unit vector is a vector of length one.  Examples of unit vectors include i, j and k.

Tensor

 Note: The use of the word tensor by Hamilton does not coincide with modern terminology. Hamilton's tensor is actually the absolute value on the quaternion algebra, which makes it a normed vector space.
Hamilton defined tensor as a positive numerical quantity, or, more properly, signless number. A tensor can be thought of as a positive scalar. The "tensor" can be thought of as representing a "stretching factor."

Hamilton introduced the term tensor in his first book, Lectures on Quaternions, based on lectures he gave shortly after his invention of the quaternions:
it seems convenient to enlarge by definition the signification of the new word tensor, so as to render it capable of including also those other cases in which we operate on a line by diminishing instead of increasing its length ; and generally by altering that length in any definite ratio. We shall thus (as was hinted at the end of the article in question) have fractional and even incommensurable tensors, which will simply be numerical multipliers, and will all be positive or (to speak more properly) SignLess Numbers, that is, unclothed with the algebraic signs of positive and negative ; because, in the operation here considered, we abstract from the directions (as well as from the situations) of the lines which are compared or operated on.

Each quaternion has a tensor, which is a measure of its magnitude (in the same way as the length of a vector is a measure of a vectors' magnitude). When a quaternion is defined as the quotient of two vectors, its tensor is the ratio of the lengths of these vectors.

Versor

A versor is a quaternion with a tensor of 1. Alternatively, a versor can be defined as the quotient of two equal-length vectors.

In general a versor defines all of the following: a directional axis; the plane normal to that axis; and an angle of rotation.

When a versor and a vector which lies in the plane of the versor are multiplied, the result is a new vector of the same length but turned by the angle of the versor.

Vector arc
Since every unit vector can be thought of as a point on a unit sphere, and since a versor can be thought of as the quotient of two vectors, a versor has a representative great circle arc, called a vector arc, connecting these two points, drawn from the divisor or lower part of quotient, to the dividend or upper part of the quotient.

Right versor
When the arc of a versor has the magnitude of a right angle, then it is called a right versor, a right radial or quadrantal versor.

Degenerate forms
There are two special degenerate versor cases, called the unit-scalars. These two scalars (negative and positive unity) can be thought of as scalar quaternions. These two scalars are special limiting cases, corresponding to versors with angles of either zero or π.

Unlike other versors, these two cannot be represented by a unique arc. The arc of 1 is a single point, and –1 can be represented by an infinite number of arcs, because there are an infinite number of shortest lines between antipodal points of a sphere.

Quaternion
Every quaternion can be decomposed into a scalar and a vector.

These two operations S and V are called "take the Scalar of" and "take the vector of" a quaternion. The vector part of a quaternion is also called the right part.

Every quaternion is equal to a versor multiplied by the tensor of the quaternion. Denoting the versor of a quaternion by

and the tensor of a quaternion by

we have

Right quaternion
A right quaternion is a quaternion whose scalar component is zero,

The angle of a right quaternion is 90 degrees.  A right quaternion can also be thought of as a vector plus a zero scalar. Right quaternions may be put in what was called the standard trinomial form. For example, if Q is a right quaternion, it may be written as:

Four operations
Four operations are of fundamental importance in quaternion notation.
 + − ÷ ×
In particular it is important to understand that there is a single operation of multiplication, a single operation of division, and a single operation each of addition and subtraction. This single multiplication operator can operate on any of the types of mathematical entities. Likewise every kind of entity  can be divided, added or subtracted from any other type of entity. Understanding the meaning of the subtraction symbol is critical in quaternion theory, because it leads to an understanding of the concept of a vector.

Ordinal operators
The two ordinal operations in classical quaternion notation were addition and subtraction or + and −.

These marks are:

"...characteristics of synthesis and analysis of a state of progression, according as this state is considered as being derived from, or compared with, some other state of that progression."

Subtraction

Subtraction is a type of analysis called ordinal analysis

...let space be now regarded as the field of progression which is to be studied, and POINTS as states of that progression. ...I am led to regard the word "Minus," or the mark −, in geometry, as the sign or characteristic of analysis of one geometric position (in space), as compared with another (such) position. The comparison of one mathematical point with another with a view to the determination of what may be called their ordinal relation, or their relative position in space...

The first example of subtraction is to take the point A to represent the earth, and the point B to represent the sun, then an arrow drawn from A to B represents the act of moving or vection from A to B.

B − A

this represents the first example in Hamilton's lectures of a vector.  In this case the act of traveling from the earth to the sun.

Addition
Addition is a type of analysis called ordinal synthesis.

Addition of vectors and scalars
Vectors and scalars can be added. When a vector is added to a scalar, a completely different entity, a quaternion is created.

A vector plus a scalar is always a quaternion even if the scalar is zero.  If the scalar added to the vector is zero then the new quaternion produced is called a right quaternion.  It has an angle characteristic of 90 degrees.

Cardinal operations
The two Cardinal operations in quaternion notation are geometric multiplication and geometric division and can be written:

 ÷, ×
It is not required to learn the following more advanced terms in order to use division and multiplication.

Division is a kind of analysis called cardinal analysis. Multiplication is a kind of synthesis called cardinal synthesis

Division
Classically, the quaternion was viewed as the ratio of two vectors, sometimes called a geometric fraction.

If OA and OB represent two vectors drawn from the origin O to two other points A and B, then the geometric fraction was written as

Alternately if the two vectors are represented by α and β the quotient was written as

or

Hamilton asserts: "The quotient of two vectors is generally a quaternion". Lectures on Quaternions also first introduces the concept of a quaternion as the quotient of two vectors:

Logically and by definition,

if

then .

In Hamilton's calculus the product is not commutative, i.e., the order of the variables is of great importance. If the order of q and β were to be reversed the result would not in general be α. The quaternion q can be thought of as an operator that changes β into α, by first rotating it, formerly an act of version and then changing the length of it, formerly called an act of tension.

Also by definition the quotient of two vectors is equal to the numerator times the reciprocal of the denominator. Since multiplication of vectors is not commutative, the order cannot be changed in the following expression.

Again the order of the two quantities on the right hand side  is significant.

Hardy presents the definition of division in terms of mnemonic cancellation rules. "Canceling being performed by an upward right hand stroke".

If alpha and beta are vectors and q is a quaternion such that

then

and

  and  are inverse operations, such that:

  and

and

An important way to think of q is as an operator that changes β into α, by first rotating it (version) and then changing its length (tension).

Division of the unit vectors i, j, k
The results of using the division operator on i, j, and k was as follows.

The reciprocal of a unit vector is the vector reversed.

Because a unit vector and its reciprocal are parallel to each other but point in opposite directions, the product of a unit vector and its reciprocal have a special case commutative property, for example if a is any unit vector then:

However, in the more general case involving more than one vector (whether or not it is a unit vector) the commutative property does not hold. For example:

 ≠

This is because k/i is carefully defined as:

.

So that:

,

however

Division of two parallel vectors
While in general the quotient of two vectors is a quaternion, If α and β are two parallel vectors then the quotient of these two vectors is a scalar. For example, if

,

and  then

Where a/b is a scalar.

Division of two non-parallel vectors
The quotient of two vectors is in general the quaternion:

Where α and β are two non-parallel vectors, φ is that angle between them, and ε is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the vectors α and β, with its direction given by the standard right hand rule.

Multiplication
Classical quaternion notation had only one concept of multiplication. Multiplication of two real numbers, two imaginary numbers or a real number by an imaginary number in the classical notation system was the same operation.

Multiplication of a scalar and a vector was accomplished with the same single multiplication operator; multiplication of two vectors of quaternions used this same operation as did multiplication of a quaternion and a vector or of two quaternions.

Factor, Faciend and Factum

Factor × Faciend = Factum

When two quantities are multiplied the first quantity is called the factor, the second quantity is called the faciend and the result is called the factum.

Distributive
In classical notation, multiplication was distributive. Understanding this makes it simple to see why the product of two vectors in classical notation produced a quaternion.

Using the quaternion multiplication table we have:

Then collecting terms:

The first three terms are a scalar.

Letting

So that the product of two vectors is a quaternion, and can be written in the form:

Product of two right quaternions
The product of two right quaternions is generally a quaternion.

Let α and β be the right quaternions that result from taking the vectors of two quaternions:

Their product in general is a new quaternion represented here by r. This product is not ambiguous because classical notation has only one product.

Like all quaternions r may now be decomposed into its vector and scalar parts.

The terms on the right are called scalar of the product, and the vector of the product of two right quaternions.
 Note: "Scalar of the product" corresponds to Euclidean scalar product of two vectors up to the change of sign (multiplication to −1).

Other operators in detail

Scalar and vector
Two important operations in two the classical quaternion notation system were S(q) and V(q) which meant take the scalar part of, and take the imaginary part, what Hamilton called the vector part of the quaternion. Here S and V are operators acting on q. Parenthesis can be omitted in these kinds of expressions without ambiguity. Classical notation:

Here, q is a quaternion. Sq is the scalar of the quaternion while Vq is the vector of the quaternion.

Conjugate
K is the conjugate operator. The conjugate of a quaternion is a quaternion obtained by multiplying the vector part of the first quaternion by minus one.

If

then

.

The expression

,

means, assign the quaternion r the value of the conjugate of the quaternion q.

Tensor
T is the tensor operator. It returns a kind of number called a tensor.

The tensor of a positive scalar is that scalar. The tensor of a negative scalar is the absolute value of the scalar (i.e., without the negative sign). For example:

The tensor of a vector is by definition the length of the vector. For example, if:

Then

The tensor of a unit vector is one.  Since the versor of a vector is a unit vector, the tensor of the versor of any vector is always equal to unity. Symbolically:

A quaternion is by definition the quotient of two vectors and the tensor of a quaternion is by definition the quotient of the tensors of these two vectors. In symbols:

From this definition it can be shown that a useful formula for the tensor of a quaternion is:

It can also be proven from this definition that another formula to obtain the tensor of a quaternion is from the common norm, defined as the product of a quaternion and its conjugate. The square root of the common norm of a quaternion is equal to its tensor.

A useful identity is that the square of the tensor of a quaternion is equal to the tensor of the square of a quaternion, so that the parentheses may be omitted.

Also, the tensors of conjugate quaternions are equal.

The tensor of a quaternion is now called its norm.

Axis and angle
Taking the angle of a non-scalar quaternion, resulted in a value greater than zero and less than π.

When a non-scalar quaternion is viewed as the quotient of two vectors, then the axis of the quaternion is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in this original quotient, in a direction specified by the right hand rule. The angle is the angle between the two vectors.

In symbols,

Reciprocal

If

then its reciprocal is defined as

The expression:

Reciprocals have many important applications, for example rotations, particularly when q is  a versor. A versor has an easy formula for its reciprocal.

In words the reciprocal of a versor is equal to its conjugate. The dots between operators show the order of the operations, and also help to indicate that S and U for example, are two different operations rather than a single operation named SU.

Common norm
The product of a quaternion with its conjugate is its common norm.

The operation of taking the common norm of a quaternion is represented with the letter N. By definition the common norm is the product of a quaternion with its conjugate. It can be proven that common norm is equal to the square of the tensor of a quaternion. However this proof does not constitute a definition. Hamilton gives exact, independent definitions of both the common norm and the tensor. This norm was adopted as suggested from the theory of numbers, however to quote Hamilton "they will not often be wanted". The tensor is generally of greater utility. The word norm does not appear in Lectures on Quaternions, and only twice in the table of contents of Elements of Quaternions.

In symbols:

The common norm of a versor is always equal to positive unity.

Biquaternions

Geometrically real and geometrically imaginary numbers
In classical quaternion literature the equation

was thought to have infinitely many solutions that were called geometrically real.
These solutions are the unit vectors that form the surface of a unit sphere.

A geometrically real quaternion is one that can be written as a linear combination of i, j and k, such that the squares of the coefficients add up to one. Hamilton demonstrated that there had to be additional roots of this equation in addition to the geometrically real roots. Given the existence of the imaginary scalar, a number of expressions can be written and given proper names. All of these were part of Hamilton's original quaternion calculus. In symbols:

where q and q′ are real quaternions, and the square root of minus one is the imaginary of ordinary algebra, and are called an imaginary or symbolical roots and not a geometrically real vector quantity.

Imaginary scalar
Geometrically Imaginary quantities are additional roots of the above equation of a purely symbolic nature. In article 214 of Elements Hamilton proves that if there is an i, j and k there also has to be another quantity h which is an imaginary scalar, which he observes should have already occurred to anyone who had read the preceding articles with attention. Article 149 of Elements is about Geometrically Imaginary numbers and includes a footnote introducing the term biquaternion. The terms imaginary of ordinary algebra and scalar imaginary are sometimes used for these geometrically imaginary quantities.

Geometrically Imaginary roots to an equation were interpreted in classical thinking as geometrically impossible situations. Article 214 of Elements of Quaternions explores the example of the equation of a line and a circle that do not intersect, as being indicated by the equation having only a geometrically imaginary root.

In Hamilton's later writings he proposed using the letter h to denote the imaginary scalar

Biquaternion

On page 665 of Elements of Quaternions Hamilton defines a biquaternion to be a quaternion with complex number coefficients. The scalar part of a biquaternion is then a complex number called a biscalar. The vector part of a biquaternion is a bivector consisting of three complex components. The biquaternions are then the complexification of the original (real) quaternions.

Other double quaternions
Hamilton invented the term associative to distinguish between the imaginary scalar (known by now as a complex number) which is both commutative and associative, and four other possible roots of negative unity which he designated L, M, N and O, mentioning them briefly in appendix B of Lectures on Quaternions and in private letters. However, non-associative roots of minus one do not appear in Elements of Quaternions. Hamilton died before he worked on these strange entities. His son claimed them to be "bows reserved for the hands of another Ulysses".

See also
Cayley–Dickson construction
Octonions
Frobenius theorem

Footnotes

References
 W.R. Hamilton (1853),  Dublin: Hodges and Smith
 W.R. Hamilton (1866), , 2nd edition, edited by Charles Jasper Joly, Longmans Green & Company.
 A.S. Hardy (1887), Elements of Quaternions
 P.G. Tait (1890), An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions, Cambridge: C.J. Clay and Sons
 Herbert Goldstein(1980), Classical Mechanics, 2nd edition, Library of congress catalog number QA805.G6 1980

History of mathematics
Historical treatment of quaternions
William Rowan Hamilton


Saint-Thibault () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Saint-Usage () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Remaucourt () is a commune in the Ardennes department in northern France.

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There are many longstanding unsolved problems in mathematics for which a solution has still not yet been found. The notable unsolved problems in statistics are generally of a different flavor; according to John Tukey, "difficulties in identifying problems have delayed statistics far more than difficulties in solving problems." A list of "one or two open problems" (in fact 22 of them) was given by David Cox.

Inference and testing
 How to detect and correct for systematic errors, especially in sciences where random errors are large (a situation Tukey termed uncomfortable science).
 The Graybill–Deal estimator is often used to estimate the common mean of two normal populations with unknown and possibly unequal variances. Though this estimator is generally unbiased, its admissibility remains to be shown.
 Meta-analysis: Though independent p-values can be combined using Fisher's method, techniques are still being developed to handle the case of dependent p-values.
 Behrens–Fisher problem: Yuri Linnik showed in 1966 that there is no uniformly most powerful test for the difference of two means when the variances are unknown and possibly unequal. That is, there is no exact test (meaning that, if the means are in fact equal, one that rejects the null hypothesis with probability exactly α) that is also the most powerful for all values of the variances (which are thus nuisance parameters). Though there are many approximate solutions (such as Welch's t-test), the problem continues to attract attention as one of the classic problems in statistics.
 Multiple comparisons: There are various ways to adjust p-values to compensate for the simultaneous or sequential testing of hypotheses.  Of particular interest is how to simultaneously control the overall error rate,  preserve statistical power, and incorporate the dependence between tests into the adjustment. These issues are especially relevant when the number of simultaneous tests can be very large, as is increasingly the case in the analysis of data from DNA microarrays.
Bayesian statistics: A list of open problems in Bayesian statistics has been proposed.

Experimental design
 As the theory of Latin squares is a cornerstone in the design of experiments, solving the problems in Latin squares could have immediate applicability to experimental design.

Problems of a more philosophical nature
 Sampling of species problem: How is a probability updated when there is unanticipated new data?
 Doomsday argument: How valid is the probabilistic argument that claims to predict the future lifetime of the human race given only an estimate of the total number of humans born so far?
 Exchange paradox: Issues arise within the subjectivistic interpretation of probability theory; more specifically within Bayesian decision theory. This is still an open problem among the subjectivists as no consensus has been reached yet. Examples include:
 The two envelopes problem
 The necktie paradox
 Sunrise problem: What is the probability that the sun will rise tomorrow? Very different answers arise depending on the methods used and assumptions made.

Notes

References

Statistics
Unsolved problems
Statistics


Salon () is a commune in the Aube department, north-central France.

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Paraya Dhan () is a 1971 Indian Hindi-language drama film directed by Rajendra Bhatia. The film stars Balraj Sahni, Rakesh Roshan, Hema Malini in lead roles.

Cast
 Balraj Sahni as Govindram
 Rakesh Roshan as Shankar
 Hema Malini as Rajni
 Jayshree T. as Meena
 Abhi Bhattacharya as Jwala Sahay
 Achala Sachdev as Mrs. Sahay
 Ajit as Heeralal
 Om Prakash as Gangaram

Production
The film was predominantly shot in Kullu Manali.

Soundtrack
Music for the film was directed by R. D. Burman.

References

External links

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1970s Hindi-language films
Films scored by R. D. Burman


La Saulsotte () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Savières () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Semoine () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Soligny-les-Étangs () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Sommeval () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Soulaines-Dhuys () is a commune in the Aube department of the Grand Est region of northern France.

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Souligny is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Spoy () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Thennelières () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Thieffrain () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Thil () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Thors is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Torcy-le-Grand () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Lesjaverk Station is a railway station at Lesja in Dovre, Norway on the Rauma Line. The station is located  from Dombås and is served by all trains on the Rauma Line. The station was opened as part of the first stretch of the railway in 1921.

Railway stations in Oppland
Railway stations on the Rauma Line
Railway stations opened in 1921
Dovre
Railway stations in Norway opened in the 1920s


Torcy-le-Petit () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Torvilliers () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Traînel () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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HMS Boyne was an 80-gun third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, launched at Deptford Dockyard on 21 May 1692.

She was rebuilt to the 1706 Establishment at Blackwall Yard, mounting her guns on three instead of her original two gundecks, though she was still classified as a third rate. She was relaunched from Blackwall on 26 March 1708. Her second rebuild took place at Deptford, where she was reconstructed according to the 1733 proposals of the 1719 Establishment, and relaunched on 28 May 1739.

The Boyne was part of Vice-Admiral Edward Vernon's fleet and took part in the expedition to Cartagena de Indias during the War of Jenkins' Ear.

Boyne was broken up in 1763.

Notes

References

Lavery, Brian (2003) The Ship of the Line - Volume 1: The development of the battlefleet 1650-1850. Conway Maritime Press. .

Ships of the line of the Royal Navy
1690s ships
Ships built in Deptford
Ships built by the Blackwall Yard


Ļaudona () is a village in Ļaudona Parish, Madona Municipality in the Vidzeme region of Latvia. The Ļaudona Parish of the former Madona District was merged into the municipality (novads) of Madona in 2009.

History of Ļaudona
The historical Latgalian stronghold on the Aiviekste River was rebuilt as a fortress by the Archbishop of Riga in 1274 and used for trade and military purpose. The Laudohn noble family, then vassals of Archbishop Henning Scharpenberg, acquired the manor of Toce (Tootzen) in 1432. The archbishop's castle had been destroyed in the 16th century Livonian War. With Livonia, Ļaudona was conquered by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden by the 1629 Truce of Altmark, and upon the 1721 Treaty of Nystad belonged to the Russian Empire.

The famous Austrian Field Marshal Ernst Gideon von Laudon was born here in 1717.

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lv:Ļaudonas pagasts


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Trouans () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Turgy () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Unienville () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Urville () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France. Urville has the highest average household income in France, at €142,888 per year (in 2020).

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Vailly () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Vallant-Saint-Georges is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Boatmen's Bancshares Inc. was one of the 30 largest bank holding companies in the United States when it was acquired by NationsBank in 1996. Until its acquisition, Boatmen's traded on NASDAQ with the ticker BOAT.

The company, founded in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1847, claimed to be the oldest bank west of the Mississippi River at the time of its acquisition.

History
The bank was founded by George Knight Budd whose family had a fortune based in Philadelphia on the East Coast.  He was to serve as St. Louis councilman and arranged for the purchase of the land that now forms the municipal building complex including the St. Louis City Hall.

According to company legend, Budd started Boatmen's Savings Institution to help the working class; many of whom worked on riverboats on the Mississippi.

The bank received its state charter on February 16, 1847, and offered 3 percent interest on deposits and invested the first $1,000 in a city bond that paid 6 percent.

Its early history was marked by deadly citywide disasters in 1849 of a cholera outbreak that killed more than 1,000 and the Great St. Louis Fire of 1849 of May 17–18 that destroyed 23 steamers and at least 430 buildings.

Compounding the bank's problems was the April 5, 1854, robbery in which the bank's secretary Joseph Thornton was implicated because the vault had been opened at night with a bank key. Testifying against him was Joseph Charless, president of the Bank of Missouri, who had received for deposit water and mud-soaked notes from Thornton. Thornton was acquitted but was to shoot and kill Charless on the street afterwards. Thornton was nearly lynched, and later hanged following a trial.

According to company legend, a run on the bank in 1855 was halted when a madame from a bordello deposited $4,500 in gold.

It became Boatmen's Saving Bank in 1873, Boatmen's Bank in 1890, and Boatmen's National Bank of St. Louis in 1926 when it became a national bank. In 1969, it formed Boatmen's Bancshares as a holding company and began an acquisition of banks throughout the region including CharterCorp of Kansas City, Missouri, and General Bancshares.

In the 1980s, it became the largest bank group in Missouri with the acquisition of Centerre Bancorporation. In 1981, it moved its headquarters to the 31-story Boatmen's Bank Building in Downtown St. Louis.

William H. T. Bush, younger brother of President George H. W. Bush, was president of the bank (but not the holding company) from 1978 to 1986.

In early 1992, Boatmen's Bancshares acquired First Interstate of Iowa Inc. (NASDAQ: FIIA).

In 1995 it had $33.4 billion in assets and 17,863 employees. That year, it acquired Fourth Financial Corporation and Worthen Banking Corp. The latter being a publicly traded company listed on the American Stock Exchange.

In 1996, it was purchased by NationsBank for $9.6 billion. NationsBank, in turn, merged with and took the name of Bank of America.

References

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Banks established in 1847
Companies based in St. Louis
Banks disestablished in 1996
Defunct banks of the United States
1847 establishments in Missouri


Vallentigny () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

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Rodina Stadium is a football stadium in Khimki, Russia. The stadium is owned by FC Khimki.

See also
Other stadiums in Khimki:
 Arena Khimki
 Novye Khimki Stadium

References

Football venues in Russia
Sport in Moscow Oblast
FC Khimki
Buildings and structures in Moscow Oblast
Khimki
2007 establishments in Russia
Sports venues completed in 2007


Vallières () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vanlay () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vauchassis () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vauchonvilliers () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department
Parc naturel régional de la Forêt d'Orient

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vaucogne () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vaupoisson () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vendeuvre-sur-Barse (, literally Vendeuvre on Barse) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France. It was named for the Villa Venderevensis, and was known in Medieval Latin as Vendoara, Vendoberum, Vendœuvres, Vendopera, Vendoperanse Castrum, Vendopere, Vendoperium, Vendoprum, and Vendovera.

Geography
The Barse has its source in the commune, under the chateau.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department
 Parc naturel régional de la Forêt d'Orient
 Lakes Amance and du Temple

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


La Vendue-Mignot () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


The First Nations of New Brunswick, Canada number more than 16,000, mostly Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet (Wolastoqiyik). Although the Passamaquoddy maintain a land claim at Saint Andrews, New Brunswick and historically occurred in New Brunswick, they have no reserves in the province, and have no official status in Canada.

List of First Nations
New Brunswick is home to 15 First Nations.

List of Indian reserves
New Brunswick is home to 32 Indian reserves, of which 18 are recognized as census subdivisions by Statistics Canada.

References

External links
Aboriginal Affairs in New Brunswick

First Nations


David Mulcahy may refer to:
John Duffy and David Mulcahy, British serial rapists and murderers
David Mulcahy (guitarist), New Zealand guitarist formerly of Jean-Paul Sartre Experience
David Mulcahy (drummer), English drummer from band Razorlight


Vernonvilliers () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Verpillières-sur-Ource (, literally Verpillières on Ource) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Verricourt () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Verrières () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Viâpres-le-Petit () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villacerf  is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Site : https://villacerf.fr/

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villadin is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


The Very Best Of 1990–1997 is a compilation album by Sweden-based Nigerian artist Dr. Alban released on 30 June 1997

Track listing

"Hello Afrika"
"Stop the Pollution" [Album Version]
"U & Mi" [Album Version]
"No Coke"
"One Love" [Radio Version]
"Sing Hallelujah"
"It's My Life"
"Look Who's Talking" [Long]
"Let the Beat Go On" [Short]
"Away from Home" [Short]
"This Time I'm Free" [Credibility Mix]
"Born in Africa"
"It's My Life" [Sash Remix]
"Sing Hallelujah" [DJ Stevie Steve's Pizzi Edit]
"Hello AfriKa" ['97 Remix]
"No Coke" [Klanghouse Remix]

Charts

References

1997 compilation albums
Dr. Alban compilation albums


La Ville-aux-Bois () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villechétif () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villeloup () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villemaur-sur-Vanne (, literally Villemaur on Vanne) is a former commune in the Aube department in north-central France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune Aix-Villemaur-Pâlis.

Population

See also

 Communes of the Aube department

References

Former communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
Populated places disestablished in 2016
States and territories disestablished in 2016


Villemereuil () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villemoiron-en-Othe () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villemorien () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villemoyenne () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department
Parc naturel régional de la Forêt d'Orient

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villenauxe-la-Grande () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


La Villeneuve-au-Châtelot () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


La Villeneuve-au-Chêne () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Geography
The Barse flows through the commune.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villeret () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villery () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Ville-sur-Arce () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Ville-sur-Terre is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villette-sur-Aube (, literally Villette on Aube) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villiers-Herbisse () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

Geography
Villiers-Herbisse is located at the intersection of the Route Départementale 10 and the Route Départementale 198. North is the village of Semoine and south the village of Herbisse. The Herbissonne, a small stream  long, ends in the Aube and has its origin in Villiers-Herbisse.

Local resources and productions are related to agriculture, mainly grain and intensive agriculture.

History

The village is called Villiers-sur-Herbisse until the 18th century when it becomes Villiers-Herbisse.
Louis de Clermont d'Amboise, marquis de Reynel, died there on November 3, 1615, after a memorable military charge.

Monuments

On the right side of the Herbissonne, surrounded by the cemetery, the Catholic church of the Assumption is a religious building registered as a Historic Monument since April 15, 1958.

The old Café Richomme, built in 1911 on the Rue de la Crayère on the left side, close to the church, the townhall and the old elementary school.

Six windmills at the border with Salon and Champfleury, the tallest being  high.

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villiers-le-Bois () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villiers-sous-Praslin (, literally Villiers under Praslin) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villy-en-Trodes is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villy-le-Bois is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Villy-le-Maréchal is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vinets is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Virey-sous-Bar (, literally Virey under Bar) is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France. In Medieval Latin, it was known as Vireium.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vitry-le-Croisé () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Viviers-sur-Artaut () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Voigny () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vosnon () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
 Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


In statistical hypothesis testing, a uniformly most powerful (UMP) test is a hypothesis test which has the greatest power  among all possible tests of a given size α. For example, according to the Neyman–Pearson lemma, the likelihood-ratio test is UMP for testing simple (point) hypotheses.

Setting
Let  denote a random vector (corresponding to the measurements), taken from a parametrized family of probability density functions or probability mass functions  , which depends on the unknown deterministic parameter . The parameter space  is partitioned into two disjoint sets  and . Let  denote the hypothesis that , and let  denote the hypothesis that .
The binary test of hypotheses is performed using a test function  with a reject region  (a subset of measurement space).

meaning that  is in force if the measurement  and that  is in force if the measurement .
Note that  is a disjoint covering of the measurement space.

Formal definition
A test function  is UMP of size  if for any other test function  satisfying

we have

The Karlin–Rubin theorem
The Karlin–Rubin theorem can be regarded as an extension of the Neyman–Pearson lemma for composite hypotheses. Consider a scalar measurement having a probability density function parameterized by a scalar parameter θ, and define the likelihood ratio .
If  is monotone non-decreasing, in , for any pair  (meaning that the greater  is, the more likely  is), then the threshold test:

where  is chosen such that

is the UMP test of size α for testing

Note that exactly the same test is also UMP for testing

Important case: exponential family
Although the Karlin-Rubin theorem may seem weak because of its restriction to scalar parameter and scalar measurement, it turns out that there exist a host of problems for which the theorem holds. In particular, the one-dimensional exponential family of probability density functions or probability mass functions with

has a monotone non-decreasing likelihood ratio in the sufficient statistic , provided that  is non-decreasing.

Example
Let  denote i.i.d. normally distributed -dimensional random vectors with mean  and covariance matrix . We then have

which is exactly in the form of the exponential family shown in the previous section, with the sufficient statistic being

Thus, we conclude that the test

is the UMP test of size  for testing  vs.

Further discussion
Finally, we note that in general, UMP tests do not exist for vector parameters or for two-sided tests (a test in which one hypothesis lies on both sides of the alternative). The reason is that in these situations, the most powerful test of a given size for one possible value of the parameter (e.g. for  where ) is different from the most powerful test of the same size for a different value of the parameter (e.g. for  where ). As a result, no test is uniformly most powerful in these situations.

References

Further reading

 L. L. Scharf, Statistical Signal Processing, Addison-Wesley, 1991, section 4.7.

Statistical hypothesis testing


Voué () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department
Ludford, Lincolnshire

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Brian O'Shea (born in Chicago, Illinois) is an American former boxer, referee, and judge.

Personal
O'Shea is one of the fighting O'Shea brothers along with Rory O'Shea, Mike O'Shea and Tom O'Shea.

Amateur career
O'Shea had an outstanding amateur career, having won several Chicago Golden Gloves Open division titles.  The titles he won include a championship at 126 lbs. in 1957, and at lightweight (135 lbs.) in 1958, 1959, 1960 & 1961. The 1958 title came at the expense of his brother Tom, who later moved down in weight and won the 1960 Open Division 126 lb. title.  In 1960 he also was the National Golden Gloves Lightweight Champion.

O'Shea was the National AAU Light Welterweight Champion in 1959, and won the 1960 132 lb championship.  Also in 1960 he won the Chicago Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions in the 135 lb. division. In 1961 he won the Intercity Golden Gloves (alternate) in the 135 lb. division.

Pro career
O'Shea turned pro in 1961 was undefeated until being TKO'd by John White in 1962.  After another win streak, he again lost via KO to White in 1963.  He retired in 1965.

Referee and judge
O'Shea served as a boxing judge and referee after his pro career concluded.

References

Officiating Record as Judge
Officiating Record as Referee

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Boxers from Chicago
Boxing judges
Winners of the United States Championship for amateur boxers
National Golden Gloves champions
American male boxers


Vougrey () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Vulaines () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Yèvres-le-Petit () is a commune in the Aube department in north-central France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aube department

References

Communes of Aube
Aube communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Aigues-Vives (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in the Occitanie region of southern France.

The inhabitants of the commune are known as Aigues-Vivois or Aigues-Vivoises.

Geography

Localisation
Aigues-Vives is located in the north-east of Aude department in the Minervois area some 50 km west by north-west of Narbonne and 14 km east by north-east from Carcassonne. It is traversed by Highway D206 going north-east from Badens through the heart of the commune and the town and continues north-east out of the commune to Rieux-Minervois. Highway D57 also traverses the commune from Laure-Minervois in the north intersecting the Highway D206 in the town of Aigues-Vives and continuing south to join the east-west D610 highway.

The commune is entirely farmland except for the town and a hill on the western edge. There are a few scattered buildings but no villages or towns other than Aigues-Vives. The Ruisseau de Puits flows from the hill in the west to north of the town where it joins the Canal Nord. There are a few other streams in the commune including the Reals, the Mirausse, the Genet, the Mijane, the Canet, the Neuf, the Canal Sud, and the Rigole d'Aigues-Vives.

Neighbouring communes and villages

History
The first document attesting to the existence of Aigues-Vives was transcribed from the Latin Aquaviva in 994, although some say 993. It was an exchange between Udulgarius, Abbot of Caunes (Minervois) and Roger Trencavel, Viscount of Carcassonne.

Heraldry

Administration

List of Successive Mayors of Aigues-Vives

Mayors from 1929

Population

Economy
Viticulture: Minervois AOC, Coteaux de peyriac, and Languedoc AOC. Its territory is planted with olive trees, apple trees, and rice.

Culture and heritage

Civil heritage
The commune has a number of buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:
A Tile factory (1835)
The Cooperative Wine Cellar (1937)
The Wine distillery (1889)
Land with archaeological remains at Pataran cemetery
The War memorial at Route de Badens (20th century)

Other sites of interest
The Étang de Marseillette (Marseillette Pond) is adjacent to the village of Aigues-Vives but dried up in the 19th century. This depression of about 2000 hectares is irrigated by the Aude. The land is covered with crops mainly vineyards and apple orchards. The area of the dried-up pond of Marseillette is next to the Aigues-Vives houses.
A stately tower of the 13th century next to the church.
The natural bridge of Saint-Jean.

Religious heritage
The commune has one religious building that is registered as an historical monument:
The Church of Saint Alexandre (1530) has a tower that is a registered historical monument, a Gothic chevet and a tower adjoining the church (which serves as a bell tower and whose bell dates to 1562). The Church contains one item that is registered as an historical object:
A Chalice with Paten (19th century)
A Discoidal Steles can be seen under the Porch of the church.
The Cemetery contains 2 Funerary Steles (Middle Ages)

Local life
In 1902, thanks to the Mayor, Eugene Ressier, Aigues-Vives became an electrified village. The STMF (Société Méridionale de Transport de Force), which was founded in 1900 by Joachim Estrade, installed electricity in the village.

Celebration and culture
Each year on the second Saturday in October, the "Cavinades" festival is held where winemakers offer tastings of their wine - white, rosé or red from the wine country Coteaux de Peyriac and Minervois.

On the following day each year there is also a celebration for apples, wine and rice.

Notable people linked to the commune
Pierre Bayle, a potter/ceramist, born in Aigues-Vives on 3 June 1945, died on 18 March 2004 in Béziers.
Lucien Trougnoux called Louis, born on 25  August 1901 in Louans (Indre-et-Loire), died in June 1945 at the sanatorium in Goisern (Austria) was a French Resistance fighter. He refused the surrender of France in 1940 and the system of the French State of Petain-Laval. He was active in the French resistance. He was a member of a group affiliated with the OSS (Office of Strategic Services of the USA). In Carcassonne he ran the departmental office supplying straw and fodder which served as a cover. He was the central mailbox of the "Fred Tommy Brown" network and he kept the radio transmitter in his office in Carcassonne, then later at Aigues-Vives post office which was run by his wife. On Thursday, 17 November 1943, Lucien Trougnoux was arrested by the Gestapo and the French milice in his home in the Aigues-Vives Post Office (which still stands in 2007). He was imprisoned in the Baumettes Prison in Marseille until early March 1944. He was then deported to Mauthausen. Liberated in May 1945, Lucien Trougnoux died of sickness on 31 May 1945 at the sanatorium of the 1st Army of Colmar in Goisern (Austria).

Bibliography
Devic & Dom Vaissete, General History of Languedoc, Toulouse (Privat) 1872–1885.
Mahul, Cartulary and Archives of the former Diocese and the Arrondissement of Carcassonne, Paris (Didron-Dumoulin) 1857–1885.
Antoine Sabarthès, Topographical Dictionary of Aude, Paris (Imprimerie Nationale) 1912.
Baichère, Historical Notes and observations on the Church, rural chapels, and old taxes, Academy of Arts and Sciences of Carcassonne in 1909.
Auzias & Rancoule, Various notes, Gallo-Roman Archaeology, Aigues-Vives, Society of Scientific Studies of Aude in Carcassonne 1978.
Marie-Elise Gardel, Frédéric Loppe and Corinne Sanchez, Aigues-Vives (Aude), a village in the Minervois: historical and archaeological study, Lay Association of Carcassonne History of Aigues-Vives (Aude), 2008, .
Abbot Utheza, Monograph of Aigues-Vives (Aude).
Christophe Monié, A History of the drying up of the Marseillette pond the period Camman 1900–1942, Aigues-Vives November 2012.

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

External links

Historical Association of Aigues-Vives
Aigues-Vives on the old IGN website
Aigues-Vives on Géoportail, National Geographic Institute (IGN) website
Aiguesvives on the 1750 Cassini Map

Communes of Aude


Airoux (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in the Occitanie region of southern France.

The inhabitants of the commune are known as Airouxois or Airouxoises

Geography

Localisation
Airoux is within the urban area of Castelnaudary situated in the Lauragais on the Rigole de la plaine. It is located some 5 km north-west of Castelnaudary and 15 km south-east of Villefranche-de-Lauragais. It can be accessed on road D217 from Labastide-d'Anjou in the south through the village and continuing north-east to Soupex. There is also the D1 road from Montmaur in the northwest which also passes through the village and continues south-east to Ricaud. The commune consists entirely of farmland with no other villages or hamlets.

Numerous streams cover the entire commune with the Rigole of the Canal du Midi passing through the northern part of the commune and forming part of the northern border. An unnamed watercourse forms the whole western border between the Rigole and the Fresquel river which forms the southern border of the commune. Numerous other unnamed streams and watercourses flow to the Fresquel from the commune to the south, south-east, and east.

Neighbouring communes and villages

Heraldry

Administration
List of Successive Mayors of Airoux

Mayors from 1935

Population

Distribution of Age Groups
The population of the commune is younger than the average for the Aude department.

Percentage Distribution of Age Groups in Airoux and Aude Department in 2017

Source: INSEE

Sites and monuments

The commune has two sites that are registered as historical monuments:
The Chateau of Airoux (16th century)
A Cemetery Cross (16th century)

See also
Communes of the Aude department
County of Razès
Cantons of the Aude department
Arrondissements of the Aude department

References

External links
Airoux on Géoportail, National Geographic Institute (IGN) website
Areons on the 1750 Cassini Map

Communes of Aude


Ajac () is a commune in the Aude department, part of the Occitanie region, southern France.

Location
Ajac is 7 km from the local market town of Limoux, and 30 km from the historic city of Carcassonne. Falling within the ancient region of Languedoc, Ajac is part of the Pays Cathare, an area rich with Medieval abbeys and castles.

Village Layout
Although not a Circulade like neighboring villages, Ajac is built upon a hill with the chateau at the top and center. The chateau was the ancestral home of the  noble Montcalm and Lévis families, and birthplace of François Gaston de Lévis, Duc de Levis. Building of the chateau started in the 12th century, but has since had numerous alterations, most notably in the 18th century. It is now in private ownership.

The church of Ajac is of Romanesque origin, but rebuilt in the 18th century.

Sited within the foothills of the Eastern Pyrenees, the village is largely surrounded by agricultural land and vineyards. Both red and white wine grapes are grown locally, most notably for the production of Blanquette de Limoux, claimed by some to predate champagne.

History
The village of Ajac was given the name of the local count.

The local duke who was accused and hunted by the locals for accused treason against the king went into hiding. And the duke went into hiding. The duke was allowed to return on the condition that his authority not be passed on following his death. Therefore, Ajac remained independent until the French revolution and the establishment of the republic.

Administration
The current mayor of Ajac is Gérard Chaumond, reelected in 2020.

Population

Reversing the decline experienced by rural villages during the later half of the last century, the population of Ajac has latterly increased. A village school and part-time cafe have reopened to serve this changing demographic.

Personalities
 François Gaston de Lévis

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude


Alaigne (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in the Occitanie region of southern France.

The inhabitants of the commune are known as Alaignois or Alaignoises

Geography
The commune is located some 10 km north-west of Limoux and 20 km east of Mirepoix.  A number of district roads all converge on the village of Alaigne: the D102 south from Belvèze-du-Razès, the D702 west from Routier, the D102 north-west from Limoux, and the D52 which comes east from Bellegarde-du-Razès then continues south to Villelongue-d'Aude.

The village itself is a traditional Circulade located in the historical region of Razès.

Located in the AOP Malepere wine growing area, the commune is mostly vineyards and farmland for wheat, rape and sunflowers with a few scattered forests.  There are no villages or hamlets other than Alaigne.

Neighbouring communes and towns

Heraldry

History
Before the Revolution, Alaigne was a part of Pieusse and Routier was a barony of the Archbishop of Narbonne.

Administration

List of Successive Mayors of Alaigne

Population

Culture and heritage

Civil heritage
The Porte de Papi Fortified door (15th century) is registered as an historical monument.

Religious heritage
The Cemetery contains a number of items that are registered as historical objects:
A Funeral Stèle (1668)
A Funeral Stèle (16th century)
A Funeral Stèle (17th century)
2 Funeral Stèles (16th century)
The Parish Church of Saint-Pierre es Liens contains a number of items that are registered as historical objects:
A Chalice with Paten (18th century)
A Chalice with Paten (1798 & 1809)
2 Stoups (18th century)
The facing of the Altar and the communion table (18th century)
A Reliquary Cross of Saint Julie (17th century)

See also
 Communes of the Aude department

References

External links
Alaigne on the National Geographic Institute website
Alaigne on Géoportail, National Geographic Institute (IGN) website
Alaigne on the 1750 Cassini Map

Communes of Aude