Nepal Sadbhavana Party (Anandidevi) is a political party in Nepal. The party was formed in March 2003 by Anandidevi Singh in March 2003, after the Nepal Sadbhavana Party chairman Badri Prasad Mandal had joined the government installed by King Gyanendra. After the NSP(A) was founded, a Central Working Committee consisting of Durba Prasad Rajbanshi, Kushi Lal Mandal, Gauri Prasad Singh, Bhogendra Thakur, Madhav Prasad Yadav, Dev Narayan Yadav, Renu Yadav, Bishwonath Shah, Ramnarayan Raya, Kritram Pandit, Jaya Narayan Chaurasiya, Govinda Chaudhary, Govinda Tharu, Kasim Ali Siddique and Anil Kumar Jha was elected.

In June 2007, NSP merged into NSP(A). Anandidevi Singh retained the chairmanship of the unified party, whilst Laxman Lal Karna (NSP chairman) became vice chairman of NSP(A). However, just three months later the party suffered a major split, as Minister for Industry, Commerce and Supply Rajendra Mahato and Laxman Lal Karna formed their own 'NSP(A)' (later renamed 'Sadbhavana Party').

In February 2008, the party suffered another split, as the grouping around Singh move to expel the general secretary of the party and Minister for Industry, Commerce and Supply Shyam Sundar Gupta from the party. Since Gupta was not sacked from the government cabinet, Khushi Lal Mandal vowed to pull NSP(A) out of the Seven Party Alliance. Effectively, there were two separate NSP(A)s in existence. The group that retained the registration at the Election Commission of Nepal is the group led by Gupta, and the group led by Khushi Lal Mandal is currently unregistered.

The party, under leadership of Gupta, launched 104 candidates in the First Past the Post constituencies in the 2008 Constituent Assembly election, but didn't win a single seat. The party did however win 2 seats through the Proportional Representation vote.

In August 2008, Singh was removed as chair of the party, and Gupta became Acting Chairman of the party instead.

In 2015 The Nepal Sadbhawana Party led by Sarita Giri and Anil Kumar Jha led Sanghiya Sadbhawna Party have merged to form a single party, Nepal Sadbhawana Party (NSP). Anil Kumar Jha will chair the integrated party (NSP) while Sarita Giri will be its vice chairperson and Rajeev Jha as a General Secretary.

See also
Nepal Dalit Utthan Manch

References

Political parties in Nepal
Political parties established in 2003
2003 establishments in Nepal


Anthony da Costa (born 1991 in Bronx, NY) is an American singer-songwriter based in Nashville, TN.  He has been writing and performing original material since he was 13 years old. He names Ryan Adams, Dan Bern, and Bob Dylan as some of his biggest songwriting influences. He attended Columbia University and graduated with a bachelor's degree in ancient Greek and Roman history in 2013. In 2016, Anthony released his latest solo album, "Da Costa," which was self-produced and features Aaron Lee Tasjan, Devon Sproule, and members of Ben Kweller, Eric Johnson and Okkervil River. Anthony is also an in-demand live and session guitarist, having toured with Aoife O'Donovan of Crooked Still, Jimmy LaFave, Joy Williams, the Grammy-award-winning songwriter Sarah Jarosz, and two-time IBMA Guitar Player of the Year Molly Tuttle.

Awards and honors
 Winner of the 2007 Kerrville Folk Festival New Folk
 Winner 2007 Falcon Ridge Folk Festival Emerging Artist Competition.
 2007 Mountain Stage New Song NE Regional Finalist
 Showcased at the Tin Pan South Songwriters Festival in Nashville
 Nominated as Folk Alliance Emerging Artist of the Year.
 Received specific mention in The New York Times by virtue of his sideburns.
 2009 Named one of WFUV's New Artists to Watch

Discography

Albums
 Rearrange (2006)
 Quality Time (2007)
 Typical American Tragedy (2008)
 Not Afraid of Nothing (2009)
 Secret Handshake (2012)
 DaCosta (2016)
 Feet On the Dashboard (2020)
 What Plans? (2021)
 I Should Call My Mother (2022)

EPs
 Already There EP (2005)
 Spring EP (2013)
 Shadow Love EP (2019)

Collaborations
 Bad Nights/Better Days (w/ Abbie Gardner) (2008)
 Neighbors (w/ Adam Levy) (2017)

References

American male singer-songwriters
1991 births
Living people
Date of birth missing (living people)
People from Pleasantville, New York
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American male singers


Nepal Samata Party is a political party in Nepal. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election. It was led by Narayan Singh Pun, but after Pun's death the chairmanship has been taken over by Pasang Goparma Sharma. Moti Prasad Rana Magar is the general secretary of the party.

Also see
 Samata Party led by Uday Mandal its President.

References

Political parties in Nepal


Gilles de la Pommeraie was a 16th-century French diplomat and Baron d'Entrammes.

Biography
He was a member of the La Pommeraie family, from Brittany and serves Laval Family, and possessed land of Verger Castle of Montigné and d'Entrammes (Mayenne).

Son of François de la Pommeraie, Gilles was king's maître d', charged with important missions by Francis I, and was involved in arrangements for the "Field of Cloth of Gold", was ambassador in Venice, and was president of the "Dukes Chamber" in Brittany.  He was briefly French ambassador to England, where he professed his great admiration for the French-educated queen, Anne Boleyn.

Husband to Jeanne Le Jeune, he obtained from Lord Jarzey the Castle of Entrammes (Mayenne) where he created two fairs and one market.

References

Sources
« Gilles de la Pommeraie », dans Alphonse-Victor Angot et Ferdinand Gaugain, Dictionnaire historique, topographique et biographique de la Mayenne, Laval, Goupil, 1900-1910; t. III, p. 309-310.

16th-century deaths
16th-century French diplomats
People from Pays de la Loire
Year of birth unknown
Ambassadors of France to the Kingdom of England
People of the Tudor period


Prajatantrik Shanti Party is a political party in Nepal. The party was registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election.

References

Political parties in Nepal


Rastriya Janamorcha () is a political party in Nepal. It was originally founded in 1995 as the legal front of Communist Party of Nepal (Masal). Former Deputy Prime Minister, Chitra Bahdur KC is the chairman of the party.

It was re-founded again in 2006 after breaking away from Janamorcha Nepal and still acts as the legal front for the Mohan Bikram Singh led Communist Party of Nepal (Masal). The party remains as a strong force political force mainly in Baglung and Pyuthan district.

The party advocates decentralization within the former unitary system.

History

Before formation (1991–1994)
The party contested the 1991 local elections as All Nepal Peasants Organization and contested in the 1994 legislative elections as All Nepal Rastriya Janamorcha.

Merger and break away (2002–2008)
In 2002, the party merged with Samyukta Janamorcha Nepal the legal front of Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre) to form Janamorcha Nepal. Janamorcha Nepal acted as the legal front of the Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre-Masal). After Janamorcha Nepal joined the governing Seven Party Alliance in 2006, Chitra Bahadur KC broke away from the party to reclaim the name of Rastriya Janamorcha. The party held three seats in the Interim Legislature Parliament of Nepal.

Constituent Assembly (2008–2015)
The party registered at the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly elections. The party won four seats in the election.

In July 2010, the party expelled its General secretary Dilaram Acharya for breaking party discipline. He formed another party, Rastriya Janamorcha (Nepal) after his expulsion. The  party won three seats in the 2013 Constituent Assembly election.

Federal Nepal (2015–present)
After the promulgation of the Constitution of Nepal, Rastriya Janamorcha joined the coalition government of Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) and Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). This was the first time that the party had not been in opposition. Following this, party Chairman Chitra Bahadur KC was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Cooperatives and Poverty Alleviation.

The party contested the 2017 Nepalese local elections and won 186 seats in local government. The party won mayoral posts in Bareng Rural Municipality in Baglung, Jhimruk and Malarani Rural Municipalities in Pyuthan. Ahead of the 2017 legislative and provincial elections, the party joined the alliance of Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) and Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre). The party won one seat to the Federal Parliament of Nepal but did not cross the three percent threshold to become a national party. The party also won three seats in the Provincial Assembly of Gandaki Province and one seat in the Provincial Assembly of Lumbini Province.

After the Nepalese political crisis in 2021, Rastriya Janamorcha stood in support of alliance led by Nepali Congress. It played major role in forming new government in Gandaki Province. It gave external support and confidence to central government led by Sher Bahadur Deuba. The party was given a seat in National Assembly and hence Tul Prasad B.K. was elected as first National Assemblian from the party.

Electoral performance

Legislative elections

Provincial elections

Gandaki

Lumbini

Leadership

Chairmen
 Chitra Bahadur K.C., 1999–2002 and 2006–present

General secretaries
 Nawaraj Subedi, 1999–2002
 Dilaram Acharya, 2006–2010
 Santa Bahadur Nepali, 2011–2016
 Janak Raj Sharma, 2016–2021
 Manoj Bhatta, 2021-present

List of Members of Parliament

List of Pratinidhi Sabha members from Rastriya Janamorcha

Sister organisations
 All Nepal Trade Union Congress
 All Nepal Women's Association
 ANNISU (6th)
 All Nepal Janatati Conference
 Jatiya Samata Samaj
 All Nepal Democratic Youth Association
 Raktim Sanskritik Pariwar
 Akhil Nepal Buddhijibi Sangh
 All Nepal Teachers' Association

See also

 List of political parties in Nepal

References

Communist parties in Nepal
2006 establishments in Nepal
Political parties established in 2006


Frederick Edward Blackett Beaumont (22 October 1833 – 20 August 1899) was a British Army officer and politician. A member of the Royal Engineers, he produced several inventions, including a tunnel boring machine which bore his name, and the Beaumont–Adams revolver.

Early life
Beaumont was the son of Edward Blackett Beaumont and Jane Lee. He was born in Darfield, South Yorkshire and educated at the Harrow School, Harrow on the Hill, England.

Career

Beaumont served in the Royal Engineers and was a contemporary of General Charles George Gordon; his name appeared directly before Gordon's in the Army Lists from the date of their first commissioning on 23 June 1852.

As a lieutenant, Beaumont saw service during the Crimean War, and was one of only a small number of British officers who served with Turkish forces along the Danube, serving with the (local) rank of Captain in the Turkish Contingent Engineers, for which service he was awarded the Turkish Crimean War medal rather than the British Crimean War Medal.

In 1858, Beaumont again saw action in the Indian Mutiny, during which he served on the staff of the Royal Engineers, distinguishing himself on 14 March 1858 at Lucknow and being awarded the Indian Mutiny Medal with clasp.

Promoted to captain in 1866, Beaumont in conjunction with Captain F.E. Grover made efforts to get ballooning adopted by the British Army, Beaumont having witnessed the use of balloons in the American Civil War.

Beaumont was promoted to major in 1872, and in 1873 was placed in charge of railways at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. While in the post he worked on methods for generating hydrogen for balloon experiments and was described by his contemporaries as "a man of remarkably inventive talent."

In 1875, Beaumont filed a patent for a pneumatic tunnelling machine which could cut through chalk at the rate of 200 yards per week. After further development of this design with Captain Thomas English, two Beaumont-English tunnelling machines were adopted for use by Edward Watkin in his attempt to dig a Channel Tunnel in 1880. By the time the project was stopped in early 1882, the two machines had successfully bored over 3,000 yards under the Channel without difficulty.

In 1868, Beaumont was elected one of the two Liberal Members of Parliament for South Durham, a seat he held until 1880.

Beaumont retired from the Army shortly after his promotion to Colonel in 1877, and died on 20 August 1899.

See also
John Hick

References

External links

1833 births
1899 deaths
People educated at Harrow School
Royal Engineers officers
British military personnel of the Indian Rebellion of 1857
British civil engineers
English inventors
Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
UK MPs 1868–1874
UK MPs 1874–1880


Rastriya Janamukti Partry (; translation: National People's Liberation Party) is a political party in Nepal. The party was founded on 6 May 1990 as Nepal Rastriya Janamukti Morcha. After unification with Rastriya Jana Party on 20 January 1992, the unified party adopted the name, Rastriya Janamukti Party.

History

Foundation (1990-1992)
The Nepal Rastriya Janamukti Morcha Party was founded in Kathmandu on 6 May 1990. The party contested the 1991 general elections with a man as their electoral symbol. The party merged with Rastriya Jana Party on 20 January 1992 and renamed itself, Rastriya Janamukti Party also adopting a house as its electoral symbol.

First General Convention (1996-1999)
The party's first General Convention was held in Kathmandu from 10 June to 12 June 1996. The general convention elected Malbar Singh Thapa as the party's first president and Gore Bahadur Khapangi as the party's first general secretary.

In the 1999 parliamentary election, the Rastriya Janamukti Party fielded 130 candidates and got 92,567 votes but none of their candidates were elected. During the party's second General Convention in Butwal, Malbar Singh Thapa and Gore Bahadur Khapangi were reelected to their posts.

Constituent Assembly (2006-2015)
The party held its third General Convention in Lalitpur from 3 March to 5 March 2006. Malbar Singh Thapa was reelected as the party's president and Bayan Singh Rai was elected as the general secretary. The party contested the 2008 Constituent Assembly election and won 2 seats through proportional representation.

The party then held its fourth General Convention in Kawasoti and Malbar Singh Thapa was reelected party president and Keshav Suryavanshi was elected general secretary. In the 2013 Constituent Assembly election, the party again won 2 seats through proportional representation.

The two members in the Constituent Assembly, Shiva Lal Thapa and Sima Kumari BK, quit the party on 2 March 2015 and announced the formation of Rastriya Janamukti Party (Loktantrik).

Federal Nepal (2016-present)
In the party's fifth General Convention in Lalitpur, Khadga Prasad Palungwa was elected president and Keshav Suryavanshi was elected general secretary. The party contested the 2017 local elections and won 20 seats in local governments. The party also contested the 2017 legislative and provincial elections but did not win any seats.

Electoral performance

Nepalese legislative elections

Sister organizations
The sister organizations of the Party are called Jana Sangathan (People's Organization). According to the RJP central office, the following are the current sister organizations:

 Janamukti Youth Federation
 Rastriya Mahila Morcha
 Rastriya Dalit Morcha
 Rastriya Purva Sainik Sangathan
 Nepal Aadibasi Mahasangh
 Nepal Bidhyarthi Morcha
 Rastriya Muslim Parisad
 Bahujatiya Sanskritik Morcha
 Rastriya Bhumihin-Sukumbasi Adhikar Manch
 Rastriya Tharu Manch Nepal
 Khas arya Rastriya Manch Nepal
In addition, teachers, intellectuals, athletes, transport entrepreneurs, and communication/media-related organizations are parties which are closely aligned with Janamukti Thought.

Leadership

List of presidents (1992–present)

List of general secretaries (1992–present)

References

Socialist parties in Nepal
Political parties established in 1990


Rastriya Janata Dal is a political party in Nepal. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election.

References

Political parties in Nepal


Rastriya Janata Dal Nepal is a political party in Nepal. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election.

References

Political parties in Nepal


The 2008 American Samoa Republican presidential caucuses took place on February 23, 2008. John McCain won all 6 pledged (and the support of 3 unpledged delegates) at the territory's convention.  McCain "campaigned" in the territory by recording an audio message to the delegates and sending it to the caucus via the Internet.

Results

See also
 American Samoa Democratic caucuses, 2008
 Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2008

References

American Samoa
Republican caucuses
2008
February 2008 events in the United States


The 2008 Ohio Republican presidential primary took place on March 4, 2008. That night, candidate John McCain secured enough delegate votes to win the Republican nomination for the 2008 United States presidential election.

Results
McCain won every county in the state.

* Candidate had dropped out of the race before March 4.

3 other unpledged delegates will also be sent to the Republican convention to bring Ohio's total delegate count to 88.

See also
 2008 Ohio Democratic presidential primary
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries

References

Ohio
2008 Ohio elections
2008
Republican Party (United States) events in Ohio


Ricardo Migliorisi,  (January 6, 1948 – June 14, 2019)  born in Asunción, Paraguay, on January 6, 1948, to Isolina Salsa Ferraris and Salvador Migliorisi Tumino, of Italian origin. Migliorisi was a Paraguayan painter, costume designer, scenery designer and architect. Migliorisi won  national and international awards. Migliorisi showed his work in many countries including The United States of America and Europe.

Childhood and Youth

He did his elementary studies at the Dante Aliglieri School and later on, at San José School, in Asunción.

His liking for the aesthetics and art were manifested at a young age and has made to mature the soul of this artist. His first artistic expressions came up when he was eighteen years old

When young, studied Plastic Arts in the Cira Moscarda Studio. In that studio many young people could give free hand to their creativity, expressed with inedited elements. The experience he lived there, gives him the impulse to come out as a transgressor in all his work.

Ricardo also studied engraving with the expert Livio Abramo, but basically he can be considered autodidactic.

Later on, he studied Architecture in the Universidad Nacional de Asunción (National University of Asuncion).

In the following years of his formation as an artist he gained much experience in many Latin-American countries, working as a wardrobe and scenery designer.

In the beginning he used drawing and painting in most of his work, but later included different other types of elements to his creations.

In a short period of time, the young artist showed the world an innovator, psychedelic and delirious style in his work.

Trajectory

Ricardo Migliorisi appears in the Paraguayan artistic society in the mid ‘60s, a time marked by the urgent actualization and opening, by the emerging novelty in the field of Modernism, that invaded all the artistic societies in America and Europe.

He has had numerous opportunities to show his work:

Also, collective expositions with contemporary artists:

Awards

During his career he received many awards.

Museums and collections

His artistic production traveled numerous exposition rooms. Some of them are:
 Contemporary Arts Museum. Madrid, Spain.
 Modern Arts Museum. National University of Bogota, Colombia.
 ”Gabriel Turbay” Library. Bucaramanga, Colombia.
 Museum of Zea. Medellín, Colombia.
 Coltejer Collection. Medellín, Colombia.
 Culture House. Cúcuta, Colombia.
 Paraguayan Museum of Contemporary Arts. Asunción, Paraguay.
 ”The Sistine Tent”. Visual Arts Center. Asunción, Paraguay.
 Contemporary Arts Museum. Maldonado, Uruguay.
 ”José Luís Cuevas” Museum. Mexico.
Private collections in Spain, USA, Venezuela, Uruguay, Argentina, Mexico, Italy, Brazil, Peru, Sweden, Japan, Honduras, El Salvador, Colombia, France, Ecuador, Chile, Netherlands, Germany and Paraguay.

Style

A very particular style, with an ample variety of expressive resources, paintings, montages, audio-visual experiences and installations are part of his work.

His characters are considered none too realistic, and may represent popular Latin-American subjects, animals and classic mythology, opera, circus and cabaret characters, the television and socialite, all of them with crazy tendencies.

Migliorisi presents a strong scenic sense, binding his creations to theatrical spaces. In his characters there is the mystery of the masks and the shine of footlight. The way he uses the color is a remarkable characteristic, the contrast, transparencies and textures give live to mud or metal objects. Emerge imposing plaster figures, woods of feather, glass pearls and golden stones and caracoles.

His family
His family, of Italian descent, lives in Asunción. He has a sister: María Cristina Migliorisi de Galiano.

Migliorisi was hospitalized in May 2019 under intensive therapy. He died on June 14, 2019, at the age of 71.

References

  Escobar, Ticio y Amigo, Roberto . “Ricardo Migliorisi”. Centro de Artes visuales. Arte Nuevo. 2002. Asunción.

External links
 Enciclopedia Encarta
 Iberoamérica pinta

1948 births
2019 deaths
Paraguayan people of Italian descent
Paraguayan painters
Universidad Nacional de Asunción alumni
Paraguayan architects
People from Asunción


Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist) is a political party in Nepal. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election.

Ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election, the party presented a closed proportional representation list with 38 candidates, headed by Durga Prasad Gyawali. The party presented 4 candidates for the First Past the Post seats.

See also
 List of communist parties in Nepal

References

Communist parties in Nepal
Political parties established in 2006
2006 establishments in Nepal


Pillowface and His Airplane Chronicles is the debut mixtape by California DJ and record producer Steve Aoki.

The mix features tracks from Justice, Peaches, Datarock, MSTRKRFT, Bloc Party, Franz Ferdinand and others, with guest vocal appearances from Santigold, Spank Rock, Uffie, Kid Sister, Pase Rock, Amanda Blank and Mickey Avalon.

The album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard Dance/Electronic Albums chart.

History
Aoki explained that there's a meaning behind the album name. Pillow Face is a character he created who is really the alter ego of himself. He is "traveling and surviving with no sleep – practically, no sleep for weeks, yet still being able to function. His head turns into a pillow. Airplane Chronicles – we're just traveling, living in airports and going global. That's part of what glues all this music and all these artists together. There's artists from Sweden, to New York, to Paris, to Los Angeles to, everywhere, all kind of coming together for this one."

Track listing
Refused "New Noise" (1:55) (Jon Brannstrom; Dennis Lyxzen; David Sandstrom; Kristopher Steen)
Justice "Waters Of Nazareth" (Erol Alkan's Durrr Durrr Durrrrrr Re-Edit) w/ Pase Rock's Guest Drop (2:22) (Gaspard Augé; Xavier de Rosnay)
Does It Offend You, Yeah? "We Are Rockstars" w/ Spank Rock & Amanda Blank's Guest Drop (2:00) (James Rushent; Dan Coop; Rob Bloomfield; Matty Derham)
Services "Element Of Danger" (MSTRKRFT Remix) W/ Har Mar Superstar's Guest Drop (3:14) (Tristan Bechet; Christopher Pravdica)
Goose "Bring it On" w/ Todd Fink's Guest Drop (3:45) (Mickael Karkousse; Dave Martijn; Tom Coghe; Bert Libeert)
Larry Tee & Princess Superstar "Licky (Work It Out)"(Herve Goes Low Remix) w/ Santogold's Guest Drop (3:35)(Lawrence Thom; Concetta Kirschner)
Green Velvet "Shake and Pop" w/ Kid Sister's Guest Drop (3:10) (Curtis Jones; Walter Phillips)
Klaxons "Gravity's Rainbow" (Soulwax Remix) (5:04) (Jamie Reynolds; James Righton; Simon Taylor-Davies)
Mystery Jets "The Boy Who Ran Away" (Riton Re-Dub) (2:50) (Blaine Harrison; Henry Harrison; Kai Fish; Kapil Trivedi; William Rees)
Peaches "Boys Wanna Be Her" (Weird Science Remix) (2:03) (Merrill Beth Nisker)
Datarock "Fa-Fa-Fa" w/ Steve Bays' Guest Drop (3:30) (Fredrik Saroea; Ketil Mosnes)
Yelle "Je Veux te Voir" (3:33) (Jean-Francois Perrier; Julie Budet)
Franz Ferdinand "Do You Want To" (Erol Alkan's Glam Racket Remix) (2:50) (Alex Kapranos; Nick McCarthy; Robert Hardy; Paul Thomson)
Kim "Wet 'N Wild" w/ Mickey Avalon's Guest Drop (2:32) (Kimberly Isaac)
Bloc Party "Helicopter" (Weird Science Remix feat. Peaches) (4:22) (Kele Okereke; Russell Lissack; Gordon Moakes; Matt Tong)
Justice "D.A.N.C.E." (MSTRKRFT Remix) (4:20) (Gaspard Augé; Xavier de Rosnay)
Scanners "Low Life" Remix w/ Uffie's Guest Drop (5:52) (Matthew Mole; Sarah Daly)

Charts

Reception
Response to Pillowface and His Airplane Chronicles was generally mixed to negative.

References

Steve Aoki albums
2008 albums


The 2008 Rhode Island Republican presidential primary took place on March 4, 2008.

Results

* Candidate dropped out of the race before March 4.

See also
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries
 2008 Rhode Island Democratic presidential primary

References

Rhode Island
2008 Rhode Island elections
2008


Rastriya Janashakti Party was a liberal political party in Nepal, led by former Prime Minister Surya Bahadur Thapa. Thapa had split away from the Rastriya Prajatantra Party in November 2004. The party was registered with the Election Commission of Nepal in March 2005. The party merged into Rastriya Prajatantra Party on July 25, 2007.

Leadership
The party is led by a Central Working Committee. Thapa is the chairman of the party. Prakash Chandra Lohani is the vice chairman of the party.

Split from RPP
RJP emerged from a split in the Rastriya Prajatantra Party, as Thapa left the RPP, which he helped found in 1990, on November 4, 2004. On November 19, 2004, Thapa and his followers opened a 'contact office' in Balutwar, Kathmandu, to organise a broad political conference and coordinate the construction of a new party. On December 27, 2004 the group formed a 320-member organising committee for the holding of the conference of the new party. Thapa was chairman of the committee, Lohani vice chairman and Buddhiman Tamang secretary. Other prominent members of the committee were Kamal Thapa, Hari Bahadur Basnet, Sarvendra Nath Sukla and Renu Kumari Yadav.

Kamal Thapa left the committee in January 2005.

Foundation
The RJP was founded on March 13, 2005. The 'broad political conference' was, however, postponed due to the imposition of Emergency rule by King Gyanendra on February 1, 2005.

2005-2006 coup and revolt
RJP had expressed differences with King Gyanendra after the February 1, 2005 coup, over issues like political appointments in the local administrations. RJP accused the King of eliminating the forces working for constitutional monarchy, through his political actions. At the time, RJP tried to profile itself as a centrist party, in between positions advocating direct monarchical rule and republic.

RJP boycotted the 2006 municipal election.

During the Loktantra Andolan, the RJP suggested that the King Gyanendra would initiate talks with 'constitutional forces'.

When the King was stripped of his political powers by the interim parliament, RJP did not object.

Merger
In November 2006, the Prajatantrik Nepal Party led by Keshar Bahadur Bista merged into RJP. Bista became general secretary of RJP.

2008 election
Ahead of the Constituent Assembly election, RJP had proposed having a mixed election system, with 75 district representatives and 230 members elected through proportional representation. The party also proposed constituting an 'Ethnic Assembly' as the upper house of parliament.

In April 2007, the party dropped the term 'constitutional monarchy' from its party statue.

On February 15, 2008, RJP formed the Samyukta Samabeshi Morcha, a front of 'monarchist and democratic forces', along with Nepali Rastriya Janabhavana Party, Rastriya Janamukti Party and Rastriya Jana Ekta Party. The front favours ceremonial monarchy.

On February 19, 2008, RJP had called for an election boycott, claiming that the situation in Madhes made elections impossible to hold. After an agreement was reached between United Democratic Madhesi Front and the Government of Nepal on February 27, 2008, and the UDMF parties pledge to contest the CA polls, the RJP declared that it would participate as well.

On March 6, 2008, Thapa declared that his party was not monarchist, but would accept the verdict of the voters. RJP MPs had previously boycotted a vote in the interim parliament on making Nepal a republic. Thapa had dubbed the vote 'an attack on the fundamental norms of democracy'.

At the elections to the Constituent Assembly, the RJP received 79,925 votes (0.77%) in the constituency vote, winning no seats. With 102,147 votes (0.95%) in the party list vote the RJP won three seats to the Assembly.

Just before, Constituent Assembly election, 2013 Rastriya Janashakti Party merged with Rastriya Prajatantra Party.

References

Political parties in Nepal
Political parties established in 2005
2005 establishments in Nepal


The 2008 Vermont Republican presidential primary took place on March 4, 2008. Arizona Senator John McCain was the winner of the primary.

Results

* Candidate dropped out of the race before the primary

See also
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries
 2008 Vermont Democratic presidential primary

References

Vermont
2008 Vermont elections
Vermont Republican primaries


Rastriya Prajatantra Party, Nepal (; translation: National Democratic Party Nepal) is a Hindu right-wing, cultural conservative party. It previously existed as royalist political party in Nepal from 2006 to 2016. The party was formed as a splinter of Rastriya Prajatantra Party in 2006 and was later reunified in 2016. The party was reformed in 2022 by Kamal Thapa.

The party supported the restoration of the Hindu kingdom in Nepal under the Shah dynasty. Presently, the party advocates only Hindu nationalism.

The party was registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the April 2008 Constituent Assembly election for the first time. Ahead of the election, the party sought to form a front of royalist parties.

In the 2013 elections, the party had emerged as the fourth largest party in the Constituent Assembly winning 24 out of 575 seats.

History

Founding, 2006–2008
It was started as a breakaway faction of the Rastriya Prajatantra Party under leadership of Kamal Thapa, home minister under King Gyanendra's direct rule. Thapa resigned as party chair in October 2006.

RPP won the largest number of mayors in the 2006 municipal election. Rajaram Shrestha won in the capital Kathmandu; also Khadga Prasad Palungua in Dharan, Pralhad Prasad Shah Haluwai in Biratnagar, Ram Shankar Shah in Jaleswor, Sumitra Madhinne in Bhaktapur, Madhukar Prasad Adhikari in Hetauda, Bimal Prasad Shrivastav in Birgunj, Bidur Khadka in Baglung and Bhimsen Thapa in Pokhara.  However this election was boycotted by most major parties.

In April 2006, the Nepal Samata Party (Socialist) merged into the party.

In January 2007 the splinter group Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist) of Rajeswor Devkota rejoined the party.  Bidwai Parishad of Jit Bahadur Arjel also merged with them

On March 2, 2008, Rabindra Nath Sharma stepped down as party chairman, citing health reasons. Kamal Thapa again became chairman.

Constituent Assembly, 2008–2015
The party won four seats in the 2008 Constituent Assembly election. At the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly on May 28, 2008, the party was the only party to oppose the declaration of a republic; there were 560 votes in favor of a republic and only the party's four votes against. Thapa subsequently said on June 20, 2008 that the country faced an impending "disaster", urging alertness among the party. He said that the party's policies and programmes would remain the same despite the political change. On July 13, 2008, he described the abolition of the monarchy as merely "an interim decision", saying that the party sought the restoration of the monarchy.

The party boycotted the July 2008 presidential election in the Constituent Assembly, on the grounds that the major parties were treating the election as a partisan contest.

In August 2008 some senior leaders, including Rabindra Nath Sharma and Rajeshwor Devkota, left the party and joined the Rastriya Prajatantra Party.

The party won 24 seats under proportional representation in the 2013 Constituent Assembly elections making it the fourth largest party in the house. The party split following differences over naming  candidates to the proportional representation seats won by the party. Central leaders of the party including former minister Tanka Dhakal and former Kathmandu mayoral candidate Rajaram Shrestha registered a new party the 'Nepali Rastriya Prajatantra Party' at the Election Commission on 30 December 2013. However, the Election Commission turned down the breakaway group's request seeking recognition as a new party and claim of proportional representation seats. Tanka Dhakal later announced his return to the party stating "Splitting the party at this moment is not in our interest. It will weaken democracy"  Other dissidents leaders said it was Chairman Kamal Thapa's "concession on monarchy and Hindu state" that precipitated the split.

Unification, 2015–2016

When the party joined the government of Khadga Prasad Oli, Bikram Bahadur Thapa and Kunti Devi Shahi became state ministers.

On 21 November 2016, Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal and Rastriya Prajtantra Party announced their unification. The new party retained the name of Rastriya Prajatantra Party. The new party had a total strength of 37 in the Parliament of Nepal becoming the fourth largest party. Kamal Thapa was elected chairman of the party in a special general convention in Kathmandu in February 2017.

Revival, 2022-present
On 13 February 2022, Kamal Thapa who had prior made  a declaration of leaving Rastriya Prajatantra Party made a press release about joining the Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal soon as the national president of the party. After the revival, the party left the agenda of Constitutional monarchy which the party had taken as its ideology for a long period. The main agenda of the new party remains Hindu nationalism or Hindutva.

On 21 July 2022, Former Urban Development Minister Dil Nath Giri, Former RPP Vice-President Dil Bikash Rajbhandari along with leaders Shyam Timalsina, Keshavraj Shrestha, Daman Basnet, Sudha Joshi, Ranjita Shrestha and Dipesh Khatri resigned en masse from RPP and joined hands with Kamal Thapa in a welcome program in Kathmandu.

Electoral performance

References

Nepalese Hindu political parties
Hindu nationalism in Nepal
2022 establishments in Nepal
Political parties disestablished in 2016

Right-wing parties
2016 disestablishments in Nepal


Samajbadi Party Nepal (translation: Socialist Party) is a political party in Nepal, led by Salim Miya Ansari. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election.

Ansari became a minister in 2005, appointed by King Gyanendra. The party won one mayoral post in the 2006 municipal elections. Mohammad Manjur Alam Ansari of the Samajbadi Party Nepal was elected deputy mayor of Kailaya in the same elections.

References

Political parties in Nepal


The 2008 Mississippi Republican presidential primary took place on March 11, 2008. The only candidates that were still in the race were Senator John McCain, Congressman Ron Paul, and Alan Keyes. John McCain easily won this primary.

Results

* Candidate withdrew from the race before the primary

See also
 Mississippi Democratic primary, 2008
 Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2008

References

2008 Mississippi elections
Mississippi
Mississippi Republican primaries


KVUW (102.3 FM, "SAM 102") is a radio station licensed to serve West Wendover, Nevada. The station is owned by Alexander Ortega. It airs an adult hits music format.

The station was assigned the KVUW call letters by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on August 14, 2001.

Ownership
In April 2005, Mountain States Radio Inc. (Victor A. Michael, president) acquired KVUW as part of a two-station deal from Mt Rushmore Broadcasting Inc. (Jan C. Gray, president) for a reported sale price of $750,000.

Construction permit
On December 12, 2011 the station was granted a construction permit by the FCC to increase its effective radiated power to 100,000 watts and raise its antenna to a height above average terrain of 600 meters (1970 feet). The transmitter would also be moved northwest to 41°07'19"N, 114°34'02"W. This permit expires on December 12, 2014.

References

External links

VUW
Adult hits radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 2005


Sa-Shakti Nepal is a political party in Nepal. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election. The party works for introducing a 50 percent representation for women quota, formation of cooperatives in
villages and employment for women. Chair of the party is Padmini Pradhananga and Sarala Lama is the vice chair of the party.

References

Political parties in Nepal


The Gardens of Versailles ( ) occupy part of what was once the Domaine royal de Versailles, the royal demesne of the château of Versailles. Situated to the west of the palace, the gardens cover some 800 hectares of land, much of which is landscaped in the classic French formal garden style perfected here by André Le Nôtre. Beyond the surrounding belt of woodland, the gardens are bordered by the urban areas of Versailles to the east and Le Chesnay to the north-east, by the National Arboretum de Chèvreloup to the north, the Versailles plain (a protected wildlife preserve) to the west, and by the Satory Forest to the south.

Administered by the Public Establishment of the Palace, Museum and National Estate of Versailles, an autonomous public entity operating under the aegis of the French Ministry of Culture, the gardens are now one of the most visited public sites in France, receiving more than six million visitors a year.

In addition to the meticulous manicured lawns, parterres, and sculptures are the fountains, which are located throughout the garden. Dating from the time of Louis XIV and still using much of the same network of hydraulics as was used during the Ancien Régime, the fountains contribute to making the gardens of Versailles unique. On weekends from late spring to early autumn, the administration of the museum sponsors the Grandes Eaux – spectacles during which all the fountains in the gardens are in full play. Designed by André Le Nôtre, the Grand Canal is the masterpiece of the Gardens of Versailles. In the Gardens too, the Grand Trianon was built to provide the Sun King with the retreat he wanted. The Petit Trianon is associated with Marie Antoinette, who spent her time there with her closest relatives and friends.

In 1979, the gardens along with the château were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for their cultural importance during the 17th and 18th centuries.

Planning diagram

Louis XIII

With Louis XIII's final purchase of lands from Jean-François de Gondi in 1632 and his assumption of the seigneurial role of Versailles in the 1630s, formal gardens were laid out west of the château. Records indicate that late in the decade Claude Mollet and Hilaire Masson designed the gardens, which remained relatively unchanged until the expansion ordered under Louis XIV in the 1660s. This early layout, which has survived in the so-called Du Bus plan of c.1662, shows an established topography along which lines of the gardens evolved. This is evidenced in the clear definition of the main east–west and north–south axis that anchors the gardens' layout.

Louis XIV
In 1661, after the disgrace of the finance minister Nicolas Fouquet, who was accused by rivals of embezzling crown funds in order to build his luxurious château at Vaux-le-Vicomte, Louis XIV turned his attention to Versailles. With the aid of Fouquet's architect Louis Le Vau, painter Charles Le Brun, and landscape architect André Le Nôtre, Louis began an embellishment and expansion program at Versailles that would occupy his time and worries for the remainder of his reign.

From this point forward, the expansion of the gardens of Versailles followed the expansions of the château. Accordingly, Louis XIV's building campaigns apply to the gardens as well. At every stage the prescribed tour was carefully managed, under the Sun King's directions.

First building campaign
In 1662, minor modifications to the château were undertaken; however, greater attention was given to developing the gardens. Existing bosquets and parterres were expanded and new ones created. Most significant among the creations at this time were the Versailles Orangerie and the "Grotte de Thétys". (Nolhac 1901, 1925) The Orangery, which was designed by Louis Le Vau, was located south of the château, a situation that took advantage of the natural slope of the hill. It provided a protected area in which orange trees were kept during the winter months. (Nolhac 1899, 1902)

The "Grotte de Thétys", which was located to the north of the château, formed part of the iconography of the château and of the gardens that aligned Louis XIV with solar imagery. The grotto would be completed during the second building campaign. (Verlet 1985)

By 1664, the gardens had evolved to the point that Louis XIV inaugurated the gardens with the fête galante called Les Plaisirs de l’Île enchantée. The event, which officially was to celebrate his mother, Anne d'Autriche, and his consort Marie-Thérèse but in reality celebrated Louise de La Vallière, Louis' mistress, was held in May of that year. Guests were regaled with fabulous entertainments in the gardens over a period of one week. As a result of this fête – particularly the lack of housing for guests (most of them had to sleep in their carriages), Louis realized the shortcomings of Versailles and began to expand the château and the gardens once again. (Verlet, 1961, 1985)

Second building campaign
Between 1664 and 1668, a flurry of activity was evidenced in the gardens – especially with regard to fountains and new bosquets; it was during this time that the imagery of the gardens consciously exploited Apollo and solar imagery as metaphors for Louis XIV. Le Vau's enveloppe of the Louis XIII's château provided a means by which, though the decoration of the garden façade, imagery in the decors of the grands appartements of the king and queen formed a symbiosis with the imagery of the gardens. (Lighthart, 1997; Mâle, 1927)

With this new phase of construction, the gardens assumed the topographical and iconological design vocabulary that would remain in force until the 18th century. As André Félibien noted in his description of Versailles, solar and apollonian themes predominated with projects constructed at the time: "Since the sun was the emblem of Louis XIV, and that poets join the sun and Apollo, there is nothing in this superb house that does not relation to this divinity." (Félibien, 1674).

Three additions formed the topological and symbolic nexus of the gardens during this phase of construction: the completion of the "Grotte de Thétys", the "Bassin de Latone", and the "Bassin d'Apollon".

Grotte de Thétys

Started in 1664 and finished in 1670 with the installation of the statuary by the Gilles Guérin, François Girardon, Thomas Regnaudin, Gaspard Marsy, and Balthazar Marsy, the grotto formed an important symbolic and technical component to the gardens. Symbolically, the "Grotte de Thétys" related to the myth of Apollo – and by that association to Louis XIV. It was as the cave of the sea nymph Thetis, where Apollo rested after driving his chariot to light the sky. The grotto was a freestanding structure located just north of the château. The interior, which was decorated with shell-work to represent a sea cave, contained the statue group by the Marsy brothers depicting the sun god attended by nereids (central grouping) and his horses being groomed by attendants of Thetis (the two accompanying statue groups). Originally, these statues were set in three individual niches in the grotto and were surrounded by various fountains and water features. (Marie 1968; Nolhac 1901, 1925; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Technically, the "'Grotte de Thétys" played a critical role in the hydraulic system that supplied water to the garden. The roof of the grotto supported a reservoir that stored water pumped from the Clagny pond and which fed the fountains lower in the garden via gravity.

Bassin de Latone

Located on the east–west axis just west and below the Parterre d'Eau, is the Bassin de Latone. Designed by André Le Nôtre, sculpted by Gaspard and Balthazar Marsy, and constructed between 1668 and 1670, the fountain depicted an episode from Ovid's Metamorphoses. Latona and her children, Apollo and Diana, being tormented with mud slung by Lycian peasants, who refused to let her and her children drink from their pond, appealed to Jupiter who responded by turning the Lycians into frogs. This episode from mythology has been seen by historians in reference as an allegory to the revolts of the Fronde, which occurred during the minority of Louis XIV. The link between Ovid's story and this episode from French history is emphasized by the reference to "mud slinging" in a political context. The revolts of the Fronde – the word fronde also means slingshot – have been regarded as the origin of the use of the term "mud slinging" in a political context. (Berger, 1992; Marie, 1968, 1972, 1976; Nolhac, 1901; Thompson, 2006; Verlet, 1961, 1985; Weber, 1981)

Bassin d'Apollon
Further along the east–west axis is the Bassin d'Apollon – the Apollo Fountain. Occupying the site of Rondeau/Bassin des Cygnes of Louis XIII, the Apollo Fountain, which was constructed between 1668 and 1671, depicts the sun god driving his chariot to light the sky. The fountain forms a focal point in the garden and serves as a transitional element between the gardens of the Petit Parc and the Grand Canal. (Marie 1968; Nolhac 1901, 1925; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Grand Canal
With a length of 1,500 metres and a width of 62 metres, the Grand Canal, which was built between 1668 and 1671, physically and visually prolongs the east–west axis to the walls of the Grand Parc. During the Ancien Régime, the Grand Canal served as a venue for boating parties. In 1674, as a result of a series of diplomatic arrangements that benefited Louis XIV, the king ordered the construction of Petite Venise (Little Venice). Located at the junction of the Grand Canal and the junction of the northern transversal branch, Little Venice housed the caravels and yachts that were received from The Netherlands and the gondolas and gondoliers received as gifts from the Doge of Venice, hence the name. (Marie 1968; Nolhac 1901, 1925; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Above and beyond the decorative and festive aspects of this garden feature, the Grand Canal also served a practical role.  Situated at a low point in the gardens, it collected water it drained from the fountains in the garden above. Water from the Grand Canal was pumped back to the reservoir on the roof of the Grotte de Thétys via a network of windmill-powered and horse-powered pumps. (Thompson 2006)

Parterre d'Eau
Situated above the Latona Fountain is the terrace of the château, known as the Parterre d'Eau. Forming a transitional element from the château to the gardens below and placed on the north–south axis of the gardens, the Parterre d'Eau provided a setting in which the imagery and symbolism of the decors of the grands appartements synthesized with the iconography of the gardens. In 1664, Louis XIV commissioned a series of statues intended to decorate the water feature of the Parterre d'Eau. The Grande Commande, as the commission is known, comprised twenty-four statues of the classic quaternities and four additional statues depicting abductions from the classic past. (Berger I, 1985; Friedman, 1988,1993; Hedin, 1981–1982; Marie, 1968; Nolhac, 1901; Thompson, 2006; Verlet, 1961, 1985; Weber, 1981)

Evolution of the Bosquets

One of the distinguishing features of the gardens during the second building campaign was the proliferation of bosquets. Expanding the layout established during the first building campaign, Le Nôtre added or expanded on no fewer that ten bosquets: The Bosquet du Marais in 1670; the Bosquet du Théâtre d'Eau, Île du Roi and Miroir d'Eau, the Salle des Festins (Salle du Conseil), the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines in 1671; the Labyrinthe and the Bosquet de l'Arc de Triomphe in 1672; the Bosquet de la Renommée (Bosquet des Dômes) and the Bosquet de l'Encélade in 1675; and the Bosquet des Sources in 1678 (Marie 1972, 1976; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

In addition to the expansion of existing bosquets and the construction of new ones, there were two additional projects that defined this era, the Bassin des Sapins and the Pièce d'eau des Suisses.

Bassin des Sapins
In 1676, the Bassin des Sapins, which was located north of the château below the Parterre du Nord and the Allée des Marmousets was designed to form a topological pendant along the north–south axis with the Pièce d'eau des Suisses located at the base of the Satory hill south of the château. Later modifications in the garden would transform this fountain into the Bassin de Neptune. (Marie 1972, 1975; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Pièce d'eau des Suisses
Excavated in 1678, the Pièce d'eau des Suisses – named for the Swiss Guards who constructed the lake – occupied an area of marshes and ponds, some of which had been used to supply water for the fountains in the garden. This water feature, with a surface area of more than 15 hectares, is the second largest – after the Grand Canal – at Versailles. (Marie 1972, 1975; Nolhac 1901, 1925; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Third building campaign

Modifications in the gardens during the third building campaign were distinguished by a stylistic change from the natural esthetic of André Le Nôtre to the architectonic style of Jules Hardouin Mansart. The first major modification to the gardens during this phase occurred in 1680 when the Tapis Vert – the expanse of lawn that stretches between the Latona Fountain and the Apollo Fountain – achieved its final size and definition under the direction of André Le Nôtre. (Nolhac 1901; Thompson 2006)

Beginning in 1684, the Parterre d'Eau was remodeled under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart. Statues from the Grande Commande of 1674 were relocated to other parts of the garden; two twin octagonal basins were constructed and decorated with bronze statues representing the four main rivers of France. In the same year, Le Vau's Orangerie, located to south of the Parterrre d'Eau was demolished to accommodate a larger structure designed by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. In addition to the Orangerie, the Escaliers des Cent Marches, which facilitated access to the gardens from the south, to the Pièce d'Eau des Suisses, and to the Parterre du Midi were constructed at this time, giving the gardens just south of the château their present configuration and decoration.

Additionally, to accommodate the anticipated construction of the Aile des Nobles – the north wing of the château – the Grotte de Thétys was demolished. (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976; Nolhac 1899, 1901, 1902, 1925)

With the construction of the Aile des Nobles (1685–1686), the Parterre du Nord was remodeled to respond to the new architecture of this part of the château. To compensate for the loss of the reservoir on top of the Grotte de Thétys and to meet the increased demand for water, Jules Hardouin-Mansart designed new and larger reservoirs situated due north of the Aile des Nobles (Thompson 2006). Construction for the ruinously expensive Canal de l'Eure was inaugurated in 1685; designed by Vauban it was intended to bring waters of the Eure over 80 kilometres, including aqueducts of heroic scale, but the works were abandoned in 1690: see "The problem of water" below.

Between 1686 and 1687, the Bassin de Latone, under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart, was rebuilt. It is this version of the fountain that is today at Versailles. (Hedin 1992; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

During this phase of construction, three of the garden's major bosquets were modified or created. Beginning with the Galerie des Antiques, this bosquet was constructed in 1680 on the site of the earlier and short-lived Galerie d'Eau (1678).  This bosquet was conceived as an open-air gallery in which antique statues and copies acquired by the Académie de France in Rome were displayed. The following year, construction began on the Salle de Bal. Located in a secluded section of the garden west of the Orangerie, this bosquet was designed as an amphitheater that featured a cascade – the only one surviving in the gardens of Versailles. The Salle de Bal was inaugurated in 1685 with a ball hosted by the Grand Dauphin. Between 1684 and 1685, Jules Hardouin-Mansart built the Colonnade. Located on the site of Le Nôtre's Bosquet des Sources, this bosquet featured a circular peristyle formed from thirty-two arches with twenty-eight fountains and was Hardouin-Mansart's most architectural of the bosquets built in the gardens of Versailles (Marie 1972, 1976; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Fourth building campaign
Due to financial constraints arising from the War of the League of Augsburg and the War of the Spanish Succession, no significant work on the gardens was undertaken until 1704. Between 1704 and 1709, bosquets were modified, some quite radically, with new names suggesting the new austerity that characterized the latter years of Louis XIV's reign. (Marie 1976; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Louis XV

With the departure of the king and court from Versailles in 1715 following the death of Louis XIV, the palace and gardens entered an era of uncertainty. In 1722, Louis XV and the court returned to Versailles. Seeming to heed his great-grandfather's admonition not to engage in costly building campaigns, Louis XV did not undertake the costly building campaigns at Versailles that Louis XIV had. During the reign of Louis XV, the only significant addition to the gardens was the completion of the Bassin de Neptune (1738–1741). (Marie 1984; Verlet 1985)

Rather than expend resources on modifying the gardens at Versailles, Louis XV – an avid botanist – directed his efforts at Trianon. In the area now occupied by the Hameau de la Reine, Louis XV constructed and maintained les jardins botaniques – the botanical gardens. In 1750, the year in which les jardins botaniques were constructed, the Jardinier-Fleuriste, Claude Richard (1705–1784), assumed administration of the botanical gardens. In 1761, Louis XV commissioned Ange-Jacques Gabriel to build the Petit Trianon as a residence that would allow him to spend more time near the jardins botaniques. It was at the Petit Trianon that Louis XV fell fatally ill with smallpox; on 10 May 1774, the king died at Versailles. (Marie, 1984; Thompson, 2006)

Plan of the gardens in 1746

Louis XVI
Upon Louis XVI's ascension to the throne, the gardens of Versailles underwent a transformation that recalled the fourth building campaign of Louis XIV. Engendered by a change in outlook as advocated by Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Philosophes, the winter of 1774–1775 witnessed a complete replanting of the gardens. Trees and shrubbery dating from the reign of Louis XIV were felled or uprooted with the intent of transforming the French formal garden of Le Nôtre and Hardouin-Mansart into a version of an English landscape garden.

The attempt to convert Le Nôtre's masterpiece into an English-style garden failed to achieve its desired goal. Owing largely to the topology of the land, the English esthetic was abandoned and the gardens replanted in the French style. However, with an eye on economy, Louis XVI ordered the palissades – the labour-intensive clipped hedging that formed walls in the bosquets – to be replaced with rows of lime trees or chestnut trees. Additionally, a number of the bosquets dating from the time of the Sun King were extensively modified or destroyed. The most significant contribution to the gardens during the reign of Louis XVI was the Grotte des Bains d'Apollon. The rockwork grotto set in an English style bosquet was the masterpiece of Hubert Robert in which the statues from the Grotte de Thétys were placed. (Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

At the Petit Trianon, which was gifted to Marie Antoinette by Louis XVI in 1774, the new Queen dramatically relandscaped the surrounding parkland and gardens. Between 1776 and 1786, the botanic gardens and working farm of Louis XV were obliterated to create an English garden, called the "Anglo-Chinese" garden at the time, which stretched to the north and east of the Petit Trianon. Some of the exotic specimens from the botanic garden were preserved in the gardens, but most were brought to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. A lake and several meandering rivers were formed as part of the new landscaping and the architect Richard Mique was entrusted with designing follies to embellish the gardens like the Grotto, the Belvedere and the Temple of Love. Beyond the "Anglo-Chinese" garden, the Hameau de la Reine was built between 1782 and 1788, designed by Mique and Hubert Robert.

Revolution
In 1792, under order from the National Convention, some of the trees in gardens were felled, while parts of the Grand Parc were parceled and dispersed. Sensing the potential threat to Versailles, Louis Claude Marie Richard (1754–1821) – director of the jardins botaniques and grandson of Claude Richard – lobbied the government to save Versailles. He succeeded in preventing further dispersing of the Grand Parc and threats to destroy the Petit Parc were abolished by suggesting that the parterres could be used to plant vegetable gardens and that orchards could occupy the open areas of the garden. These plans were never put into action; however, the gardens were opened to the public – it was not uncommon to see people washing their laundry in the fountains and spreading it on the shrubbery to dry. (Thompson 2006)

In 1793 most of the decorative pieces of the Triumphal Arch Grove were destroyed.

Napoléon I
The Napoleonic era largely ignored Versailles. In the château, a suite of rooms was arranged for the use of the empress Marie-Louise, but the gardens were left unchanged, save for the disastrous felling of trees in the Bosquet de l'Arc de Triomphe and the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines. Massive soil erosion necessitated planting new trees. (Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Restoration

With the restoration of the Bourbons in 1814, the gardens of Versailles witnessed the first modifications since the Revolution. In 1817, Louis XVIII ordered the conversion of the Île du Roi and the Miroir d'Eau into an English-style garden – the Jardin du Roi. (Thompson 2006)

The July Monarchy; The Second Empire
While much of the château's interior was irreparably altered to accommodate the Museum of the History of France dedicated to "all the glories of France" (inaugurated by Louis Philippe I on 10 June 1837), the gardens, by contrast, remained untouched. With the exception of the state visit of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in 1855, at which time the gardens were a setting for a gala fête that recalled the fêtes of Louis XIV, Napoleon III ignored the château, preferring instead the château of Compiègne (Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Pierre de Nolhac
With the arrival of Pierre de Nolhac as director of the museum in 1892, a new era of historical research began at Versailles.  Nolhac, an ardent archivist and scholar, began to piece together the history of Versailles, and subsequently established the criteria for restoration of the château and preservation of the gardens, which are ongoing to this day. (Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985)

Bosquets of the gardens
Owing to the many modifications made to the gardens between the 17th and the 19th centuries, many of the bosquets have undergone multiple modifications, which were often accompanied by name changes.

Deux Bosquets – Bosquet de la Girondole – Bosquet du Dauphin – Quinconce du Nord – Quinconce du Midi
These two bosquets were first laid out in 1663. Located north and south of the east–west axis, these two bosquets were arranged as a series of paths around four salles de verdure and which converged on a central "room" that contained a fountain. In 1682, the southern bosquet was remodeled as the Bosquet de la Girondole, thus named due to spoke-like arrangement of the central fountain. The northern bosquet was rebuilt in 1696 as the Bosquet du Dauphin with a fountain that featured a dolphin. During the replantation of 1774–1775, both the bosquets were destroyed. The areas were replanted with lime trees and were rechristened the Quinconce du Nord and the Quinconce du Midi (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Labyrinthe – Bosquet de la Reine

In 1665, André Le Nôtre planned a hedge maze of unadorned paths in an area south of the Latona Fountain near the Orangerie. (Loach, 1985) In 1669, Charles Perrault – author of the Mother Goose Tales – advised Louis XIV to remodel the Labyrinthe in such a way as to serve the Dauphin's education (Perrault, 1669). Between 1672 and 1677, Le Nôtre redesigned the Labyrinthe to feature thirty-nine fountains that depicted stories from Aesop's Fables. The sculptors Jean-Baptiste Tuby, Étienne Le Hongre, Pierre Le Gros, and the brothers Gaspard and Balthazard Marsy worked on these thirty-nine fountains each of which was accompanied by a plaque on which the fable was printed, with verse written by Isaac de Benserade; from these plaques, Louis XIV's son learned to read. Once completed in 1677, the Labyrinthe contained thirty-nine fountains with 333 painted metal animal sculptures. The water for the elaborate waterworks was conveyed from the Seine by the Machine de Marly. The Labyrinthe contained fourteen water-wheels driving 253 pumps, some of which worked at a distance of three-quarters of a mile. Citing repair and maintenance costs, Louis XVI ordered the Labyrinthe demolished in 1778. In its place, an arboretum of exotic trees was planted as an English-styled garden. Rechristened Bosquet de la Reine, it would be in this part of the garden that an episode of the Affair of the Diamond Necklace, which compromised Marie Antoinette, transpired in 1785 (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Perrault 1669; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet de la Montagne d'Eau – Bosquet de l'Étoile
Originally designed by André Le Nôtre in 1661 as a salle de verdure, this bosquet contained a path encircling a central pentagonal area. In 1671, the bosquet was enlarged with a more elaborate system of paths that served to enhance the new central water feature, a fountain that resembled a mountain, hence the bosquets new name: Bosquet de la Montagne d'Eau.  The bosquet was completely remodeled in 1704 at which time it was rechristened Bosquet de l'Étoile (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet du Marais – Bosquet du Chêne Vert – Bosquet des Bains d'Apollon – Grotte des Bains d'Apollon
Created in 1670, this bosquet originally contained a central rectangular pool surrounded by a turf border. Edging the pool were metal reeds that concealed numerous jets for water; a swan that had water jetting from its beak occupied each corner.  The center of the pool featured an iron tree with painted tin leaves that sprouted water from its branches. Because of this tree, the bosquet was also known as the Bosquet du Chêne Vert. In 1705, this bosquet was destroyed in order to allow for the creation of the Bosquet des Bains d'Apollon, which was created to house the statues had once stood in the Grotte de Thétys. During the reign of Louis XVI, Hubert Robert remodeled the bosquet, creating a cave-like setting for the Marsy statues. The bosquet was renamed the Grotte des Bains d'Apollon (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Île du Roi – Miroir d'Eau – Jardin du Roi
Originally designed in 1671 as two separate water features, the larger – Île du Roi – contained an island that formed the focal point of a system of elaborate fountains. The Île du Roi was separated from the Miroir d'Eau by a causeway that featured twenty-four water jets. In 1684, the island was removed and the total number of water jets in the bosquet was significantly reduced. The year 1704 witnessed a major renovation of the bosquet at which time the causeway was remodelled and most of the water jets were removed. A century later, in 1817, Louis XVIII ordered the Île du Roi and the Miroir d'Eau to be completely remodeled as an English-style garden. At this time, the bosquet was rechristened Jardin du Roi (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Salle des Festins – Salle du Conseil – Bosquet de l'Obélisque
In 1671, André Le Nôtre conceived a bosquet – originally christened Salle des Festins and later called Salle du Conseil – that featured a quatrefoil island surrounded by a channel that contained fifty water jets. Each lobe of the island contained a simple fountain; access to the island was obtained by two swing bridges. Beyond the channel and placed at the cardinal points within the bosquet were four additional fountains. Under the direction of Jules Hardouin-Mansart, the bosquet was completely remodeled in 1706. The central island was replaced by a large basin raised on five steps, which was surrounded by a canal. The central fountain contained 230 jets that, when in play, formed an obelisk – hence the new name Bosquet de l'Obélisque (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet du Théâtre d'Eau – Bosquet du Rond-Vert
The central feature of this bosquet, which was designed by Le Nôtre between 1671 and 1674, was an auditorium/theater sided by three tiers of turf seating that faced a stage decorated with four fountains alternating with three radiating cascades.  Between 1680 and Louis XIV's death in 1715, there was near-constant rearranging of the statues that decorated the bosquet. In 1709, the bosquet was rearranged with the addition of the Fontaine de l'Île aux Enfants. As part of the replantation of the gardens ordered by Louis XVI during the winter of 1774–1775, the Bosquet du Théâtre d'Eau was destroyed and replaced with the unadorned Bosquet du Rond-Vert (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985). Bosquet du Théâtre d'Eau was recreated in 2014, with South Korean businessman and photographer Yoo Byung-eun being the sole patron, donating  million (~ million) to the project.

Bosquet des Trois Fontaines (Berceau d'Eau)
Situated to the west of the Allée des Marmousets and replacing the short-lived Berceau d'Eau (a long and narrow bosquet created in 1671 that featured a water bower made by numerous jets of water), the enlarged bosquet was transformed by Le Nôtre in 1677 into a series of three linked rooms. Each room contained a number of fountains that played with special effects. The fountains survived the modifications that Louis XIV ordered for other fountains in the gardens in the early 18th century and were subsequently spared during the 1774–1775 replantation of the gardens. In 1830, the bosquet was replanted at which time the fountains were suppressed. Due to storm damage in the park in 1990 and then again in 1999, the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines was restored and reinaugurated on 12 June 2004 (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet de l'Arc de Triomphe
Originally, this bosquet was planned in 1672 as a simple pavillon d'eau – a round open expanse with a square fountain in the center. In 1676, this bosquet, located to the east of the Allée des Marmousets and forming the pendant to the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines, was enlarged and redecorated along political lines that alluded to French military victories over Spain and Austria, at which time the triumphal arch was added – hence the name. Most of these pieces were destroyed during the Revolution. As with the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines, this bosquet survived the modifications of the 18th century, but was replanted in 1830 at which time the fountains were removed.  In 2008, this bosquet was restored (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet de la Renommée – Bosquet des Dômes
Built in 1675, the Bosquet de la Renommée featured a fountain statue of Fame – hence the name of the bosquet. With the relocation of the statues from the Grotte de Thétys in 1684, the bosquet was remodeled to accommodate the statues and the Fame fountain was removed. At this time the bosquet was rechristened Bosquet des Bains d'Apollon. As part of the reorganization of the garden that was ordered by Louis XIV in the early part of the 18th century, the Apollo grouping was moved once again to the site of the Bosquet du Marais – located near the Latona Fountain – which was destroyed and was replaced by the new Bosquet des Bains d'Apollon. The statues were installed on marble plinths from which water issued; and each statue grouping was protected by an intricately carved and gilded baldachin. The old Bosquet des Bains d'Apollon was renamed Bosquet des Dômes due to two domed pavilions built in the bosquet (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet de l'Encélade
Created in 1675 at the same time as the Bosquet de la Renommée, the fountain of this bosquet depicts Enceladus, a fallen Giant who was condemned to live below Mt. Etna, being consumed by volcanic lava. From its conception, this fountain was conceived as an allegory of Louis XIV's victory over the Fronde. In 1678, an octagonal ring of turf and eight rocaille fountains surrounding the central fountain were added. These additions were removed in 1708. When in play, this fountain has the tallest jet of all the fountains in the gardens of Versailles – 25 metres (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Bosquet des Sources – La Colonnade
Designed as a simple unadorned salle de verdure by Le Nôtre in 1678, the landscape architect enhanced and incorporated an existing stream to create a bosquet that featured rivulets that twisted among nine islets. In 1684, Jules Hardouin-Mansart completely redesigned the bosquet by constructing a circular arched double peristyle. The Colonnade, as it was renamed, originally featured thirty-two arches and thirty-one fountains – a single jet of water splashed into a basin center under the arch. In 1704, three additional entrances to the Colonnade were added, which reduced the number of fountains from thirty-one to twenty-eight. The statue that now occupies the center of the Colonnade – the Abduction of Persephone – (from the Grande Commande of 1664) was set in place in 1696 (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Galerie d'Eau – Galerie des Antiques – Salle des Marronniers
Occupying the site of the Galerie d'Eau (1678), the Galerie des Antiques was designed in 1680 to house the collection of antique statues and copies of antique statues acquired by the Académie de France in Rome. Surrounding a central area paved with colored stone, a channel was decorated with twenty statues on plinths each separated by three jets of water.  The galerie was completely remodeled in 1704 when the statues were transferred to Marly and the bosquet was replanted with horse chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum) – hence the current name Salle des Marronniers (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Salle de Bal
Located west of the Parterre du Midi and south of the Latona Fountain, this bosquet, which was designed by Le Nôtre and built between 1681 and 1683, features a semi-circular cascade that forms the backdrop for this salle de verdure. Interspersed with gilt lead torchères, which supported candelabra for illumination, the Salle de Bal was inaugurated in 1683 by Louis XIV's son, the Grand Dauphin, with a dance party. The Salle de Bal was remodeled in 1707 when the central island was removed and an additional entrance was added (Marie 1968, 1972, 1976, 1984; Thompson 2006; Verlet 1985).

Views of the Bosquets

Replantations of the garden

Common to any long-lived garden is replantation, and Versailles is no exception.  In their history, the gardens of Versailles have undergone no less than five major replantations, which have been executed for practical and aesthetic reasons.

During the winter of 1774–1775, Louis XVI ordered the replanting of the gardens on the grounds that many of the trees were diseased or overgrown and needed to be replaced.  Also, as the formality of the 17th-century garden had fallen out of fashion, this replantation sought to establish a new informality in the gardens – that would also be less expensive to maintain – of Versailles.  This, however, was not achieved as the topology of the gardens favored the jardin à la française over an English-style garden.  Then, in 1860, much of the old growth from Louis XVI's replanting was removed and replaced.  In 1870, a violent storm struck the area damaging and uprooting scores of trees, which necessitated a massive replantation program. However, owing to the Franco-Prussian War, which toppled Napoleon III, and the Commune de Paris, replantation of the garden did not get underway until 1883 (Thompson, 2006).

The most recent replantations of the gardens were precipitated by two storms that battered Versailles in 1990 and then again in 1999.  The storm damage at Versailles and Trianon amounted to the loss of thousands of trees – the worst such damage in the history of Versailles.  The replantations have allowed museum and governmental authorities to restore and rebuild some of the bosquets abandoned during the reign of Louis XVI, such as the Bosquet des Trois Fontaines, which was restored in 2004. (Thompson, 2006)

Catherine Pégard, the head of the public establishment which administers Versailles, has stated that the intention is to return the gardens to their appearance under Louis XIV, specifically as he described them in his 1704 description, Manière de Montrer les Jardins de Versailles. This involves restoring some of the parterres like the Parterre du Midi to their original formal layout, as they appeared under Le Nôtre. This was achieved in the Parterre de Latone in 2013, when the 19th century lawns and flower beds were replaced with boxwood-enclosed turf and gravel paths to create a formal arabesque design. Pruning is also done to keep trees between 17 and 23 metres (56 to 75 feet) tall, so as not to spoil the carefully calibrated perspectives of the gardens.

Owing to the cycle of replantations that has occurred at Versailles, it is safe to state that no trees dating from the time of Louis XIV are to be found in the gardens.

Water Problems

The marvel of the gardens of Versailles – then as now – is the fountains. Yet, the very element that animates the gardens, water, has proven to be the affliction of the gardens since the time of Louis XIV.

The gardens of Louis XIII required water and local ponds provided an adequate supply. However, once Louis XIV began expanding the gardens with more and more fountains, supplying the gardens with water became a critical challenge.

To meet the needs of the early expansions of the gardens under Louis XIV, water was pumped to gardens from ponds near the château, with the Clagny pond serving as the principal source. Water from the pond was pumped to the reservoir on top of the Grotte de Thétys, which fed the fountains in the garden by means of gravitational hydraulics. Other sources included a series of reservoirs located on the Satory Plateau south of the château (Verlet, 1985).

By 1664, increased demand for water necessitated additional sources. In that year, Louis Le Vau designed the Pompe, a water tower built north of the château. The Pompe drew water from the Clagny pond using a system of windmills and horsepower to a cistern housed in the Pompe'''s building. The capacity of the Pompe – 600 m3 of water per day – alleviated some of the water shortages in the garden (Thompson, 2006).

With the completion of the Grand Canal in 1671, which served as drainage for the fountains of the garden, water, via a system of windmills, was pumped back to the reservoir on top of the Grotte de Thétys. While this system solved some of the water supply problems, there was never enough water to keep all of the fountains running in the garden in full-play all of the time (Thompson, 2006).

While it was possible to keep the fountains in view from the château running, those concealed in the bosquets and in the farther reaches of the garden were run on an as-needed basis. In 1672, Jean-Baptiste Colbert devised a system by which the fountaineers in the garden would signal each other with whistles upon the approach of the king indicating that their fountain needed to be turned on. Once the king passed a fountain in play, it would be turned off and the fountaineer would signal that the next fountain could be turned on (Thompson, 2006).

In 1674, the Pompe was enlarged – hence referred to as the Grande Pompe. Pumping capacity was increased via increased power and the number of pistons used for lifting the water. These improvements increased the water capacity to nearly 3,000 m3 of water per day; however, the increased capacity of the Grande Pompe often left the Clagny pond dry (Thompson, 2006).

The increasing demand for water and the stress placed on existing systems of water supply necessitated newer measures to increase the water supplied to Versailles. Between 1668 and 1674, a project was undertaken to divert the water of the Bièvre river to Versailles. By damming the river and with a pumping system of five windmills, water was brought to the reservoirs located on the Satory Plateau. This system brought an additional 72,000 m3 of water to the gardens (Thompson, 2006).

Despite the augmentation of water from the Bièvre, the gardens needed still more water, which necessitated more projects. In 1681, one of the most ambitious water projects conceived during the reign of Louis XIV was undertaken. Owing to the proximity of the Seine to Versailles, a project was proposed to raise the water from the river to be delivered to Versailles. Seizing upon the success of a system devised in 1680 that raised water from the Seine to the gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, construction of the Machine de Marly began the following year.

The Machine de Marly was designed to lift water from the Seine in three stages to the aqueduc de Louveciennes some 100 metres above the level of the river.  A series of huge waterwheels was constructed in the river, which raised the water via a system of 64 pumps to a reservoir 48 metres above the river. From this first reservoir, water was raised an additional 56 metres to a second reservoir by a system of 79 pumps. Finally, 78 additional pumps raised the water to the aqueduct, which carried the water to Versailles and Marly.

In 1685, the Machine de Marly came into full operation.  However, owing to leakage in the conduits and breakdowns of the mechanism, the machine was only able to deliver 3,200 m3 of water per day – approximately one-half the expected output. The machine was a must-see for visitors to France. Despite the fact that the gardens consumed more water per day than the entire city of Paris, the Machine de Marly remained in operation until 1817 (Thompson, 2006).

During Louis XIV's reign, water supply systems represented one-third of the building costs of Versailles. Even with the additional output from the Machine de Marly, fountains in the garden could only be run à l'ordinaire – which is to say at half-pressure. With this measure of economy, fountains still consumed 12,800 m3 of water per day, far above the capacity of the existing supplies. In the case of the Grandes Eaux – when all the fountains played to their maximum – more than 10,000 m3 of water was needed for one afternoon's display.  Accordingly, the Grandes Eaux were reserved for special occasions such as the Siamese Embassy of 1685–1686 (Hedin, 1992; Mercure Galant, 1685).

One final attempt to solve water shortage problems was undertaken in 1685. In this year it was proposed to divert the water of the Eure river, located 160 km. south of Versailles and at a level 26 m above the garden reservoirs. The project called not only for digging a canal and for the construction of an aqueduct, it also necessitated the construction of shipping channels and locks to supply the workers on the main canal. Between 9,000 and 10,000 troops were pressed in service in 1685; the next year, more than 20,000 soldiers were engaged in construction.  Between 1686 and 1689, when the Nine Years' War began, one-tenth of France's military was at work on the Canal de l'Eure project. With the outbreak of the war, the project was abandoned, never to be completed. Had the aqueduct been completed, some 50,000 m3 of water would have been sent to Versailles – more than enough to solve the water problem of the gardens (Thompson, 2006).

Today, the museum of Versailles is still faced with water problems.  During the Grandes Eaux, water is circulated by means of modern pumps from the Grand Canal to the reservoirs.  Replenishment of the water lost due to evaporation comes from rainwater, which is collected in cisterns that are located throughout the gardens and diverted to the reservoirs and the Grand Canal.  Assiduous husbanding of this resource by museum officials prevents tapping into the supply of potable water of the city of Versailles (Thompson, 2006).

In popular culture
The creation of the gardens of Versailles is the context for the film A Little Chaos, directed by Alan Rickman and released in 2015, in which Kate Winslet plays a fictional landscape gardener, Matthias Schoenaerts plays André Le Nôtre and Rickman plays King Louis XIV.

See also
 Potager du roi (Kitchen Garden of the King)
 History of the Palace of Versailles

Sources
The following are sources that have contributed to the above article. It is not an exhaustive list, yet it represents the most readily available imprints:
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  Berger, Robert W.  "A Source for the Latona Group at Versailles." Gazette des Beaux-Arts  6 pér., vol. 119 (avril 1992): 145–148.
  Börtz-Laine, Agenta.  "Un grand pavillon d'Apollon pour Versailles: les origines du projet de Nicodème Tessin le jeun." Colloque de Versailles  (1985).
  Bottineau, Yves.  "Essais sur le Versailles de Louis XIV I: La distribution du château Versailles, le plan du domaine et de la ville."  Gazette des Beaux-Arts  6 pér., vol. 112 (septembre 1988): 77–89.
  Dangeau, Philippe de Courcillon, marquis de. Journal. (Paris, 1854–60).
  Desjardins, Gustave Adolphe (1885). Le Petit-Trianon: histoire et description. Versailles: L. Bernard, Libraire-Editeur.
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  Friedman, Ann.  "The evolution of the Parterre d'eau." Journal of Garden History  vol. 8, no. 1 (January–March 1988): 1–30.
  Friedman, Ann.  "Charles Le Brun as Landscape Architect: His Designs for the First Parterre d'eau at Versailles." Eighteenth Century Life  vol. 17, n.s., 2 (May 1993): 24–35.
  Girard, Jacques.  Versailles gardens: sculpture and mythology.  Preface by Pierre Lemoine.  (New York: Vendôme Press, 1983).
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Notes

External links
Official website
Catalog of sculptures in the gardens of Versailles and Trianon (in French)

Gardens
Versailles (Gardens)
Versailles
Versailles
World Heritage Sites in France


Shanti Party Nepal (Peace Party Nepal) is a political party in Nepal. The party contested the 1999 parliamentary election. The party is registered with the Election Commission of Nepal ahead of the 2008 Constituent Assembly election. The party wants to proclaim Nepal as a Hindu state.

References

Nepalese Hindu political parties
Hindu nationalism in Nepal


The 2008 Pennsylvania Republican presidential primary was an election held on April 22 by the Pennsylvania Department of State in which voters chose their preference for the Republican Party's candidate for the 2008 United States presidential election. Voters also chose the Pennsylvania Republican Party's candidates for various state and local offices. The selected candidates were placed on the ballot of the 2008 General Election on November 4, 2008. The Republican primary was part of a General Primary that also included the 2008 Pennsylvania Democratic presidential primary.

Polls opened at 7:00 am and closed at 8:00 pm. John McCain was the winner.  He had already been declared the presumptive Republican Presidential nominee, having secured enough delegate votes in earlier primary contests to win the nomination at the 2008 Republican National Convention.

Campaigning

Unlike on the Democratic side, little campaigning took place as John McCain had already clinched the nomination. Outsider candidate Ron Paul made several stops in the state, including his birthplace of Pittsburgh.

Results

*Delegates are essentially unpledged in the Pennsylvania Republican primary.

Some media sources noted that Ron Paul and Mike Huckabee combined took in around 220,000 votes (about 27% of the vote total), despite McCain's status as presumptive nominee and the statistical irrelevance of Pennsylvania, as a possible sign of continuing social conservative or libertarian unease with McCain's nomination and have speculated about whether these results could potentially affect McCain in the November general election. Although some strategists disputed this theory, pointing to low turnout among McCain supporters and arguing that primary results would not necessarily affect the result in November.

See also
 2008 Pennsylvania Democratic presidential primary
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries

References

Pennsylvania
2008 Pennsylvania elections
2008


Partridge Green is a village in the Horsham District of West Sussex, England. It lies on the B2135 road  north-west of Henfield. It is in the parish of West Grinstead.

Partridge Green takes its name from a family called Partrych who were registered in the area in 1332. The name Partrych comes from the medieval word Petriche, the word for a snarer of partridges. Jolesfield was the original medieval settlement and it was only in 1861 that the village started to develop with the arrival of the Horsham to Shoreham railway line (see Steyning Line and Partridge Green railway station). St Michael and All Angels Church was built in the 1890 to keep up with the increase in population.

The settlement in what today is Partridge Green originated around the road junction of the B2135 and B2116 with several houses (in 1840 there were around six houses) and an inn called the Hare and Hounds, which was one of the meeting places for the West Grinstead Hundred court between 1786 and 1802.

With the arrival of the railway, the inn was replaced with a new building called the Station Inn (later Station Hotel). After the closure of the railway in 1966 it was renamed The Partridge and in 2011 it was taken over by the Dark Star Brewery, also based in the village. It is now a Free House and is no longer the Dark Star Brewery Tap, although it still sells Dark Star beers.

While being small, the village has several businesses a pub, several shops, a fish and chip shop and a veterinary surgery. In addition Downs Link, a bridleway popular with cyclists and walkers, runs along the side of the village.

West Sussex County Council Fire and Rescue Service also has a small station in the village.

References

External links

Horsham District
Villages in West Sussex


The Mandrake (Italian: La Mandragola; also called Mandragola: The Love Root) is a 1965 Franco-Italian co-production directed by Alberto Lattuada and based on the eponymous 16th-century play by Italian author Niccolò Machiavelli. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Costume Design.

Plot

During a long stay in Paris, the young Callimaco learns from his friend Cammillo Calfucci of the beauty of Lucrezia, who has been married for four years with the rich and silly notary Nicia Calfucci, from whom she cannot have children. Returning to Florence, he sees for the first time and falls in love with the woman, who tries to meet and seduce but without success. To help him in the enterprise, in addition to his servant Siro, is Ligurio, who has a great influence on Nicia; Ligurio advises Callimaco to pretend to be a doctor and to convince the notary to let his wife drink an infusion of mandragola, capable of curing her presumed sterility (in fact it is Nicia who is sterile: according to a belief then widespread, a man who was not impotent must necessarily have been able to procreate). However, this magical cure has a contraindication: whoever has the first sexual relationship with the woman will be infected with the poison of the mandragola and will die within eight days. To remedy the problem and at the same time protect Nicia's honor, all you have to do is meet her secretly with the first street "boy" who will absorb all the deadly poison.

Persuaded Nicia, all that remains is to convince Lucrezia, who will never consent given her pious and devoted character. This time also the mother Sostrata and the friar Timothy will intervene, who playing on her Christian devotion - dramaturgically important the biblical quotation of Lot and the daughters - will convince her to "cure". That night Callimaco will disguise himself as a beggar and will be carried by the husband himself into the arms of his wife, who will not be satisfied with this fleeting encounter but will want to reiterate it in the time to come.

Cast
Rosanna Schiaffino as Lucrezia
Philippe Leroy as Callimaco
Jean-Claude Brialy as Ligurio
Totò as Il Frate Timoteo
Romolo Valli as Messer Nicia
Nilla Pizzi as La Madre
Armando Bandini as Il servo de Ligurio
Pia Fioretti as La francesina
Jacques Herlin as Frate Predicatore
Donato Castellaneta as L'Uomo-Donna
Ugo Attanasio as Lo Stregone
Luigi Leoni
Renato Montalbano
Mino Bellei as Cliente Osteria
Walter Pinelli

External links

Cinema: Virtue Besieged, Time Magazine, June 3, 1966

Italian drama films
1960s Italian-language films
Films directed by Alberto Lattuada
French films based on plays
1965 films
Films set in Florence
Films set in the 16th century
Films based on works by Niccolò Machiavelli
Cultural depictions of Lucrezia Borgia
1960s Italian films


The 2008 Indiana Republican presidential primary took place on May 6, 2008. 27 delegates to the 2008 Republican National Convention were selected in the election.

In addition, 27 other delegates were selected during the state convention from June 9 to June 10, 2008.

John McCain was the winner of the election and of all of Indiana's delegates.

Polling
No polling was conducted in Indiana for the Republican primary because John McCain was the Republican Party's presumptive nominee.

Campaigning
Unlike on the Democratic side, little campaigning took place as John McCain had already clinched the nomination. Ron Paul made only a few stops in the state, including Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne a day before the primary.

Results

See also
 2008 Indiana Democratic presidential primary
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries

References

Indiana
Republican
Indiana Republican primaries


The 2008 North Carolina Republican presidential primary took place on May 6, 2008.

Results

* Candidate dropped out of the race before the primary

See also
 North Carolina Democratic primary, 2008
 Republican Party (United States) presidential primaries, 2008
 Super Tuesday III, 2008

References

North Carolina
2008 North Carolina elections
North Carolina Republican primaries


"Stir Me Up" is an English R&B song by Belgian-Turkish singer Hadise from her debut album Sweat.  It was her first single to receive airplay in Turkey.  The song reflects on her Turkish background and part of the song is in Turkish. It was heavily played throughout Turkey establishing Hadise as a successful artist.

Music video
The music video for "Stir Me Up" starts off with the camera, presumably being the helicopter flying across a city.  The camera then flies into an arena where Hadise is performing the song.  Hadise is then seen on a billboard, which shows her performing in a caged cube being watched by a security camera.

Charts

Track listing
CD listing:
"Stir me up (Radio edit)"
"Stir me up (After Party remix)"
Vinyl listing:
A1 - "Stir Me Up (After Party Remix)" - 4:05
A2 - "Stir Me Up (Radio Edit)" - 3:28
B1 - "Stir Me Up (Crunk Mix)" - 4:15
B2 - "Sweat (Nasty Remix)" - 3:31
B3 - "Stir Me Up (DJ Tools)" - 4:00

References

2005 singles
Hadise songs
English-language Belgian songs
Songs written by Yves Jongen
2005 songs
EMI Records singles
Songs written by Hadise


The 2008 Nebraska Republican presidential primary took place on May 13, 2008. John McCain won the primary, although he had secured his party's nomination weeks before the election through his performance in earlier primary contests.

Nebraska's primary was non-binding and only indicated Republican voters' preference for President.  Nebraska Republicans' State Convention ultimately chose the delegates to the 2008 Republican National Convention, who formally nominated the Republican candidate for the presidency.  The State Convention took place on July 12.  Delegates to the state convention were elected at county conventions held between the first and tenth of June.  Predictably, nearly all of the delegates chosen by the state convention were McCain supporters, although "at least one" delegate was a supporter of Ron Paul.

Results

See also
 2008 Nebraska Democratic presidential caucuses
 2008 Republican Party presidential primaries

References

Nebraska
2008 Nebraska elections
Nebraska Republican primaries