The Corfu Channel case () was the first public international law case heard before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) between 1947 and 1949, concerning state responsibility for damages at sea, as well as the doctrine of innocent passage. A contentious case, it was the first of any type heard by the ICJ after its establishment in 1945.

Following a series of encounters from May to November 1946 in the Corfu Channel between the United Kingdom and the People's Republic of Albania—one of which resulted in damage to two Royal Navy ships and significant loss of life—the United Kingdom brought suit in the ICJ seeking reparations. After an initial ruling on jurisdiction in 1948, the ICJ issued separate merits and compensation judgments in 1949. The Court awarded the United Kingdom £843,947. This amount remained unpaid for decades, and British efforts to see it paid led to another ICJ case to resolve competing Albanian and Italian claims to more than two tons of Nazi gold. In 1996, Albania and the United Kingdom settled the judgment along with Albania's outstanding claim to the gold.

Corfu Channel has had a lasting influence on the practice of international law, especially the law of the sea. The concept of innocent passage used by the Court was ultimately adopted in a number of important law of the sea conventions. The stance taken by the Court on use of force has been of importance in subsequent decisions, such as Nicaragua v. United States. Additionally, the case served to set a number of procedural trends followed in subsequent ICJ proceedings.

Corfu Channel incident

In 1946, during the Greek civil war, a series of three encounters took place in the Corfu Channel, between Albania and the United Kingdom.

On 15 May, the cruisers  and  passed through the northern part of the Corfu Channel. Albanian shore batteries opened fire on the two ships, coming within  of the squadron, but striking neither vessel. The United Kingdom lodged a formal protest, demanding an apology from Albania. Albania stated that the ships had violated Albanian territorial waters, and asserted that passage through the Corfu Channel required Albanian permission. On 2 August, the United Kingdom stated that Royal Navy ships would return any fire in the future.

On 22 October, a Royal Navy flotilla composed of cruisers  and , and destroyers  and , entered the Corfu Channel. The ships were at Action Stations, with orders to return fire if they were attacked. Their guns were not loaded, and were in a neutral position—trained fore and aft, rather than aimed at the shore. At 2:53 p.m., Saumarez struck a mine and was heavily damaged; thirty-six people aboard were killed. Volage took her in tow, only to strike another mine at 4:16 p.m.; eight people were killed. A total of forty-four people died and forty-two others were injured, and Saumarez was damaged beyond repair. Shore batteries in the vicinity were observed by the ships, but neither side took any action. At one point, a boat flying an Albanian ensign and a white flag approached Volage to ask what the ships were doing. Writing in 2014, maritime archaeologist James P. Delgado said of the incident:

On 12 and 13 November, the Royal Navy undertook a mine clearance operation in the Corfu Channel, Operation Retail, which took place in Albanian territorial waters without advance permission from that country. Subsequently, the Albanian government formally complained to the United Nations, describing the operation as an incursion into Albanian territorial waters.

On 9 December, the United Kingdom demanded reparations from Albania. Albania denied involvement in the laying of mines, blaming Greece. In January 1947, the United Kingdom attempted to involve the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union objected, but the Security Council heard the British complaint. A fact-finding committee consisting of Polish, Australian and Colombian representatives reached no conclusions despite ten meetings. A Soviet veto, supported by Poland, blocked a resolution that would have accused Albania of indirect responsibility for the minefield. The Security Council passed a resolution on 9 April 1947, with the Soviet Union and Poland abstaining, recommending that the United Kingdom and Albania resolve the dispute in the International Court of Justice. This recommendation was made pursuant to Article 36, paragraph 3 of the United Nations Charter. On 22 May, the United Kingdom brought suit against Albania. The ICJ, being permanently in session, was available to begin hearing the case immediately. Despite having a long backlog of matters for consideration, such as a request for an advisory opinion on Article 4 of the United Nations Charter, the Corfu Channel case was considered first.

Looking back on this point in the incident in 1966, Leslie Gardiner wrote that one might have expected the incident to be all but resolved by this point. That after the "awkward tussle before the Security Council", the proceedings before the ICJ would be "for a mere formal pronouncement of guilt or innocence, in an atmosphere of judicial calm, undisturbed by political considerations, uncorrupted by nationalistic and ideological threats and sulks".

Case history
The United Kingdom submitted its application to the ICJ on 22 May 1947. The submission was made without any prior negotiation with Albania to reach a special agreement. The jurisdiction of the ICJ over the matter was claimed under Article 36, Paragraph 1 of the ICJ Statute. The United Kingdom was initially represented by then-attorney general Hartley Shawcross, who had been chief prosecutor for the United Kingdom at the Nuremberg trials. Eric Beckett, legal counsel for the Foreign Office, was also a major member of the legal team, while additional support came from Hersch Lauterpacht, Humphrey Waldock, Richard Wilberforce, J. Mervyn Jones and M. E. Reed.

Albania submitted a letter to the Court on 2 July, which partially accepted the Security Council's recommendations. The lead counsel for Albania was Pierre Cot, then a Radical deputy in the French National Assembly. In late July, the president of the Court issued an order setting the deadlines for each party's submission of memorials. While the United Kingdom adhered to this deadline, Albania instead filed an objection to the application.

Preliminary objection

In the objection filed on 9 December, Albania argued that a special agreement was the only valid way that the case could be brought. The objection stated that when at least one party was a state that was not otherwise bound to submit to the Court's jurisdiction, proceedings could only be instituted by special agreement. Albania cited Articles 26(1) and 40(1) of the ICJ Statute in its support, and stated that no such agreement had been reached. In contesting the claims of the UK, the Albanian objection stated that the Security Council resolution was not itself enough to compel Albania to accept the jurisdiction of the Court. It also said that Albania's acceptance of the obligations of a UN member state did not constitute express acceptance of jurisdiction under the ICJ Statute. After the initial statements, Shawcross was replaced as the representative of the UK by then-solicitor general Frank Soskice.

The ICJ delivered its judgment on the objection on 25 March 1948, voting fifteen-to-one, with Igor Daxner—Albania's designated ad hoc judge—being the sole dissenter. The majority held that Albania had voluntarily submitted to the jurisdiction of the International Court. Specifically, two successive pieces of correspondence were held to have established Albania's informal submission to the Court's jurisdiction: the British transmission of the application to Albania, followed by the Albanian letter to the Court. These documents established jurisdiction ratione personae and ratione materiae. An important factor in this decision was the fact that the Albanian letter had not been produced by Albania's Agent, but by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs. In a separate opinion, while concurring with the majority that Albania had voluntarily submitted to the Court's jurisdiction, Judges Basdevant, Álvarez, Winiarski, Zoričić, de Visscher, Badawi, and Krylov argued that the Security Council's Article 36 recommendation did not place the case within the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court.

Another issue the Court addressed was the difference between the rules governing the institution of proceedings and jurisdiction. Albania's objection assumed that proceedings could only be instituted where compulsory jurisdiction existed or where a special agreement had been reached. In essence, to institute proceedings the party applying to the Court needed only to plead as far as possible the basis of jurisdiction, and not to establish it absolutely.

After the judgement, the parties submitted a special agreement in open court certifying two questions: Whether Albania was responsible for the incidents, and whether the United Kingdom violated Albanian sovereignty. The Court accepted the special agreement as the basis for all further proceedings in the case on 26 March. Additionally, the parties requested that the Court continue the consecutive—as opposed to simultaneous—pleading format. The Court agreed to this.

Following the decay of relations between Albania and Yugoslavia in 1948, the Yugoslavian members of Cot's legal team were replaced by French barristers Joseph Nordmann, Marc Jacquier and Paul Villard. These three were respected members of the French bar and affiliated with the French Communist Party. Nordmann had also been involved in the French prosecution team during the Nuremberg trials.

Merits case

The merits phase began on 9 November 1948. The written pleadings phase has been described as concise by modern standards. The United Kingdom filed some 87 pages of pleadings, while Albania filed 74 pages. The oral proceedings were much more extensive, covering over one thousand pages.

At one point, Yugoslavia desired to submit evidence, but without intervening in the case. This was in response to the British argument that Yugoslavia and Albania had worked together in mining the Corfu Channel, and the presentation of evidence from Karel Kovacic, a former officer of the Yugoslav Navy. On 8 November 1948, Yugoslavia transmitted a communiqué to the Court arguing against Kovacic's credibility and denying any complicity in the mining. Yugoslavia also passed documentary evidence to Albania, which the Agent for Albania filed; while these were not admitted as evidence, an agreement with the United Kingdom permitted them to be used to examine a witness.

An important matter involved a Royal Navy document, referred to as XCU, which comprised the sailing orders issued to the flotilla on 22 October. XCU was a memorandum dated 5 October 1946, and signed by then-Rear Admiral Harold Kinahan. In an admiralty document submitted as part of a United Kingdom memorial to the ICJ, there was a reference to XCU. As a result of this reference, Albania requested the ICJ order the production of XCU, a request which the Court accepted. The ICJ invoked Article 49 of its statute to order production of XCU. According to Anthony Carty, this support for Albania's claim came as a surprise, and Shawcross had not at that point examined the sailing orders. The document posed a problem for him: Shawcross believed it worked against the innocent passage argument. The consensus of the advisers was that XCU might be interpreted as evidence of hostility on part of the UK. The Admiralty argued that the Court should examine the actions of the flotilla on the day in question, rather than, as Carty describes, "the confused and contradictory expressions of the British Administration through such documents as XCU". Citing national security, the Agent for the United Kingdom refused to produce XCU. In its merits judgment, the Court generally accepted the Admiralty's argument, holding that the refusal could not lead to "any conclusions differing from those to which the actual events gave rise". In the decades following the case, XCU and related documents were declassified.

The witness phase took three weeks, during which the United Kingdom called seven witnesses, while Albania called three. Witness and expert examinations generally followed the common law system, with direct examination, cross-examination and redirect examination. This phase of the proceedings was also characterized by flexibility on the part of the Court, with a view to the novelty of the entire situation. On one occasion, the Court allowed recross examination. The Court itself asked questions of some witnesses, almost always between the conclusion of cross-examination and the beginning of redirect examination. On one occasion, the ad hoc judge asked a question of an expert witness between direct and cross-examination; the Court and the parties agreed that the question would instead be submitted in written form to the joint panel of experts. Examinations were primarily conducted in English and French, with interpreters where necessary. During the Albanian cross-examination of Kovacic, the Court had to rule on an objection regarding whether a photostatic copy of a document was admissible as evidence. The Court ruled that the original document needed to be produced, though it confined its ruling to the individual document. A subsequent evidentiary dispute was similarly resolved solely with respect to the disputed documents, without having an effect on precedence. The examination phase was comparatively long, requiring twenty sittings of the Court, compared to fifteen sittings for the two rounds of pleadings.

In a 1948 order, the ICJ called for the assembly of a committee of experts in accordance with Articles 48 and 50 of the ICJ Statute. Such a committee had been assembled just once before, in the Chorzów Factory case, before the Permanent Court of International Justice. This committee consisted of one naval officer each from the Royal Danish Navy, the Royal Norwegian Navy and the Swedish Navy. They were formally appointed by an ICJ order on 17 December. They were accompanied by the Deputy-Registrar of the ICJ, as well as officers of the Royal Navy and the Albanian Naval Force. After the committee submitted its first written report, the ICJ decided to request an on-the-spot enquiry. Yugoslavia also participated in this phase by giving assistance to the committee of experts.

Merits judgment
In 1949, the ICJ issued its merits judgment, ruling partly in favour of Albania and partly in favour of the United Kingdom. The Court held that the United Kingdom did not violate Albanian territorial waters on 22 October 1946 when the four-ship flotilla transited the parts of the Corfu Channel that were within Albanian territorial waters. The Court's decision was based on its determination that the character of an international strait was determined by its connection of two parts of the high seas, and that the strait was used for international navigation. The burden of proof had rested on the United Kingdom, as it had been the applicant.

On the question of innocent passage, the Court found in favor of the United Kingdom, voting fourteen to two. Notably, the Court held that a right to innocent passage existed during times of peace through straits like the Corfu Channel, which connected two parts of the high seas. The Court accepted that some Albanian regulation of passage through the Channel would have been acceptable, but not to the extent of demanding prior authorization, or of barring the passage of warships outright. This served to clarify the 1930 Hague Conference with respect to international straits. The Chinese legal scholar Jia Bing Bing argued in 1998 that this decision meant that in peacetime, a country could not prohibit the passage of all vessels, or otherwise require authorization. Jia goes on to argue that, because Albania was unable to rapidly distinguish between the passage of Greek and other vessels during times of high political tensions, the requirement of prior notification could be lawful.

With respect to the minefield itself, the Court rejected the British contention that Albania had laid it, stating that such a claim was not credible: at the time, Albania lacked the capacity for such operations. The Court also rejected the Albanian argument that Greece might have been responsible, as well as the claim that the mines had been laid after 22 October, as being nothing more than conjecture. The Court stated that it did not need to determine who had placed the mines: given that they were in Albanian territorial waters, and that the evidence placed the minelaying activity at a recent time, during which Albania was known to have high levels of security. Thus, the Albanian government would have had knowledge of any minelaying operations in the Corfu Channel, and as such, had a responsibility to notify other states of the navigational hazard they presented.

One commentator has noted that the Court's approach to the British claims illustrated how the standard of proof in the ICJ differed for actions versus omissions. The United Kingdom had alleged that Albania had laid the mines, or alternatively, that Albania and Yugoslavia had colluded in laying the mines. It also alleged that Albania's failure to warn ships of the danger of the minefield constituted an omission that affected the rights of other states: specifically, the right of innocent passage. With respect to the claim of Albanian-Yugoslav collusion, the United Kingdom could not provide direct evidence either of collusion or of who had actually laid the mines. For the collusion, the Court demanded "a degree of certainty", while to establish the omission, the Court demanded that there be "no room for reasonable doubt" that Albania had knowledge of the minefield. While the latter standard seems like it should be higher, it was capable of being satisfied by indirect evidence. Another commentator has noted that despite finding that the British sweeping of the Corfu Channel constituted a violation of international law, the Court did not rule that indirect evidence inadmissible. However, this may have been because Albania never challenged the evidence.

In rejecting the British argument that Operation Retail was a justified intervention, the Court famously held that such a right was "the manifestation of a policy of force, such as has, in the past, given rise to most serious abuses and such as cannot, whatever be the present defects in international organization, find a place in international law". The Court also rejected the British arguments that Operation Retail was justified as self-protection or self-help, holding that "respect for territorial sovereignty is an essential foundation of international relations". While the Court found that Albania's conduct in the wake of the mining constituted extenuating circumstances for the United Kingdom, that conduct did not validate Operation Retail.

In a separate opinion, Judge Álvarez argued that warships were not entitled to innocent passage except where such passage was to take part in a UN enforcement action. Judge Krylov's dissenting opinion argued that there was no customary international law allowing passage, and that straits could be regulated by the coastal state. Judge Azevedo also dissented, arguing that territorial seas within international straits were treated the same as any other territorial seas, but that a special regime was needed for international straits.

Determining compensation
The Court declined to rule on compensation during the merits phase, because Albania had not indicated what portion, if any, of the damages claimed by the United Kingdom it intended to dispute. During the pleadings, the United Kingdom argued that the jurisdiction to award damages was a matter of res judicata—it had already been decided by the ICJ. Article 36, paragraph 6, and Article 60 of the ICJ Statute, taken with the merits judgment, served to grant the ICJ jurisdiction.

Albania did not participate in the written or oral portions of the compensation proceedings, though late in the proceedings requested that a change be made; the Court refused this, holding that Albania had waived the right to make new assertions. Albania's non-participation was because it challenged the ICJ's jurisdiction to award damages. This refusal to participate resulted in the Court applying Article 53 of the ICJ Statute, to appoint experts to evaluate the British claim. The ICJ itself appointed the committee of experts, consisting of two officers of the Royal Netherlands Navy. This committee examined data relevant to the calculations of compensation, which was ultimately annexed to the compensation judgment.

Because Albania did not participate any further in the compensation proceedings, the United Kingdom was awarded judgment by default on 15 December 1949, with the court accepting the argument that the question of its jurisdiction was res judicata under Article 60. Shabtai Rosenne remarked on the ICJ's non-reliance on Article 36, paragraph 6 of the ICJ Statute, noting that this was not explained in its judgment. He argues that the ICJ wanted it clear that its judgment was because Albania defaulted, and because the merits decision was res judicata, not that the matter of whether the ICJ had jurisdiction to award damages at all was res judicata. The Court, furthermore, held that the special agreement gave it the power to determine whether compensation was appropriate, and therefore the power to fix the amount of compensation. Mohammed Bedjaoui notes that this principle was borrowed from the Chorzów Factory.

The ICJ ordered Albania to pay the UK£843,947 in compensation. This is equivalent to £ in . Broken down, this represented £700,087 for the loss of the Saumarez, £93,812 for damage to the Volage and £50,048 for the casualties. The award for the Saumarez had been limited by the non ultra petita rule, whereby the Court could not award more than what had been claimed. As of 2012, it was the only case in which the ICJ made an award in the form of liquidated money to a state applicant.

Fulfillment of the judgment

The judgment against Albania remained unsettled for decades. In negotiations that took place during the summer of 1950, Albania offered £40,000 to settle the claim of the United Kingdom. This is the equivalent of £ in . In January 1951, the United Kingdom rejected this offer. Settlement talks subsequently broke off. Authorities in the United Kingdom then looked to the possibility of seizing Albanian property in the United Kingdom. This failed because there was no such property under United Kingdom jurisdiction.

The United Kingdom then looked to an Albanian claim for  of Nazi gold that had been looted from an Italian vault in 1943. The Tripartite Commission for the Restitution of Monetary Gold, of which the United Kingdom is a member, formed an agreement on 25 April 1951 in Washington, D.C., whereby it requested the President of the ICJ to appoint an arbitrator to resolve the competing claims of Italy and Albania as to the status of the gold. In requesting arbitration, the Tripartite Commission issued the Washington Statement, in which it stated that should the arbitrator grant Albania's claim under Part III of the Final Act of the Paris Conference on Reparations, the gold would be granted to the United Kingdom to partially satisfy the Corfu Channel judgment. On 20 February 1953, the arbitrator granted Albania's claim. This did not end the issue: Italy asserted claims to the gold that were not covered by Part III of the Final Act. These additional claims gave rise to a new ICJ case, Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943, which Italy commenced on 9 May 1953. This case was dismissed on jurisdictional grounds on 15 June 1954, and the gold remained in a vault in London under the Tripartite Commission's name.

Final settlement did not take place until the 1990s, after the end of socialism in Albania. The United Kingdom and Albania reached an agreement on 8 May 1992 whereby the United Kingdom would grant to Albania some  of Tripartite Commission gold, and Albania would pay $2 million to the United Kingdom. The settlement was finally approved in 1996, after Albania and the other Tripartite powers settled their own claims. At this point, Albania asserted that it was unable to pay the $2 million. Later in 1996, Albania paid the $2 million, and the judgment was considered settled. This is equivalent to $ in .

Legacy
As the first case heard before the new ICJ, the Corfu Channel case has had a lasting impact on the jurisprudence of the court. From its substantive law of the sea issues and matters of basic procedure, the impact of Corfu Channel is evident in other areas as well. In 2012, Mohammed Bedjaoui wrote of the case:

In the same year, another group of authors described Corfu Channel as "a thoroughly modern decision" and "a landmark for international law".

Law of the sea

The Corfu Channel case has been called a landmark case in the development of the law of the sea. While the 1930 Hague Conference on International Law reached no consensus as to whether the right to innocent passage through territorial seas existed for warships, Corfu Channel heralded a change of this regime.

Corfu Channel was relevant at the seventh session of the International Law Commission (ILC), held in 1955. The ILC ultimately submitted a draft provision to the 1958 United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I), providing that the right of innocent passage through international straits should not be suspended. The ILC attributed their draft to the Corfu Channel merits judgment. The provision was adopted almost verbatim at UNCLOS I into Article 16(4) of the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, but not without significant debate as to how the merits judgment should be interpreted with respect to warships. The convention's provision contained no reference to "warships", but Jia argues that the remainder of Article 16 make it clear that Article 16(4) could not be read to allow the coastal state to require prior authorization, and that otherwise UNCLOS I aligned with the merits judgment.

Innocent passage, along with transit passage, was integrated into the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which superseded the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone.

Notably, however, Albania remained "the odd one out" in terms of the law of the sea and maritime cooperation in the Mediterranean. By 1996, Albania had joined very few international conventions regarding the law of the sea and international environmental law. Clive R. Symmons noted that the regime change in Albania had heralded a change in Albania's approach to international law.

Use of force

Before the formation of the United Nations, cases involving the use of force were considered unsuitable for adjudication. Since Corfu Channel, the Court had rendered merits judgments in three use of force cases: Nicaragua v. United States in 1986, the Oil Platforms case in 2003, and Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo in 2005. Many others have been brought before the Court, though these others did not result in decisions. Historically, the ICJ's stance has been to strictly enforce the prohibition on the use of force, a stance which has proved controversial.

In deciding Albania's claim that the United Kingdom violated Albanian sovereignty with Operation Retail, the Court rejected the British argument that its activities in Albanian territorial waters were justified as necessary to obtain evidence of the minefield in the Corfu Channel, as well as that it was justified as self-help or self-protection. Some controversy surrounded the majority decision, which did not specifically reference the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force, but simply held that the United Kingdom violated the sovereignty of Albania. In subsequent cases involving use of force, Christine Gray has noted that the Court has similarly avoided specifically referencing the UN Charter in its final pronouncements.

The Court has subsequently held that the UN Charter prohibition on the use of force constituted customary international law. In the Nicaragua case, the parties were in agreement that the prohibition constituted a peremptory norm, or jus cogens. The practices of states have generally conformed to the Court's approach in the Corfu Channel case. The United States has criticized the Court's approach to the use of force. The United States' criticism flows from the fact that, even owing to the use of force against Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan, and the acceptance of the legality of such action, the ICJ still maintains the position that non-state groups cannot commit an "armed attack". An occurrence of an "armed attack" is the necessary condition for a state to use the right of self -defence in response to an illegal use of force, and thus breach the territorial sovereignty of a state.

As to the law of war, or jus in bello, the Corfu Channel case merits decision made reference to the concept, but only when the Court judged the Nicaragua case the ICJ give a significant treatment to the topic. The Permanent Court of International Justice had never dealt with jus in bello. In both cases, the ICJ dealt with situations involving force, but which did not rise to the level of a formal state of war.

International environmental law

Although Corfu Channel was superficially a decision about the law of the sea and the use of force, scholars such as Malgosia Fitzmaurice have remarked on the impact of Corfu Channel on the development of international environmental law. Specifically, the case, along with the 1930s arbitration from the Trail Smelter dispute and the subsequent ICJ case involving Barcelona Traction, articulated basic principles used extensively in subsequent cases and conventions dealing with the environment. In the Corfu Channel case, the Court articulated the principle that every state is obliged not to knowingly allow its territory to be used to commit acts against the rights of any other state. This meant, with respect to the Corfu Channel, that Albania was obliged to warn others that its territorial waters were mined. The specific language came from the Trail Smelter case, and ultimately was adopted into the Stockholm Declaration and Rio Declaration.

Procedural legacy

According to Aristotles Constantinides, one of the major reasons the Corfu Channel case has continued to be of importance in current public international law has to do with the standards it established in the evidentiary and fact-finding portions of the case. For instance, Corfu Channel differed from other cases in the Permanent Court in that witnesses, both expert and non-expert, were available during the oral proceedings for cross-examination, as well as for questioning by the judges. Shabtai Rosenne comments that because the British "took the initiative to call witnesses", it was the British procedure for witness examination that the Court adopted in that case, and which has been roughly followed in all subsequent contentious cases. The use of circumstantial evidence also derives from Corfu Channel. According to Christian Tams, the academic consensus is that the Court successfully resolved the evidentiary issues before it.

Corfu Channel also started a trend in the ICJ where states appointing judges ad hoc would not choose one of their own nationals to fill the role. This subsequently happened in the Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 and Arbitral Award of the King of Spain cases, among others. In the 1978 Rules of Court, Article 35 paragraph 1 was intentionally drawn up to encourage this practice. It was also the beginning of a trend where the ICJ's final decisions occasionally consisted of more than one judgment.

Corfu Channel has been an outlier in terms of how the case reached the ICJ. The UN Charter, Article 36(3), provides that the Security Council may recommend cases for settlement by the Court. Corfu Channel has been the only time the Security Council has openly relied on that authority (via Resolution 22). Christian Tomuschat has argued that Resolution 395, issued with respect to the Aegean dispute, and which resulted in the Aegean Sea Continental Shelf case, is a veiled invocation of that same power. In two other situations, the Security Council has considered making an Article 36(3) recommendation, only to have it defeated by vote or veto. Additionally, Corfu Channel is unusual in that the expert testimony was considered in the judgment.

Some procedural issues decided in Corfu Channel have been subsequently superseded. At that point, the rule with respect to experts providing testimony to the Court required that the party calling the expert should pay their expenses. This has since been supplanted by Article 68 of the Rules of the ICJ, which provides that the Court's own funds pay for experts. Corfu Channel also carried over the PCIJ practice of asking the parties' consent prior to resuming proceedings with a judge who had been temporarily absent; this practice was eliminated in 1953. The case was also the first and final instance where the PCIJ practice of reading separate opinions aloud before the court was followed. The practice of publicly reading decisions was eliminated after the case.

See also

List of International Court of Justice cases
United Nations Security Council Resolution 19
1985 Polar Sea controversy, a subsequent controversy involving the Northwest Passage

Notes

Citations

References

Further reading

Theses

Judgment summaries

External links

International Court of Justice records of this case

Cold War
International Court of Justice cases
Albania–United Kingdom relations
History of Corfu
1947 in case law
1947 in the United Kingdom
1947 in international relations
1948 in case law
1948 in the United Kingdom
1948 in international relations
1949 in case law
1949 in the United Kingdom
1949 in international relations
Cold War history of Albania
Admiralty case law
Corfu Channel incident


Vittorio Tomassetti (28 June 1930 – 6 January 2008) was the Italian Roman Catholic bishop emeritus of the Diocese of Fano-Fossombrone-Cagli-Pergola.  He was ordained a priest on 23 August 1953, and was later ordained a bishop on 28 June 1992 as the bishop of Palestrina, Italy.

External links
Catholic Hierarchy: Bishop Vittorio Tomassetti †
E' morto Vittorio Tomassetti, ex vescovo di Fano

1930 births
2008 deaths
20th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops


Waterville Airport  is a public airport located one mile (2 km) northeast of the central business district of Waterville, a town in Douglas County, Washington, United States. It is owned by the Port of Douglas County.

Facilities and aircraft
Waterville Airport covers an area of  which contains one runway designated 7/25 with a 2,978 x 50 ft (908 x 15 m) asphalt pavement. For the 12-month period ending December 31, 2005, the airport had 1,000 general aviation aircraft operations.

References

External links
 Waterville Airport at Washington State DOT

Airports in Washington (state)


The 2005–06 Perth Glory FC season was the club's 9th season since its establishment in 1996. The club competed in the A-League for the 1st time.

Review
In 2005, it was announced that former Liverpool and England star Steve McMahon would be appointed as coach. The new season saw a complete overhaul of the playing squad, with Simon Colosimo and former Sunderland and Leeds striker Brian Deane as key signings. Other notable signings included future young stars Nick Ward and Billy Celeski.

Early results in friendlies against local opposition were not great, but Perth became the first team to defeat Sydney FC, winning 1–0 in the semi-final of the 2005–06 Pre-season Cup before losing in the final 0–1 to the Central Coast Mariners. Perth's woeful recruiting strategy was soon evident with the early departure of star import Brian Deane after seven games. Another McMahon recruit, Northern Ireland junior international Neil Teggart, quit the club prior to the start of the regular season. Deane was replaced by Damian Mori, a former Perth Glory striker. Originally on a three-game temporary contract, after some impressive performances Mori stayed for the rest of the season and finished with seven goals.

However, the club continued to be dogged by problems which would only be later revealed to the public. Steve McMahon was subject to constant media criticism over his coaching style and was accused of nepotism by signing his son, Steve McMahon Jr, who was of questionable talent. Rumours also surfaced that players were planning to stage a revolt against the coach. On 7 December, the club reported that the parties had "amicably" chosen to go separate ways. On 9 December 2005, the club announced that assistant coach Alan Vest would move into the head coach role for the remainder of the season, with striker Damian Mori taking on a dual role as player-coach after being named as his assistant.

The coach's departure was merely a symptom of deeper troubles. Poor performances saw Perth miss out on qualification for the finals for the first time since 1998. Dwindling support from chairman Nick Tana, as he looked to sell his 75% stake in the club, seemed to underpin a general decline in club fortunes. After the Round 20 match against Sydney FC, Alan Vest hinted that the current player group were incapable of achieving anything better and stated that "cliques" had been formed undermining club harmony. To cap off a bad season, Western QBE announced they were withdrawing as major sponsor after being associated with the club for 8 years.

Players

First team squad

Matches

2005–06 A-League fixtures

Ladder

Awards

Perth Glory Most Glorious Player
2005/06 A-League – Bobby Despotovski

References

2005-06
2005–06 A-League season by team


Chen Shiyi (; born 1956) is a Chinese mechanical engineer and physicist. He is the President of South University of Science and Technology of China.

Previously, he was the Alonzo G. Decker Jr. Chair in Engineering and Science, the Department Chair of Mechanical Engineering and Professor at both Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, and Department of Physics and Astronomy of Johns Hopkins University. He was also the Dean of the College of Engineering and the Director of the Center for Computational Science & Engineering, Peking University.

Career
Chen studied mechanics at Zhejiang University (B.Sc.) from January 1978 to January 1982. He did his postgraduate study (M.Sc., PhD) at Peking University.

He was a post-doctoral fellow at Los Alamos National Laboratory USA from June 1987 to February 1990. From February 1990 to December 1990, he was a research scientist at the Bartol Research Institute, University of Delaware. From May 1990 till December 1993, he was a visiting faculty in the Department of Mathematics, Colorado State University. From December 1990 - November 1992, he was an Oppenheimer Fellow at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. November 1992 - September 1994, he was a research staff and group leader in the same lab. September 1994 - January 2000, he was a research staff member at the IBM Research Division. Then he started his career at the Johns Hopkins University. July 1997 - January 2000, he was also the deputy director of the Center for Nonlinear Studies, Los Alamos National Laboratory. From 2005 to 2011, he became Dean of Engineering at Peking University, China. From 2013 to 2015, he became VP for Research at Peking University. In 2015, he joined SUSTech, China, as university President.

Chen conducted research in lattice gas methods in which he created important analysis approaches and led engineering applications. He also made contributions to high-performance computing. He did fundamental studies in the theory of turbulence. For these reasons, he was elected as a fellow of American Physical Society (1995) and Institute of Physics (2004).

He was elected to member of Chinese Academy of Sciences in 2013.

References

External links

1956 births
Living people
Chinese expatriates in the United States
Chinese mechanical engineers
Colorado State University faculty
Educators from Taizhou, Zhejiang
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Johns Hopkins University faculty
Members of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
Peking University alumni
Academic staff of Peking University
Physicists from Zhejiang
Zhejiang University alumni
Presidents of Southern University of Science and Technology


"Dirty, dangerous and demeaning" (often "dirty, dangerous and demanding" or "dirty, dangerous and difficult"), also known as the 3Ds, is an American neologism derived from the Asian concept, and refers to certain kinds of labor often performed by unionized blue-collar workers.

The term originated from the Japanese expression 3K: , ,  (respectively  "dirty",  "dangerous",  "demanding"), and has subsequently gained widespread use, particularly regarding labor done by migrant workers and burakumin.

Any task fitting the criteria of a 3D job can qualify, regardless of industry. These jobs can bring higher wages due to a shortage of willing qualified individuals and in many world regions are filled by migrant workers looking for higher wages.

Economic status

Traditionally, workers in 3D professions are better paid in relation to comparable employment available, due to the undesirability of the work, and the resulting need to pay higher wages to attract workers. This has allowed the uneducated and unskilled to earn a living wage by foregoing comfort, personal safety and social status. This concept proves itself in the economic theory of quantity supplied and quantity demanded (see Quantity adjustment). The wages paid to these workers is higher due to the undesirable nature of their professions.

However, in regions where certain classes of workers are restricted to this type of work or there are contributing regional conditions - for example, high unemployment, adjacency to regions with high poverty, or those that are recipient of driven labor migration - there will be workers willing to accept lower than equilibrium wages and then these jobs are not well paid by any definition. Large scale international labor migration, from developing to developed countries since the late 19th century and early 20th century has provided a pool of migrants willing to undertake employment for lower wages than native residents. Higher wages in developed countries are a strong 'pull' factor in international migration, and thus while a migrant worker is willing to accept a comparatively low-wage for a 3D job in a developed country it may mean a significant increase in wages compared to their originating country.

Prominent current examples of migration for 3D wages include Filipino entertainment workers who migrate to Japan, and of Indians and Pakistanis going to the Middle East to work in the construction industry. Migration for 3D wages is not new. In the United States, 3D occupations once filled by Irish and German immigrants, are today held by many Latin Americans.

The highest paying work available to these often unskilled and uneducated (or their foreign certificates of skills and education are not recognized) immigrants is work that is of lower social status, and has a higher risk of injury.  As immigrants make up an increasing share of the labor market in countries such as the United States it will become increasingly important for employers to find ways of effectively promoting occupational safety and health among immigrant workers.

These workers are susceptible to exploitation, and without representation can have a difficult time maintaining fair living wages. Since the beginning of the labor movement, immigrant workers in 3D jobs have formed the backbone of many labor unions.

When there are concentrations of low paid workers in 3D occupations, this is artificially created when there are either 'pull' mechanisms that create migrant worker flows or through mechanisms that create subclasses of indigenous populations, through a selective application or an absence of labor protections.  Undocumented immigration status is one such mechanism which reinforces the social vulnerability of immigrant workers and can increase their risk for occupational injury and limit their access to institutional resources that protect worker health. In the worst case the concentration is exploitation and can become slavery in its various forms. Historically, the 3D occupations have at times been widely satisfied through forced employment due to the lack of available applicants, a supply of exploitable labor, and either legalization of forced employment or a disregard for the labor laws.

People who find themselves working a 3D occupation will be well paid if they have the protection of the law, poorly paid if they have poor protection of the law or unfair laws, and unpaid if they exist under no protection of the law, no law, or in a society with legal slavery.

Regardless of the hazards, engaging in high risk, low status work can be a way to escape poverty - captured by a line in the Irish folk song Finnegan's Wake, "to rise in the world he carried a hod."

Risks
As the name indicates, dirty, dangerous and demeaning work can impose severe physical and mental costs on workers. There is often a risk of early retirement due to injury, general joint depletion or mental fatigue. After witnessing the constant physical and mental injury to coworkers or even death, the stress can cause mental fatigue and post-traumatic stress disorder.

See also

 Statute of Labourers 1351
 Dangerous jobs

References

External links

 Come back alive dangerous jobs
 U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI)
 The Economist Pocket Asia, 1998. Andrews, John. The Economist, 1998. Copyright The Economist, 199
 The Worst Jobs in History

Construction
Ethically disputed working conditions
Social class in the United States


The 1998 United States Senate election in South Carolina was held November 3, 1998. Incumbent Democratic U.S. Senator Fritz Hollings won reelection to his seventh (his sixth full) term. , this is the last time that a Democrat has won a U.S. Senate election in South Carolina. This is also the last time the Democratic nominee for this Senate seat was a white man, as in future elections Democrats would either nominate a woman and/or a person of color.

Republican primary

Candidates
 Stephen Brown, Greenville County Republican Party Chairman
 Bob Inglis, U.S. Representative
 Elton Legrand

Results

General election

Candidates
 Ernest Hollings (D), incumbent U.S. Senator
 Bob Inglis (R), U.S. Representative
 Richard T. Quillian (L)

Campaign
The race between Hollings and Inglis gave the voters a choice of two very different visions of and for South Carolina.  Hollings was from the Lowcountry, a face of the Old New South, and secured a large amount of federal funds for the state.  On the other hand, Inglis came from the Upstate, was a face of the New New South, and opposed to pork barrel spending.  Hollings viciously attacked Inglis on the campaign trail as a "goddamn skunk" and when Inglis requested that Hollings sign a pledge for campaign courtesy, Hollings replied that Inglis could "kiss his fanny."  Inglis tried to tie Hollings to President Clinton, who had been tainted by the Lewinsky scandal.

Ultimately, Hollings won the race for four crucial reasons.  First, Inglis refused to accept PAC donations which allowed Hollings to enjoy a huge financial advantage and blanket the state with his television advertisements.  Secondly, Inglis came from the Upstate which already provided GOP majorities whereas Hollings came from the Lowcountry which was a key tossup region in the state.  Thirdly, the voters two years prior in the 1996 Senate election had rewarded Strom Thurmond for his long service to the state and it was unlikely that they would then deny re-election to Hollings.  Finally, the 1998 South Carolina GOP ticket was dragged down with unpopular Governor David Beasley at the top of the ticket who would go on to lose his re-election campaign to Jim Hodges.

Polling

Results

|
| colspan=5 |Democratic hold

See also
 List of United States senators from South Carolina
 1998 United States Senate elections
 1998 South Carolina gubernatorial election

References

South Carolina
1998
United States Senate


The Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation is a mapped bedrock unit in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia. It is named for the township of Mauch Chunk, now known as borough of Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania and for nearby Mauch Chunk Ridge where the formation crops out.

Description
The Mauch Chunk is defined as a grayish-red shale, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. The Loyalhanna Member is a local limestone and sandy limestone at its base, as well as the Greenbrier and Wymps Gap Members. Along the Allegheny Front, the Loyalhanna is a greenish-gray, calcareous, cross bedded sandstone.

A notable exposure of the Loyalhanna Member is Laurel Caverns in Fayette County.

Depositional environment
The early Mauch Chunk beds were deposited on a large basin receiving most of its sediments from distant highlands. Sea levels fluctuated and allowed some limestone deposition to occur early as well. Since the dominant color of the Mauch Chunk is red, much of the sediment was deposited above sea level in oxidizing conditions. The green-colored members indicate a reducing environment characterized by frequent inundation by water in a swamp, delta, or shallow sea. Later beds have frequent conglomerate beds signaling the first wave of the Alleghenian orogeny.

Fossils
Plants from the division Pteridospermatophyta notably Adiantites have been identified. Some fish and worm burrows have also been observed.

Age
Relative age dating of the Mauch Chunk places it in the late Mississippian epoch, with some of the top layers in the early Pennsylvanian epoch, being deposited between 345 and 320(±3) million years ago. It rests conformably atop many formations. Its upper contact is complex. In certain areas, the contact is conformable in others, there is an unconformity. However, the Pottsville Formation is always above the Mauch Chunk.

Economic uses
In 1953, a small amount of uranium was mined from the Mauch Chunk Formation near Jim Thorpe. (see Uranium mining in the United States)

References

See also
 Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians
 Geology of Pennsylvania
 Canaan Valley

Sandstone formations of the United States
Shale formations of the United States
Siltstone
Conglomerates (geology)
Carboniferous Maryland
Carboniferous geology of Pennsylvania
Carboniferous West Virginia
Mississippian United States
~
Geologic formations of Maryland
Geologic formations of Pennsylvania
Geologic formations of West Virginia
Carboniferous southern paleotropical deposits


The 1920 Wake Forest Baptists football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1920 college football season. In its first season under head coach James L. White, the team compiled a 2–7 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Baptists football


The 1921 Wake Forest Baptists football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1921 college football season. In its second season under head coach James L. White, the team compiled a 2–8 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Baptists football


Cordón de Puntas Negras is a  volcanic chain located east of the Salar de Atacama in Chile's Antofagasta Region.

Cordón de Puntas Negras is constructed along the major Calama–Olacapato–El Toro fault and is  long. The  long volcanic chain intersects with the  long Cordón Chalviri volcanic chain. Both chains cover a surface area of  and contain cones, vents, lava domes, lava flows and maars, including a lava dome and silicic flow with a surface area of . Puntas Negras specifically covers an area of  and is the highest summit in the chain and features a  wide crater and a  long pyroclastic flow. Puntas Negras runs from the Chiliques volcano on the north to volcán Puntas Negras () almost to the SE. The Puntas Negras Volcano forms the common endpoint of two chains of volcanoes in a V-shaped configuration. The southern leg of the V is called "Cordón Chalviri" whose other extreme is the Cerro Tuyajto, SW of Puntas Negras and at the same distance SE of the Miñiques volcano. Several small volcanic centres and lava flows are found here, including Aguas Calientes, Cerros Cenizas, Chinchilla and Laguna Escondida which have well preserved craters. The volcanic chain is associated with a topographic anomaly in the region, a property that other volcanoes in the area also have.

Rocks in the chain are andesite, basaltic andesite and dacite containing biotite, hornblende and pyroxene. Magmas from this volcanic chain have a calc-alkaline composition formed by partial melting of a mantle wedge, with research indicating a decrease in SiO2 concentration over time. In the Tuyajto group, past fumarolic activity has bleached the volcanic rocks in the summit region.

The basement beneath the chain is composed from Ordovician marine sediments that were later deformed by the Acadian orogeny. The  La Pacana caldera is buried beneath Puntas Negras. Both the 3.2 ± 0.3 Patao ignimbrite and the 2.4 ± 0.4 mya Pampa Chamaca or Tuyajto ignimbrite from La Pacana may have been erupted from beneath Puntas Negras. the Tuyajto ignimbrite is 530,000 ± 170,000 years old.

Biotites in andesitic lavas have been dated 0.7 ± 0.3 to 0.3 ± 0.2 million years ago. Volcan Puntas Negras has generated postglacial lava flows  and a  large lava dome west of Puntas Negras may be of Holocene age. An olivine basalt flow from the northern part of the chain extends over  towards Salar el Laco and may be of late Holocene age. The youngest volcanic centre appears to be located southeast of Laguna Escondida. Historical eruptions may have occurred in the Chalviri chain. A zone of anomalous electrical conductivity down to depths of  extends north to Lascar volcano. Cerro Overo at the southeastern end of Puntas Negras has been undergoing active deformation, with a previously observed pattern of subsidence before 2003–2005 switching to a pattern of inflation. Filling and emptying of a magma reservoir linked to Puntas Negras may be the cause for these deformation patterns. Future eruptions may threaten mining operations at El Laco and .

The volcanic chain forms a water divide in the Andes, separating the Puna de Atacama from the basins Laguna Miscanti and Laguna Miniques. A catchment area of  for the Laguna Miscanti lies in the Cordón de Puntas Negras. Puntas Negras has been affected by glaciation during the Pleistocene, with moraines reaching up to  altitude. Possibly, the entire chain was covered with glaciers, and certainly the southern part where several sets of moraines and glacial trimlines have been identified. Water from Cordón de Puntas Negras is a principal water source for Laguna Miscanti.

See also
 List of volcanoes in Chile
 Acamarachi
 El Laco
 Miscanti

References

Volcanoes of Antofagasta Region
Mountains of Chile
Stratovolcanoes of Chile


The 1922 Wake Forest Baptists football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1922 college football season. In its first and only season under head coach George Levene, the team compiled a 3–5–2 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Baptists football


The 1923 Wake Forest Baptists football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1923 college football season. In its first season under head coach Hank Garrity, the team compiled a 6–3 record. After a particularly impressive win against Trinity College (predecessor of Duke University), in the following issue of the school newspaper, the editor of the paper, Mayon Parker (1924 Wake Forest graduate), first referred to the team as "Demon Deacons," in recognition of what he called their "devilish" play and fighting spirit. Henry Belk, Wake Forest's news director, and Garrity liked the title and used it often, so the popularity of the term grew.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Baptists football


The Galilee Panhandle (, Etzba HaGalil (lit. "Finger of the Galilee"), is an elongated geopolitical area or "panhandle" in northern Israel comprising the northernmost section of the Upper Galilee, and the northern Jordan Rift Valley. The Galilee Panhandle incorporates five municipal authorities.  Towns in the Galilee Panhandle include Metula and Kiryat Shmona.

The ancient site of Tel Dan is located in the Galilean Panhandle.

Geography

The Galilee Panhandle is a narrow strip of land running from the Israel-Lebanon border in the far north to an imaginary line below the Hula Valley, approximately between the kibbutzim Malkia and Gonen,  in the south.

History
In 1920, the Sykes-Picot Treaty was amended to transfer areas of Jewish settlement from the territory of the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon to that of the British Mandate for Palestine. From April 1924, the area came under British control. An agreement was reached which enabled cultivation on both sides of the border with taxes being distributed between the British and French mandate authorities. The boundary was problematic, strategically and politically, but harnessing water sources in this region was vital for the  development of the country.

During Operation Yiftah in April and May 1948, the Arabs living in the Galilee Panhandle and the other Shia villages in Palestine were expelled by Palmach forces.

Cross-border raiding and rocket attacks from Lebanon have been an ongoing problem for communities in the Galilee Panhandle In November 2011, rockets were fired into Israel, landing near the border. The incident was called "a dangerous reminder" of the 34-day war in 2006 against Iranian and Syrian-backed Hezbollah forces in Lebanon.

See also
Geography of Israel
Good Fence, an epithet for  Israel's mountainous 80-mile northern border with Lebanon after the 1978 South Lebanon conflict
Upper Galilee Regional Council

References

Regions of Israel
Geography of Northern District (Israel)
Upper Galilee


The 1924 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1924 college football season. In its second season under head coach Hank Garrity, the team compiled a 7–2 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


The 1925 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University as an independent during the 1925 college football season. In its third season under head coach Hank Garrity, the team compiled a 6–2–1 record and outscored opponents by a total of 185 to 40.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


The 1926 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1926 college football season. In its first season under head coach James A. Baldwin, the team compiled a 5–4–1 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


The 1927 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1927 college football season. In its second season under head coach James A. Baldwin, the team compiled a 2–6–2 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


The 1928 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1928 college football season. In its first and only season under head coach Stan Cofall, the team compiled a 2–6–2 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


The 1929 Wake Forest Demon Deacons football team was an American football team that represented Wake Forest University during the 1929 college football season. In its first season under head coach Pat Miller, the team compiled a 6–5–1 record.

Schedule

References

Wake Forest
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football seasons
Wake Forest Demon Deacons football


Cuvelai, Cunene is one of three towns of this name in Angola.

Transport

Cuvelai is not currently served by rail, but in 2008 a proposed railway line linking Angola and Namibia would serve this town.

See also

 Transport in Angola
 Railway stations in Angola

References

Populated places in Angola


National Salvation Army may refer several Chinese armies during the 1931–32 Japanese invasion of Manchuria and the Second Sino-Japanese War:

 Chinese People's National Salvation Army, anti-Japanese
 Heilungkiang National Salvation Army, anti-Japanese
 National Salvation Army (Manchukuo), a Japanese puppet force; see Li Jizhun
 Northeast Anti-Japanese National Salvation Army, anti-Japanese

See also
 National Salvation Front (disambiguation)
 The Salvation Army
 Kuomintang in Burma, military forces organized by Li Mi and formally known as the Yunnan Anti-communist National Salvation Army


This page lists board and card games, wargames, miniatures games, and tabletop role-playing games published in 2008.  For video games, see 2008 in video gaming.

Games released or invented in 2008

Game awards given in 2008
Spiel des Jahres: Keltis
Spiel des Jahres special prize for Best complex game: Agricola
Kinderspiel des Jahres: Wer war’s?
Mensa Select: AmuseAmaze, Eye Know, Jumbulaya, Pixel, Tiki Topple
Games: Tzaar
 Agricola won the Spiel Portugal Jogo do Ano.

Significant games-related events in 2008
Cranium, Inc. purchased by Hasbro for US$77.5 million.

Deaths

See also
List of game manufacturers
2008 in video gaming
2008 in chess
2008 in darts

References

Games
Games by year


Marc Davis (born June 23, 1990) is an American former stock car racing developmental driver for Joe Gibbs Racing (JGR). Davis graduated from Mooresville Christian Academy in May 2008.

Racing career
Davis grew up in Colesville, Maryland as the son of an F-1 boat racer. He began competing in BMX, achieving US-2 and Gold Cup #1 rankings. He moved to quarter midgets at age 8, followed by Junior Dragsters. He spent three years racing Bandoleros before moving to legends. At age 13 he was in this third year racing legends when he won two 2003 national legends car championships in the Dirt and Road Course Young Lion divisions, becoming the first champion to win both championships in the same season.  He moved to Mooresville, North Carolina to pursue a career in racing. He won six of twelve limited late model races for JGR at Hickory Motor Speedway in 2006. His March 25, 2006 victory at the track was the track's second victory by an African American.

In 2007 he recorded a season best second-place finish, five top fives, and seven top 10 finishes in thirteen events. He finished ninth in points. He also competed in his first ARCA event, finishing fourth for veteran Bill Venturini. He is scheduled to racing the Camping World East in 2008 along with four ARCA events. He rang the closing bell at the New York Stock Exchange on February 6, 2008 for Black History Month. He made his major league NASCAR debut late in 2008, driving the #81 Randy Moss Motorsports Chevrolet at Gateway International Raceway in the Craftsman Truck Series. He finished 16th.

Davis then finished the 2008 Camping World East season with a top-ten finish in Irwindale at the Toyota All-Star Showdown.

In 2009, Davis drove selected races in both the Nationwide Series and Camping World Truck Series for his own team. In Nationwide, Davis made 5 attempts and qualified for 4 races in the #10/#36 Toyota with a best finish of 25th at Nashville Superspeedway. In the Truck Series, he attempted and qualified for 2 races in the #19 Chevrolet, finishing 18th at Martinsville and 32nd at Homestead.

In 2010, Davis would pull out of the Nationwide Series race at Daytona due to the death of his father. He was scheduled to race for Xxxtreme Motorsport in their #58 Chevrolet. Davis would make one start in 2010, at Dover finishing 23rd.

Davis returned to NASCAR in 2011, start and parking the #03 for R3 Motorsports.

Personal life
Davis used to work for Hendrick BMW in North Carolina.

Motorsports career results

NASCAR
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)

Nationwide Series

Camping World Truck Series

 Season still in progress
 Ineligible for series points

K&N Pro Series East

Camping World West Series

ARCA Re/Max Series
(key) (Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led.)

 Season still in progress
 Ineligible for series points

References

External links
 Official Website

 Official MySpace

1990 births
African-American racing drivers
Living people
NASCAR drivers
People from Colesville, Maryland
Sportspeople from Silver Spring, Maryland
Racing drivers from Maryland
ARCA Menards Series drivers
21st-century African-American sportspeople
Joe Gibbs Racing drivers


17 is the second studio album by Mexican Latin rock band Motel.

Track listing

Personnel

Aureo Baqueiro – keyboard, arranger, producer, vocal director
Gustavo Borner – mixing
Eric Corne – production assistant, mixing assistant
Pepe Damián – drums
Rodrigo Dávila – guitar, keyboard, arranger, keyboards, vocals
Ruy Folguera – arranger, brass arrangement, string director
Joey Greco – production assistant, mixing assistant
Billy Méndez – guitar, vocals, background vocals
Marco Moreno – recording
Rubén Puente – bass
Mike Shipley – mixing

2007 albums
Spanish-language albums
Motel (Mexican band) albums


Médiamétrie (), established in 1985, is a public limited company specialising in audience measurement and research into audio-visual and digital media usage in France. It is especially well known for its Audimat brand whose name is now part of everyday language; today, however, that brand is named Médiamat.

About
Médiamétrie came into being during the 1980s in response to the new needs of the audio-visual landscape in France which was undergoing rapid change at that time. In television, it was the launch of new channels: Canal+, La Cinq, TV6 and the privatisation of TF1. Furthermore, in radio, the first major private stations emerged with the privatisation of Europe 1 and the rise in popularity of NRJ. Médiamétrie was therefore created to provide scientific measurement of the audience of the main audio-visual (and later digital) media, and was recognised by all stakeholders and professionals (media, advertisers, and agencies). Since the 2000s, the company has expanded its activities to include the internet, digital hobbies and new media. Médiamétrie is also the company that provides the audiovisual watchdog agency ARCOM and the INA with accurate time slots for the programmes broadcast, as well as certification for the airing of advertisements.

History

Television
In 1981, Audimat was launched in France by the Centre d’Étude d’Opinion (CEO), an opinion research company. It was based on a panel of 600 households equipped with audience meters. Measurement was carried out on a daily basis with results reported the following morning, however, no indication was given as to the profile of the audience watching the television set.
In early 1988, Médiamétrie and other market stakeholders agreed to launch a benchmark measurement based on a larger panel and which took individual audiences into account. At that time, Audimat became Médiamat, which from then on was an individual television audience measurement rather than a household one.
In 2008, the panel was expanded to its current size: 5,000 households, approximately 11,400 individuals aged four years and over. In 2011, recorded time-shifted viewing was incorporated into television audience measurement, followed by catch-up in 2014. Since 2016, Médiamétrie has measured television audiences on four screens: television, computer, smartphone and tablet.

Radio
1986 saw the creation of an audience measurement mechanism for the radio based on a telephone survey in mainland France. Back then, it was called the “55,000” in reference to the size of the sample interviewed in one year (excluding the summer).
In the 1990s, the “55,000” became the “75,000 +”, before evolving into the “126,000” in 2005, as the sample size was expanded. For each year in radio between September and June, there are four waves of results covering 126,000 people. These individuals are asked about their listening habits in a landline or mobile telephone interview.

Internet
With the technological developments of the 2000s, Médiamétrie expanded its activities to include measurement of the internet audience in France.
Thus in 1999, Médiamétrie initiated measurement of web traffic thanks to its “24,000 Multimedia” survey. In 2000, the company launched a joint-venture with Nielsen to produce an internet / computer measurement in France that was based on a panel of several thousand individuals.
The emergence of mobile phones and later, tablets encouraged market stakeholders and Médiamétrie to launch an internet / mobile measurement in 2010, and that was then followed by the measurement of tablet audiences.
Since the start of 2018, internet audience measurement has been “global”: it includes browsing on computer, smartphone and tablet.

Visual identity

Company activities

Audience measurement
Médiamétrie conducts media audience measurement in France and covers radio, television, cinema and internet. Its studies are used by media and industry professionals to tailor their editorial content and to obtain data to use when calculating advertising rates.

Media behaviour studies and new practices among French consumers
Médiamétrie measures the audiences of the main media and it also conducts surveys into new behaviours and practices of French consumers. It also decodes trends in equipment, media consumption and emerging practices such as video on demand, smart speakers, podcasts, etc.

Thematic studies
Beyond audience measurement and studies into media behaviour, Médiamétrie also surveys the French population about their practices and opinions.

A few examples of non-media related surveys:

 “Illegal video use in France” with the Centre National du Cinéma (CNC) and the ALPA association against audio-visual piracy;
 “The French and management of their personal data” with the Institut des Mines-Télécom;
 “The French and Artificial Intelligence” with Paris-Dauphine University;
 “Citizenship and Civility on the Internet” with Renaissance Numérique.

International activities
Médiamétrie is present internationally in three business areas.

Exporting technology
In India, the BARC (Broadcast Audience Research Council) chose the audience meters developed by Médiamétrie as well as watermarking technology to use with its television audience measurement panel. With 33,000 Indian households now equipped, this also represents the largest TV panel in the world.
In Norway, TNS Gallup Norway (Kantar Media Group) decided to equip 1,500 of its TV panellists with the RateOnAir mini-audience meter to include measurement of television programme viewing outside the home.

In May 2019, Médiamétrie and three foreign research institutes – BARC (India), Numeris (Canada) and Video Research (Japan) – formed an international alliance in order to collaborate on the future of video audience measurement.

Audience measurement in Africa
In Morocco, Médiamétrie operates automatic television audience measurement via its subsidiary Marocmétrie, with a similar activity to that carried out in France (representative household panel equipped with audience meters).

In Côte d'Ivoire, Senegal, Cameroon and Madagascar, Médiamétrie and its local partners conduct several “reporting-based” surveys annually to discover the TV, radio and internet practices of the inhabitants of these countries.

International programme monitoring and audience data from different countries
Glance, Médiamétrie's international television department compiles TV audience data from around the world thanks to its partnerships with Médiamétrie's counterparts abroad. Its data bank includes over 7,000 channels in more than 100 countries around the world. Glance monitors and detects new TV and online programmes around the world.

Since September 2016, Glance has worked closely with TAPE Consultancy, a British company specialising in TV content as well as production and programming consultancy.

Methods and Operation

Television

Television audiences in France

A sample or "panel"
Composed of 5,000 households i.e. almost 11,400 individuals aged 4 years and older equipped with a television set, the sample is representative of the French population. It is constituted and recruited based on the following criteria: socio-demographics (gender, age, PCS from INSEE, France's National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies); television and multimedia equipment used; television reception modes (broadband internet, cable, satellite, digital terrestrial television).

A technology
The technology uses a box (the audience meter) fitted to the televisions in sample households and also relies on a special remote control which enables each household member and their guests to be identified individually when they are watching a programme. Each individual on the panel must activate their button whilst watching television, and deactivate it when they stop watching. This system makes it possible to measure the audience on a second-by-second basis. The audience meter uses watermarking technology to identify the channel being watched, as well as the date and time of broadcast. This data is automatically transmitted daily to the Médiamétrie servers at 3am and 5am. This data is then processed so that it can be extrapolated to the total French population, thus generating the audience results that are delivered every morning at 9am to measurement clients.

The conventions or "rules of the game"
Television audience measurement also relies on conventions that lay down the “rules of the game”: what does the measurement include? What size should the sample be? How should we communicate the results? ... These conventions are defined in consultation with the channels, advertisers, and advertising stakeholders at special TV media committee meetings held six times a year. Major decisions regarding the definition, orientation, management and evolution of TV audience measurement are debated at these committee meetings.

Time-shifted, catch-up and internet screens
Watermarking can be used to distinguish live viewing from time-shifted viewing of programmes: it detects the difference between the broadcast date and time information for the live programme and the time logged by the audience meter as the programme was actually being watched. In 2011, Médiamétrie incorporated time-shifted audiences watching programmes in pre-recorded and live pause modes into Médiamat, and in 2014, it added catch up audiences for programmes on TV.
Each day, 4.4 million French people watch television on internet screens, i.e. computer, smartphone and tablet (Source: Global TV – Oct.-Dec. 2017). In order to take these new practices into account, today, Médiamétrie measures TV audiences on the television set but also on smartphones, tablets, and computers. Derived from the reconciliation of TV and internet measurements, these audience numbers are available for all screens and all viewing times. Médiamétrie received the IAB Europe award for its 4-screen measurement in May 2017.

Channels included in the measurement

DTT channels
The 27 digital terrestrial television channels (DTT) which are free-to-air: TF1, France 2, France 3, Canal+, France 5, M6, Arte, C8, W9, TMC, TFX, NRJ 12, LCP - Assemblée Nationale / Public Sénat, France 4, BFM TV, CNews, CStar, Gulli, France Ô, TF1 Séries Films, L'Équipe, 6ter, RMC Story, RMC Découverte, Chérie 25, LCI and Franceinfo.

Channels received via cable, satellite, broadband internet or fibre optic
Médiamat'Thématik operates just like the Médiamat. This automatic audience measurement covers more than 120 channels and has a catchment population in excess of 46.2 million people aged 4 years and older.

Radio

126,000 Radio Survey
Médiamétrie's 126,000 Radio survey measures the radio audience in France for all listening locations and modes (traditional radio, car radio, computer, mobile phone, etc.). 126,000 individuals aged 13 years and older who are representative of the population are surveyed over a year via computer-assisted telephone interviews. The 126,000 Radio survey is administered from Médiamétrie's survey sites based in Amiens and Petit-Quevilly.
Results are published in four waves throughout the year: January/March, April/June, July/August and September/December. “Grilles Radio d’Été”, the July/August wave of summertime radio programming audience results features slightly different programming schedules. Local and regional radio audiences are researched in the Médialocales study.

Complementary surveys
Other panel-based surveys are also conducted which analyse different behavioural aspects of the French towards radio: their loyalty to particular stations is studied via the Radio Panel; the audiences of podcasts and all other audio content (audio books, music streaming, etc.) are studied via the Global Audio Study.

Internet

Audience measurement of websites and apps on all screens
Médiamétrie measures internet usage and audiences through various studies, including the Total Internet Audience study which analyses the audiences of over 6,000 websites and 700 apps. This automated study is carried out via software installed on computer equipment. It records the browsing history of 30,000 individual panellists aged 2 years and older. The data collected is then extrapolated to the total population of internet users living in France.
This measurement includes audiences for all connection locations and screens (computer, tablet, mobile phone).

Complementary studies
Other surveys decode the media and multimedia practices (video streaming, audio streaming, podcasts, etc.) of the French population, in particular on mobile screens (mobile phones and tablets) and via smart speakers. Médiamétrie also measures SVoD practices (subscription video on demand) to determine the consumer habits of French people, as well as the most viewed programmes.
Since 2013, Médiamétrie has also measured the effectiveness of online advertising campaigns among market professionals.

Governance

Board of directors
The Board of Directors of Médiamétrie, chaired by Yannick Carriou, defines the strategy and the general stability of the company. It is made up of 12 stakeholders: Radio France, Métropole Télévision, NextRadioTV, Union des marques, France Télévisions, TF1, Société d’édition de Canal+, Promotions & spectacles d’Europe 1, Dentsu Aegis Network France, Publicis Conseil, Havas et DDB Holding Europe.

Decision-making committees
Six committees define, guide and validate the measurements and studies conducted by Médiamétrie: Audimétrie (audience measurement), TV Thématiques (special interest TV), Internet, Radio and Métridomet Data. Scientific and technical commissions plus working groups and an internet assembly complement the work of these committees.

Capital
Médiamétrie's capital amounts to €14,880,000 and is held by market professionals: Media, advertisers, agencies. Médiamétrie's independence is thus guaranteed since none of the latter groups holds a majority.

Reviews
Médiamétrie was the subject of strong criticism during 2006. The audience measurement institution was challenged by two of its directors, Patrice Duhamel and Philippe Santini, who accused the company of opacity and inertia in the face changing technology and new modes of consuming media (broadband internet, DTT, mobile, podcasts). In particular, the audience measurement methods and the reliability of the audience results provided by Médiamétrie for DTT channel audiences were called into question.

In 2009, the novelist Marc Welinski published a thriller entitled: “Indices”, whose plot was based on the internal Médiamétrie manipulation of the audience ratings for a major television channel, TVF.

In 2012, the journalist Eric Leser of slate.fr published a heavily critical article evoking issues such as: conflicts of interest, easily manipulated measurements, back room plots, promotional games and even the lack of competition.

In 2017, Didier Maïsto, President of the Fiducial Media Group and the owner of Sud Radio, announced his intention to file a complaint against Médiamétrie. He called into question the company’s survey methods which he claimed could indicate erroneous figures and he accused it of “being the judge in its own case.

In 2018, the Court of Appeal of Versailles rejected Sud Radio's request concerning a court-appointed expert investigation into the Radio audience measurement methodology.

References

External links
 Observer Mesurer Analyser
 Observer Mesurer Analyser

Mass media companies established in 1985
French companies established in 1985
Audience measurement
Mass media companies of France


Melissa Kounnas is an Australian actress and television presenter, best known for her role in the children's television series Professor Poopsnaggle and His Flying Zeppelin as Robyn. She is a television presenter for infomercials such as Guthy Renker on morning television.

Kounnas has appeared in the television series E Street and A Country Practice, and the movie Dating the Enemy.

Personal life
Her brother is actor and television presenter Mark Kounnas.

References

External links

Australian television actresses
Australian people of Greek descent
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)


In mathematics, particularly in the fields of nonlinear dynamics and the calculus of variations, the Chaplygin problem is an isoperimetric problem with a differential constraint.  Specifically, the problem is to determine what flight path an airplane in a constant wind field should take in order to encircle the maximum possible area in a given amount of time.  The airplane is assumed to be constrained to move in a plane, moving at a constant airspeed v, for time T, and the wind is assumed to move in a constant direction with speed w.

The solution of the problem is that the airplane should travel in an ellipse whose major axis is perpendicular to w, with eccentricity w/v.

References

See also
 Isoperimetric inequality : zero wind speed case
Calculus of variations


Mark Kounnas (born 1969) is an Australian actor and television presenter. Mark has had many acting roles on television and films and is probably best known for his role in Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome as Gekko. He has also been a television presenter on an ABC children's television series with his sister and fellow actor Melissa Kounnas.

Mark has appeared on such television series as Chances, Water Rats, Heartbreak High, Butterfly Island, A Country Practice, Kings and the mini-series Bodyline. He also appeared in the 1982 Ginger Meggs movie as Raggsy.

Bibliography
 Holmstrom, John. The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich, Michael Russell, 1996, p. 376.

External links

Australian male television actors
Australian male film actors
Australian people of Greek descent
Living people
1969 births


Days Gone By is the third studio album by American country music artist James House, released in 1995. It was also his only album for the Epic Records label.

The album itself peaked at 48 on the U.S. Billboard Top Country Albums charts, and 19 on Top Heatseekers. Four of its singles entered the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) charts: "A Real Good Way to Wind Up Lonesome", "Little by Little", "This Is Me Missing You", and "Anything for Love"; "This Is Me Missing You" was the highest-charting single of his career, peaking at No. 6 in mid-1995. In addition, the album's title track was included in the soundtrack to the 1994 movie The Cowboy Way.

Days Gone By also features guest vocals from Trisha Yearwood, as well as Raul Malo (of The Mavericks) and Nikki Nelson (who was then the lead singer for Highway 101).

Track listing

Personnel

The House Band
John Bohlinger – electric guitar
Jeanie Cioff – fiddle, background vocals
Steve Cox – keyboards
Craig Flynn – bass guitar, background vocals
James House – lead vocals, background vocals, acoustic guitar
Kenneth Smith – drums

Additional musicians
Bruce Bouton – pedal steel guitar, slide guitar
Dennis Burnside – piano, Hammond organ
Mark Casstevens – acoustic guitar, mandolin
Rob Hajacos – fiddle, "electric hoedown tools"
David Hungate – bass guitar
John Barlow Jarvis – piano, Hammond organ
Raul Malo – background vocals on "Take Me Away"
Brent Mason – electric guitar
Nikki Nelson – background vocals on "Only a Fool"
John Wesley Ryles – background vocals
John Willis – 12-string guitar, baritone guitar, electric guitar
Dennis Wilson – background vocals
Lonnie Wilson – drums, percussion
Glenn Worf – bass guitar, upright bass
Trisha Yearwood – background vocals on "Anything for Love"

Strings on "Until You Set Me Free" and "That's Something (You Don't See Every Day)" performed by the Nashville String Machine and arranged by Dennis Burnside.

Chart performance

References
[ Days Gone By] at Allmusic

1995 albums
Epic Records albums
James House (singer) albums
Albums produced by Don Cook


Mathias Chen Xilu (; 6 February 1928 – 16 January 2008) was a Chinese Roman Catholic bishop of Hengshui, Hebei. He had been appointed to his post by the Vatican, and had been recognized by the government of the People's Republic of China.

Life
Chen Xilu was born into a Catholic family in 1928. He initially enrolled at a minor Catholic seminary at the age of 15 before entering a larger seminary in Shanghai in 1950. He was ordained a priest in 1955 after which he worked as a doctor in a clinic in Jing county, Hebei province.

Chen was arrested for his religious beliefs in 1958. He was sent to a hard labor camp from 1969–79. He returned to Hengshui diocese in 1979 following his release. He succeeded Bishop Petrus Fan Wenxing in 1996. The diocese consists of approximately 20,000 Roman Catholics. Chen fell into a coma due to a brain hemorrhage in 2002 and died on January 16, 2008, of organ failure in Jing county, Hebei. He was succeeded by Bishop Peter Feng Xinmao.

References

1928 births
2008 deaths
20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in China
21st-century Roman Catholic bishops in China
Place of birth missing


Justitia is a genus of spiny lobsters. Following the recognition of Nupalirus as a separate genus, Justitia comprises one extant species and two fossil species:
Justitia longimanus (H. Milne-Edwards, 1837) – Recent
Justitia longimanus longimanus (H. Milne-Edwards, 1837) – western Atlantic
Justitia longimana mauritiana (Miers, 1882) – Indo-Pacific
† Justitia desmaresti (Massalongo, 1854) – late Ypresian or early Lutetian, Monte Bolca, Italy
† Justitia vicetina Beschin et al., 2001 – middle Lutetian, Chiampo, Vicenza, Italy

References

Achelata
Decapod genera
Extant Lutetian first appearances
Lutetian genus first appearances
Taxa named by Lipke Holthuis


Highway 98 is the primary north-south highway on the Israeli side of the Golan Heights. It is shaped like an archer's bow, and it runs parallel to the ceasefire line with Syria.  The route runs from Tzemah junction south of the Kinneret, first through the Yarmuk valley, then it rises up a steep slope into the Golan Heights and crosses it until it reaches the lowest cable-car station on Mount Hermon. There it meets Route 999. Highway 98 is steep compared to the other highways in Israel, rising from 210 meters below sea level at the Kinneret to 1600 meters above sea level on the Hermon.

Junctions and Interchanges (South to North)

Places of interest near Highway 98
 The Kinneret
 Hamat Gader
 Metzukei HaOn Nature Reserve
 Meitzar Stream
 El Al Nature Reserve
 Iris Grand-dufii reserve
 Hushniyya iris reserve
 Bashanit Range reserve
 A view into Kuneitra across the ceasefire line
 Mount Avital reserve
 Hermonit reserve
 Valley of Tears
 Odem Forest
 Berekhat Ram
 Sa'ar Stream
 Mount Hermon

References

See also
 List of highways in Israel

Roads in Israel
Roads in Israeli-occupied territories


Seán Byrne (16 May 1937 – 5 March 2018) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician.

Career
A farmer before entering politics, he was unsuccessful on the first two occasions when he stood for election to Dáil Éireann, as a Fianna Fáil candidate in the Tipperary South constituency at the 1977 and 1981 general elections. He finally won a seat there at the February 1982 general election, and was re-elected at the November 1982 general election. At the 1987 general election he lost his seat to his Fianna Fáil colleague Noel Davern.

However, in the subsequent elections to the 18th Seanad Byrne was elected by the Cultural and Educational Panel. He did not contest the 1989 general election, but was re-elected to the 19th Seanad. In the 1992 general election he stood again in Tipperary South, but was not elected. He was defeated in the 1993 election to the 20th Seanad, but was instead nominated by the Taoiseach, Albert Reynolds.

He contested the 1997 Seanad election on the Administrative Panel, but failed to win a seat and did not stand again.

Death
On 5 March 2018, he died after a long illness. Fianna Fáil leader Micheál Martin said, "The Fianna Fáil organisation, locally in Tipperary and nationally, has lost a loyal and valued member and supporter."

References

1937 births
2018 deaths
Members of South Tipperary County Council
Fianna Fáil TDs
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Members of the 18th Seanad
Members of the 19th Seanad
Members of the 20th Seanad
20th-century Irish farmers
Politicians from County Tipperary
Nominated members of Seanad Éireann
Fianna Fáil senators
Cultural and Educational Panel senators


United Kingdom v Norway [1951] ICJ 3, also known as the Fisheries Case, was the culmination of a dispute, originating in 1933, over how large an area of water surrounding Norway was Norwegian waters (that Norway thus had exclusive fishing rights to) and how much was 'high seas' (that the UK could thus fish).

History
The situation which gave rise to the dispute and the facts which preceded the filing of the British Application are recalled in the Judgment. The coastal zone concerned in the dispute is of a distinctive configuration. Its length as the crow flies exceeds 1,500 kilometers. Mountainous along its whole length, very broken by fjords and bays, dotted with countless islands, islets and reefs (certain of which form a continuous archipelago known as the skjærgård, "rock rampart"), the coast does not constitute, (as it does in practically all other countries in the world) a clear dividing line between land and sea. The land configuration stretches out into the sea and what really constitutes the Norwegian coastline is the outer line of the land formations viewed as a whole. Along the coastal zone are situated shallow banks which are very rich in fish. These have been exploited from time immemorial by the inhabitants of the mainland and of the islands: they derive their livelihood essentially from such fishing. In past centuries British fishermen had made incursions in the waters near the Norwegian coast. As a result of complaints from the King of Norway, they abstained from doing so at the beginning of the 17th century and for 300 years. But in 1906 British vessels appeared again. These were trawlers equipped with improved and powerful gear. The local population became perturbed, and measures were taken by Norway with a view to specifying the limits within which fishing was prohibited to foreigners. Incidents occurred, became more and more frequent, and on July 12, 1935 the Norwegian Government delimited the Norwegian fisheries zone by Decree. Negotiations had been entered into by the two Governments; they were pursued after the Decree was enacted, but without success. A considerable number of British trawlers were arrested and condemned in 1948 and 1949. It was then that the United Kingdom Government instituted proceedings before the Court.

Facts
On 28 September 1949, the UK requested that the International Court of Justice determine how far Norway's territorial claim extended to sea, and to award the UK damages in compensation for Norwegian interference with UK fishing vessels in the disputed waters, claiming that Norway's claim to such an extent of waters was against international law.

Judgment
On 18 December 1951, the ICJ decided that Norway's claims to the waters were consistent with international laws concerning the ownership of local sea-space.

The Court found that neither the method employed for the delimitation by the Decree, nor the lines themselves fixed by the said Decree, are contrary to international law; the first finding being adopted by ten votes to two, and the second by eight votes to four. Three Judges — MM. Alvarez, Hackworth and Hsu Mo appended to the Judgment a declaration or an individual opinion stating the particular reasons for which they reached their conclusions; two other Judges—Sir Arnold McNair and Mr. J. E. Read—appended to the Judgment statements of their dissenting Opinions.

See also
 List of International Court of Justice cases

References

Further reading

External links
International Court of Justice records of this case

International Court of Justice cases
Territorial disputes of Norway
1951 in case law
1951 in Norway
1951 in the United Kingdom
Norway–United Kingdom relations
Fishing in Norway
Fishing in the United Kingdom
Fishing conflicts
1951 in international relations


The Hard Way is the second and final studio album released by American rock musician Owsley.

It was released in 2004 on the independent Lakeview label, five years after his debut album. Some of the delay was attributed to legal difficulties with his former label, Giant Records.

Critics have described the album as having a "heavier" and "more mature" sound compared to his debut album, and note musical influences of Big Star, Todd Rundgren, Tom Petty and Paul McCartney and Wings. Critic Susanne Ault of Billboard wrote, "The music straddles indie and pop sensibilities without ever stepping one foot clearly onto one side or the other. While The Hard Way rolls along competently, the midtempo guitar hooks and straightahead vocals lack the necessary punch to reach mainstream consciousness."

The album was recorded over the span of three years, at different studios in Tennessee, as well as at his home recording studio in Anniston, Alabama. As recording formats and equipment, Owsley used a Studer 16-track 2" at 15 ips, an MCI 16-track 2" at 30 ips, the Otari Radar II multitrack hard disk recorder, and Pro Tools.

The lead single is "Be with You".

Track listing

Personnel
 Will Owsley – lead vocals, backing vocals, electric guitars, acoustic guitar (3, 8), bass (5, 6, 8), acoustic piano (6, 7)
 Jonathan Hamby – Hammond B3 organ, acoustic piano (4), Chamberlin (5), synthesizers (9)
 Keith Thomas – strings (1, 6)
 John Mark Painter – Chamberlin (2)
 Tom Bukovac – electric guitar (1), acoustic guitar (1), bass (2)
 Gordon Kennedy – electric guitar (7), backing vocals (7)
 Jimmie Lee Sloas – bass (1, 7)
 Michael Rhodes – bass (3, 9, 10)
 Millard Powers – bass (4)
 Chris McHugh – drums, percussion
 Simon Petty – harmonica (8)
 Rebecca Walker – backing vocals (10)

Production
 Scot McCracken – executive producer, creative director
 Will Owsley – producer, engineer
 Keith Thomas – producer (1), photography
 James Michael – vocal producer (8)
 Paul David Hager – engineer, mixing
 Mark Ralston – mix assistant
 Jeff Balding – engineer
 J.R. McNeely – engineer
 Dan Shike – engineer
 F. Reid Shippen – engineer
 Billy Whittington – engineer
 Shane D. Wilson – engineer
 George Marino – mastering at Sterling Sound (New York City, New York)
 Jill Simonsen – package design
 Lisa Robinson – wardrobe stylist

References

2004 albums
Owsley (musician) albums