Lerner Newspapers was a chain of weekly newspapers. Founded by Leo Lerner, the chain was a force in community journalism in Chicago from 1926 to 2005, and called itself "the world's largest newspaper group".

In its heyday, Lerner published 54 weekly and semi-weekly editions on the North and Northwest sides of Chicago and in suburban Cook, Lake and DuPage counties, with a circulation of some 300,000. Editions included the Booster, Citizen, Life, News, News-Star, Skyline, Star, Times and Voice.

Overview
The Lerner papers focused on community news and local issues, including a widely read police blotter, but also featured localized sections devoted to arts and entertainment, food, lifestyles and high-school and neighborhood sports, like "hyper-local" versions of daily newspapers.

At one time, the chain had its own printing plant at its headquarters in the Rogers Park, Chicago, neighborhood and a network of satellite offices across the city and its suburbs.

Journalists who got their start at Lerner include the late Mike Royko, the Crain's Chicago Business columnist Greg Hinz, the Chicago Sun-Times columnists Bill Zwecker and Robert Feder, the sportscaster Bruce Wolf, the novelist William Brashler, the syndicated columnist Robert C. Koehler and Ted Allen, host of Food Network's Chopped and All-Star Academy, and former cast member of the Bravo hit Queer Eye.

History

Beginnings
Leo Lerner (1907–1965) founded his namesake chain in 1926 with the Lincoln-Belmont Booster, turning it from a shopper to a real newspaper.

From 1924-28, Lerner worked in editorial positions on the Morton Grove News, the North Side Sunday Citizen and the Lincoln Belmont Booster. He then became a partner of A. O. Caplan in the management of the 16 Myers Newspapers, with a combined circulation of 219,000.

During World War II, Lerner inspired his staff to concentrate on local news with such statements as, "A fistfight on Clark Street is more important to our readers than a war in Europe."

By 1958, Lerner was president of a growing group of newspapers, including the Myers Publishing Co., the Lincoln Belmont Publishing Co., the Times Home Newspapers (J. L. Johnson Publishing Co.) and the Neighbor Press of Chicago.

Lerner's son Louis A. Lerner served as assistant to the publisher of Lerner Home Newspapers and an account executive for Times Home Newspapers from 1959 to 1962. He became executive vice president of Lerner Home Newspapers in 1962 and publisher in 1969.

Decline and fall

The 49-year-old Louis Lerner died of cancer in 1984. The following year, the Lerner family sold the chain to Pulitzer Publishing, publishers of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch. When it bought the chain of 52 weeklies for $9.1 million, Pulitzer hoped to win readers and advertising dollars from the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun-Times in the same way that the Suburban Journal weeklies were weakening the Post-Dispatch. Pulitzer planned to increase Lerner's combined circulation of about 300,000 to compete in the Chicago newspaper market, but the recession of the early 1990s eroded the chain's advertising base, over half of which was help-wanted classified ads, and the chain was unsuccessful in winning automotive and real estate ads away from the dailies.

The sole weekly group in Pulitzer's stable, Lerner was left to founder. Pulitzer closed and merged many of its editions, until only 15 were left. Circulation had plummeted from 300,000 in 1985 to 100,000 by 1992. In 1992, Pulitzer was on the brink of shutting down the Lerner papers but, at the last minute, with final editions set in type, sold the chain's assets to Sunstates Corp. for a reported $4 million.

Sunstates, an investment firm led by Clyde Engle, was in the business of buying moribund companies for tricky financial operations. Under Sunstates, which owned a mixed bag of companies such as an insurance firm, a chocolate factory, a furniture factory and an apple orchard, but had never before run newspapers, the Lerner chain continued to erode while Sunstates managers constrained journalists to keep 9-to-5 hours.

In 2000, in a surreptitious arrangement that came to be known as the "Lerner Exchange," Sunstates sold the chain to a company fronted by Canadian press baron Conrad Black, who resold it to Hollinger International. This and other illegal maneuvers by Black and sidekick David Radler, Sun-Times publisher, ultimately led to their conviction on fraud charges when they were found to have looted millions from the company.

Amid Hollinger reorganization (ultimately to the Sun-Times Media Group) in the wake of the scandal, the company merged Lerner Newspapers into its longtime suburban rival, Pioneer Press, in 2005. Pioneer management quickly dropped the now-embarrassing Lerner name and killed all Lerner's suburban editions. Pioneer continued to print a handful of city of Chicago newspapers with the old nameplates — the Booster, News-Star, Skyline and Times — converting them from broadsheet to tabloid, until January 2008, when the company announced it was pulling out of urban publishing entirely. At the last moment, the Booster, News-Star and Skyline titles were sold to the Wednesday Journal, another Chicago-area weekly group.

In March 2009, the Wednesday Journal announced that it was dropping the News-Star and the Booster, along with the Bucktown/Wicker Park edition of the Chicago Journal (into which a Booster edition had been merged). Although reduced to operating from his home, Ron Roenigk, the publisher of Inside Publications, said he would be buying the two former Lerner nameplates, largely to get their legal advertising.

The Skyline, Inside Booster and News Star are still published weekly on Chicago's North Side by Inside Publications.

Editions

Booster

Leo Lerner launched his empire with the 1926 purchase of the Lincoln-Belmont Booster. In 2005, Pioneer Press sold The Booster to the Wednesday Journal, which resold it in 2008 to Inside Publications. Inside Publications merged the Booster with its primary publication (Inside). The new publication retained the Booster's numbering and some of its syndicated columns while incorporating some of Inside's traditional features.

The Booster covered various North Side neighborhoods, including Avondale, Irving Park, Lake View, Lincoln-Belmont, Lincoln Park, Logan-Armitage, North Center, Roscoe Village and Sheridan Center. The Wednesday Journal-published editions covered Lake View, North Center and Roscoe Village.

Longtime Chicago columnist (Chicago Daily News, Chicago Sun-Times, Chicago Tribune) Mike Royko had his start at the Lincoln-Belmont Booster.

Citizen
Founded as the Ravenswood Citizen, and dating back until at least 1905, the Citizen was acquired by Lerner in the late 1920s and folded into other editions in 1930.

Life
The Life newspapers ran from the 1920s through 2005, beginning with a Rogers Park edition, and later expanding into covering Chicago's northern suburbs, including, at various times, Buffalo Grove, Deerfield, Des Plaines, Evanston, Ft. Sheridan, Glenview, Highland Park, Highwood, Lake County, Lake Forest, Lincolnwood, Morton Grove, Niles, Niles Township, Northbrook, Skokie and Wheeling.

Pulitzer shut down most of the Life editions in the 1980s. When Pioneer Press folded the papers in 2005, editions covered Lincolnwood, Morton Grove, Niles and Skokie.

News-Star
Beginning as separate News and Star editions, later combined, the News-Star (also called the News and Star Budget) covered the Far North Side. In 2005, Pioneer Press sold the nameplate to the Wednesday Journal, which resold it in 2008 to Inside Publications.

Communities covered by the various versions included Albany Park, Edgewater, Lake View, Lincoln Square, North Park, North Town, Ravenswood, Rogers Park, Sauganash and Uptown.  The Wednesday Journal-published editions covered Edgewater, Ravenswood, Rogers Park and Uptown.

Lesley Sussman, now an author and journalist in New York City, was for many years editor of the Uptown and Edgewater News.

Skyline

Launched by Lerner in the 1960s, the Skyline covered the Gold Coast, Lincoln Park, the Loop and the Near North Side, with an emphasis on society gossip. The Skyline   was the only Lerner paper not to cover school sports. In 2005, Pioneer Press sold the nameplate to the Wednesday Journal, which continues to publish it, covering the Gold Coast, Lincoln Park, Old Town and River North.

Queer Eye's Allen was a Skyline reporter.
Wednesday's Journal sold the Skyline to Inside Publications in 2013 where it is still being published weekly.

Times
Acquired in the 1950s, and also called the New Times and the Times Home Newspapers, the Times editions covered the Northwest Side and near-west suburbs, including the city neighborhoods Albany Park, Belmont-Cragin, Dunning, Edison Park, Edgebrook, Harlem-Foster, Harlem-Irving, Higgins-Oriole, Jefferson Park, Logan Square, Mayfair, Montrose, O'Hare, Norwood Park and Portage Park and suburban areas including Elmwood Park, Franklin Park, Harwood Heights, Norridge, Northlake, River Grove, Schiller Park and Leyden and Proviso townships.

At the time Pioneer Press took over and folded the papers in 2005, the Times covered Edison Park, Jefferson Park, Norwood Park and Portage Park in the city and the suburban communities of Elmwood Park, Harwood Heights, Norridge and River Grove.

Voice

Sometimes called the Voice and Advisor Register, the original Voice editions covered Chicago's northwest suburbs, including Addison, Bartlett, Bensenville, Bloomingdale, DuPage County, Elk Grove Village, Glendale Heights, Hanover Park, Hoffman Estates, Itasca, Medinah, Roselle, Rosemont, Schaumburg, Streamwood and Wood Dale.

Pulitzer shut the original Voice down in 1990.

In the mid-1990s, Sunstates reused the Voice name for a small, short-lived group of north suburban tabloids, launched as shoppers, and then expanded into regular editions covering community news and features, with longtime Chicago journalist Leah A. Zeldes as managing editor. The tabloids covered Glenview, Northbrook and Park Ridge.

Journalists
Prominent journalists who worked for Lerner Newspapers include:

Ted Allen
David Anderson
Ann Barzel
Richard Battin
Al Bernstein
Lawrence Bommer
Jack Bess
Larry Blasko, later a reporter and executive with the Associated Press
Bill Brashler
Jim Braun
Patrick Butler
Angela Caputo
George Castle
Corey Schiff
Dan Cotter
Steve Dale
 Felicia Dechter
Diana Diamond
Leonard Dubkin
Ava Ehrlich
Robert Feder
Ruth Duskin Feldman
Roger Flaherty, later a rewriteman, reporter and assistant metro editor at Chicago Sun-Times
Ann Gerber
Michael C. Glab
 Terry Gorman
Richard Greb
Leigh Hanlon
Greg Hinz
Sheldon Hoffenberg
Audrey Howard
James Clifford Hughes
 Les Jacobson
William Hugh Jones
Robert C. Koehler
Leo Lerner
Louis A. Lerner
Richard C. Lindberg
Cynthia Linton
Valerie Anne Long
Sheila Malkind
 Richard Jules Margolis
Sue Markgraf
Matt McGuire
Dan Mitchell
Kim Okabe
Mary Beth Rose
Matt Rosenberg
Morris Rotman
Art Rotstein, later an Associated Press reporter based in Arizona
Mike Royko
Rosemary Sazanoff
Brenda Schory
"Chicago Ed" Schwartz
Emily Soloff
Will Sullivan
Lesley Sussman
Lorraine Swanson
Lily Venson
Carolyn Walkup
Bruce Wolf
Leah A. Zeldes
Bill Zwecker

See also
Illinois Newspaper Project
Newspapers of the Chicago metropolitan area

References

Newspaper companies in Chicago
Corporate scandals
Publishing companies established in 1926
Publishing companies disestablished in 2005


The Flettner Fl 185 was an experimental German gyrodyne developed by Anton Flettner, a machine which could fly both as a helicopter and as a gyroplane.

Design and development
This aircraft was developed in 1936 with support of the Kriegsmarine. It was powered by a  BMW-Bramo Sh 14 A radial piston engine with forced-air cooling, mounted at the nose. The engine drove a 12 m diameter main rotor and two auxiliary propellers mounted on outriggers attached to the fuselage.

At take-off or when hovering, the auxiliary propellers worked in opposition to each other and served to cancel the torque of the main rotor, a function handled by a single, variable-pitch tail rotor on contemporary helicopters. In forward flight, however, both propellers worked to provide forward thrust while the rotor autorotated, as in a twin-engined autogyro. The landing gear consisted of a nose-wheel, two smaller stabilising wheels under the outriggers and a tail skid. Only one prototype was constructed.

Specifications (Fl 185)

See also
Fairey FB-1 Gyrodyne

Notes

References

Further reading
Die Deutsche Luftrüstung 1933–1945

1930s German experimental aircraft
1930s German helicopters
Flettner aircraft


Blast Off! was the second American release (the first being the self-titled 6-song EP) by the Japanese punk rock band The Blue Hearts. It was released in 1991 and only in America. Though each of the songs was recorded with the original Japanese lyrics, the CD jacket included English translations of each of the songs.

Tracks
The Blue Hearts' previous American release, the self-titled CD/12" vinyl EP, was a 6-song compilation with selections from their self-titled first album, The Blue Hearts, and their second album, Young and Pretty. As with their first American release, this album was also a compilation of songs: this time from their first album and their third, Train-Train. The first four songs were from The Blue Hearts and the rest were from Train-Train, except for "Chernobyl" and "The Blue Hearts Theme", which had only been released as singles in Japan. The original Japanese title of the songs is in parentheses.

References

The Blue Hearts albums
1991 compilation albums


Dahlin is a Swedish surname.  The name can also be spelled Dalin. Both surnames are derived from the Swedish word dal which means valley. Notable people with the surname include:

Anders J. Dahlin (born 1975), Swedish tenor and opera singer
Bo Dahlin (born 1948), Swedish professor of education
David C. Dahlin (1917–2003), American physician-pathologist
Erik Dahlin (born 1989), Swedish footballer
Ernst Mauritz Dahlin (1843–1929), Swedish mathematician
Jacob Dahlin (1952–1991), Swedish TV and radio-host
Johan Dahlin (born 1986), Swedish footballer
John Dahlin (1886–1927), Swedish athlete
Jolanta Dahlin (1940–1991), Swedish chess master
Kjell Dahlin (born 1963), Swedish ice hockey player
Marcus Dahlin (footballer) (born 1982), Swedish footballer
Marcus Dahlin (born 1991), Swedish handballer
Martin Dahlin (born 1968), Swedish footballer and sports agent
Olof von Dalin (1708–1763), Swedish poet
Peter Dahlin (activist), Swedish human rights activist
Rasmus Dahlin (born 2000), Swedish ice hockey player

Others
A name for inulin derived from Dahlia tubers

See also
Dalin (disambiguation)

Swedish-language surnames


Orlando Fashion Square is a split one-story, two-story indoor shopping mall located in Orlando, Florida. Opened in 1973, it features 79 stores in over one million square feet of shop space. The mall's anchor stores are Macy's, Floor & Decor, and Dillard's Clearance Center. Predating the mall's opening was a Sears department store opened in 1963; this store closed in 2016 and has been razed for redevelopment. JCPenney, another anchor store closed in 2020. Other major tenants include Premiere Cinemas and Planet Fitness. The mall is managed by UP Development, Inc.

History
The first operational store on the site was a  Sears department store, which opened for business on October 30, 1963. The mall was first announced in 1971 by developer Leonard L. Farber, who also developed Pompano Square (now Pompano Citi Centre) in Pompano Beach, Florida. Under the original plans, the mall would be attached to the existing Sears store, with Burdines as the second anchor.  Burdines opened along with the rest of the mall on July 30, 1973.

A third anchor, Robinson's of Florida, opened on the north side of the mall on October 29, 1973.  Robinson's of Florida was the newly-created Florida division of California-based J.W. Robinsons.  The Orlando location was their second Florida location, opening two months after their first store at Tyrone Square Mall in St. Petersburg.

A free-standing movie theater was built on an outparcel in 1975 which existed until 1989.  In 1988, Robinson's Florida stores were sold to Maison Blanche.  Maison Blanche then built a new store just northeast of the original store two years later.  The previous store would become more inline mall space connecting the new store with the rest of the mall.  Maison Blanche became Gayfer's in 1992, which was then sold to Dillard's in 1998.  JCPenney built a new store at the mall to replace a store at Winter Park Mall in 1993.  An interior renovation completed in 2002.  In 2004, a new movie theater owned by Premiere Cinemas opened in the mall.  Burdines became Macy's in 2005.

In 2013, PREIT sold the mall to UP Development, Inc. for $35 million. The new owner has plans to redevelop the mall. One year later a new bowling alley was added and the movie theater was rebuilt.

In 2014, Dillard's converted its store to a Dillard's Clearance Center, and closed its second floor. The mall  lost several other stores such as Bath and Body Works, Victoria's Secret, and The Limited.

In 2015, Sears Holdings spun off 235 of its properties, including the Sears at Orlando Fashion Square, into Seritage Growth Properties.

On August 9, 2016, Sears announced their intentions to close their store at this mall. The Sears store was demolished in April 2017. Floor & Decor was built to replace Sears. Outparcels on the Seritage site include Longhorn Steakhouse, Mission BBQ, and Olive Garden.

On June 4, 2020, JCPenney announced that it would be closing as part of a plan to close 154 stores nationwide. The store closed on October 18, 2020.

References

External links

Buildings and structures in Orlando, Florida
Shopping malls in Florida
Shopping malls established in 1973
Tourist attractions in Orlando, Florida
1973 establishments in Florida


The facial skeleton comprises the facial bones that may attach to build a portion of the skull. The remainder of the skull is the neurocranium.

In human anatomy and development, the facial skeleton is sometimes called the membranous viscerocranium, which comprises the mandible and dermatocranial elements that are not part of the braincase.

Structure
In the human skull, the facial skeleton consists of fourteen bones in the face:
 Inferior turbinal (2)
 Lacrimal bones (2)
 Mandible
 Maxilla (2)
 Nasal bones (2)
 Palatine bones (2)
 Vomer
 Zygomatic bones (2)

Variations
Elements of the cartilaginous viscerocranium (i.e., splanchnocranial elements), such as the hyoid bone, are sometimes considered part of the facial skeleton. The ethmoid bone (or a part of it) and also the sphenoid bone are sometimes included, but otherwise considered part of the neurocranium. Because the maxillary bones are fused, they are often collectively listed as only one bone. The mandible is generally considered separately from the cranium.

Development
The facial skeleton is composed of dermal bone and derived from the neural crest cells (also responsible for the development of the neurocranium, teeth and adrenal medulla) or from the sclerotome, which derives from the somite block of the mesoderm. As with the neurocranium, in Chondricthyes and other cartilaginous vertebrates, they are not replaced via endochondral ossification.

Variation in craniofacial form between humans is largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide SNPs has identified specific genes that control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and PAX3 were found to determine nasal morphology, whereas EDAR impacts chin protrusion.

Additional images

See also
 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton

References

External links

  - "Facial Bone Anatomy"

Bones of the head and neck
Facial features
Facial bones

de:Schädel#Die Knochen des Schädels


Bickford is a village in England.

Bickford may also refer to:

People
Bickford (surname)
William Bickford Row (1786-1865), Newfoundland merchant, lawyer and politician
 Zahr Myron Bickford (1876-1961), Mandolin virtuoso, author of Bickford Mandolin Method and Bickford Banjo Method

Other uses
Bickford, Ontario, a community of the township of St. Clair
Ensign-Bickford Company in Simsbury, Connecticut
The Amazing Mr. Bickford, a Frank Zappa video featuring Claymation
The Education of Max Bickford, a television series
Bickford Shmeckler's Cool Ideas, a 2006 film

See also
Bickford's (disambiguation)


Fluoromethylidyne is not a stable chemical species but a metastable radical containing one highly reactive carbon atom bound to one fluorine atom with the formula CF. The carbon atom has a lone-pair and a single unpaired (radical) electron in the ground state.

Ground-state fluoromethylidyne radicals can be produced by the ultraviolet photodissociation of dibromodifluoromethane at 248 nanometer wavelength.

It readily and irreversibly dimerises to difluoroacetylene, also known as difluoroethyne, perfluoroacetylene, or di- or perfluoroethylyne. Under certain conditions it can hexamerise to hexafluorobenzene.

See also
 Carbyne

References

Free radicals
Reactive intermediates


Cutzamala may refer to:

Cutzamala de Pinzón, municipality and township in the state of Guerrero, Mexico
Cutzamala (Mesoamerican site), a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican archaeological site, a fortified garrison settlement in the Postclassic-era Tarascan state
Cutzamala River, a river in the state of Guerrero, Mexico


Thomas John Rodi (born March 27, 1949) is an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church.  He has been serving as archbishop of the Archdiocese of Mobile in Alabama since 2008, having previously served as bishop of the Diocese of Biloxi in Mississippi from 2001 to 2008.

Early life
Thomas Rodi was born on March 27, 1949, in New Orleans, Louisiana.  He graduated from De La Salle High School in New Orleans in 1967. He then attended Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.,  obtaining his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1971. Upon his return to New Orleans, Rodi earned a Juris Doctor degree from Tulane University Law School.  He then entered Notre Dame Seminary in New Orleans, receiving his Master of Divinity degree in 1978.

Career
Rodi was ordained to the priesthood for the Archdiocese of New Orleans by Archbishop Philip  Hannan on May 20, 1978. Rodi  then served as associate pastor at St. Ann Parish in Metairie, Louisiana and at St. Christopher the Martyr Parish in Jefferson, Louisiana.

Rodi became a judge for the metropolitan tribunal in 1983, and earned his Licentiate in Canon Law from the Catholic University of America School of Canon Law in Washington, D.C. in 1986. Rodi then taught canon law at Notre Dame Seminary until 1995.  He also served as director of the Office of Religious Education from 1988 to 1989, and of the Department of Pastoral Services from 1989 to 1996. In addition to his other duties, he was named chancellor (1992) and vicar general and curial moderator (1996) of the archdiocese. Rodi was raised by the Vatican to the rank of honorary prelate in 1992.  He served in the following Louisiana parishes:

 Administrator of St. Matthew the Apostle in River Ridge
 Pastor of Our Lady of the Rosary in New Orleans
 Pastor of St. Pius X in New Orleans
 Pastor of St. Rita in New Orleans

On May 15, 2001, Rodi was appointed as the second bishop of the Diocese of Biloxi by Pope John Paul II. He received episcopal consecration on July 2. 2001. from Archbishop Oscar  Lipscomb, with Archbishop Francis Schulte and Bishop Joseph Howze serving as co-consecrators. Rodi selected as his episcopal motto: Caritas Christi Urget Nos 2 Cor 5:14, meaning, "The love of Christ compels us."

Pope Benedict XVI named Rodi as the second archbishop of the Archbishop of Mobile on April 2, 2008, replacing Bishop Oscar Lipscomb. He was formally installed as archbishop on June 6 2008.

During his tenure as Archbishop of Mobile, Rodi served as Chairman of the Board of the Catholic relief agency Cross Catholic Outreach for nearly a decade.

Controversy
A lawsuit was filed against Rodi and priest Dennis Carver, along with the Diocese of Biloxi, in 2009. This lawsuit was filed by former parishioners after St. Paul Catholic Church in Pass Christian was closed by Rodi after Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Rodi and Carver made misrepresentations by assuring parishioners that their donations would be held in a trust to rebuild the church, despite knowing the church would likely be closed.

Politics
Regarding the 2021 inauguration of U.S. President Joe Biden, Rodi said, "It is also the 60th anniversary of the inauguration of the first Catholic president, President Kennedy, it was 60 years today. So by coincidence, it is very meaningful we have the second time a man who professes to be Catholic be inaugurated as president."

See also

 Catholic Church hierarchy
 Catholic Church in the United States
 Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States
 List of Catholic bishops of the United States
 Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops

References

External links

 Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mobile Official Site

Episcopal succession

1949 births
Living people
Georgetown University alumni
Notre Dame Seminary alumni
Clergy from New Orleans
Roman Catholic archbishops of Mobile
Roman Catholic Diocese of Biloxi
Catholic University of America alumni
Tulane University alumni
Roman Catholic bishops in Mississippi
Catholics from Louisiana
Catholic University of America School of Canon Law alumni
21st-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United States


The Patrick Wolf EP is the debut EP of English-Irish singer-songwriter Patrick Wolf, limited to 1000 copies. The songs, "Bloodbeat" and "A Boy Like Me" would go on to appear on Lycanthropy, Wolf's debut album. "Empress" features a music box playing the lullaby Frere Jacques throughout.

This EP features Leo Chadburn (recorder), Joe Zeitlin (cello) and handclaps from ‘the Special Lady Crew’. Wolf uses: Maplewood grand piano, viola, violin, accordion, and programming on this EP.

Track listing
 "Bloodbeat" - 3:46
 "Empress" - 3:55
 "A Boy Like Me" - 3:26
 "Pumpkin Soup" - 5:01

References

2002 debut EPs
Patrick Wolf albums


Stack Island is an island game reserve, with an area of 23.7 ha and a high point 54 m above sea-level, in Bass Strait, south-eastern Australia. It is part of Tasmania’s Hunter Island Group which lies between north-west Tasmania and King Island.

Fauna
The island forms part of the Hunter Island Group Important Bird Area.  Breeding seabirds and shorebirds include little penguin, short-tailed shearwater, Pacific gull, silver gull, sooty oystercatcher, black-faced cormorant, crested tern and fairy tern. Mammals include small numbers of rabbits and rakali.

References

North West Tasmania
Important Bird Areas of Tasmania
Islands of Bass Strait


Heinz Politzer (December 31, 1910 – July 30, 1978) was an internationally recognized academic and writer. As a young man he was forced to flee Nazism first to Palestine and then to the United States, where he taught German language and literature as a professor at the Bryn Mawr College, Oberlin College, and the University of California, Berkeley. He was a literary scholar, published poet, and prominent editor, particularly of Franz Kafka. As a close associate of Kafka's protégé, Max Brod, Politzer coedited with Brod the first complete collection of Kafka's works in eight volumes, published initially by the Schocken publishing house of Berlin during the early years of the Nazi dictatorship and subsequently by the successor firm Schocken Books in New York.

Life

Politzer was born in Vienna to Marie (née Löwenthal) and Moritz Sigmund Politzer, a courtroom lawyer. After completing secondary schooling at a humanities-focused Gymnasium in 1929, he enrolled at the University of Vienna and studied German and English literatures. He transferred in 1931 to the Charles University in Prague, where he began dissertation research on Kafka. In 1933–35, he collaborated with Max Brod, comparing the already published versions of Kafka's books with the original manuscripts in order to prepare volumes 1-4 of Kafka's collected works for publication. He also worked on parts of volume 5 prior to emigrating.

Fleeing fascism, Politzer moved to Palestine in 1938. There he befriended Martin Buber and enrolled from 1938 to 1940 at the Hebrew University. He was involved with the American Guild for German Cultural Freedom in 1938–39, prior to relocating to the U.S. in 1947, where he matriculated at Bryn Mawr College.  He taught there as an instructor, completed a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on Kafka (work for which had begun in Prague), and advanced to an assistant professorship. He was naturalized as a U.S. citizen in 1952 and in the same year converted from Judaism to Episcopalianism. In 1976, he converted to Roman Catholicism.

Politzer taught and conducted research as an associate professor at Oberlin College starting in 1952, and then in 1960 received an appointment as a full professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he held tenure until his retirement in 1978. His scholarly focus was on the writings and influence of Franz Kafka, German and Austrian literature, Fin-de-Siecle Vienna, and the psychoanalytical approach to literary interpretation. During the last decade of his life, he became immersed in the works of Sigmund Freud, resulting in his volume Freud and Tragedy, which appeared posthumously (German edition 2003, English version 2006). He was a highly respected teacher, especially beloved by the graduate students who took part in his advanced seminars.

With his first wife, Ilse née Schröter, he had one daughter, Maria. He was survived by his second wife, Jane née Horner, with whom he had four sons, Michael, David, Stephen, and Eric, as well as his sister Kate. In recognition of his many contributions to the study of Austrian literature and culture, his ashes are interred at the historic Petersfriedhof in Salzburg, Austria.

Awards and honors

Among many prizes and honors, he was three times a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship (1958, 1966, 1974). In 1963, the Commonwealth Club of California awarded him its silver medal. In his homeland, he received the Austrian Cross (1966), the Grillparzer Ring (1972), and the Vienna Humanities Prize (1974) as well as an invitation to deliver the inaugural address at the 1976 Salzburg Music Festival. He also was awarded the key to the City of Vienna. Germany conferred upon him an Officer's Cross, and on his 65th birthday his colleagues presented him with a Festschrift.

Works

 Ed. Vor dem Gesetz, by Franz Kafka. Berlin: Schocken, 1934.
 Ed., with Max Brod. Gesammelte Schriften, by Franz Kafka. 6 vols. Berlin: Schocken, 1935–37.
 Vol. 1: Erzählungen und kleine Prosa. 1935.
 Vol. 2: Amerika. Roman. 1935.
 Vol. 3: Der Prozess. Roman. 2nd ed. 1935.
 Vol. 4: Das Schloss. Roman. 2nd ed. 1935.
 Vol. 5: Beschreibung eines Kampfes. Novellen, Skizzen, Aphorismen aus dem Nachlass. 1936.
 Vol. 6: Tagebücher 1910-1923. 1937.
 Ed., with Max Brod. Gesammelte Schriften, by Franz Kafka. 2 vols.  New York: Schocken, 1946–53.
 Vol. 7: Briefe an Milena. 1946.
 Vol. 8: Hochzeitsvorbereitungen auf dem Lande und andere Prosa aus dem Nachlass. 1953.
 Ed. Die Goldene Gasse. Jüdische Sagen und Legenden. Auswahl aus den Sippurim. Vienna and Jerusalem: R. Löwit, 1937. 272 pp.
 Fenster vor dem Firmament. Gedichte. Leipzig: J. Kittl, 1937. 69 pp. Leipzig: J. Kittls Nachfolger, 1970.
 Gedichte. Jerusalem: Peter Freund, 1941. 48 pp.  Jerusalem: Peter Freund, 1974.
 Le-zek̲er Lûdvîg Yônas (Ansprache zum Gedächtnis des Malers Ludwig Jonas, 1887–1942). Jerusalem: Peter Freund, 1943. 7 pp.
 "Studies on Jewish Contributors to German Literature: Heine and Börne".  Ph.D. diss., Bryn Mawr, 1950. 149 pp.
 Ed. Das Kafka-Buch. Eine innere Biographie in Selbstzeugnissen. Fischer-Bücherei 708. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1951. 271 pp. Reprints 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1983, 1989, 1990.
 Kafuka to sono shūhen. Transl. Michifuyu Kitao. Tokyo: Shinbisha, 1974. 140 pp.
 With John William Kurtz. German One: Ein deutsches Lern- und Lesebuch. Oberlin: Oberlin College, 1956. ix + 275 + 16 pp.
 With John William Kurtz. German: A Comprehensive Course for College Students. New York: W. W. Norton, 1959. xx + 377 pp.  Rev. ed., 1966. xxv + 415 pp.
 Martin Buber: Humanist and Teacher. Faculty Lectures, The Humanistic Tradition, Oberlin College. New York: National Council, 1957. 24 pp.
 Ed. Amerika erzählt. Siebzehn Short Stories. Fischer Bücherei 209. Frankfurt: Fischer, 1958. 244 pp.
 Ed. Amerika erzählt. Erzählungen amerikanischer Schriftsteller. Fischer Bücherei 209. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 1971. 223 pp.
 Die gläserne Kathedrale. Gedichte. Vienna: Bergland, 1959. 90 pp.
 Ed. Des wüsten Lebens flücht'ger Reiz. Theaterlieder, by Johann Nestroy. Insel-Bücherei 724. Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1961. 71 pp.
 Franz Kafka: Parable and Paradox. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962. xxi + 376 pp. 2nd rev. ed., 1965. xxvii + 398 pp.
 Franz Kafka, der Künstler. Frankfurt am Main: S. Fischer, 1965. 563 pp. Suhrkamp Taschenbuch 433. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1978. 579 pp. 3rd ed., 1986.
 Ed. Grillparzer über sich selbst. Aus den Tagebüchern. Insel-Bücherei 842. Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1965. 145 pp.
 Franz Grillparzers „Der arme Spielmann“. Dichtung und Erkenntnis 2. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1967. 64 pp.
 Transl. Der alte Seefahrer, by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Insel-Bücherei 901. Leipzig: Insel, 1968. 71 pp.
 Das Schweigen der Sirenen. Studien zur deutschen und österreichischen Literatur. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1968. 436 pp.
Also as Milczenie syren. Studia z literatury niemieckiej i austriackiej. Transl. Jerzy Hummel. Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 1973. 280 pp.
 "Sigmund Freud as Interpreter of His Dreams". Pacifica Tape Library, 1970.
 Ed. Morgen fahr' ich heim. Böhmische Erzählungen, by Johannes Urzidil. Munich: A. Langen - G. Müller, 1971. 503 pp.
 Heinz Politzer Bibliographie. Biberach a.d. Riss: Thomae, 1971. 12 pp.
 Franz Grillparzer, oder Das abgründige Biedermeier. Vienna: F. Molden, 1972. 416 pp. Vienna: Paul Szolnay, 1990. xiv, 416 pp.
 Ed. Franz Kafka. Wege der Forschung 322. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1973. x, 560 pp.
 Hatte Ödipus einen Ödipus-Komplex? Versuche zum Thema Psychoanalyse und Literatur. Munich: Piper, 1974. 236 pp.
 Musikerlöste Dämonie. Rede zur Eröffnung der Salzburger Festspiele 1976. [Salzburg: n.p., 1976.] 36 pp.
 Ed., with Joachim Schondorff. Zeit und Ewigkeit. Tausend Jahre österreichischer Lyrik. Düsseldorf: Claassen, 1978. 600 pp. Düsseldorf: Claassen, 1980. 611 pp.
 Freud und das Tragische. Ed. William H. Hemecker. Wiener Neustadt: Edition Gutenberg, 2003. 251 pp.
 Freud and Tragedy. Ed. William H. Hemecker. Transl. Michael Mitchell. Riverside: Ariadne, 2006. 176 pp.

References

Further reading
 .
 Lexikon deutsch-jüdischer Autoren, vol. 18 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010), pp. 109–118 (in German).

External links
 1958 photograph
 Memorial at UC-Berkeley
 Heinz Politzer (in German) from the online-archive of the Österreichischen Mediathek

1910 births
1978 deaths
20th-century Austrian poets
Academics from California
Academics from Ohio
Academics from Pennsylvania
American literary critics
American male non-fiction writers
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
Austrian emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Mandatory Palestine emigrants to the United States
Austrian Jews
Austrian literary historians
Austrian male poets
Bryn Mawr College alumni
Bryn Mawr College faculty
Franz Kafka scholars
Germanists
Jewish American historians
Oberlin College faculty
Poets from California
Poets from Ohio
Poets from Pennsylvania
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Writers from Vienna
Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Historians from California


Dallin is a medieval surname of Low German/Westphalia origin, a variation of Dahl. The suffix -lin denotes the namebearer's locale or occupation. Unlike some of the other Dahl variants, Dallin is uncommon to Scandinavian countries. Dallin is also uncommon as a given name.

People with the surname include:
 Sara Dallin (born 1961), British singer and songwriter from the pop group Bananarama
 Alexander Dallin (1924–2000), American professor at Columbia and Stanford universities  (son of David Dallin)
 David Dallin (1889–1962), American expert on Soviet affairs (father of Alexander Dallin, husband of Lilia Estrin Dallin)
 Lilia Estrin Dallin (1898–1981) (a.k.a. Lola Estrin, Paulsen, Lilya Ginzberg),  Russian Trotskyist  (second wife of David Dallin)
 Cyrus Edwin Dallin (1861–1944), American sculptor and Olympic archer

People with the given name include:
 Dallin Applebaum, American songwriter, pianist, vocalist and music producer
 Dallin H. Oaks (born 1932), Member of the First Presidency of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 Dallin Leavitt (born 1994), American football player
 Dallin Watene-Zelezniak (born 1995), Rugby League player

References


The 1986 United States House of Representatives elections in South Carolina were held on November 4, 1986, to select six Representatives for two-year terms from the state of South Carolina.  The primary elections for the Democrats and the Republicans were held on June 10 and the runoff elections were held two weeks later on June 24.  All four incumbents who ran were re-elected and the Democrats picked up one of the two open seats vacated by the Republicans.  The composition of the state delegation after the elections was four Democrats and two Republicans.

1st congressional district
Incumbent Republican Congressman Thomas F. Hartnett of the 1st congressional district, in office since 1981, chose to not seek re-election and instead made an unsuccessful run for lieutenant governor.  The open seat was won by Republican state senator Arthur Ravenel, Jr.

Democratic primary

Republican primary

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Republican hold
|-

2nd congressional district
Incumbent Republican Congressman Floyd Spence of the 2nd congressional district, in office since 1971, defeated Democratic challenger Fred Zeigler.

Democratic primary

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Republican hold
|-

3rd congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Butler Derrick of the 3rd congressional district, in office since 1975, defeated Republican challenger Richard Dickson.

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Democratic hold
|-

4th congressional district
Incumbent Republican Congressman Carroll Campbell of the 4th congressional district, in office since 1979, chose to not seek re-election and instead made a successful run for governor.  The open seat was won by Democratic state senator Liz J. Patterson.

Republican primary

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Democratic gain from Republican
|-

5th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman John M. Spratt, Jr. of the 5th congressional district, in office since 1983, was unopposed in his bid for re-election.

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Democratic hold
|-

6th congressional district
Incumbent Democratic Congressman Robin Tallon of the 6th congressional district, in office since 1983, defeated Republican challenger Robbie Cunningham.

Democratic primary

General election results

|-
|
| colspan=5 |Democratic hold
|-

See also
1986 United States House of Representatives elections
1986 United States Senate election in South Carolina
1986 South Carolina gubernatorial election
South Carolina's congressional districts

References

United States House of Representatives
1986
South Carolina


The Hodoșa (, Hungarian pronunciation: , meaning Beavery) is a right tributary of the river Niraj in Romania. It discharges into the Niraj in Mitrești. Its length is  and its basin size is .

References

Rivers of Romania
Rivers of Mureș County


A mini sprint is an American type of open-wheel racing vehicle. Mini sprint cars resemble the shape of a full-size sprint car and the size of a midget car.  Although often used liberally to describe several different types of motorcycle-powered open-wheel racing cars, the term mini sprint actually applies to cars that have an upright-style chassis (the driver sits upright in the seat as in a sprint or midget), a center-mounted 4-cylinder motorcycle engine with a displacement between 750 and 1200cc, and dimensions and appearance that are similar to today's midget.  Mini sprints are chain driven and use  wheels and tires.

The car

The mini-sprint shares overall dimensions that are similar if not identical to a full-size midget.  Mini-sprints have a wheelbase that is between  and .  In fact many competitors are actually making use of old midget chassis.  Mini-sprints are exclusively front-engined cars that have their engines located near the middle of the chassis.  The maximum offset from the centerline of the chassis is .  (this is opposed to modified midgets or super-lites that have their engine located radically offset to the left).  Mini-sprints also share suspensions that are identical to sprints and midgets.  The most popular chassis is the four bar.  This is a suspension system that makes use of 4 torsion bars (2 front / 2 rear) that use torsion arms and shocks to regulate suspension travel. Some cars will run with a wing on top to help with downforce to get the car to stick to the track. Others will run without a wing to let the car slide for more exciting racing. Mini Sprints also known as Micro sprints have 600cc engines and are chain driven sprint cars, the way the driver sits is not like a midget and a 410 sprint, the drivers sit with their legs extended out right beside the firewall, which on the other side sits the engine. Well 2 weeks before midgets race the chili bowl,the last week of December there's a race called the Tulsa Shootout where the micros race just like the chili bowl but more cars and different classes like A-class Wing, A-Class non-wing, Wing-Restricted, non-wing restricted, and even jr. sprints.

However, there is a growing number of cars that use a torsion bar rear set-up with a coil-over front set-up.  This means the rear of the car has a torsion bar system that is identical to the 4 bar set-up, while the front-end uses shocks with coil springs.  Mini-sprints use a solid, live rear axle that is positioned in the chassis by a Jacobs Ladder or panhard bar.  Unlike the midget or the sprint car, the final drive on a mini-sprint is a roller chain.  This is one of the keys to keeping the cost of this form of racing down.  A chain drive system might cost around $500, whereas a quick-change rear end like those used on sprints and midgets cost upwards of  $10,000.  Gearing on a mini-sprint is determined by changing either the front or rear sprocket or a combination of both.  Mini-sprints make use of 13-inch wheels and tires that are identical to those found on midgets.  Most mini-sprints make use of a steering box, but a few manufacturers use steering racks.  Mini sprints carry their fuel in the rear of the car in tanks that vary from 5 to 19 US gallons.  They have roll cages that are constructed of at least -inch, .095 wall Chromoly tubing.  Many organizations are now requiring thicker tubing. The cars can reach upwards of 100 miles per hour which is why the tubing needs to be thicker.

References

Sprint car racing
Racing car classes


WMTC (730 AM) was a radio station broadcasting a Christian format. Formerly licensed to Vancleve, Kentucky, United States, the station was owned by the Kentucky Mountain Holiness Association for its entire existence. WMTC's format consisted of Southern Gospel music, as well as Christian talk and teaching programs such as; Revive our Hearts with Nancy Leigh DeMoss, Joni & Friends, Focus on the Family, and Unshackled!, as well as children's programming such as Adventures in Odyssey.

WMTC went off the air on February 20, 2013. The station's license was surrendered to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) by the licensee on March 7, 2013, and the FCC cancelled WMTC's license on March 12, 2013.

References

External links
FCC Station Search Details: DWMTC (Facility ID: 65757)
FCC History Cards for WMTC (covering 1947-1980)
http://www.mountaingospel.org

MTC
Breathitt County, Kentucky
Moody Radio affiliate stations
Defunct radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1948
1948 establishments in Kentucky
Radio stations disestablished in 2013
2013 disestablishments in Kentucky
Defunct religious radio stations in the United States
MTC


Schlemmer v. Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburgh Railway Co., 205 U.S. 1 (1907), was a cause of action for the death of the plaintiff's intestate, Adam M. Schlemmer, while trying to couple a shovel car to a caboose.

Background

Facts

The decedent was killed while following orders to couple railway cars that did not have a coupling device required by the Safety Appliance Act (Act). Plaintiff filed an action against defendant railroad company for the wrongful death of her intestate under the Safety Appliance Act.

The shovel car was part of a train on its way through Pennsylvania from a point in New York, and was not equipped with an automatic coupler in accordance with Federal law.  Instead it had an iron drawbar fastened underneath the car by a pin and projecting about a foot beyond the car. The drawbar weighed about 80 pounds and its free and played up and down. On this end was an eye, and the coupling had to be done by lifting the free end possibly a foot, so that it should enter a slot in an automatic coupler on the caboose and allow a pin to drop through the eye. Due to the absence of buffers on the shovel car and to its being so high that it would pass over those on the caboose, the car and caboose would crush anyone between them if they came together and the coupling failed to be made. Schlemmer was ordered to make the coupling as the train was slowly approaching the caboose. To do so he had to get between the cars, and in endeavoring to obey the order and to guide the drawbar he rose a little too high, and, as he failed to hit the slot, the top of his head was crushed.

The plaintiff, in her declaration, alleged that the defendant was transporting the shovel car from state to state, and that the coupler was not such as was required by existing laws.

Procedural history

The trial judge decided that the deceased was guilty of contributory negligence but left uncertain what the negligence was. The Supreme Court of the State of Pennsylvania affirmed the trial court's grant of a nonsuit.  (207 Pa. St. 198)

Opinion of the court

The court reversed the grant of nonsuit, holding that the decedent had not assumed the risk. The court held, as preliminary matters that the railway car was in the course of interstate transportation, and it was a car within the contemplation of § 2 of the Act. Thus, under § 8 of the act, the decedent could not be deemed to have assumed the risk of the injury or death. The court noted that to the extent the state court alternatively indicated that, even if assumption of risk did not apply, the decedent was guilty of contributory negligence, such statement ran afoul of the Act because the state court was merely substituting contributory negligence for assumption of risk.

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 205

References

External links

United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court
1907 in United States case law
History of Pittsburgh


The spacecraft cemetery, known more formally as the South Pacific Ocean(ic) Uninhabited Area, is a region in the southern Pacific Ocean east of New Zealand, where spacecraft that have reached the end of their usefulness are routinely crashed. The area is roughly centered on "Point Nemo", the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, the location farthest from any land.

The defunct space station Mir and six Salyut stations are among those that have been ditched there. Other spacecraft that have been routinely scuttled in the region include various cargo spacecraft to the International Space Station, including Russian Progress cargo craft, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency H-II Transfer Vehicle, and the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle. A total of more than 263 spacecraft were disposed in this area between 1971 and 2016. The International Space Station is slated to end up in the spacecraft cemetery upon "retirement".

Current considerations of the spacecraft cemetery include the environmental impact it creates on marine life within the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Region. This region is beyond legal jurisdiction of any country, hence faces less regulation. Currently two treaties outline certain laws that can be applied to the spacecraft cemetery. The Outer Space Treaty produced by the United Nations reflects on damages caused by spacecraft on opposing nations. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea reflects on general marine pollution. Marine pollution can be caused by spillage of the highly toxic rocket propellant hydrazine. Other forms of space debris removal are being considered and produced to slow the exponential growth of space debris orbiting Earth due to increased space exploration.

Purpose
Earth's spacecraft cemetery is used as a site for spacecraft that have reached their lifetime limit due to fatigue and must be retired. Larger spacecraft too massive to burn up during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere are controlled to crash / splash down in Earth's spacecraft cemetery, a location in the ocean remote from inhabited regions. The use of this remote location enhances protection of inhabited regions from harm during re-entry and impact. The spacecraft cemetery region contains between 250 and 300 various spacecraft, and has been used by multiple international space exploration organizations, including crafts from China, Russia, and other countries. Currently, the International Space Station is slated to enter the spacecraft cemetery at the end of its lifespan.

Location
The spacecraft cemetery is located inside the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Area, a region in the southern Pacific Ocean to the east of the geographic center of the water hemisphere (, near New Zealand's Bounty Islands). The area, roughly centered on "Point Nemo", the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, is furthest away from any land. The nearest islands are over  away from the center. This location has been chosen for its remoteness and limited shipping traffic so as not to endanger human life with any falling debris.

Incidents
At least 264 spacecraft were disposed in this area between 1971 and 2016. The defunct space station Mir and six Salyut stations are among the nearly 200 pieces of Russian spacecraft debris in this region, making Russia the largest contributor of spacecraft in the cemetery. The remaining pieces of debris in the cemetery belong to the United States, Europe, Japan, as well as certain private organizations. Among American spacecraft, remnants of the Skylab space station were deposited into the spacecraft cemetery.

The decommissioning of Tiangong-1, the first Chinese space station, was an unsuccessful targeted re-entry at Point Nemo. During an extended mission phase, control was lost due to a power failure, leading to an uncontrolled landing outside of the spacecraft cemetery.

According to the U.S. guidelines dictating which spacecraft pose enough risk to require a controlled landing, it is recommended that the International Space Station undergo a controlled de-orbit at the end of its life. The same is recommended for the Hubble Space Telescope.

Laws
Since the South Pacific Ocean Uninhabited Area is beyond the jurisdiction of any country, very few laws restrict the activity of nations within this area. International treaties exist but do not clearly assign responsibility to countries about the liability for damages and pollution caused by re-entering space debris.

Among the pertinent regulations, two general agreements concerning space debris and marine pollution are often expanded upon to govern the spacecraft cemetery.

First, the Outer Space Treaty proposed by the United Nations dictates that each state party is subject to the damages to other state parties caused by part of the registered spacecraft on the Earth, which include the ocean. Therefore, countries are obliged to take action when disposal of registered spacecraft into the ocean causes damages to other parties. However, space debris in the ocean is often left unclaimed.

In the perspective of ocean preservation, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, also known as Law of the Sea Convention (LOSC), commands that all states have the duty of protecting and preventing marine environment from pollution, even outside the jurisdiction of any state. Nevertheless, this article is only practical when space debris is considered harmful to the marine environment.

Environmental impacts
With 47% of re-entry mass coming from controlled re-entries, chemical spillage poses a risk to the marine environment. Hydrazine, a widely used rocket propellant that is highly toxic to living organisms, likely partially survives during re-entry. Radioactive chemicals present in spacecraft are also a cause for concern in the industry.

There are numerous domestic and international regulatory bodies intended to mitigate potential environmental damage caused by spacecraft pollution. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is an international treaty overseeing marine pollution and its contributors. This agreement defines pollution using three conditions: 1) the object must have been introduced into the environment by man, 2) the object contains substances, 3) the object must be detrimental to living organisms. Because it is difficult to know how much of a substance remains after it enters the atmosphere, the potential environmental risk of certain spacecraft entering the cemetery may be unknown, leaving much of the treaty up for interpretation. Additionally, the EPA provides protocols on marine pollution declaring the responsibility for pollution mitigation to those who contribute to it and addresses regional cooperation between nations in order to find the least harmful solutions to debris disposal.

Space debris disposal

Space debris is any form of man-made object orbiting the Earth that no longer serves a useful function. Currently more than 27,000 pieces of space debris are orbiting earth at high velocities, threatening the safety of human and robotic missions, as well as causing damage to spacecraft. There are few space debris removal processes, one of which is depositing large spacecraft in the spacecraft cemetery on earth, although, due to exhausted maneuvering fuel reserves, in the past this was rarely done.

The most common way to eliminate space debris, when actually done, is to de-orbit crafts, causing them to burn up during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere due to high velocities and air compression resulting in a temperature increase of air and the craft's surface. Other common and less controlled processes for space removal include allowing the crafts to decay, collide with other objects, or causing them to explode, resulting in smaller pieces of space debris. Currently, new processes for space debris removal are being developed to reduce the exponential growth of space debris orbiting earth, such as nets, magnetized collecting arms, and more.

See also
 Aircraft boneyard
 Atmospheric reentry
 Graveyard orbit
 Ship graveyard
 Space archaeology
 Space debris
 Wrecking yard
 Space sustainability

References

Pacific Ocean
Space debris
Spacecraft endings
Vehicle graveyards


"The Libertine" is the first single from English singer-songwriter Patrick Wolf's second full-length album Wind in the Wires.

Track listing

CD-single
 "The Libertine [Radio Edit]" – 3:56
 "Penzance" – 5:19
 "Wind in the Wires [Clifftop Demo]" – 2:26

7" vinyl single
 "The Libertine [Radio Edit]" – 3:56
 "Afraid" (Nico cover) – 3:09

Charts

References

2005 singles
Patrick Wolf songs
2005 songs


14827 Hypnos (prov. designation: ) is a highly eccentric, sub-kilometer-sized carbonaceous asteroid that is thought to be an extinct comet. It is classified as near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid of the Apollo group.

The asteroid was discovered by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at the Palomar Observatory in California on 5 May 1986. It was named after Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep.

Orbit and classification

Hypnos orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.9–4.7 AU once every 4 years and 9 months (1,749 days). Its orbit has a high eccentricity of 0.67 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. It is frequently perturbed by Jupiter.

The body's observation arc begins at Anderson Mesa Station the night prior to its official discovery observation at Palomar.

Close approaches

As a near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid Hypnos has an Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of , which corresponds to 5.7 lunar distances.

In 1958, Hypnos passed less than 0.03 AU from both Earth and Mars. Neither planet has been approached so closely by Hypnos since the 862 AD pass of Earth, or will be until the 2214 pass of Earth. It is also a Mars-crosser.

Extinct comet

Hypnos may be the nucleus of an extinct comet that is covered by a crust several centimeters thick that prevents any remaining volatiles from outgassing.

Physical characteristics

Hypnos is an assumed carbonaceous C-type asteroid.

Lightcurves

As of 2018, no rotational lightcurve of Hypnos has been obtained from photometric observations. The asteroids rotation period and spin axis remains unknown. It has a low brightness amplitude of 0.05 magnitude which indicates that the body has a rather spheroidal shape.

Diameter and albedo

According to the NEOSurvey carried out by NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, Hypnos measures 520 meters in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.22 based on an absolute magnitude of 18.65, while infrared radiometry gave a radar albedo of no more than 0.067 and a diameter of at least 740 meters.

The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard optical albedo for carbonaceous asteroids 0.057 and derives a diameter of 907 meters with an absolute magnitude of 18.94. The diameter agrees with Tom Gehrels 1994-publication Hazards due to Comets and Asteroids in which he estimated a mean-diameter of 900 meters for Hypnos.

Naming

This minor planet was named after Hypnos from Greek mythology. He is the god of sleep, son of Nyx and Erebus and twin brother of Thanatos. He enters the sleep of mortals and gives them dreams of foolishness or inspiration. The English word "hypnosis" is derived from his name. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 January 2003 ().

Exploration
Hypnos is a target for the LICIACube mission.

References

External links
 Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info )
 Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
 Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend

014827
Discoveries by Eugene Merle Shoemaker
Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker
Named minor planets
014827
014827
19860505


Chestnut Street is a major historic street in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It was originally named Wynne Street because Thomas Wynne's home was there. William Penn renamed it Chestnut Street in 1684. It runs east–west from the Delaware River waterfront in downtown Philadelphia through Center City and West Philadelphia. The road crosses the Schuylkill River on the Chestnut Street Bridge. It serves as eastbound Pennsylvania Route 3 between 63rd and 33rd Streets.

Stratton's Tavern was located on Chestnut Street near Sixth Street. When the citizens of Philadelphia were afraid that the British might attack the essentially unmanned Fort Mifflin, the secretary of the Young Men's Democratic Society called a meeting held at Stratton's Tavern at Chestnut and Sixth Streets on March 20, 1813. The young men agreed to volunteer their services to defend the fort.

Points of interest

From east to west:
United States Custom House
National Liberty Museum
Carpenters' Hall
First National Bank (now part of the Science History Institute)
Old City Hall
Second Bank of the United States
Independence Hall
Liberty Bell
Ben Franklin House, formerly the Benjamin Franklin Hotel
Belgravia Hotel
Historic Main Post Office (now the IRS' 30th Street Campus)
Drexel University
University of Pennsylvania

Major intersections
The entire street is in Philadelphia, Philadelphia County.

See also
 History of Philadelphia

References

Streets in Philadelphia
Economy of Philadelphia

External links


The Bibliophile Mailing List is an electronic mailing list for sellers and collectors of rare, out-of-print and scarce books. Booksellers, librarians, students, scholars, and book lovers, share news and discussions on all manner of topics of interest to bibliophiles, as well as posting books wanted and books for sale listings.

History

The Bibliophile Mailing List was started in 1994 by Michael Medlin at the Claremont Colleges in the United States. By early 1995 the Iris.Claremont.Edu server hosting the list could no longer handle the bandwidth. The list membership had grown to over 550, and with an average of 15 to 20 posts per day, the volume of email was large. In February 1995 responsibility for managing the list was taken on by Shoshana Edwards, owner of Books From Bree.  The list was moved to SmartDOCS.com in the Santa Clarita Valley of Southern California, where it was run on an Oracle-based server.

In the summer of 1997 Lynn DeWeese-Parkinson took over the list adding a bit of whimsy by changing the title from "List Owner" to "Grand Poohbah" and declaring its location in the polity of Bibliotenango.  The list and the whimsy has continued with events such as the annual "running of the book scouts" on the day of St. John of God, the patron of booksellers. Today its membership is just over 1000 booksellers, collectors, librarians, and general bibliophiles.

Operation

Bibliophile is a closed list. Only subscribers are allowed to post and are expected to observe the amenities of good manners and professional behavior. It is not monitored but the discussions are followed by its Grand Poohbah who attempts to keep them within freely drawn bounds. It has a fee of $30 per year due after a two-week free trial period. Its members are drawn from around the world and include many of the most knowledgeable of bibliophiles.

See also
 Books in the United States

External links
 Bibliophile Mailing List Homepage

References

Electronic mailing lists
Book websites


Novembrine Waltz is the fourth studio album by Italian progressive/melodic metal Novembre. Vocals vary between clean-singing, death metal growling, and harsh black metal screams. The album features more gothic elements than the previous releases, and contains many "European" elements, such as the accordion on "Distances", or the chanting on "Everasia"

Track listing

All music/lyrics by Novembre except Track 5 - "Cloudbusting" by Kate Bush

 "Distances" – 6:17
 "Everasia" – 8:23
 "Come Pierrot" – 6:30
 "Child of the Twilight" – 6:35
 "Cloudbusting" (Kate Bush cover) – 5:09
 "Flower" – 6:26
 "Valentine" – 7:21
 "Venezia Dismal" – 6:03
 "Conservatory Resonance" – 7:10

Personnel

Full-time members

 Carmelo Orlando – guitar, vocals.
 Giuseppe Orlando – drums.
 Demian Cristiani – bass.

Session musicians

 Massimiliano Pagliuso – guitars
 Fabio Sanges – keyboards
 Ann-Mari Edvardsen – vocals on Track 5 - "Cloudbusting"

Artwork

The cover art is by Travis Smith. Smith has also produced the cover artwork for Novembre's later albums Materia (2006) and The Blue (2007).

External links
Novembrine Waltz by Novembre @ Encyclopaedia Metallum

Novembre albums
2001 albums
Albums with cover art by Travis Smith (artist)


The Niraj (; ) is a river in the Gurghiu Mountains, Mureș County, northern Romania. Its name originates from the Hungarian word nyár, meaning "poplar". It is a left tributary of the river Mureș. It starts at the confluence of headwaters Nirajul Mare and Nirajul Mic. It flows through the villages Câmpu Cetății, Eremitu, Mătrici, Călugăreni, Dămieni, Grâușorul, Vărgata, Miercurea Nirajului, Dumitreștii, Gălești, Bolintineni, Păsăreni, Murgești, Acățari, Stejeriș, Crăciunești, Ilieni, Gheorghe Doja, Leordeni and joins the Mureș in Vidrasău, near the town Ungheni. Its length is  (including its source river Nirajul Mare) and its basin size is .

Tributaries
The following rivers are tributaries to the river Niraj (from source to mouth):

Left: Nirajul Mic, Hosu, Călugăreni, Nirajul Mic, Niaroș, Vaia, Pârâul Mare, Tirimia, Cerghid
Right: Nirajul Mare, Diceal, Ciadou, Hodoșa, Vărgata, Valea spre Șardu, Maiad

References

Rivers of Romania
Rivers of Mureș County


The 60th Primetime Emmy Awards were held on Sunday, September 21, 2008, at the newly opened Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles, California to honor the best in U.S. prime time television. The ceremony was hosted by Tom Bergeron (who was also hosting America's Funniest Home Videos and Dancing with the Stars, both on ABC, at the time), Heidi Klum, Howie Mandel, Jeff Probst, and Ryan Seacrest (all were nominated in the debut category—Outstanding Host for a Reality or Reality-Competition Program) and televised in the United States on ABC.

The nominations were announced on July 17 by Kristin Chenoweth and Neil Patrick Harris. The Creative Arts Emmy Awards were held eight days earlier (September 13) at the same venue. The ceremony was hosted by Neil Patrick Harris and Sarah Chalke.

The telecast was viewed by 12.20 million with a household rating of 8.86/12.79 making it the lowest rated and least viewed ceremony in its televised history. Many critics cited lackluster performances from the five hosts as a reason for the huge decline. Others pointed to the field of nominees which were dominated by low-rated and sparsely viewed programs, thus making the Emmys widely considered as a bust, which was panned by critics as "... the worst ever, laid a big, fat ratings egg as well ..."

In 2011, when TV Guide Network re-did their list of "25 Biggest TV Blunders", this ceremony was included.

For the first time in a decade, the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series was won by the defending champion. 30 Rock

Outstanding Drama Series went to AMC freshmen series Mad Men. This marked the first series award for a program on a basic cable station. Mad Men led all dramas with six major nominations.

This would be the final ceremony to have five nominees per category, most major categories (acting and programs) were expanded to include at least six slots the following year.

Winners and nominees
Winners are listed first and highlighted in bold:

Programs

Acting

Lead performances

Supporting performances

Individual performances

Hosting

Directing

Writing

Most major nominations

Most major awards

Notes

Presenters
The awards were presented by the following:

In Memoriam

 George Carlin (twice)
 Bernie Brillstein
 Joey Bishop
 William F. Buckley Jr.
 Charlton Heston
 Les Crane
 Alice Ghostley
 Ivan Dixon
 Cyd Charisse
 Mel Ferrer
 Claudio Guzmán
 Barry Morse
 Deborah Kerr
 Larry Harmon
 Estelle Getty
 Roger King
 Sydney Pollack
 Ron Leavitt
 Bernie Mac
 Eric Lieber
 Suzanne Pleshette
 Abby Mann
 Dick Martin
 Delbert Mann
 Harvey Korman
 Jim McKay
 Lois Nettleton
 Mel Tolkin
 Richard Widmark
 Stan Winston
 Tim Russert
 Isaac Hayes

References

External links
 Emmys.com list of 2008 Nominees & Winners
 Academy of Television Arts and Sciences website

060
Primetime Emmy Awards
2008 awards in the United States
2008 in Los Angeles
September 2008 events in the United States


KGGF-FM (104.1 FM) is a radio station broadcasting an oldies format. Licensed to Fredonia, Kansas, United States, the station is currently owned by Sek Media, LLC.

History
The station went on the air as KJGM on 1995-11-30.  On 1997-05-23, the station changed its call sign to the current KGGF-FM.

References

External links
KGGF-FM's website (within www.kggfradio.com)

GGF-FM
Radio stations established in 1997
1997 establishments in Kansas


This is a list of the weekly Canadian RPM magazine number one Top Singles chart of 1979.

See also
1979 in music

Hot 100 number-one hits of 1979 (United States) by Billboard magazine
Cashbox Top 100 number-one singles of 1979 by Cash Box
List of Canadian number-one albums of 1979

References
Notes

§ – first issue of following year was released 12 January 1980.

Citations

External links
 Read about RPM Magazine at the AV Trust
 Search RPM charts here at Library and Archives Canada

1979 record charts
1979


Anita Lily Pollitzer (October 31, 1894 – July 3, 1975) was an American photographer and suffragist.

Early life and education
Anita Lily Pollitzer was born October 31, 1894, in Charleston, South Carolina. Her parents were Clara Guinzburg Pollitzer, the daughter of an immigrant rabbi from Prague, and Gustave Pollitzer, who ran a cotton company at Charleston, South Carolina. She had two sisters, Carrie (b. December 1881) and Mabel (b. January 1885) and a brother, Richard (b. October 1883).

Anita was raised Jewish and, as a young woman, taught Sabbath school in Charleston at Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim. She was later a "nonobservant" Jew and relied upon her own personal strength, rather than reliance on religion. In response to her sister Mabel, who said in prayer, "God gave me mountains to climb and the strength to climb them," Anita's response was, "I don’t want God to give me mountains to climb…I want to find my own."

Anita graduated from Memminger High School in 1913 and left Charleston to study art at Teachers College, Columbia University.

Career

Artist
Pollitzer "gained recognition for her close friendship with Georgia O'Keeffe", whom she met at Columbia University. They lived together for several years, and corresponded with each other. O'Keeffe mailed a set of charcoal drawings she made in 1915 to Pollitzer, who took them to Alfred Stieglitz at his 291 gallery early in 1916. Stieglitz found them to be the "purest, finest, sincerest things that had entered 291 in a long while", and in April, Stieglitz exhibited ten of her drawings at 291. This was the beginning of one of the most significant relationships among artists in the 20th century; Stieglitz promoted her career and later married O'Keeffe.

Pollitzer wrote a book entitled A Woman on Paper: Georgia O'Keeffe that contained letters that she exchanged with O'Keeffe since they attended Columbia University. The memoir not only contains her affection and love for O'Keeffe, but also anecdotes, family stories, and excerpts from their early letters. The early letters shared between the two mentioned questions of art and life and questions about the future. They remained friends until Pollitzer's death. Lynne Bundesen, who wrote a review of the book for The New York Times, said "it is a book that tells you that the voices of the most independent, far-seeing women of the times, the pioneers of women's rights and visions talked to each other as gushing, enthusiastic, eager and confused schoolgirls straight out of the Victorian era—as they may not have talked with their men." The book was published in 1988.

Suffragist

Pollitzer was instrumental in the passage of the 19th Amendment. After it was ratified, Anita worked to encourage the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, which was first presented to Congress by Alice Paul in 1923.

In 1926, Anita represented South Carolina at the International Feminists Conference (also known as International Alliance of Women and International Woman Suffrage Alliance) in Paris.

Throughout her time as a suffragist, Anita Pollitzer was in contact with many prominent figures, including Amelia Earhart and Eleanor Roosevelt.

Anita Pollitzer held positions of leadership in the National Woman's Party serving as National Chairman from 1945 until 1949.

Personal life
In December 29, 1928, she married Elie Charlier Edson, Pete Seeger's uncle. Pollitzer died on July 3, 1975, in New York City.

In media
In 2021, PBS ran a special titled SC Suffragists: Clubwomen, The Pollitzer Sisters, and the Vote, which was in part about Anita.

References

External links

 Anita Pollitzer, Library of Congress
 Anita Pollitzer biography  and  papers , University of South Carolina Library
 Anita Pollitzer Family Papers at South Carolina Historical Society
Oral History Interviews with Mabel Pollitzer, Anita Pollitzer's sister  and  from Oral Histories of the American South

Photographers from South Carolina
American people of Czech-Jewish descent
Artists from Charleston, South Carolina
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
1894 births
1975 deaths
American suffragists
Jewish American artists
Jewish suffragists
20th-century American women photographers
20th-century American photographers
Secular Jews
20th-century American Jews


The splanchnocranium (or visceral skeleton) is the portion of the cranium that is derived from pharyngeal arches. Splanchno indicates to the gut because the face forms around the mouth, which is an end of the gut. The splanchnocranium consists of cartilage and endochondral bone. In mammals, the splanchnocranium comprises the three ear ossicles (i.e., incus, malleus, and stapes), as well as the alisphenoid, the styloid process, the hyoid apparatus, and the thyroid cartilage.

In other tetrapods, such as amphibians and reptiles, homologous bones to those of mammals, such as the quadrate, articular, columella, and entoglossus are part of the splanchnocranium.

See also
 Dermatocranium
 Endocranium
 Neurocranium

References

Human anatomy
Vertebrate anatomy


WKCB-FM (107.1 FM) is a radio station broadcasting a classic hits format. Licensed to Hindman, Kentucky, United States.  The station is currently owned by Hindman Broadcasting Corporation and features programming from Fox News Radio.

References

External links

KCB-FM
Hindman, Kentucky


John de Courcy (1160–1219), was a Norman English noble.

John de Courcy may also refer to:

John de Courcy, one of several men with the title Baron Kingsale in the Peerage of Ireland
John Fitzroy de Courcy, 31st Baron Kingsale (1821–1890), colonel of the 16th Ohio Infantry
John de Courcy, 35th Baron Kingsale (1941–2005), the Premier Baron of Ireland
John de Courcy Ireland (1911–2006), Irish historian and activist
John Edmund de Courcy, English bishop in Ireland


The Maywood Station Museum is located in the 1872-built New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway station in Maywood, New Jersey, United States.

History
The station underwent an extensive restoration by the volunteer, 501(c)3 non-profit Maywood Station Historical Committee beginning in July 2002 and officially opened as a museum in September 2004. Maywood Station is listed on the New Jersey Register of Historical Places, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003 (as Building #03000487).

Museum
The museum is open to the public periodically throughout the year. It also open by appointment for class trips, boys and girls scout trips, senior citizen trips and for other organizations and clubs as well as can be contracted for movie and television filming, commercial props, photo shoots, etc.

The museum is operated and staffed by the volunteer membership of the Maywood Station Historical Committee. The main focus of the museum is concentrated on the history of Maywood Station and the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad and the roles they played in the development of the Borough of Maywood and the surrounding area. The museum collection contains hundreds of photographs, displays, documents, maps and artifacts covering the histories of Maywood Station, the NYS&W and local railroads, the Borough of Maywood, and the local region, which are changed periodically and designed to entertain and educate visitors of all ages as well as offer a virtual timeline to these subjects. Maywood Station Museum is also the official site of the New York, Susquehanna & Western Technical & Historical Society's archive, which contains thousands of drawings, maps, track diagrams, photos, timetables, documents and records covering the history of the New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad.

The museum features the original woodwork painted and stained in its original colors and original Maywood Station furnishings have been restored and displayed such as the potbelly stove, station agent's desk, chairs, telegraph keys and freight scale. Victorian-period original light fixtures and sconces adorn the ceilings and walls. Additional items have been painstakingly reproduced to the exact original specifications of over one-hundred years ago including the station benches and bay window area.

The Maywood Station Museum collection includes a former Penn Central/Conrail N-12 class caboose, which was restored by Maywood Station Historical Committee members. Visitors to the Maywood Station Museum are invited to come aboard Caboose 24542 and view additional displays and an operating model train layout. The Maywood Station Museum collection also includes original New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad ALCO Type S-2 Locomotive #206, which has also been restored by Maywood Station Historical Committee members. On September 10, 2009, NYS&W S-2 #206 was placed on the State of New Jersey Register of Historical Places. The locomotive was placed onto the National Register of Historical Places on March 19, 2010.

New station
A location nearby the museum is a potential station of NJ Transit’s proposed Passaic–Bergen–Hudson Transit Project which would be called Maywood Avenue.

See also

 National Register of Historic Places listings in Bergen County, New Jersey
 NYSW (passenger 1939-1966) map
 Passaic-Bergen-Hudson Transit map
 Operating Passenger Railroad Stations Thematic Resource (New Jersey)

References

Further reading

Kaminski, Edward S. (2010). Maywood - The Borough, The Railroad, and The Station. Arcadia Publishing. .
Kaminski, Edward S. (2010). New York, Susquehanna & Western Railroad in New Jersey. Arcadia Publishing. .

External links
 Google Street View of Maywood Station Museum
Maywood Station Museum
New York, Susquehanna & Western Technical & Historical Society, Inc.
of Maywood, New Jersey
New York, Susquehanna & Western Railway Corp.
Maywood Station Historical Committee
Pictures of Maywood Station Museum

Maywood, New Jersey
Railway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1872
Railroad museums in New Jersey
Museums in Bergen County, New Jersey
Former New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway stations
Former railway stations in New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
Railway stations in Bergen County, New Jersey
Repurposed railway stations in the United States
1966 disestablishments in New Jersey
Railway stations in the United States closed in 1966


Rubroboletus eastwoodiae, or satan's bolete, is a toxic basidiomycete fungus of the bolete family.  It occurs on the West Coast of the United States. It is closely related to Rubroboletus pulcherrimus.

The mushroom turns blue with bruising. The cap is 10–25 cm wide, convex, olive-colored, pinkish in age, dry, has margin that curves inward then expands, and yellowish flesh. The stalk is 7–15 cm tall and 3–6 cm wide. The spores are olive-brown, elliptical, and smooth. It may be poisonous.

It looks similar but is not conspecific with the European species Rubroboletus satanas. It is also similar to Boletus pulcherrimus and B. amygdalinus.

References

eastwoodiae
Fungi of the United States
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status


Quinolinic acid (abbreviated QUIN or QA), also known as pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid with a pyridine backbone. It is a colorless solid. It is the biosynthetic precursor to niacin.

Quinolinic acid is a downstream product of the kynurenine pathway, which metabolizes the amino acid tryptophan. It acts as an NMDA receptor agonist.

Quinolinic acid has a potent neurotoxic effect. Studies have demonstrated that quinolinic acid may be involved in many psychiatric disorders, neurodegenerative processes in the brain, as well as other disorders. Within the brain, quinolinic acid is only produced by activated microglia and macrophages.

History
In 1949 L. Henderson was one of the earliest to describe quinolinic acid. Lapin followed up this research by demonstrating that quinolinic acid could induce convulsions when injected into mice brain ventricles. However, it was not until 1981 that Stone and Perkins showed that quinolinic acid activates the N-methyl--aspartate receptor (NMDAR). After this, Schwarcz demonstrated that elevated quinolinic acid levels could lead to axonal neurodegeneration.

Synthesis
One of the earliest reported syntheses of this quinolinic acid was by Zdenko Hans Skraup, who found that methyl-substituted quinolines could be oxidized to quinolinic acid by potassium permanganate.

This compound is commercially available. It is generally obtained by the oxidation of quinoline. Oxidants such as ozone, hydrogen peroxide, and potassium permanganate have been used. Electrolysis is able to perform the transformation as well.

Quinolinic acid may undergo further decarboxylation to nicotinic acid (niacin):

Biosynthesis

From aspartate
Oxidation of aspartate by the enzyme aspartate oxidase gives iminosuccinate, containing the two carboxylic acid groups that are found in quinolinic acid. Condensation of iminosuccinate with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, mediated by quinolinate synthase, affords quinolinic acid.

Catabolism of tryptophan

Quinolinic acid is a byproduct of the kynurenine pathway, which is responsible for catabolism of tryptophan in mammals. This pathway is important for its production of the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and produces several neuroactive intermediates including quinolinic acid, kynurenine (KYN), kynurenic acid (KYNA), 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK), and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HANA). Quinolinic acid's neuroactive and excitatory properties are a result of NMDA receptor agonism in the brain. It also acts as a neurotoxin, gliotoxin, proinflammatory mediator, and pro-oxidant molecule.

While quinolinic acid cannot pass the BBB, kynurenic acid, tryptophan and 3-hydroxykynurenine do and subsequently act as precursors to the production of quinolinic acid in the brain. The quinolinic acid produced in microglia is then released and stimulates NMDA receptors, resulting in excitatory neurotoxicity. While astrocytes do not produce quinolinic acid directly, they do produce KYNA, which when released from the astrocytes can be taken in by migroglia that can in turn increase quinolinic acid production.

Microglia and macrophages produce the vast majority of quinolinic acid present in the body. This production increases during an immune response. It is suspected that this is a result of activation of indoleamine dioxygenases (to be specific, IDO-1 and IDO-2) as well as tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) stimulation by inflammatory cytokines (mainly IFN-gamma, but also IFN-beta and IFN-alpha).

IDO-1, IDO-2 and TDO are present in microglia and macrophages. Under inflammatory conditions and conditions of T cell activation, leukocytes are retained in the brain by cytokine and chemokine production, which can lead to the breakdown of the BBB, thus increasing the quinolinic acid that enters the brain. Furthermore, quinolinic acid has been shown to play a role in destabilization of the cytoskeleton within astrocytes and brain endothelial cells, contributing to the degradation of the BBB, which results in higher concentrations of quinolinic acid in the brain.

Toxicity
Quinolinic acid is an excitotoxin in the CNS. It reaches pathological levels in response to inflammation in the brain, which activates resident microglia and macrophages. High levels of quinolinic acid can lead to hindered neuronal function or even apoptotic death. Quinolinic acid produces its toxic effect through several mechanisms, primarily as its function as an NMDA receptor agonist, which triggers a chain of deleterious effects, but also through lipid peroxidation, and cytoskeletal destabilization. The gliotoxic effects of quinolinic acid further amplify the inflammatory response. Quinolinic acid affects neurons located mainly in the hippocampus, striatum, and neocortex, due to the selectivity toward quinolinic acid by the specific NMDA receptors residing in those regions.

When inflammation occurs, quinolinic acid is produced in excessive levels through the kynurenine pathway. This leads to over excitation of the NMDA receptor, which results in an influx of Ca2+ into the neuron. High levels of Ca2+ in the neuron trigger an activation of destructive enzymatic pathways including protein kinases, phospholipases, NO synthase, and proteases. These enzymes will degenerate crucial proteins in the cell and increase NO levels, leading to an apoptotic response by the cell, which results in cell death.

In normal cell conditions, astrocytes in the neuron will provide a glutamate–glutamine cycle, which results in reuptake of glutamate from the synapse into the pre-synaptic cell to be recycled, keeping glutamate from accumulating to lethal levels inside the synapse. At high concentrations, quinolinic acid inhibits glutamine synthetase, a critical enzyme in the glutamate–glutamine cycle. In addition, It can also promote glutamate release and block its reuptake by astrocytes. All three of these actions result in increased levels of glutamate activity that could be neurotoxic.

This results in a loss of function of the cycle, and results in an accumulation of glutamate. This glutamate further stimulates the NMDA receptors, thus acting synergistically with quinolinic acid to increase its neurotoxic effect by increasing the levels of glutamate, as well as inhibiting its uptake. In this way, quinolinic acid self-potentiates its own toxicity. Furthermore, quinolinic acid results in changes of the biochemistry and structure of the astrocytes themselves, resulting in an apoptotic response. A loss of astrocytes results in a pro-inflammatory effect, further increasing the initial inflammatory response which initiates quinolinic acid production.

Quinolinic acid can also exert neurotoxicity through lipid peroxidation, as a result of its pro-oxidant properties. Quinolinic acid can interact with Fe(II) to form a complex that induces a reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS), notably the hydroxyl radical •OH. This free radical causes oxidative stress by further increasing glutamate release and inhibiting its reuptake, and results in the breakdown of DNA in addition to lipid peroxidation.
Quinolinic acid has also been noted to increase phosphorylation of proteins involved in cell structure, leading to destabilization of the cytoskeleton.

Clinical implications

Psychiatric disorders

Mood disorders
The prefrontal cortices in the post-mortem brains of patients with major depression and bipolar depression contain increased quinolinic acid immunoreactivity compared to the brains of patients never having had depression. The fact that NMDA receptor antagonists possess antidepressant properties suggests that increased levels of quinolinic acid in patients with depression may overactivate NMDA receptors. By inducing increased levels of quinolinic acid in the cerebral spinal fluid with interferon α, researchers have demonstrated that increased quinolinic acid levels correlate with increased depressive symptoms.

Increased levels of quinolinic acid might contribute to the apoptosis of astrocytes and certain neurons, resulting in decreased synthesis of neurotrophic factors. With less neurotrophic factors, the astrocyte-microglia-neuronal network is weaker and thus is more likely to be affected by environmental factors such as stress. In addition, increased levels of quinolinic acid could play a role in impairment of the glial-neuronal network, which could be associated with the recurrent and chronic nature of depression.

Furthermore, studies have shown that unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) can lead to the metabolism of quinolinic acid in the amygdala and striatum and a reduction in quinolinic acid pathway in the cingulate cortex. Experiments with mice demonstrate how quinolinic acid can affect behavior and act as endogenous anxiogens. For instance, when quinolinic acid levels are increased, mice socialize and groom for shorter periods of time. There is also evidence that increased concentrations of quinolinic acid can play a role in adolescent depression.

Schizophrenia
Quinolinic acid may be involved in schizophrenia; however, there has been no research done to examine the specific effects of quinolinic acid in schizophrenia. There are many studies that show that kynurenic acid (KYNA) plays a role in the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, and there has been some research to suggest that 3-hydroxykynurenine (OHK) plays a role in the disease as well. Because quinolinic acid is strongly associated with KYNA and OHK, it may too play a role in schizophrenia.

Conditions related to neuronal death
The cytotoxic effects of quinolinic acid elaborated upon in the toxicity section amplify cell death in neurodegenerative conditions.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
Quinolinic acid may contribute to the causes of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Researchers have found elevated levels of quinolinic acid in the cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), motor cortex, and spinal cord in ALS patients. These increased concentrations of quinolinic acid could lead to neurotoxicity. In addition, quinolinic acid is associated with overstimulating NMDA receptors on motor neurons. Studies have demonstrated that quinolinic acid leads to depolarization of spinal motor neurons by interacting with the NMDA receptors on those cells in rats. Also, quinolinic acid plays a role in mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons. All of these effects could contribute to ALS symptoms.

Alzheimer's disease
Researchers have found a correlation between quinolinic acid and Alzheimer's disease. For example, studies have found in the post-mortem brains of Alzheimer's disease patients higher neuronal quinolinic acid levels and that quinolinic acid can associate with tau protein. Furthermore, researchers have demonstrated that quinolinic acid increases tau phosphorylation in vitro in human fetal neurons  and induces ten neuronal genes including some known to correlate with Alzheimer's disease. In immunoreactivity studies, researchers have found that quinolinic acid immunoreactivity is strongest in glial cells that are located close to amyloid plaques and that there is immunoreactivity with neurofibrillary tangles.

Brain ischemia
Brain ischemia is characterized by insufficient blood flow to the brain. Studies with ischaemic gerbils indicate that, after a delay, levels of quinolinic acid significantly increase, which correlates with increased neuronal damage. In addition, researchers have found that, after transient global ischaemia, there are microglia containing quinolinic acid within the brain. Following cerebral ischaemia, delayed neuronal death may occur in part because of central microglia and macrophages, which possess and secrete quinolinic acid. This delayed neurodegeneration could be associated with chronic brain damage that follows a stroke.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Studies have found that there is a correlation between levels of quinolinic acid in cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) and HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) severity. About 20% of HIV patients have this disorder. Concentrations of quinolinic acid in the CSF are associated to different stages of HAND. For example, raised levels of quinolinic acid after infection are correlated to perceptual-motor slowing in patients. Then, in later stages of HIV, increased concentrations of quinolinic acid in the CSF of HAND patients correlates with HIV encephalitis and cerebral atrophy.

Quinolinic acid has also been found in HAND patients' brains. In fact, the amount of quinolinic acid found in the brain of HAND patients can be up to 300 times greater than that found in the CSF. Neurons exposed to quinolinic acid for long periods of time can develop cytoskeletal abnormalities, vacuolization, and cell death. HAND patients' brains contain many of these defects. Furthermore, studies in rats have demonstrated that quinolinic acid can lead to neuronal death in brains structures that are affected by HAND, including the striatum, hippocampus, the substantia nigra, and non-limbic cortex.

Levels of quinolinic acid in the CSF of AIDS patients with AIDS- dementia can be up to twenty times higher than normal. Similar to HIV patients, this increased quinolinic acid concentration correlates with cognitive and motor dysfunction. When patients were treated with zidovudine to decrease quinolinic acid levels, the amount of neurological improvement was related to the amount of quinolinic acid decreased.

Huntington's disease
In the initial stages of Huntington's disease, patients have substantially increased quinolinic acid levels, in particular in the neostriatum and cortex. These areas of the brain that had the most damage at these stages. The increase in quinolinic acid correlates with the early activation of microglia and increased cerebral 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) levels. Furthermore, these increased levels of quinolinic acid are great enough to produce excitotoxic neuronal damage. Studies have demonstrated that activation of NMDA receptors by quinolinic acid leads to neuronal dysfunction and death of striatal GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSN).

Researchers utilize quinolinic acid in order to study Huntington's disease in many model organisms. Because injection of quinolinic acid into the striatum of rodents induces electrophysiological, neuropathological, and behavioral changes similar to those found in Huntington's disease, this is the most common method researchers use to produce a Huntington's disease phenotype. Neurological changes produced by quinolinic acid injections include altered levels of glutamate, GABA, and other amino acids. Lesions in the pallidum can suppress effects of quinolinic acid in monkeys injected with quinolinic acid into their striatum. In humans, such lesions can also diminish some of the effects of Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease
Quinolinic acid neurotoxicity is thought to play a role in Parkinson's disease. Studies show that quinolinic acid is involved in the degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) of Parkinson's disease patients. SN degeneration is one of the key characteristics of Parkinson's disease. Microglia associated with dopaminergic cells in the SN produce quinolinic acid at this location when scientists induce Parkinson's disease symptoms in macaques. Quinolinic acid levels are too high at these sites to be controlled by KYNA, causing neurotoxicity to occur.

Other
Quinolinic acid levels are increased in the brains of children infected with a range of bacterial infections of the central nervous system (CNS), of poliovirus patients, and of Lyme disease with CNS involvement patients. In addition, raised quinolinic acid levels have been found in traumatic CNS injury patients, patients with cognitive decline with ageing, hyperammonaemia patients, hypoglycaemia patients, and systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Also, it has been found that people with malaria and patients with olivopontocerebellar atrophy have raised quinolinic acid metabolism.

Treatment focus
Reduction of the excitotoxic effects of quinolinic acid is the subject of on-going research. NMDAr antagonists have been shown to provide protection to motor neurons from excitotoxicity resulting from quinolinic acid production. Kynurenic acid, another product of the kynurenine pathway acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist.

Kynurenic acid thus acts as a neuroprotectant, by reducing the dangerous over-activation of the NMDA receptors. Manipulation of the kynurenine pathway away from quinolinic acid and toward kynurenic acid is therefore a major therapeutic focus. Nicotinylalanine has been shown to be an inhibitor of kynurenine hydroxylase, which results in a decreased production of quinolinic acid, thus favoring kynurenic acid production. This change in balance has the potential to reduce hyperexcitability, and thus excitotoxic damage produced from elevated levels of quinolinic acid.
Therapeutic efforts are also focusing on antioxidants, which have been shown to provide protection against the pro-oxidant properties of quinolinic acid.

Norharmane suppresses the production of quinolinic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine and nitric oxide synthase, thereby acting as a neuroprotectant. Natural phenols such as catechin hydrate, curcumin, and epigallocatechin gallate reduce the neurotoxicity of quinolinic acid, via anti-oxidant and possibly calcium influx mechanisms. COX-2 inhibitors, such as licofelone have also demonstrated protective properties against the neurotoxic effects of quinolinic acid. COX-2 is upregulated in many neurotoxic disorders and is associated with increased ROS production. Inhibitors have demonstrated some evidence of efficacy in mental health disorders such as major depressive disorder, schizophrenia, and Huntington's disease.

See also
 Homoquinolinic acid

References

Pyridines
Dicarboxylic acids
Aromatic acids
NMDA receptor agonists
Neurotransmitters
Neurotoxins
Enones