Belvèze-du-Razès (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Belvianes-et-Cavirac (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France. The journalist and writer Gaston Bonheur (1913–1980) was born in Belvianes.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Belvis (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.
Its inhabitants are called the Belvisois.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Berriac () is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bessède-de-Sault (; Languedocien: Beceda de Saut) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


La Bezole (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

External links

 Photos of La Bezole

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bizanet (; Languedocien: Bisanet) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France. Château de Gaussan is located in the commune.

Population

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Blomac () is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bouilhonnac (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bouisse (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bouriège (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bourigeole (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Le Bousquet (; Languedocien: El Bosquet) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Boutenac (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Church
In 1850, a French female artist named Béloya Collin gave a painting of Christ on a cross to the church of Boutenac.

Population

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Brenac () is a former commune in the Aude department in southern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the commune of Quillan.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Former communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
Populated places disestablished in 2016


Brézilhac (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

Heraldry

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Brousses-et-Villaret (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

External links

Brousses.villaret.free.fr

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Brugairolles (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Les Brunels (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Bugarach (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France, around 35 km south of Carcassonne. The economy is based on agriculture and tourism, attracting many New Age adherents.

Geography
Bugarach is at the foot of Pic de Bugarach, a  mountain peak and the highest summit in the Corbières Massif. The peak is also called the "upside down mountain" as the top layers of rock are older than the lower layers due to uplift of the Pyrenees.

It is also located on the Green Meridian.

History

The location is mentioned for the first time as Villa Burgaragio in 889 AD; it derives from the name "Bugari" of the Bulgarian Bogomilis in medieval France. In the 18th century the village became known for manufacturing wooden tools and hats. In modern times many esoteric and UFO legends have been connected to this place.

Economy
The major economic activity of the village and surrounding region is agriculture and tourism. Demand for holiday cottages and popularity with New Age followers led to a rise in real estate prices.

Population

Cult settlements
In the 1960s and 70s Pic de Bugarach became popular with the hippie movement. Later in the 20th century it became popular with New Age followers who believed the "upside down mountain" had mystical powers, spreading to the belief that the village would be spared in the 2012 apocalypse.

Cult followers believe aliens reside inside the mountain and will spare any humans that decide to leave the planet with them in the coming apocalypse. In 2011, the number of visitors doubled to over 20,000 and France's cult watchdog, Miviludes, placed the village under scrutiny due to concern over possible mass suicides. The mayor even considered calling the army over concerns caused by this issue.

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cabrespine (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cahuzac (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cailhau (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department
List of medieval bridges in France

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cailhavel (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Van Hoogstraten is a Dutch toponymic surname, meaning "from Hoogstraten" and may refer to:

Jacob van Hoogstraten (c. 1460–1527), Flemish Dominican theologian and controversialist
Dirk van Hoogstraten (1596-1640), Dutch painter
Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten (1627–1678), Dutch painter, poet and author on art theory
Jan van Hoogstraten (1628–1654), Dutch painter
 For other descendants of Dirk van Hoogstraten, see
Willem van Hoogstraten (1884–1965), Dutch violinist and conductor
Jacob Emil van Hoogstraten (1898–1991), Dutch senior public servant in colonial Indonesia
Nicholas van Hoogstraten (born 1945), controversial British businessman

van Hoogstraten
Surnames of Dutch origin


Cailla (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cambieure (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Campagna-de-Sault (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Campagne-sur-Aude (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Camplong-d'Aude (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

Geography
The river Orbieu forms most of the commune's southern border.

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Camps-sur-l'Agly (Languedocien: Camps d’Aglin) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
 Pic de Bugarach
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Canet (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Capendu (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Etymology
Mentioned in the form Campendud 1071. Occitan “sloping field”, “inclined field”. Fortuitous homophony with Capendu, hamlet of Blainville-Crevon (Seine-Maritime) which means “hung cat”. Armorial bearings

History
One finds potteries dating about 20.000 years ago in the Mayrac locality. The traces reveal a Roman camp site near the placement of the windmill of Roque Del Die (Occitan for Rock of God).

Population

Events
For seven years, FestiVoix, organized by the community of communes, has invited choral societies and artists.

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


No Hero, may refer to:

 "No Hero: The Evolution of a Navy SEAL", an autobiography by Matt Bissonnette, author of No Easy Day
 "No Hero", a song on the Offspring's album Ignition
 No Hero (comics), a comic series by Warren Ellis
 No Hero, a 1992 South African film starring Steve Hofmeyr
 No Hero, a novel series by the author Yu Wo
 "No Hero" (Elisa song), 2016 song

See also
No Heroes, a 2006 album by Converge
No Heroics, a 2008 British comedy about superheroes


Carlipa () is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cascastel-des-Corbières (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Its population is 221. Amenities include a post office, a primary school, and a town hall with a municipal government. The locals are known as the Cascastellois.

The surrounding area is host to medieval-era citadels that are open to the public. The beaches of Leucate and the Cathar castles are nearby.

Population

See also
 Fitou AOC
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Petko Yankov (; born 6 October 1977) is a retired Bulgarian sprinter who specialized in the 200 metres.

He competed at the 1999 World Indoor Championships, the 1999 World Championships and the 2000 Olympic Games (both 100 and 200 metres).

His personal best time was 20.27 seconds, achieved in June 1999 in Athens. This ranks him second among Bulgarian 200 metres sprinters, only behind Nikolay Antonov. Furthermore, he had 10.39 in the 100 metres and 46.91 in the 400 metres.
At the beginning of the 2000s he left Bulgaria to study in USA and competed for several years for Central Missouri State University until 2005. He currently resides in the USA.

References

Sources

1977 births
Living people
Bulgarian male sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Bulgaria


The 4th New Brunswick Legislative Assembly represented New Brunswick between February 8, 1803, and 1809.

The assembly sat at the pleasure of the Governor of New Brunswick Thomas Carleton. Carleton left the province in 1805 and the colony was governed by a series of colonial administrators after his departure.

Amos Botsford was chosen as speaker for the house.

History

Members

Notes

References
Journal of the votes and proceedings of the House of Assembly of ... New-Brunswick from ... February to ... March, 1803 (1803)

04
1803 in Canada
1804 in Canada
1805 in Canada
1806 in Canada
1807 in Canada
1808 in Canada
1809 in Canada
1802 establishments in New Brunswick
1809 disestablishments in New Brunswick


Yoon Kyung-shin (born July 7, 1973 in Seoul) is a South Korean handball manager and former player.

Playing career
Yoon Kyung-shin could play in German Handball-Bundesliga through his outstanding performances in World Championships. He played for VfL Gummersbach from 1996 to 2006, and for HSV Hamburg from 2006 to 2008. He became the top goalscorer of the Bundesliga seven times, and is currently the second highest scoring player of Bundesliga with 2,905 goals. He was also voted the World Player of the Year by the International Handball Federation (IHF) in 2001.

He played more than 260 games for the South Korea national handball team, and was top goalscorer at three World Championships and one Summer Olympics. He was South Korean flag bearer at the 2012 Summer Olympics.

Honours

Player
HSV Hamburg
DHB-Supercup: 2006
EHF Cup Winners' Cup: 2006–07

Doosan Handball
Handball Korea League: 2011

South Korea
Asian Games: 1990, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2010
Asian Championship: 1993, 2000, 2010, 2012

Individual
IHF World Player of the Year: 2001
Summer Olympics top goalscorer: 2004
World Championship top goalscorer: 1993, 1995, 1997
World Championship All-Star Team: 1995, 2001
Handball-Bundesliga top goalscorer: 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2006–07
EHF Cup Winners' Cup top goalscorer: 2006–07

Records
Handball-Bundesliga all-time second highest goalscorer: 2,905 goals
Most goals in a single Summer Olympics: 58 goals

Manager
Doosan Handball
Handball Korea League: 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018–19, 2019–20

Individual
Handball Korea League Best Manager: 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018–19, 2019–20

Personal
His younger brother Yoon Kyung-min was also a handball player.

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
South Korean handball coaches
South Korean male handball players
Expatriate handball players
Olympic handball players for South Korea
Handball players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Handball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Handball players from Seoul
Kyung Hee University alumni
Asian Games medalists in handball
Handball players at the 1990 Asian Games
Handball players at the 1994 Asian Games
Handball players at the 1998 Asian Games
Handball players at the 2002 Asian Games
Handball players at the 2006 Asian Games
Handball players at the 2010 Asian Games
Asian Games gold medalists for South Korea
Medalists at the 1990 Asian Games
Medalists at the 1994 Asian Games
Medalists at the 1998 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2002 Asian Games
Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games
South Korean expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Competitors at the 1994 Goodwill Games
Handball coaches of international teams


Wills Creek Formation is a mapped Silurian bedrock unit in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and West Virginia.

Description
The Wills Creek is defined as a moderately well bedded greenish-gray shale containing local limestone and sandstone zones, or more specifically as an olive to yellowish-gray, thin-bedded sandstone, calcareous shale, dolomite, argillaceous limestone, and sandstone. Red shale and siltstone occur in the lower part of the formation. The formation has a thickness between 450 feet and 600 feet in Maryland and 445 to 620 feet in Pennsylvania.

The Wills Creek forms the bedrock of the valley around and to the east of Lewistown, Pennsylvania.

Fossils
The Wills Creek Limestone contain fossils from the Pridoli to the Ludlow epoch, or 422.9 to 418.1 Ma.

Dean et al. (1985) describe the Wills Creek as sparsely fossiliferous.

Conodonts have been identified in the Wills Creek in Virginia (Ozarkodina snajdri crispa Zone).

Notable outcrops
 Type section at Wills Creek at Cumberland, Allegany County, Maryland
 Roundtop Hill, Maryland, along railroad grade

Age
Relative age dating of the Wills Creek places it in the Silurian period. It rests conformably a top the Bloomsburg Formation and below the Tonoloway Formation.

Economic use
The Wills Creek is a poor source of construction material and is only suitable as common fill.

See also
 Geology of Pennsylvania

References

Geologic formations of Maryland
Geologic formations of Pennsylvania
Geologic formations of Virginia
Geologic formations of West Virginia
Silurian System of North America
Mudstone formations
Limestone formations of the United States
Sandstone formations of the United States
Shale formations of the United States
Silurian Maryland
Silurian geology of Pennsylvania
Silurian geology of Virginia
Silurian West Virginia
Silurian southern paleotemperate deposits


Jessica Leigh Alexander (born November 18, 1976) is an American country music artist and songwriter.

Biography
She has had her songs recorded by Patty Loveless, Trisha Yearwood and Little Big Town. She also launched her own recording career in 2004. Two of her songs charted on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart, and Columbia Records released her debut album, Honeysuckle Sweet, on March 1, 2005.

In 2006, she was dropped from the label, shortly after marrying Jon Randall.

Alexander co-wrote Miley Cyrus' single "The Climb", for the 2009 film Hannah Montana: The Movie and the Hannah Montana song "I'll Always Remember You" from the Hannah Montana Forever soundtrack. She also co-wrote Lee Brice's 2012 single "I Drive Your Truck", and Blake Shelton's "Drink on It", "Mine Would Be You" and "Turnin' Me On".

In 2021, Jessi was featured on "That Was Us" from the album 'Behind the Bar' by Riley Green.

Discography

Albums

Singles

Other Charting Songs

Music videos

Singles written by Alexander

Awards and nominations

References

1976 births
Living people
People from Jackson, Tennessee
American women country singers
American country singer-songwriters
Country musicians from Tennessee
Columbia Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Tennessee
21st-century American women singers
21st-century American singer-songwriters
Canadian Country Music Association Songwriter(s) of the Year winners


La Cassaigne (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France. It lies  south of Paris.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cassaignes (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Yordan Ilinov (; born 28 May 1985) is a Bulgarian sprinter who specialized in the 200 metres.

He won the 2005 Balkan Games. He competed at the 2005 World Championships and the 2006 European Championships, but on both occasions only reached the semi-final.

His personal best time is 20.65 seconds, achieved in July 2006 in Sofia. This ranks him third among Bulgarian 200 metres sprinters, only behind Nikolay Antonov and Petko Yankov.

He is member of Turkish multisport club Fenerbahçe SK.

References

1985 births
Living people
Fenerbahçe athletes
Bulgarian male sprinters


James Tyler Laird (September 10, 1897 – August 16, 1970) was a professional American football player who played running back for the Rochester Jeffersons, the Buffalo All-Americans, the Canton Bulldogs, the Providence Steam Rollers, and the Staten Island Stapletons. In 1926, he was a player-coach for the Providence Steam Rollers. Laird was also a coach for Norwich University in Northfield, Vermont. In 1921 Laird played for the New York Brickley Giants, however he is not listed as being on the team as he played for the Giants only when they played non-league opponents. He also played for the independent Union Quakers of Philadelphia in 1921.

Laird had a son, also named James Tyler Laird, who was the chair of the psychology department at St. John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota. James, Jr. married Geraldine Anderson of Montreal. The two raised two children. James, Jr. taught for a time at the army bases in Korea.

References

External links

1897 births
1970 deaths
American football running backs
Buffalo All-Americans players
Canton Bulldogs players
Colgate Raiders football players
New York Brickley Giants players
Norwich Cadets football coaches
Providence Steam Roller coaches
Providence Steam Roller players
Rochester Jeffersons players
Staten Island Stapletons players
Union Quakers of Philadelphia players
People from Montpelier, Vermont
Players of American football from Vermont


Les Cassés (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Castans is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Caudebronde (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Caudeval (; Languedocien: Caudavalh) is a former commune in the Aude department in southern France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Val-de-Lambronne.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Former communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia
Populated places disestablished in 2016


Caunes-Minervois is a small medieval town and commune in the Aude department in the Occitanie region in southern France. It is known particularly for its ancient Abbey, dating from the eighth century, and the outstanding red marble that has been quarried locally from Roman times. The name may derive from the ancient local Occitan word for cave, "cauna", of which there are a number in the immediate area.

Caunes is also in the Minervois, a designated wine growing region with AOC status but with an ancient heritage.  The name derives from the ancient regional capital of Minerve, some 20 km east of Caunes, itself named for the Roman Goddess Minerva.  The Romans came through here, settling and introducing vines & olives in the region.  Minervois Vignerons have been dynamic in changing the perception of the world towards wine from the south of France, developing quality products and experimenting with both old and new grape varieties and techniques.

The ruined castle (chateau) at Minerve is a site attracting many visitors due to the ongoing interest in Catharism and the Albigensian Crusade.  Caunes lies in the northern part of the modern touristic region of the "Pays Cathare" – Cathar Country – which stretches here from the Pyrenees.

Geography and geology
The town sits at the foot of the Montagne Noire which are themselves the southernmost extent of the Massif Central.  The change in slope designates a change in geology from the predominantly metamorphic rocks of the nearby mountains to the alluvial deposits of the plains.

The settlement lies adjacent to the mountain river L’argent Double which can be a torrent after rain but usually has a gentle and semi-continuous flow, sometime disappearing completely below a bouldery riverbed.  Highest flows are usually recorded in February falling away throughout the dry months.  This river is a key attribute that lead to early settlement here, both in terms of the important pass created by its valley and the regular, sweet water supply.
The river name l’Argent Double is purported to come from the Latin Argent meaning silver and Celtic dubrum, meaning water.  Whether this refers to just the colour of a tumbling stream, the fact that the water is sweet (soft), or some other mineral content is not clear.

Figure 1. Map of the Montagne Noire. In the inset France is tan, the
Massif Central is orange, and the Montagne Noire is purple (Roger, 2004).

The geology of the area has attracted considerable study and is fundamental to the position of the town:
 the weakness in the rocks giving rise to the course of the river
 the mountain pass following the river
 the formation of the local marble through metamorphosis and
 the subsequent development of complex local soil types allowing for a variety of vineyard terroirs

On a larger scale, the Montagne Noir result from the tectonic movements of ancient plates, ultimately resulting in the upthrust of the Alps and the Pyrenees.  These mountain building events are known as orogenic periods, often named after the principal mountain ranges or ancient tribal areas in which the early geological research was undertaken.  The Montagne Noire result largely from what is known as the Variscan (or Hercynian) Orogeny.

The local geology is complex with evidence of very old rocks from the Precambrian period being distorted and overlain with ocean sediments, which in turn have been involved in massive tectonic events.  The changes to sedimentary deposits due to intense pressure and temperature effects have given rise to metamorphic rocks such as schist, gneiss & the economically important marble.

Granite outcrops can also be found relatively close (10 km) to Caunes adding complexity to the geology.  It is expected that groundwater percolating though the acidic granite provides much of the soft water to the l’Argent Double in an area where hard water is more usual.

South, away from the metamorphic rocks of the mountains yet in close proximity, lie almost unaffected limestones, sandstones, clays and other rock forms.  These are mixed with more recent alluvial deposits from the Aude valley.

Flora
Much of the flora south of Caunes is dominated by vineyards.  However, there are also numerous limestone ridges that cannot be economically cultivated.  These areas are often wooded with pines, kermes (or holly) oak and have an understory of typical "garrigue" plants: lavender, sage, rosemary, thyme, cistus, and Artemisia etc.

The mountains immediately to the north of Caunes hold a wider variety of "maquis" flora, often in addition to the garrigue species:  large semi-natural woodland areas comprising holm and pubescent oak, umbrella pine, juniper (Common Juniper, ‘Juniperus phoenicea’ and ‘Juniperus oxycedrus' – locally called ‘cade’ are each abundant), olive and almond.
The limestone encourages numerous other small plants such as various orchids, fritillaries and iris.

Marked walking trails with some informative interpretation boards originate in Caunes.  These lead up onto the lower Montagne noire and pass through the typical varied and interesting scenery.

There is also a short botanical trail close by (6 km) on the ridge between Caunes and Felines Minervois.

History, proto-history, and pre-history

The whole of the southern France is rich in early signs of man.  Early hunter-gatherer inhabitants would have made use of the many caves in limestones of the southern Montagne Noire.  Their passage is now marked by hundreds of dolmens and menhirs throughout the area.   Many of these have been or are in jeopardy of becoming lost to agriculture or neglect.

One of the closest is the large and well-preserved covered alley at Saint-Eugène, some 4 km south of Caunes.  This and other ceremonial sites have funerary goods which show activity of trade across Europe.

In 1827 Paul Tournal, a local amateur archaeologist, found early human bones and other remains (about 6000 years old) in a cave near Bize Minervois, 20 km east of Caunes.  Tournal went on to found the Commission Archéologique et Littéraire de Narbonne and was Secretary until he died.

There are signs of early semi-permanent settlements in the area, evidenced by archaeological finds throughout the Aude.  The Aude river formed the basis of a major trade route (Aude-Garonne corridor) and a combination of the warm climate and water availability from the Montagne Noire allowed for settlement if not farming.

A number of oppida, large permanent settlements often associated with defensive positions such as hilltops or river bends, are located in the area.  The term oppidum probably comes from the Roman word for enclosed space, and these sites are typified by early planned architectural features.  Very close to Caunes is the Oppidum du Cros with signs of occupation up to around 600 BC.

Certainly the Greeks and Romans knew the region and traded through it towards Spain and there is evidence of the Romans in the vicinity of Caunes today.  There is a Roman bridge over the l’Argent Double 300m north of Caunes, adjacent to the modern D620.

Abbey of St Peter and St Paul

The Church played a vital role in the security and stability of the early Languedoc and was key to the subsequent development and wealth of medieval Caunes.  The Abbey at Caunes consists of the great church itself, cloisters & surrounding monastery buildings as well the old Abbot's residence.  The complex has been referred to as a unique architectural ensemble.  Throughout Caunes there are remains of the substantial walls of the Abbey enclosure as well as traces of grand buildings, now often lost in the walls of simpler houses.

Foundation & Growth
The Abbey of St. Peter & St. Paul was founded by a monk known as Anian or Anianus, a companion of Benedict of Anian in 790. Charlemagne confirmed the right to the land in 794 and the church was consecrated between 806 and 820.  Benedict of Anian, the son of Languedocian nobleman, went on to formulate the strict code of the Benedictine order which was adopted in 817 under an edict from Charlemagne. In fact, the Abbey founders soon adopted the order of the Benedictines themselves.

Effectively, so placed under the direct protection of the king, Charlemagne, the Abbey enjoyed many privileges.  Charlemagne's heir, Charles the Bald gave substantial gifts of royal (fiscal) land to Caunes in 844.  Even so, there are records of Caunes being forced to institute lawsuits in 855 and 875 before it was able to regain land taken from it by local landowners.  As the authority of subsequent Carolingians became rather less respected in parts of the MIDI and Catalonia so it was necessary for the charter to be renewed by Charles the Bald in 875.  Similar charters were endorsed in nearby Lagrasse and Saint-Chaffre in 876.  This stability and many donations from devotees allowed the abbots to procure land & properties.

In 982 first mention is made of the relics of four early Christian martyrs secured for the Abbey, namely those of Armand (Amand), Luce (Lucius), Audalde and Alexandre (Alexander).  These are still venerated and processed through the town, the feast day being June 6.  The relics became objects of pilgrimage and brought further wealth from devotees allowing the Carolingian Abbey to be rebuilt under Abbot William (1021–1059).

Albigensian Crusade
The Abbey subsequently passed to the Counts of Barcelona and later through their bloodline to the Trencavel family.  This family largely lost their lands and rights after their support of the Cathars in the Albigensian Crusade.  During the crusade the Abbey received several representatives of the Pope, which came to preach the Catholic rites, underlining the importance of Caunes in the region.  Because of its support of the Catholic Church during the crusade, the Abbey was also able to buy feudal lands from those who had been excommunicated as Cathar sympathisers.

Following many revolts and military reversals, the crusade was rejoined under Louis VIII in 1225 and Caunes was once more in the frame as a stronghold of the Catholic faith.  Of particular note was the burning at the stake of the elderly Cathar Bishop or Perfect of Carcassonne, Pierre Isarn in 1226, witnessed by the King.  This may have been the last significant scene of the crusade as it is said that the sickening example made of Isarn at Caunes was Louis VIII's last exploit in Southern France and he returned to Paris, dying en route in the Auvergne in November 1226.

Later years
The 13th and 14th centuries continued to be marked by conflict for power between secular and religious authorities.  However, the Abbey prevailed, continuing to increase its prosperity:  it doubled the number of its members from fifteen to thirty as well as maintaining a substantial staff.

Some grand buildings were constructed in the surrounding town during this period, most notably the existent Sicard Mansion.  In 1337 the Abbot granted the town the right to elect public servant through a council.  There is clearly significant interaction between the wider church, Abbot and the town, with the right being given to trade in salt, allowing the development of substantial wealth in the town.  There still exists a street named for the salt trade:  Rue Du Plo de la Sal, meaning Salt Hill in the local Occitan dialect.  This street is on one of the way-marked tours of the town and shows dated lintels and remnants of fine architecture.

The Late Middle Ages saw turbulent times across Europe with the Black Death and the Hundred Years War dramatically affecting all areas.  However, the implementation at Caunes of a commendam in 1467 indicates a decay of influence or period of relaxation of monastic values and possible partial abandonment of the Abbey.

Around 1590, during the French Wars of Religion, Caunes was pillaged by Huguenots and held under siege until eventually taken by Henri, Duc de Joyeuse.  He ordered the demolition of the walls of the Abbey enclosure as well as the outer ring of town walls;  only remnants of the walls exist today.  A map showing the presumed outline of the walls is available from the Tourist Office.

It was not until the early 17th century, soon after the appointment of Abbot Jean d'Alibert in 1598, that restoration of the Abbey and associated buildings were undertaken.  Moreover, he instigated reforms within the church and started to re-established the position of the Abbey as a Christian institution.

Much of the work was to little avail as by 1659 the Abbey had once again fallen into disrepair and the Abbey was removed from the Benedictine Order.  In 1663 the Congregation of St. Maur took control and re-established a strict monastic regime, renovating the buildings at the same time.  In 1761 a fire destroyed the courtroom and archives.

As with other religious houses, the French Revolution brought an end to monastic life at Caunes.

After the Revolution
The ownership of the Abby buildings passed to the state around 1791, during the French Revolution, and the church building became the parish church of the town.

The Abbey church at Caunes was designated a National Monument in 1916 and the rest of the extensive associated buildings in 1948.  Ownership of the Abbey has gradually passed to the town administration since 1986 and substantial renovations have allowed many of the buildings to open to the public in 2006.

Architecture
Nothing remains of the presumed Greco-Roman church underlying the existing building.  The oldest part of the extant buildings is the original 8th-century Carolingian crypt.  This is quadrangular with signature rounded external corners.  It has a floor of large herringbone-laid cobbles and is believed to be unique.  Some remnants of early carved capitals are now incorporated into the 12th-century north tower.

However, Caunes is famed for the large 11th-century apse at the eastern end of the Abbey.  This is a fine example of the simple Romanesque building style of the region and is clearest from outside the building.  The apse, locally called the chevet, consists of two levels of pillars supporting a conical roof.  The older, lower, part is constructed from simply dressed limestone and pink marble and has eight pillars with capitals of interlacing plant design.  There are no arches in the lower level, the pillars merely supporting simple stone lintels.  There are three simple slit windows in this lower section.

The upper portion of the apse dates from the latter half of the 16th century and has nine square columns with arches above resting on simple capitals.  The two side apses are very simple and serve to accentuate the subtleness of the main apse architecture.

The north tower predates the south tower but both were constructed in the 12th Century.  The former has three levels of double, round arched openings on each face whilst the latter has just one high level of double arched openings.  These are enhanced by the semicircular apse-like chapels at their base, the north chapel containing the relics of the four Caunes martyrs.

The nave is entered through a porch on the north side dating also from the 12th century, its arches incorporating intricate carvings.  The roof of the porch was augmented by rib vaulting in sharp relief in the early 13th century.  The nave itself was rebuilt in the 14th century and mock vaulted arches added in the 1770; however, tall medieval windows remain and allow light in from the south side.

Much of the internal decoration is in marble as befits a town partly built on the wealth of quarrying this stone.  The high altar combines red Caunes and white Carrara marble and was carved by Italian craftsmen in the 18th century.  Other notable carvings include the Virgin & child with saints Benedict & Bernard in the south apsidal chapel and the two white marble angels framing the sanctuary.

Marble quarries

Caunes marble is generally red or pink, often with white spherical or elongated forms within it, although other colours are also found.  It is metamorphosed from Devonian micritic limestones or mudstones which were predominantly red and homogeneous but had Stromatactis cavities subsequently infilled with white calcite.  These outcrops hold large workable volumes of marble, some over 15 metres in height.

Quarrying has been undertaken in the vicinity of Caunes since at least the seventeenth century although there is some reasonable expectation that small quarries were exploited in Roman times.  Red marble capitals and other details are evident in Languedoc churches dating from the 8th century.  By the early 17th century exploitation appears to have been under the control of a Genoese master sculptor, Stefano Sorano who was granted a licence in 1663.  He brought a number of Italian quarrymen to Caunes to develop the marble trade and some may have settled in the town as there still exists a small Italian contingent.  Throughout the subsequent centuries there was close collaboration between Caunes and Carrara, famous for its white marble.

The marble quarry brought prosperity and kudos to Caunes and a railway spur was run across the plain from Moux in 1887 to transport passengers, quarried marble and the region's wine.  The station was finally closed to passengers in 1939 and to goods in 1965. Some station buildings still retain a link with the past as a marble carving workshop.

During the first part of the 20th century, and operating via a second station almost opposite the first, there was a 1-metre gauge tram line from Caunes connecting the town to Lezignan and Carcassonne.  This tramway was closed down in 1932.  This additional station may be seen in old postcards but is still in use as a private home today.

It is possible to see large, partly worked slabs and columns in the Carrière du Roy (or "King's Mines" in local dialect) 1 km from the town.  This quarry was named for the most prestigious client, Louis XIV, rather than being owned by the king.  Red Caunes marble was, for example, used to make the columns of the Grand Grand Trianon at Versailles, the Opera Garnier in Paris and columns of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel.

Two other large quarries exist near Villerambert, 2 km west of the town, and Buffens about 2 km east of Caunes opposite Notre Dame du Cros.  All three of these are now classified as National Monuments.

Other, small derelict quarry workings can be seen in the vicinity.  Two commercial quarries are currently being regularly exploited:  one close to the Carrière du Roy and a second, more recently re-opened, above the Buffens quarry.  Blocks are now usually exported for finishing in Italy from where they are sent around the world.

Sights
Napoleon's bridges
Narbonensis
Domitian Way
capitelles
Notre Dame du Cros

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

External links

 Caunes-Minervois Official Website in English
 fr. Geology of the Montaigne noire
 The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map
 The Library of Iberian Resources online
 Heraldry resource on Wikipedia
 Useful wine website
 Official Minervois wines website

Communes of Aude


Herbert Williams may refer to:

Sir Herbert Williams, 1st Baronet (1884–1954), British politician and Conservative Member of Parliament
Sir Herbert Williams-Wynn, 7th Baronet (1860–1944), British politician and Member of Parliament
Herbert Williams (bishop) (1860–1937), Anglican bishop in New Zealand
Herbert Williams (cricketer, born 1860) (1860–1942), English cricketer
Herbert Williams (cricketer, born 1900) (1900–1974), English cricketer
Herbert Williams (sailor) (1908–1990), American Olympic sailor
Herbert Williams (politician) (1890–1943), member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly
Herbie Williams (born 1940), Welsh footballer
Herb Williams (born 1958), American basketball player
Herb Williams (American football) (born 1958), American football defensive back
Herb Williams (footballer) (1885–1924), Australian rules footballer
Herbert "Magic" Williams, fictional character appearing in one episode of the original Quantum Leap and as a main character in the 2022 revival of Quantum Leap

See also
Bert Williams (disambiguation)


Caunettes-en-Val () is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Caunette-sur-Lauquet (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Caux-et-Sauzens (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Located 8 kilometres west of Carcassonne between the Montagne Noire and Malepère, at the crossroads of the old Roman roads to Toulouse and from Foix towards Ariège and Spain. The Canal du Midi runs between the Village of Caux and the Hamlet of Sauzens. Its inhabitants are known as Cauxois.

History
The hamlet of Sauzens and the village Caux joined to form Caux et Sauzens during the French revolution in 1791.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

External links

 Official website

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Cavanac () is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Caves (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France, it extends over an area of 9.13 km2. In 2010 the commune had 692 inhabitants..

Population

See also
 Fitou AOC
 Corbières AOC
 Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Ronald William McLarty (April 26, 1947 – February 8, 2020) was an American actor, playwright, and novelist. He also worked as an audiobook narrator, in which role he recorded over 100 titles and received many Audie Awards.

McLarty appeared in numerous television series, films and stage productions. He also wrote dozens of plays and 10 novels, notably The Memory of Running (2004).

Career
McLarty began his career in theatre during the early 1970s with one of his earliest professional performances being the role of Lucky in Michael Weller's Moonchildren for the play's American premiere at the Arena Stage in Washington, D.C. in November 1971. McLarty continued with the production when it moved to Broadway in 1972.

McLarty also co-starred on Spenser: For Hire, as Boston homicide detective Sgt. Frank Belson.

Although he enjoyed a successful career as an actor, he had not had much luck finding a publisher for his novel The Memory of Running, until Stephen King happened upon an audiobook version, narrated by McLarty, and praised it as "the best book you can't read". This led to the book's publication by Viking Press, and its rapid rise to bestseller status. McLarty was an accomplished narrator: besides Running, he provided the narrative for a number of audiobooks, including Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and the unabridged audiobook Decision Points by George W. Bush (the abridged version is narrated by the former president himself).

A graduate of Rhode Island College, class of 1969, McLarty was commencement speaker and received a Doctor of Humanities degree from RIC in 2007.

Death
McLarty died on February 8, 2020, having lived with dementia since 2014.

Novels
Mislaid. Lulu Publishing Services, 2020, softcover , ebook
The Dropper. New York: Random House, Books on Tape, 2009 (audiobook),
The Dropper was scheduled to be released as a Trade Hardcover and Signed Limited Edition by Cemetery Dance Publications in Spring 2012.
Art in America. New York: Viking Press, 2008,
Traveler. New York: Viking Press, 2007,
The Memory of Running.  New York: Viking Press, 2004,

Filmography

Film

Television

Videogames

Audiobooks
A partial list:

McLarty and Cassidy also narrated books 2 and 3 in the John Puller series, The Forgotten and The Escape.

References

External links

1947 births
2020 deaths
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American dramatists and playwrights
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
Male actors from Providence, Rhode Island
American male dramatists and playwrights
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American male novelists
Audiobook narrators
Deaths from dementia in New York (state)
Rhode Island College alumni
Writers from Providence, Rhode Island


"One Time 4 Your Mind" is the eighth song on Nas' debut album Illmatic. It is produced by Large Professor who provides the song with a mellow beat & a deep bassline. Nas raps two verses on the song and contributes to the call and response chorus with Grand Wizard (of Bravehearts). The song's lyrics deal with what Nas does in his leisure. Nas sampled a lyric from "One Time 4 Your Mind" on his song "Fetus". Termanology references a lyric from this song on "Stop, Look, Listen" by Statik Selektah. Steve Juon of RapReviews.com describes it as a "somber and slow-rolling banger." Marc Hill of PopMatters boasts the song's lyrics saying: "the laid back 'One Time 4 Your Mind' demonstrated a level of technical precision and rhetorical dexterity that [is] now requisite for inclusion among hip-hop's elite."

References

1994 songs
Nas songs
Song recordings produced by Large Professor
Songs written by Large Professor
Songs written by Nas
Jazz rap songs


Florence Nightingale David, also known as F. N. David (23 August 1909 – 23 July 1993) was an English statistician. She was head of the Statistics Department at the University of California, Riverside between 1970 – 77 and her research interests included the history of probability and statistical ideas.

Early life and education
David was born on 23 August 1909 in Ivington, near Leominster, England. Her parents were Florence Maude and William Richard David who were both Elementary School head teachers. David was named after Florence Nightingale, who was a friend of her parents.

David was tutored privately by a local parson, beginning at age five. By that age she already knew some arithmetic, so she began with algebra.  Since David already knew English, the parson taught her Latin and Greek.  At the age of ten, she entered to formal schooling at Colyton Grammar School. She studied mainly mathematics for three years, with the aim of becoming an actuary, but at that time the actuarial firms only accepted men. She earned a degree in Mathematics from Bedford College for Women in 1931.

David received a scholarship and continued her studies with Karl Pearson at University College, London, as his research assistant. In this function she produced tables for the correlation coefficient. When Pearson retired, his son Egon, and Ronald Fisher, took over Karl's duties. After Karl Pearson died in 1934, David returned to the Biometrics laboratory to work with Jerzy Neyman, submitting her four most recently published papers as her doctoral (PhD) thesis, and earned a doctorate in 1938.

Career
Working for Karl Pearson, F. N. David computed solutions to complicated multiple integrals, and the distribution of the correlation coefficients. As a result, her first book was released in 1938, called Tables of the Correlation Coefficient. All the calculations were done on a hand-cranked mechanical calculator known as a Brunsviga.

During World War II, David worked as an Experimental Officer in the Ordnance Board for the Ministry of Supply, a Senior Statistician for the Research and Experiments Department for the Ministry of Home Security; a Member of the Land Mines Committee of the Scientific Advisory Council, and as a Scientific Advisor on Mines to the Military Experimental Establishment. In late 1939 when war had started but England had not yet been attacked, she created statistical models to predict the possible consequences of bombs exploding in high density populations such as the big cities of England and especially London. From these models, she determined estimates of harm to humans and other damage. This included the possible numbers living and dead, the reactions to fires and damaged buildings as well as damages to communications, utilities such as telephones, water, gas, electricity and sewers. As a result, when the Germans bombed London in 1940 and 1941, vital services were kept going and her models were updated and modified with the evidence from the real harms and real damage.

After World War II she returned to University College London and became a Professor of Statistics in 1962. From 1958 to 1967 she split her time between London and Berkeley, California, where she held a visiting position at the University of California Department of Statistics and Applied Climatology and Forestry Division. In 1968 she moved to California permanently and became a Professor, and in 1970 the Chair, in the Department of Statistics at the University of California, Riverside, and was the book review editor for the journal Biometrics for four years.

By 1977 she retired and became Professor Emeritus and Research Associate in Biostatistics at the University of California at Berkeley, where she continued to teach and do research in Biostatistics.

David died of lung cancer on 23 July 1993 in Kensington, Contra Costa County, California.

Awards and recognition
In 1954 she was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.
She was also a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics.

In conjunction with other numerous academic honours, in 1992 David won the first Elizabeth L. Scott Award  "...for her efforts in opening the door to women in statistics; for contributions to the professions over many years; for contributions to education, science, and public service; for research contributions to combinatorics, statistical methods, applications and understanding history; and her spirit as a lecturer and as a role model.". The University named a library for her, and in 2001 established the Florence Nightingale David Award.

Contributions
David's research resulted in advances in  combinatorics, including a clear exposition of complicated methods. She studied the Correlation coefficient, and computed solutions of complicated multiple integrals, using the distribution of the correlation coefficient.

David investigated the origins and history of probability and statistical ideas. She wrote a book on history of probability, using problems thought of by famous mathematicians and scientists like Cardano and Galileo. It was called Games, Gods and Gambling: The Origins and History of Probability. She "speculat[ed] that gambling may be the first invention of human society. Her clue to this is the talus. This most common randomizer of ancient times is a predecessor of the die: the astragalus or talus is the 'knucklebone' or heel bone of a running animal. In creatures such as deer, horse, oxen, sheep and hartebeest this bone is so formed that when it is thrown to land on a level surface it can come to rest in only four ways. Well polished and often engraved examples are regularly found on the sites of ancient Egypt. Tomb illustrations and scoring boards make it virtually certain that these were used for gaming."

Personal life
David was lesbian. During her time at Berkeley, she lived with Evelyn Fix until the latter's passing in 1965.

Publications
David published ten books and more than 100 papers, including:

 1938: Extension of the Markoff theorem on least squares
1948: (with N.L. Johnson) The probability integral transformation when parameters are estimated from the sample
1949: Probability theory of statistical methods
1951: Probability theory for statistical methods
1952: The truncated poisson
1953: A statistical primer
1954: (with P.G. Moore) Notes on contagious distributions in plant populations
1954: (with N.L. Johnson) Statistical Treatment of Censored Data Part I. Fundamental Formulae
1961: (with Evelyn Fix) Rank correlation and regression in a nonnormal surface
1961: (with Egon Sharpe Pearson) Elementary statistical exercises
1962: (with D.E. Barton) Combinatorial Chance
 1962: Games, Gods and Gambling .
1966: Symmetric function and allied tables
1968: Normal centroids, medians and scores for ordinal data
1971: A first course in statistics

References

Florence N. David. Statisticians in History from the American Statistical Association
http://www.agnesscott.edu/Lriddle/women/david.htm
 http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/Mathematicians/David.html

English statisticians
1909 births
1993 deaths
People from Herefordshire
Alumni of University College London
Academics of University College London
20th-century American mathematicians
Women statisticians
Fellows of the American Statistical Association
Fellows of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
20th-century women mathematicians
LGBT academics
20th-century English LGBT people


The environmental policy of the Stephen Harper government was implemented when Stephen Harper was the Prime Minister of Canada from 2006 to 2015, under two minority governments until 2011 when the Conservative Party of Canada won a majority in the 2011 Canadian federal election. During the term of Stephen Harper, Canada's greenhouse gas emissions decreased from 730 to 723 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent. In contrast, during the period from 1993 until 2006, under various Liberal governments, Canada's greenhouse gas emissions increased 617 to 730 Mt of carbon dioxide equivalent.

The Harper government took credit for the 7 Mt overall reduction in greenhouse gases, while critics claimed that the Harper government was against measures to curb climate change and global warming. Some point to the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 and the Province of Ontario closing its coal power plants as the reason for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions during the premiership of Stephen Harper, factors that were outside his control.

Funding

Departmental funding

The Harper administration reduced funding for environmental research and monitoring by $83.3 million for 2012-2013, by $117.9 million for 2013-2014, and by $180.5 million per year from 2014-2015 onwards. The government has also made significant cuts at Fisheries and Oceans Canada, including cutting $100 million in work related to water protection. The reduced functioning of climate monitoring programmes resulted in gaps in data collection, amongst other effects.

Research
As part of the 2008 budget on February 26, 2008, $250 million was announced for research in developing more fuel-efficient vehicles and $300 million for the development a more advanced nuclear reactor and to improve safety at the Chalk River, Ontario Nuclear facility which shut down during the fall of 2007 after there were safety concerns.

Environmental research groups

In 2012, the Conservative government revised the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, reducing its scope to facilitate the approval of projects that would contribute to economic growth. The number of agencies who could conduct environmental reviews was reduced from 40 to three, and approximately 3000 assessments were cancelled due to the reduction in purview. These revisions raised concern among the opposition and environmental groups, who stated the revisions reduced the government’s responsibility towards the environment, “gutting Canada's environmental assessment process.”

For example, the Conservatives have cut funding for the National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy (NRTEE) because the research group promoted carbon taxing. Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird explained the government's position: "Why should taxpayers have to pay for more than 10 reports promoting a carbon tax, something that the people of Canada have repeatedly rejected?"

Funding for provinces

The previous government pledged funding to several provinces including Ontario and Quebec. Quebec's Environment Minister Claude Béchard vowed to encourage the Tory government to continue with the $328 million funding previously committed for the province. The government announced $1.5 billion for supporting provincial projects including the $328 million Quebec requested.

Renewable energy

Lower Churchill Project

In 2011, the federal government pledged a loan guarantee towards the Lower Churchill Project in Labrador, which is scheduled for completion in 2017. On April 17, 2013, the 41st Parliament voted in favour of a loan guarantee to Newfoundland and Labrador for the Lower Churchill Project. The Conservative Party of Canada, the Liberal Party of Canada, and the New Democratic Party voted in favour of the loan guarantee. The Green Party of Canada's only MP, Elizabeth May, abstained from voting. The Bloc Québécois voted against the project. The vote passed 271 to 5.

Media coverage of climate change
According to an Environment Canada document, reported by the Montreal Gazette, "Media coverage of climate change science, our most high-profile issue, has been reduced by over 80 per cent" from 2007 to 2010. The Canadian government was accused of "muzzling" its scientists, because journalists needed to file a request to government officials before being allowed to interview scientists, which requests were often denied or only allowed after the news story had already been published by the journalist.

Position on the Kyoto Accord
One prominent policy of the government since its access to power was its position over the Kyoto Accord in which the federal government ratified the Protocol in the late 1990s. The Conservative government had criticized the Accord for having negative impacts on the environment while not providing concrete results as far as greenhouse emission reductions and proposed a new policy which met with criticism from various environmental organizations and the opposition parties.

Harper and the Conservative government criticized the Kyoto Accord on measures to fight against global warming, saying that the economy would be crippled if Canada was forced to meet the Accord's timetable to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 2002, Harper wrote a letter to members of the former Canadian Alliance party, mentioning that the Accord is a "socialist conspiracy" and questioning climate science, and in a meeting with other Commonwealth countries in Uganda commented that Kyoto was a mistake that should not be repeated. He also stated that the Accord "focuses on carbon dioxide, which is essential to life, rather than upon pollutants." Harper considered the objectives implemented by Canada to meet its goals were not realistic and later criticized further the accord which did not set any targets for the world's biggest polluters. He proposed a "Made in Canada" plan that would concentrate its efforts on reducing smog pollution from vehicles.  In a CTV report in October, however, the Conservatives had mentioned that it would be an approach rather than a plan. While repeatedly mentioning that the goals will not be achieved before the timeline, John Baird mentioned on March 17, 2007, that the government had no plans to abandon the Kyoto Accord. The Conservatives' position has been backed by five independent economists, including Toronto-Dominion Bank chief economist Don Drummond. Drummond, who has been consulted by political parties of all stripes, said that the "economic cost [of implementing Kyoto] would be at least as deep as the recession in the early 1980s", agreeing with the results of a study compiled by the environment department.

Opposition members led by Liberal MP Pablo Rodriguez tabled bill C-288 that would force the government to respect the measures of the Kyoto Accord and forced it to present its measures within 60 days. The bill passed third reading on February 14, 2007, 161-113. The Conservatives had appealed the Speaker of the House, Peter Milliken to make the bill invalid citing it was forcing them to spend money against its will, which was denied. While criticizing the Opposition bill as an empty law without any action plans and not giving authority to spend, Harper announced that he would respect the law, despite earlier threats by the government not to respect it. Toronto-Dominion Bank chief economist Don Drummond dismissed bill C-288 as unworkable. On April 19, 2007, Baird told the Senate of Canada environmental committee that respecting the Kyoto Accord would have a negative impact on the economy, citing that Canada would return to a recession similar to the early 1980s while gas and natural gas prices would skyrocket despite a United Nations report that said that the impact would be minimal.

In the 2007 Throne speech, the government officially abandoned the Kyoto objectives in favour of their policies and accords with Asian and Pacific countries in which Harper joined the US-led the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate on September 24, 2007, the United States, China, Japan, India, South Korea and Australia, several among them being among the biggest polluters. The APP's plans goals are lower than the Kyoto Protocol and consists on the introduction of newer and cleaner technology including solar, coal and nuclear power.

The Conservatives withdrew Canada from the Kyoto Protocol in December 2011.

Clean Air Act
On October 10, 2006, in Vancouver, Harper announced tougher measures than the previous Liberal government such as tax credits to environmentally friendly measures, a repackaged air quality health index and a program to retrofit diesel school buses. Harper mentioned that these measures would "move industry from voluntary compliance to strict enforcement; replace the current ad hoc, patchwork system with clear, consistent, and comprehensive national standards, and institute a holistic approach that doesn't treat the related issues of pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions in isolation."  Prior to the announcement, activist groups listed a series of recommendations including regulations on big industries and compliance with the Kyoto Protocol.

Details of the Clean Air Act were revealed on October 19, 2006, by Harper along with Environment Minister Rona Ambrose and Transport Minister Lawrence Cannon. Its main plan was to reduce greenhouse emissions at about 45-65% of the 2003 levels. The goal was set for the year 2050 while a decrease of greenhouse emissions would be noticed in 2020. There were also regulations set for vehicle fuel consumption for 2011, while new measures would be set for industries starting in 2010. Finally, oil companies will have to reduce gas emissions for each barrel produced. However, companies can increase their production until 2020. The plan was heavily criticized by opposition parties and several environmental groups, with New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton stating that the act does little to prevent climate change. Since the opposition threatened to turn this into an election issue, the Conservative Party agreed to rework the act.

The Conservatives made a detailed and revised plan called "Turning the Corner" on April 25, 2007, after leaks of a speech which was supposed to be made by John Baird on April 26 were discovered after some Liberal MPs received a fax of the speech. The new plan seeks to stop the increase of greenhouse gas emissions before 2012 and reduce the amount as much as 20% by 2020. Targets would be imposed to industries before 2015, while home appliances would need to be more energy efficient. There were also rewards for companies that reduced the amount of emissions since 2006. On the next day, Baird announced additional measures including one that would force industries to reduce greenhouse emissions by 18 percent by 2010 while auto industries would have a mandatory fuel-efficient standard by 2011. Later in 2007, Baird revealed other plans and deadlines that industries must meet. The plan mentioned that over 700 big-polluter companies, including oil and gas, pulp and paper, electricity and iron and steel companies, will have to reduce green-house emissions by six percent from 2008 to 2010 and will have to report data on their emissions on every May 31.

However, critics including the World Wildlife Fund said that the greenhouse emissions in 2020 would still be higher than the 1990 levels, and Canada would not meet Kyoto targets before 2025, 13 years after its objectives. High-profile figures including David Suzuki and Former US Vice-President Al Gore also criticized the plan as being insufficient.

In 2019, Canada's GHG emissions were 730 Mt compared to 739 Mt in 2005, representing a reduction of only approximately 5%.

Clean energy technology funding

On December 20, 2006, Ambrose and Agriculture Minister Chuck Strahl announced $345 million of funding and other measures to promote the use of biodiesel and ethanol in policies related to the Clean Air Act. Among that, diesel fuel, regular fuel and heating oil would require a small amount of cleaner energy by 2012. Measures also affected farmers in diversifying their agriculture and farming equipment.

On January 17, 2006, Natural Resources Minister Gary Lunn and new Environment Minister John Baird announced an additional $230 million for the development of clean energy technology

Two days later, Harper, Baird and Dunn presented a new program initiative called ecoEnergy Renewable Initiative which would concentrate on the increase of cleaner energy sources such as wind, biomass, small hydro and ocean energies. The cost of the program was about $1.5 billion. Some money was also planned for incentives for companies and industries that would use cleaner energy sources.

On January 21, 2007, the Government announced another related funding announcement by pledging $300 million by helping homeowners across the country by becoming more energy-efficient including cash reward for those implementing measures to improve the efficiency. Critics of the measures such as Friends of Earth Canada and Liberal environment critic David McGuinty, mentioned though that the Conservatives had used some of the programs and strategies planned by opposition parties including a remake of the EnerGuide Program launched by the Liberals.

Response to climate change report
Harper later proposed a discussion with NDP leader Jack Layton  in the light of growing concerns made by the United Kingdom government of Tony Blair as well as a report by Sir Nicholas Stern, a former chief economist World Bank who predicted a 20% drop of the global economy. Layton tabled a private member's bill, the Climate Change Accountability Act (Bill C-224), which contained plans to respect Kyoto's targets. After their meeting, they agreed on a formal review of the Clean Air Act.

Meetings on global warming

Harper cancelled a planned meeting on environment with European Union members in Helsinki, Finland, a meeting in which he was expecting to condemn the Kyoto Accord. Harper's director of communications cited that his legislation agenda forced him to withdraw from the meeting. Furthermore, Ambrose attended a two-week November 2006 UN summit meeting in Nairobi, Kenya on the issue of the Kyoto Accord and it targets. Opposition members have claimed that her presence was an embarrassment for Canada.

In late 2007, Harper attended the Commonwealth Summit Meeting in Uganda. While Harper called Kyoto a mistake, he rejected claims that Canada would be a holdout on climate change action. A deal was reached between the 53 members of the organization but blocked a proposal to exclude developing countries to comply to emission reductions. He commented that the deal in Uganda will set the stage for the meeting in Indonesia. John Baird who was also at the meeting mentioned that any agreements would have to include reduction targets in which the biggest polluters such as the United States, China and India must comply. A last-ditch agreement, after difficult discussions, was made late in the Summit which consisted of a two-year plan which would lead to a new treaty replacing the Kyoto Protocol as well as additional negotiations until 2009 that would force countries to set basic parameters of greenhouse reduction goals.  Baird, while citing that the last-minute talks were a positive step for a future agreement, stated that he was disappointed that some off the agreement was watered down and that "the deal was almost completely stripped of any reference to numbers and targets that could have been the starting point for the discussion". Climate changes was also a topic at the G8 meeting in Japan in July 2008 where the organization had agreed to fix an objective on reducing greenhouse emissions by 50 cent by 2050 although it was not clear whether the goal was based on either 1990 or current (2008) levels.

Climate change in the arctic

On March 1, 2007, while launching the International Polar Year that a worldwide program that will focus on intense researches on the Arctic regions, including climate change effects, the government announced a $150 million/4 year funding for over 40 projects related to the IPY program. In the 2009 federal budget the government introduced $85 million over two years for key Arctic research stations, and $2 million over two years for a feasibility study for a world-class Arctic research station

Clean-car rebate

As part of the 2007 budget on March 19, 2007, Flaherty announced a rebate of up to $2,000 for people who purchase fuel-efficient vehicles. He also announced a new levy to penalize consumers who purchase vehicles with a high-fuel consumption rate: $1,000 for every litre consumed per 100 kilometres would be imposed (up to a total of $4,000) if the vehicle consumes over 13 litres of fuel per 100 kilometres in the city. However the 2008 budget announced the clean-car rebate would be scrapped in 2009.

Critics

Due to the mounted controversy surrounding the Clean Air Act, there were reports according to the Canadian Press that Ambrose would be relieved of her duties as Environment Minister and replaced by Indian Affairs Minister Jim Prentice in a future cabinet shuffle. However, on January 4, 2007, Ambrose was replaced by the President of the Treasury Board John Baird

In 2011, Canada's commissioner of the environment and sustainable development, Scott Vaughan, stated that the government was not only failing to meet Kyoto standards, but also those of other agreements it had signed. He also criticized the Harper government of dramatically lowering its greenhouse gas emission targets since 2007, which have dropped by 90% (from 282 million tonnes to 28 million tonnes).

See also
 Environment of Canada
 Domestic policy of the Stephen Harper government

References

Stephen Harper
Environment of Canada
Political history of Canada
Environmental policy in Canada
Environmental history of Canada


Cazalrenoux (; ) is a commune in the Aude department in southern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Aude department

References

Communes of Aude
Aude communes articles needing translation from French Wikipedia


Stanislav Georgiev (; born 6 February 1971) is a Bulgarian sprinter who specialized in the 200 metres.

He finished eighth in the 4 x 400 metres relay at the 1993 World Championships, with teammates Tsvetoslav Stankulov, Kiril Raykov, and Anton Ivanov.

His personal best time is 20.67 seconds, achieved in June 1993 in Sofia. This ranks him fourth among Bulgarian 200 metres sprinters, only behind Nikolay Antonov, Petko Yankov, and Yordan Ilinov.

He is married to sprinter Daniela Georgieva (née Spasova).

References

1971 births
Living people
Bulgarian male sprinters


John Hopkins the Third ( / The Missing Million) is a 1921 German film directed by Wolfgang Neff and featuring Béla Lugosi as the villain (a Western cowboy role). It was also known as Johann Hopkins III.

Cast
In alphabetical order
 Curt Cappi – D. I. Winsor (credited as Curd Cappi)
 Sybill de Brée
 Fritz Falkenberg – Eddy Corvin
 Harry Frank – John Hopkins, the detective
 Frydel Fredy
 Béla Lugosi - as The Villain
 Ludwig Rex
 Preben J. Rist – W. R. Turner George Corvin
 Alfred Schmasow – Commissar Sam
 Lya Sellin – die schwarze Mary
 Heinrich von Korff – Mat Bliß

See also
 Béla Lugosi filmography

References

External links

1921 films
Films of the Weimar Republic
German black-and-white films
German silent feature films


Tsvetoslav Stankulov () (born 1 February 1969) is a retired Bulgarian sprinter who specialized in the 400 metres.

He finished eighth in the 4 x 400 metres relay at the 1993 World Championships, with teammates Stanislav Georgiev, Kiril Raykov and Anton Ivanov. He also competed at the 1991 World Championships, without reaching the final.

References

1969 births
Living people
Bulgarian male sprinters
21st-century Bulgarian people
20th-century Bulgarian people


Kiril Raykov (, born 15 May 1969) is a retired Bulgarian sprinter who specialized in the 400 metres.

He finished eighth in the 4 x 400 metres relay at the 1993 World Championships, with teammates Stanislav Georgiev, Tsvetoslav Stankulov and Anton Ivanov. He also competed at the 1988 World Junior Championships without reaching the final.

References

1969 births
Living people
Bulgarian male sprinters


A Half-Breed Tract was a segment of land designated in the western states by the United States government in the 19th century specifically for Métis of American Indian and European or European-American ancestry, at the time commonly known as half-breeds.  The government set aside such tracts in several parts of the Midwestern prairie region, including in Iowa Territory, Nebraska Territory, Kansas Territory, Minnesota Territory, and Wisconsin Territory.

Overview
Historically, the mixed-blood population in the Pays d'en Haut region surrounding the Great Lakes were typically the descendants of Native American women and White men, often men of French-Canadian or Scots (including Orcadian) origin, who dominated early fur trapping and trade. These men lived far from other Europeans. Others had fathers who were American trappers and traders. The children typically grew up in their mother's tribes, where the fathers and families were offered protection if not full membership.

As relations between the United States government and the tribes became more complex, the mixed-race children often were excluded from benefiting both from the federal laws governing Indians and the political rights of their fathers because of discrimination on both sides. The tribes had their own kinship systems and rules of descent and inheritance. For instance, the Omaha had a patrilineal system, and considered mixed-race children of European or "white" fathers to be white unless formally adopted into the tribe by a man. Other tribes had matrilineal systems, and children were considered born into the mother's clan and took their status from her. Due to hypodescent (assignment of children of a mixed union to the subordinate group) and the fact that many of the mixed-race children grew up in tribes on the frontier, Europeans tended to classify them as being more Indian than white. The fact that their fathers lived "outside" civilized society as mountain men contributed to this notion, as well. The Omaha and other tribal leaders advocated setting land aside for the mixed-blood descendants; usually the intent was to award land to male heads of families.

The relationship between mixed-bloods and their ancestral tribes particularly affected the descendants when the tribes ceded communal lands to the U.S. government in exchange for payment. The rights of mixed-blood descendants to payments or a part in decisionmaking were not usually acknowledged. In 1830 the federal government acknowledged this problem by the Fourth Treaty of Prairie du Chien, which effectively set aside a tract of land for mixed-blood people related to the Oto, Ioway, Omaha, Sac and Fox and Santee Sioux tribes.  The treaty granted these "Half-Breed Tracts" as sections of land in a form similar to Indian reservations.

Iowa

A Half-Breed Tract was located in Lee County, Iowa. An 1824 treaty between the Sauk people, the Fox tribe, and the United States set aside a reservation for mixed-blood people related to the tribes. Lying between the Mississippi, and Des Moines rivers and below an eastward extension of the Sullivan Line (The  old  Indian  boundary  surveyed  out  by  John  C. Sullivan  in 1816—at approximately 40.60° N.), the Tract occupied an area of approximately .  Under the original treaty, the half-breed people had the right to occupy the soil, but individuals could not buy or sell the land.

In 1834 Congress repealed the rule. Immediately afterward, claim jumpers claimed much of the land.  The government gave away mixed-blood peoples' claims to the land, effectively ending the provisions of the Half-Breed Tract by 1841.

Mormon leader Joseph Smith, Jr. purchased parts of the Half-Breed Tract, probably in 1837, from a land speculation company. Deeds to most of the land were faulty and could not be held. This left the church with only about , including a town called Commerce in Illinois. The Mormons moved to this Illinois site from Far West, Missouri, to escape the Missouri Executive Order 44 issued by Missouri Governor Lilburn Boggs.

Nebraska

The Nemaha Half-Breed Reservation was established on July 15, 1830. The tract's eastern border was the Missouri River, and the property extended inland for . The north/south borders were between the Little Nemaha River to the north and the Great Nemaha River, near Falls City to the south. Owners were never required to live on their property and many eventually sold their lands to whites. Nebraska's Half-Breed Tract vanished as a legal entity by 1861.

Kansas
An 1825 treaty with the Kaw Indians reserved land of  (640 acres) for each of twenty-three Kaw mixed bloods.  The tracts were located on the north bank of the Kansas River from present day Topeka to Williamstown.  The purpose of granting the land to the mixed-bloods was to gain their support for the treaty in which the Kaw ceded a large amount of land to the United States in exchange for annuities. Indian Superintendent William Clark said, "Reserves of this kind ... have a good effect in promoting civilization ... an idea of separate property is imparted without which it is vain to think of improving the minds and morals of the Indian."

Several of the Kaw half-breed tracts were to become important sites in Kansas history.  In 1827 the Kaw Agency was founded on Tract number 23, allotted to Joseph James, Jr. Here lived the Government Agent to the Kaw; the government farmer Daniel M. Boone, son of the famous pioneer, Daniel Boone; a blacksmith; several mixed-blood Kaw-French traders, and White Plume, recognized by the U.S. government as the head chief of the Kaw. Tract number three, located on the site of Topeka, was to become the site of the Pappan Ferry in the 1840s, a crossing of the Kansas River used by pioneers heading west on the Oregon Trail. Tract four was allotted to Julie Gonville, the maternal grandmother of Charles Curtis, later elected U.S. Senator from Kansas and the Vice President of the United States.

A similar treaty was signed in 1825 between the Osage Indians and the United States. The Osage ceded lands in Missouri, Arkansas, and south of the Arkansas River in Oklahoma in exchange for a reservation in Kansas and Oklahoma.  Forty-two tracts of one-square mile each were reserved for the mixed blood children of French traders and Osage women. Most of the tracts were scattered around eastern Kansas but a few were on the Neosho River in Oklahoma.

Minnesota and Wisconsin

The 1830 Treaty of Prairie du Chien specified the following boundaries of a Half-Breed Tract centered around Lake Pepin, as follows:

The Sioux bands in council have earnestly solicited that they might have permission to bestow upon the half-breeds of their nation the tract of land within the following limits, to wit: Beginning at the place called the Barn, below and near the village of the Red Wing chief, and running back fifteen miles; thence, in a parallel line with Lake Pepin and the Mississippi, about 32 miles, to a point opposite the river aforesaid; the United States agree to suffer said half-breeds to occupy said tract of country; they holding by the same title, and in the same manner that other Indian titles are held.

This description includes a large part of what is now Wabasha County, Minnesota, and some part of Goodhue County, Minnesota. Despite the petitions of several "half-breed" landowners, who had by then lived there for more than twelve years, the U.S. government took the land in 1852 under the premise of serving as restitution against the Sioux for having violated the terms of an earlier treaty.  The land reclamation followed explorers' identification of the area as a "mineral region" with the prospect that, "lead will be found there, and probably copper also."

See also
 Black Hawk Purchase
 Honey War
 Native American tribes in Nebraska

References

External links

 Indian Land Cessions: U.S. Congressional Documents
 Barkwell, Lawrence. "Lake Pepin Half-Breed Tract". Louis Riel Institute.

History of racial segregation in the United States
Political divisions of the United States
Former American Indian reservations
Native American history of Nebraska
Pre-statehood history of Nebraska
Native American history of Iowa
Native American history of Kansas
Native American history of Minnesota
Native American history of Wisconsin
Pre-statehood history of Wisconsin
Aboriginal title in the United States
Former American Indian reservations in Nebraska
Métis in the United States