The history of Warsaw spans over 1400 years. In that time, the city evolved from a cluster of villages to the capital of a major European power, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—and, under the patronage of its kings, a center of enlightenment and otherwise unknown tolerance. Fortified settlements founded in the 9th century form the core of the city, in today's Warsaw Old Town.

The city has had a particularly tumultuous history for a European city. It experienced numerous plagues, invasions, and devastating fires. The most destructive events include the Deluge, the Great Northern War (1702, 1704, 1705), War of the Polish Succession, Warsaw Uprising (1794), Battle of Praga and the Massacre of Praga inhabitants, November Uprising, January Uprising, World War I, Siege of Warsaw (1939) and aerial bombardment—and the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Warsaw Uprising (after which the German occupiers razed the city).

The city has hosted many crucial events in the history of Poland. It was the site of election of Polish kings, meeting of Polish parliament (Sejm), and events such as the Polish victory over the Bolsheviks at the Vistula, during the Battle of Warsaw (1920). In recent years the history-laden city has grown to become the multicultural capital of a modern European state and a major commercial and cultural centre of Central Europe.

Early history

The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were Bródno (9th or 10th century), Kamion (11th century) and Jazdów (12th or 13th century). Bródno was a small settlement in the north-eastern part of today's Warsaw, burned about 1040 during the uprising of Miecław, one of the Mazovian local princes. Kamion was established about 1065 close to the today's Warszawa Wschodnia station (today, Kamionek estate), Jazdów—before 1250 by the today's Sejm. Jazdów was raided twice—in 1262 by Lithuanians, in 1281 by the Płock Prince Bolesław II of Masovia. Then, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa, c.  north of Jazdów—by the same Prince Bolesław II. The Bolesław's brother and successor, Konrad II, built a wooden castellan, which was burned—again by the Lithuanians. On this place, the prince ordered the building of a brick church, which obtained the name of St. John and became a cathedral.

The first historical document attesting to the existence of a Warsaw castellan dates to 1313. Fuller information about the age of the city is contained in the court case against the Teutonic Knights, which took place in Warsaw cathedral in 1339. In the beginning of the 14th century it became one of the seats of the Dukes of Masovia, becoming the capital of Masovia in 1413 (Prince Janusz II). Warsaw's economy of the 14th century rested on crafts and trade. The townsmen, of uniform nationality at the time, were marked by a great disparity in their financial status. At the top were the rich patricians while the plebeians formed the lower strata.

At that time, Warsaw housed about 4500 people. In the 15th century, the town spread beyond the northern town wall, and a settlement, New Town, began. The existing settlement became known as Old Town. Each had its own town charter and government. The aim of establishing a new town was to regulate the settling of new people who weren't allowed to settle in Old Town (mainly Jews)

In 1515, during the Muscovy-Lithuanian War, fire (probably lit by Russian agents) burned a large part of Old Warsaw. Gross social inequality and wealth disparity led in 1525 to the first revolt of the poor of Warsaw against the rich and their abuse of power. This struggle resulted in the so-called third order being added to the city's authorities, sharing power with the two bodies controlled by the patrician class: the council and the assessors. The story of Warsaw's struggle for social liberation dates from this time.

Upon the extinction of the local ducal line, the duchy was reincorporated into the Polish Crown in 1526 (according to gossip, the last Mazovian prince, Janusz III, was poisoned on the orders of the Polish queen, Bona Sforza, and King Sigismund I).

1526–1701

In 1529, Warsaw for the first time became the seat of the General Sejm, where it has remained ever since. To house the Sejm, an Italian architect, Giovanni di Quadro, was contracted to rebuild the King's Castle in the Renaissance style. The incorporation of Mazovia into the Polish Crown led to fast economic development, as illustrated by the rapid growth of the population to 20,000 people compared to c. 4500 people a century earlier.

However, by 1575 (when Stephen Báthory became the Polish king), assemblies were held in another Warsovian suburb at Wielka Wola (now the city's western district, Wola). The stormiest elections were those of 1575 and 1587, when matters came to blows between the divided nobles. Following an election, the king-elect was obliged to sign the pacta conventa (Latin: "agreed accords"), laundry lists of campaign promises, seldom fulfilled, with his noble electors. The agreements included "King Henry's Articles" (artykuły henrykowskie), first imposed on Prince Henri de Valois (in Polish, Henryk Walezy) at the outset of his brief reign (upon the death of his brother, French King Charles IX, Henri de Valois fled Poland by night to claim the French throne).

Due to its central location between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's capitals of Kraków and Vilnius, as well as its relative closeness to Gdańsk, from where Sweden was always threatening, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and at the same time of the Polish Crown in 1596, when King Sigismund III Vasa moved the court from Kraków. The King's decision had been brought forward by the fire of Cracovian Wawel Castle. The royal architect, Santa Gucci, started to rebuild the Warsovian Castle in the Baroque style, so the King only lived there temporarily, but in 1611 he moved there for good. At the time of Warsaw's transformation from one of the main Polish towns into the country's capital, it already numbered some 14,000 inhabitants. The old walled city had 169 houses; the new Warsaw outside the walls numbered 204 houses, while the suburbs had as many as 320. In 1576, the first permanent bridge was built on the Vistula; it was destroyed in 1603 by an ice floe and until 1775 there was no permanent connection between Warsaw and Praga on the Vistula's right bank.

In the following years, the town expanded into the suburbs. Several private independent districts were established, the property of aristocrats and the gentry, which were ruled by their own laws. Such districts were called jurydyka. They were settled by craftsmen and tradesmen. One of these “jurydykas” was Praga, which granted a city charter in 1648. The peak of their development came in the wake of Warsaw's revival after the Swedish invasion, which had seriously ravaged the city. Three times between 1655 and 1658 the city was under siege and three times it was taken and pillaged by the Swedish, Brandenburgian and Transylvanian forces. They stole many valuable books, pictures, sculptures and other works of art - mainly, the Swedish troops. The mid-17th-century architecture of the Old and New Towns survived until Nazi invasion. The style was late Renaissance with Gothic ground floors preserved from the fire of 1607. In the 17th and early part of the 18th century, during the rule of the great nobles oligarchy, magnificent Baroque residences rose all around Warsaw. In 1677, King John III Sobieski started to build his Baroque residence in Wilanów, a village c.  south of Old Town.

1700–1795

A number of political circumstances ensured that after the death of King John III's, Poland–Lithuania entered into a period of decline relative to the other powers of Europe. A new king, the Saxon Prince-Elector Frederic Augustus was elected in 1697, who took the name Augustus II. The new monarch was more concerned with the fortunes of his mother country, the Electorate of Saxony, than of Poland. At the same time, the Polish gentry began to intensively fight for their own rights against the Crown with less thought for maintaining the kingdom's position obtained in the 17th century. Moreover, the rulers of the neighboring Russian Empire (Peter I the Great) and Swedish Empire (Charles XII) were gradually extending their territories and strengthening their power. In 1700, the Great Northern War broke out between these two states; Augustus II recklessly joined it on Peter I's side. The decentralized Polish Crown lacked sufficient power to assert itself in the Great Northern War, which led to Poland to becoming a battlefield between the two neighbouring kingdoms. Warsaw was besieged several times; the first time, in 1702, by Swedish Army troops. The city suffered severely from the Swedish occupation. Under the Swedish influence, in June 1704 the Polish gentry dethroned Augustus II and at Wielka Wola elected a new king, the pro-Swedish Poznań Voivod Stanisław Leszczyński. Shortly afterwards, the tides of war changed and on September 1, 1704, Warsaw was retaken by the Saxon army of Augustus II after five days of a severe artillery bombardment. Augustus in turn lost Warsaw after being defeated in a battle fought on 31 July 1705. In this action, which took place between today's Warszawa Zachodnia Station and Wielka Wola, 2,000 Swedish troops defeated 10,000 soldiers of the Polish-Lithuanian-Saxon army Only now Stanisław Leszczyński could be officially crowned, which took place in October of that year. In 1707, by virtue of the peace treaty between Augustus II and Charles XII, Imperial Russian Army troops entered Warsaw. After two months, Russian forces were removed from Warsaw. Several times during the Northern war the city was obliged to pay heavy contributions. Leszczyński reigned until 1709, when Russia defeated Sweden in the Battle of Poltava, forcing the Swedish army to leave Poland. Following the Swedish defeat, Augustus II once again became the King of Poland. From 1713 onwards, the Russian and Saxon troops were permanently stationed in Warsaw, which led to an oppressive occupation. Besides the tribulations of war, Warsaw was hit by pest (1708), flood (1713) and poor crops.

Augustus II died in February 1733. In September, the Polish gentry again elected as King Stanisław Leszczyński, but it did not matched the political interests of Austria and Russia, which, one month later, forced the Sejm to elect the Augustus II's son, Augustus III. Conflicts of interests between the Leszczyński camp and its patrons Sweden and France and the followers of Augustus III and his patrons Russia and Austria led to the War of the Polish Succession, where Poland again was not more than a battlefield; Warsaw again suffered marches and occupations. As a result of the war, Augustus III remained king and Leszczyński fled to France. Despite the political weakness of the state, the Saxon period was the time of development for Warsaw. The Saxon kings brought many German architects, who rebuilt Warsaw in the style similar to Dresden. In 1747 the Załuski Library was established in Warsaw by Józef Andrzej Załuski and his brother, Andrzej Stanisław Załuski. It was considered to be the first Polish public library and one of the largest libraries in the contemporary world. In all of Europe there were only two or three libraries, which could pride themselves on having such a vast book collection. The library initially had about 200,000 items, which grew to about 400,000 printed items, maps and manuscripts by the end of the 1780s. It also accumulated a collection of art, scientific instruments, and plant and animal specimens.

In 1740 Stanisław Konarski, a Catholic priest, founded Collegium Nobilium, a university for noblemen's sons, which is the predecessor of the University of Warsaw. In 1742, the City Committee was established, which was responsible for building of pavements and sewage system. But large parts of the greater Warsaw urban area remained out of control of the municipal authorities. Only in the 1760s did the entire Warsaw urban area come under one administration, thanks to efforts of the future President Jan Dekert (in Poland, the mayors of bigger cities are called Presidents). Before, the greater Warsaw urban area was divided into 7 districts.

In 1764, a new Polish king was elected, the pro-Russian Stanisław August Poniatowski. Poland became practically a Russian protectorate after his election. In 1772, the first partition of Poland took place. Polish historians state that the partition was the necessary shock for the Polish gentry to “wake up” and start to think about the future of the country. Owing to the reforming mood, the Enlightenment excised massive influence in Poland and along with it, new ideas of the improvement of Poland. In 1765, the King established Korpus Kadetów, the first secular school in Warsaw. Despite its name, it was not a military school. In 1773, the first ministry of education in the world came into existence: the Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej). In 1775, a new bridge on the Vistula was built, which lasted until 1794.

This time marked a new and characteristic stage in the development of Warsaw. It turned into an early-capitalistic principal city. The growth of political activity, development of progressive ideas, political and economic changesall this exercised an impact on the formation of the city whose architecture began to reflect the contemporary aspirations and trends. Factories developed, the number of workers increased, the class of merchants, industrialists and financiers expanded. At the same time there was a large-scale migration of peasants to Warsaw. In 1792, Warsaw had 115,000 inhabitants as compared with 24,000 in 1754. These changes brought about the development of the building trade. Noblemen put up new residences, and the middle class built houses that showed a marked social differentiation. The residences of the representatives of the wealthiest stratumthe big merchants and bankersmatched those of the magnates. A new type of city dwellings developed, catering to the needs and tastes of the bourgeoisie. The artistic medium for all these buildings was that of antiquity, which, although its different social origin was not analyzed at the time, expressed the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment.

In 1788, the Sejm gathered to discuss the ways to improve the political situation and to regain the full independence. As Poland was more or less a de facto Russian protectorate, the Empress Catherine II had to give permission for session. Catherine had no objection because she did not foresee any danger, and besides she needed a Polish help in the war against Turkey. But as the result the Sejm in Warsaw (called Great because of the duration of the session) passed the Constitution of May 3, 1791, which the British historian Norman Davies calls "the first constitution of its kind in Europe". It was adopted as a "Government Act" (Polish: Ustawa rządowa) on that date by the Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was in effect for only a year. The Russo-Turkish War had finished and Empress Catherine could turn her attention to Polish affairs. The result was the Second Partition of Poland of 1793, which in turn led to the 1794 Warsaw Uprising. It was an insurrection by the city's populace early in the Kościuszko Uprising. Supported by the Polish Army, it aimed to throw off Russian control of the Polish capital. The uprising began on April 17, 1794, soon after Tadeusz Kościuszko's victory at Racławice.

After the Battle of Maciejowice General Tadeusz Kościuszko was captured by the Russians. The internal struggle for power in Warsaw and the demoralisation of the city's population prevented General Józef Zajączek from finishing the fortifications surrounding the city both from the east and from the west. At the same time the Russians were making their way towards the city. The Russian forces reached the east outskirts of Warsaw on November 3, 1794. The heavy fighting lasted for four hours and resulted in a complete defeat of the Polish forces. Only a small part managed to evade encirclement and retreated to the other side of the river across a bridge; hundreds of soldiers and civilians fell from a bridge and drowned in the process. After the battle ended, the Russian troops, against the orders given by General Alexander Suvorov before the battle, started to loot and burn the entire borough of Warsaw (allegedly in revenge for the slaughter or capture of over half the Russian Garrison in Warsaw during the Warsaw Uprising in April 1794, when about 2,000 Russian soldiers died). Almost all of the area was pillaged, burnt to the ground and many inhabitants of the Praga district were murdered. The exact death toll of that day remains unknown, yet it is estimated up to 20,000 men, women and children were killed. In Polish history and tradition, these events are called “slaughter of Praga”. A British envoy, William Gardiner, wrote to British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger that “the attack on the Praga's lines of defense was accompanied by the most gruesome and totally unnecessary barbarousness”.

After the fall of Kościuszko Uprising, The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was finally divided between the three neighbors (the 3rd partition, 1795): Russia, Prussia and Austria. Warsaw found itself in the Prussian part and became the capital of South Prussia (Südpreußen).

Another result of the Great Sejm works directly concerned Warsaw: on 21 April 1791 it passed the City Act, which cancelled jurydykas. Since that time, Warsaw and its former jurydykas have constituted a homogeneous urban organism under one administration. As a memento of this event, April 21 is celebrated as the Warsaw Day.

1795–1914

Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1795, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia to become the capital of the province of South Prussia. Liberated by Napoleon's army in 1806, Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created Duchy of Warsaw. Following the Congress of Vienna of 1815, Warsaw became the center of Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy under personal union with Imperial Russia. During this period under the rule of the relatively liberal Russian Emperor Alexander I, Warsaw experienced much growth such as the founding of the Royal University of Warsaw (1816). What is today's main street of the city—Aleje Jerozolimskie—was marked out. In 1818, the Town Hall on the Old Town Market was pulled down because it had become too small for the city, which had expanded after it incorporated the jurydykas. The city's authorities moved to Jabłonowski's Palace (by the Great Theater), where it stayed until World War II.

Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the Russians (especially after the Alexander I's death, when the reactionary Nicholas I assumed power), the 1830 November Uprising broke out. It started with the assault on Belvedere – the residence of Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich, the commander-in-chief of Polish army and de facto viceroy of the Congress Poland, as well as at the Arsenal. The 1830 uprising led to the Polish-Russian war (1831), the greatest battle of which took place on 25 February 1831 in Grochów — a village in the modern northern part of the district, Praga Południe. Because the Polish commanders were stalled, the war ended in defeat, and curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy. The Emperor established a military administration in Warsaw. An estate of pretty manors on the north of New Town was eradicated and on this place the Citadel was built, a fortress with prison. The Sejm was suspended, the Polish military dissolved, and the university closed.

Growth of railways turned Warsaw into an important railways hub, as lines were opened to Vienna (1848), Saint Petersburg (1862), Bydgoszcz (1862), Terespol (1867), Kovel (1873), Mlava (1877), Kalisz (1902), along with several shorter lines. In 1875 and 1908, two railway bridges were built. In 1864, the first iron road bridge on stone supports, Most Kierbedzia, opened. It was one of the most modern bridges in Europe at the time. Today, the Śląsko-Dąbrowski bridge lies at the same supports. Only then the city's authorities started to rebuild Praga, which was heavily damaged during the Kościuszko's and November Uprisings, as well as by Napoleon's war. In 1862, the university was opened again, in 1898 the Nicholas II Technical Institute (the Warsaw Technical University's predecessor) was established.

Warsaw flourished in the late 19th century under Mayor Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875–92), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar Alexander III. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer William Lindley and his son, William Heerlein Lindley, as well as the expansion and modernization of horsecars, street lighting and gas works. Starynkiewicz also founded the Bródno Cemetery (1884), still one of the biggest European cemeteries. As a remembrance of the President, one of the Warsovian squares bears the name of Starynkiewicz, even though he represented the Russian authorities.

Warsaw's development, however, was accompanied by an intensive assault on Polish national identity. Russian authorities closed Polish schools and built more and more Orthodox churches. These acts were strongly opposed. On 27 February 1861, Russian troops fired on a Warsaw crowd that was protesting Russian rule. Five people were killed. On 22 January 1863 a new uprising broke out. The Underground Polish National Government resided in Warsaw during January Uprising in 1863–4. However, this uprising was mainly in the character of guerilla, therefore Warsaw did not distinguish itself in it. But, as a penalty, President Kalikst Witkowski, the Russian general and predecessor of Sokrates Starynkiewicz, constantly imposed tributes on Warsaw. After Cossacks and police fired on demonstrators in January 1905 (Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907), after the St. Petersburg's “bloody Sunday”), strikes broke out throughout Poland. The Alfonse Pogrom, entailing violent attacks on brothels and street fighting, occurred in May 1905.

First Russian Empire Census of 1897 recorded Warsaw's population as 61.7% Polish, 27.1% Jewish, 7.3% Russian, 1.7% German and 2,2% others. According to the 1897 census, Warsaw was the third largest city in the Russian Empire (after Moscow and St. Petersburg), and the largest Polish city located in the Russian partition of Poland.

In 1904, the first power plant was built. The city installed electric street lamps and, in 1908, opened the first electric tram route. In 1914, a third bridge opened—Most Józefa Poniatowskiego.

World War I

After nearly one year of fighting on the Eastern Front, on 1 August 1915 the Imperial German Army under August von Mackensen finally entered Warsaw. The Russian army, during its Great Retreat from Poland, demolished all the Warsovian bridges—and the Poniatowski Bridge that had opened 18 months earlier—and took the equipment from the factories, which made the situation in Warsaw much more difficult.

The German authorities, headed by General Hans von Beseler, needed Polish support in the war against Russia, so they tried to appear friendly to the Poles. For example, they reintroduced the right to teach in Polish, and in 1915 they opened the Technical University, Warsaw School of Economics, and Warsaw University of Life Sciences.

However, the most important decision made for city development was to incorporate the suburbs. The Russian authorities hadn't allowed the extension the Warsaw's area, because it was forbidden to cross the double line of forts surrounding the city. For this reason, at the beginning of World War I on the area of today's Śródmieście and the old part of Praga (c.  750,000 people lived. In April 1916, the Warsaw territory extended to .

In November 1918, the revolution broke out in Germany. On 8 November, German authorities left Warsaw. On 10 November Józef Piłsudski came to the Warsaw-Vienna Station. On 11 November the Regency Council gave him all military authority—and on 14 November, all civil authority. For this reason, 11 November 1918 is celebrated as the beginning of the Poland's independence. Warsaw became the capital of Poland.

1918–1939

The first years of independence were very difficult: war havoc, hyperinflation and the Polish–Soviet War of 1920. In the course of this war, the Battle of Warsaw was fought on the Eastern outskirts of the city, and the capital was successfully defended and the Red Army defeated. Poland stopped, by itself, the full brunt of the Red Army and defeated an idea of the "export of the revolution." Unfortunately, the political and military significance of this victory was never fully appreciated by Europeans. According to Lord d’Abernon: The history of contemporary civilization knows no event of greater importance than the Battle of Warsaw, 1920, and none of which the significance is less appreciated. To commemorate these events, 15 August is celebrated in Poland as Polish Army Day.

On 16 December 1922, in the gallery Zachęta, Eligiusz Niewiadomski, a painter with mental disorder, who belonged to the right-wing National Democracy, assassinated the first President of Poland, Gabriel Narutowicz, who had been elected five days earlier by Sejm.

The other event was the May Coup d'État (1926). On 12 May, Marshall Józef Piłsudski, displeased with the situation in Poland, and in particular with the appointment of a new government, arrived in Warsaw from his residence in Sulejówek (a small town east of Warsaw) at the head of the faithful troops. On the Poniatowski Bridge, he talked with the President Stanisław Wojciechowski, who tried unsuccessfully to convince him to give up the action. The next day, the Piłsudski's troops forcibly conquered Warsaw and forced the government and Wojciechowski to resign. During the coup, street fighting killed almost 400 people—mostly civilians who wanted to watch the fighting. The May Coup started the 13-year period of sanation – the authoritarian rules of Piłsudski's camp. Although Piłsudski himself never accepted the office of President (but twice was Prime Minister), always played a preponderant role in Polish political life.

In 1925, there lived 1,000,000 people in Warsaw. In the next 5 years, the city's wealth doubled. It enabled to build new, broad streets as well as a new airport. The first airport, a temporary one, opened in 1921 in the park Pole Mokotowskie. The second, permanent, airport opened in Okęcie, where it remains. The city government worked out plans for a metro, but construction was hampered by the outbreak of World War II. they opened the first radio station, which had a range that covered almost all the Polish territory.

In 1934, the sanation camp suspended the Warsaw's government and appointed Stefan Starzyński President of Warsaw. He was a faithful supporter of sanation—so, at the beginning of his presidency, he expelled all officials attached to his predecessor. He was also an efficient official, however. He stabilized the city budget, fought corruption and bureaucracy, smartened up the city. However, the Poles remember him mainly due to his heroic behavior during the September Campaign.

World War II

The first bombs fell on Warsaw already on 1 September 1939, the first day of the Nazi German invasion of Poland. The most important representatives of civil and military administration (along with the Army's Commander-in-Chief, Marshall Edward Rydz-Śmigły) escaped to the Kingdom of Romania, taking with themselves much of the equipment and ammunition intended for the defense of the city. To stop the chaos, Mayor Stefan Starzyński seized full civil power, although he had no entitlement to do this. To prevent public disorder, he appointed the Citizen Guard. All time he supported the people's spirit in radio speeches. On 9 September, the German Army tank divisions attacked Warsaw from south-west, but the defenders (with a lot of civil volunteers) managed to stop them in the Ochota district. The situation was hopeless. The Wehrmacht advanced so many divisions that sooner or later they would conquer the city, all the more so because on 17 September the Soviets invaded east Poland. Three days later the German encirclement around Warsaw closed. On 17 September, the Royal Castle burnt down, then, on 23, the power plant. On 27 September Warsaw surrendered and on 1 October the Germans entered the city. In September 1939, around 31,000 people died, (including 25,000 civilians) and 46,000 were injured (including 20,000 civilians). 10% of the buildings were destroyed. On 27 October, the Germans arrested President Starzyński and deported him to the Dachau concentration camp, where he died in 1943 or 1944 (exact date still unknown).

During the Second World War, central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the General Government, a Nazi colonial administration. Nazi Germany planned destruction of the Polish capital before the start of war. On 20 June 1939 while Adolf Hitler was visiting an architectural bureau in Würzburg am Main, his attention was captured by a project of a future German town, Neue deutsche Stadt Warschau. As early as 1939 Hitler approved of a plan known as the Pabst Plan, which envisaged changing Warsaw into a provincial German city. The Germans immediately closed all higher education institutions. Since the first days, the German authorities arrested and executed Poles or took them to the concentration camps. The executions were carried out mainly in the forests around Warsaw (e.g., in Kampinos Forest or Kabaty Woods). Many small monuments on Warsaw streets today commemorate those crimes. Since the beginning of the occupation, the Nazis had organized so-called łapankas. These consisted of the sudden and accurate surrounding of a chosen place (for example, a railway station) and arresting every resident or passerby who happened to be there. in Polish “łapać” means to catch. Such actions were carried out in other occupied European countries, but not on the same scale as in Poland. Arrested people were deported either to concentration camps or forced labor camps in Germany. From 1943, a concentration camp existed also in Warsaw: KL Warschau.

Since October 1940, the Germans had been deporting Warsaw's entire Jewish population (several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city) to the Warsaw Ghetto. They amassed c. 500,000 people on the area of c. . The occupying Germans caused the deaths of many through executions and hunger (the daily food ration for one Jew was only 183 kcal). Since October 1941, every Jewish resident who had left the Ghetto as well as anyone who had been helping in any way the Ghetto residents (e.g. threw food over the Ghetto wall), had been punished with death.

When the order came to annihilate the Ghetto as part of Hitler's "Final Solution" on April 19, 1943, Jewish fighters launched the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almost a month. When the fighting ended, almost all survivors were massacred, only few managed to escape or hide. The commander of Verbrennungs und Vernichtungskommando ("Burning and Destruction Detachments"), Jürgen Stroop, destroyed the Ghetto so completely that even house walls did not remain.

By July 1944, the Red Army was deep into Polish territory and pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw. Knowing that Joseph Stalin was hostile to the idea of an independent Poland, the Polish government-in-exile in London gave orders to the underground Home Army (AK) to try to seize the control of Warsaw from the Germans before the Red Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, as the Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw Uprising began.

The armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours, continued for 63 days, until 2 October. Eventually, the Home Army fighters and civilians assisting them were forced to capitulate. They were transported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled.

The Nazis then essentially demolished Warsaw. Hitler, ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city razed to the ground and the library and museum collections taken to Germany or burned. Monuments and government buildings were blown up by special German troops known as Verbrennungs und Vernichtungskommando ("Burning and Destruction Detachments"). About 85% of the city was destroyed, including the historic Old Town and the Royal Castle. In the uprising, c. 170,000 people died, of which only 16,000 were insurgents. The civilians (c. 650,000) were deported to the transit camp in Pruszków (Durchgangslager Pruszków).

On January 17, 1945, after the beginning of the Red Army's Vistula–Oder Offensive, Soviet troops entered the Warsaw ruins, and liberated the suburbs from German occupation. The Soviet Army swiftly took the city and rapidly advanced towards Łódź, as German forces regrouped at a more westward position. During the German occupation (1939–45) c. 700,000 people died in Warsaw, more than all Americans and British. The material losses were about 45 billion dollars.

Modern times

In 1945, after the bombing, the revolts, the fighting, and the demolition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins. Next to the remnants of Gothic architecture the ruins of splendid edifices from the time of Congress Poland and ferroconcrete relics of prewar building jutted out of the rubble.

On 17 January 1945, the Soviet troops entered the left part of Warsaw and on 1 February 1945 proclaimed the Polish People's Republic (de facto proclamation had taken place in Lublin, on 22 July 1944). At once, the Bureau of Capital's Rebuilding was established. The architects who worked for the Bureau, following the ideas of functionalism and supported by the Soviet puppet Communist regime, decided to renew Warsaw in modern style, with large free areas. They demolished many existing buildings and buildings that could have been rebuilt. Not all their ideas came off, however. In 1953, the Old Town and the Royal Route were reconstructed to look like they had before the war (aided by numerous pictures by many artists, including Canaletto). On the other hand, due to the absence of the "original" residents, the houses were settled by "common people" who often did not maintain the houses properly. The government did not undertake the complicated and expensive rebuilding of the Royal Castle. Almost all of the property was nationalized (see Bierut Decree).

Rebuilding the Old Town was an achievement on a global scale. In 1980, UNESCO appreciated the efforts and inscribed Old Town onto UNESCO's World Heritage list.

The symbols of the new Warsaw were:
 Warsaw W-Z Route ("Trasa W-Z") under the Old Town (1949)
 MDM estate (1952) (typical socialist realism architecture)
 Palace of Culture and Science (PKiN, 1955) a symbol of Soviet rule, and at that time the second tallest building in Europe
 10th-Anniversary Stadium (1955).
Construction of the MDM estate and PKiN especially required demolishing existing buildings. Demolition, however, made it possible to create one of the street plans in Europe, aside from poor road conditions and badly planned crossroads.

In 1951, Warsaw was significantly enlarged again to address the housing shortage: from  to . In 1957, the town Rembertów was incorporated. On the incorporated areas, the city's government ordered the building of mainly large prefabricated housing projects, typical for Eastern Bloc cities.

The Soviet presence, symbolized by the Palace of Culture and Science, turned out to be very acute. Stalinism lasted in Poland until 1956—as in the USSR. The leader (First Secretary) of the Polish United Workers' Party, (PZPR), Bolesław Bierut, suddenly died in Moscow during the 20th Congress of CPSU in March, probably from a heart attack. By October, the new First Secretary, Władysław Gomułka, in a speech during a rally on the square in front of the PKiN supported the regime liberalization (so-called "thaw"). At first, Gomułka was very popular, because he also had been imprisoned in Stalinist prisons and as he had taken up the office of PZPR's leader, he promised a lot, but the popularity faded quickly. Gomułka was gradually tightening the regime. In January 1968, he forbade the performance of Dziady, a classical drama by Adam Mickiewicz, full of anti-Russian allusions. That was "the last drop of bitterness": then students went out on the Warsaw streets and gathered by the monument to Mickiewicz to protest against censorship. The demonstrations spread throughout the country, and the protestors were arrested by police. This time, the students were not supported by workers, but two years later, when in December 1970 the Polish People's Army fired at the protesting people in Gdańsk, Gdynia and Szczecin, those two social groups cooperated—and that helped end Gomułka.

Gomułka was succeeded by Edward Gierek. Compared to the grey Gomułka time, Gierek ruled with a lighter hand. Once in office, Gierek agreed to rebuild the Royal Castle. Gomułka was against this idea until the end of his life, because he was convinced that the Castle was a symbol of the bourgeoisie and feudalism. Rebuilding started in 1971, and finished in 1974—the same year the Trasa Łazienkowska (Łazienkowska Route) was completed. The route and bridge that connect the Warszawa Zachodnia Station area and the Grochów estate—the broad street on the right bank (Praga)—has been named Aleja Stanów Zjednoczonych (The United States Avenue). The next important investments from the Gierek-times are: the Warszawa Centralna Station (1975, now the biggest station in Warsaw) and the broad, dual carriageway Warsaw-Katowice, which even now is called "Gierkówka" (in a choice of the destination point, pretty significant was the fact that Gierek himself was born in Silesia, in Sosnowiec). But the prosperity of the Gierek-times was grounded on a very fragile foundation: Gierek took out many loans from other countries and did not know how to manage them efficiently, hence from time to time crises and workers' riots recurred. The first, more serious was in 1976, when workers from Radom and Ursus were striking; that latter city bordered on Warsaw from west, and had a large tractor factory. As a penalty, Ursus was incorporated into Warsaw as a part of the district Ochota; Warsaw expanded by .

In the crisis of the 1980s and hard time of martial law, John Paul II's visits to his native country in 1979 and 1983 brought support to the budding Solidarity movement and encouraged the growing anti-communist fervor there. In 1979, less than a year after becoming pope, John Paul celebrated Mass in Victory Square in Warsaw and ended his sermon with a call to "renew the face" of Poland: Let Thy Spirit descend! Let Thy Spirit descend and renew the face of the land! This land! These words were very meaningful for the Polish citizens who understood them as the incentive for the democratic changes.

From February to April 1989, the representatives of the Polish government and "Solidarity" were carried on the negotiations at the Round Table in the Namiestnikowski Palace in Warsaw. The result was an agreement of the government to the participation of "Solidarity" in the Sejm elections, which were appointed at 4 June. Solidarity won all seats for which it could compete according to the Round Table Agreement. It was the beginning of big changes for all Europe.

After the political transformation, the Sejm passed an act, which reinstated the Warsaw city government (18 May 1990).

In 1995, the Warsaw Metro opened. It had been built since 1983. In 2002, city Wesoła was incorporated into Warsaw and capital of Poland expanded again by another . In March 2021, plans were announced to add a third line to the city’s metro system, connecting the city centre with the district of Praga-Południe on the right (east) bank of the Vistula river, and later also with Ochota and Mokotów as a major part of a wider “New Opening” project that also included new pedestrian and cycling infrastructure in central parts of Warsaw. On 28 September 2022, three new Warsaw metro stations were opened, increasing the number of Warsaw Metro stations to 36 and its length to 38,3 kilometers. In February 2023, Warsaw’s mayor, Rafał Trzaskowski, announced plans to more than double the size of the city’s metro system by 2050.

With the entry of Poland into the European Union in 2004, Warsaw experienced the biggest economic boom of its history. Another important stimulator of the economy was the European football championship in Poland and Ukraine in 2012. Five matches, including the opening match, took place in Warsaw. The city also hosted the 2013 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the 2016 NATO Summit.

As of August 2022, Warsaw had received around 180,000 refugees from Ukraine, because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The amount means a tenth of the Polish capital’s population of 1.8 million — the largest single group of  Ukrainian refugees anywhere.

Historical images

See also
 Siege of Warsaw (1939)
 Siege (1940 film)
 Warsaw concentration camp
 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
 Warsaw Uprising
 Warsaw Pact
 List of presidents of Warsaw
 Warsaw pogrom (1881)
 Timeline of Warsaw

References

Further reading

Published in the 18th and 19th centuries

Published in the 20th century

External links

 Historical Museum of Warsaw
 History of Warsaw
 Warsaw 1935 - virtual reconstruction of pre-World War II Warsaw
 Architecture of pre-war Warsaw
 The Virtual Jewish History Tour, Warsaw
 Jews in Warsaw (from Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971)


Muirchertach Nár mac Guairi (died 668) was a possible King of Connacht from the Ui Fiachrach Aidhne branch of the Connachta. He was the son of Guaire Aidne mac Colmáin (died 663), famous in Irish sagas.

The Irish king lists such as contained in The Book of Leinster do not list Muirchertach as king but have instead Cenn Fáelad mac Colgan (died 682) as the successor to Guaire. Only the Chronicum Scotorum of the Irish annals mentions him as king of Connacht in his death obit. A number of annals record the death of his brother Cellach in 666 however during the plague years.

The Annals of Innisfallen records an event under the year 665 in which the Connachta fought a battle with the Munstermen at Loch Fén (Loughfane, Limerick, Co.) but there is no mention of who won or whether it was fought by the Connachta or just the Ui Fiachrach Aidhne.

Notes

See also
Kings of Connacht

References
 Chronicum Scotorum
 Annals of Innisfallen
 T.M.Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland
 Francis J. Byrne, Irish Kings and High-Kings
 Book of Leinster, Section 30
 The Chronology of the Irish Annals, Daniel P. McCarthy

External links
CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts at University College Cork

668 deaths
Kings of Connacht
Nobility from County Galway
7th-century Irish monarchs
Year of birth unknown


Hawkesbury Junction or Sutton Stop () is a canal junction in England, at the northern limit of the Oxford Canal where it meets the Coventry Canal, near Hawkesbury Village, Warwickshire, between Bedworth and Coventry. The alternative name, Sutton Stop, arises from the name of a family which provided several lock keepers there in the nineteenth century.

History
The Coventry Canal was authorised by an Act of Parliament in 1768, and although the long term aim was to link Coventry to the Grand Trunk Canal, (later called the Trent and Mersey Canal), the first priority was to reach the coalfields at Bedworth, so that coal could be shipped to Coventry. The first  were completed in 1769, and coal traffic proved profitable. The Oxford Canal was authorised in that year, and was built as a contour canal by James Brindley, which made it rather inefficient for the transport of goods. Brindley died in 1772, and the line from Coventry to Banbury was completed by Samuel Simcock in 1778.

The junction between the canals was the source of great controversy. The Oxford Canal's Act of Parliament contained clauses which stipulated that both companies had the right to the tolls on the other's canal for certain traffic which passed between them. Thus the tolls for all coal traffic on the first  of the Oxford Canal were to go to the Coventry company, while tolls which the Coventry Canal collected for the first  of travel by all goods except coal which had passed through the junction were to be given to the Oxford company. The junction was originally to be located at Gosford Green, but Brindley changed his mind while the bill was in Parliament, and tried to get the junction moved to Bedworth. This would have deprived the Coventry Canal of tolls on all coal traffic using the Oxford Canal, and so a compromise was reached. Longford was chosen as the site for the junction, and the compensation clauses were added to ensure that the Coventry Canal received much the same revenue as it would have done, had the junction been at Gosford. It was a complicated solution, and required both canals to run parallel to one another for some distance.

The Oxford company sought ways to alter the solution. First they tried offering £1,500 to the Coventry Canal, in the hope that the compensation clauses would not be enacted. Then they tried to obtain a second Act of Parliament, which would remove the clauses, but this was defeated by opposition from the Coventry Canal and its supporters. Their next tactic was to plan a bypass, which would connect to the Birmingham Canal system, and avoid the need for a junction altogether. This failed, and so they did nothing for two years, but in 1776 made another attempt to reach agreement. They agreed that they would accept the compensation payments if the Coventry Canal completed their line to Fradley Junction within five years. The Coventry company replied by suggesting that if the junction was opened immediately, and trade could only pass between the canals at the junction, they would build their line to Fradley as soon as possible. If they failed to reach Fradley in seven years, no compensation claims would be made until the link was made. The Oxford company then suggested that they should assist the Coventry company to build a canal to the Staffordshire collieries, but the offer was not welcomed.

Finally, the Coventry Canal took legal action. They obtained a mandamus writ from the Court of King's Bench, which compelled the Oxford company to open the junction. The junction was opened on 15 April 1777 at Longford. There was an error in the levels, and whereas a level junction controlled by a stop lock was anticipated, the Oxford Canal was about  higher, which resulted in it losing water to the Coventry Canal every time the lock was used. The canals ran parallel for , costing the boatmen time and the carriers money. Sir Roger Newdigate described the whole thing as "a very troublesome contrivance".

The junction was moved to its present location in 1803. In commercial carrying times, the junction was a major rendezvous for working boats awaiting orders for their next cargo from the many pits in the area.

A stop lock on the Oxford Canal isolates the water levels of the two original canal companies, with the Oxford being a little higher. A disused engine house, built in 1821, stands on the western bank of the Coventry Canal. It originally housed a Newcomen steam engine, which was brought from Griff Colliery, where it had already worked for 100 years, and which was used to pump water from mines in the area to supply the canal. By 1913, the developing shafts of the Coventry Colliery had reached below the geographical reach of the pump engine. Named Lady Godiva, it was decommissioned in 1913 but left in place, and eventually moved to the Dartmouth Museum in the 1960s, as the Newcomen Memorial Engine. The canal provided an immediate outlet for the colliery's pumped-out water ingress.

Location
From the junction, the Coventry Canal heads to the south-west and is level to Coventry Basin, a distance of . To the north, it joins the Ashby Canal at Marston Junction,  away, and the pound is level until the top lock of the Atherstone flight of eleven locks is reached,  from the junction. The character of the Oxford Canal between the junction and Braunston, where it joins the Grand Union Canal, was completely changed in the 1830s, when the winding bends of Brindley's contour canal were replaced by straight cuts which required embankments, cuttings and aqueducts, but the scheme reduced the distance to Braunston from  to . The canal is level from the stop lock to Hillmorton Locks,  away. There are three pairs of locks at Hillmorton, as each was duplicated when the canal was straightened, to cope with the volume of traffic.

See also

List of conservation areas in the West Midlands
Oxford Canal
Tooley's Boatyard

Bibliography

References

Canal junctions in England
Stop locks
Conservation areas in England


In My Quiet Room is an album by Harry Belafonte, released by RCA Victor (LPM-3571 and LSP-3571) in 1966.  The orchestra was conducted by Howard A. Roberts and arranged by Hugo Montenegro, with musical coordination by Bill Eaton.

Track listing
"Quiet Room" (Fred Hellerman, Fran Minkoff) – 4:38
 "Portrait of a Sunday Afternoon" (Hellerman, Minkoff) – 3:15
"Raindrops" (Mike Settle) – 2:33
"Our Time for Loving" (Hellerman, Minkoff) – 5:11
"The Honey Wind Blows" (Hellerman, Minkoff) – 3:40
"The Girls in their Summer Dresses" (Jim Friedman) – 3:45
 "Long About Now" (Hellerman, Minkoff) – 4:24
 "I'm Just a Country Boy" (Fred Brooks, Marshall Barer) – 3:43
 "Summertime Love" (Frank Loesser) – 3:45
 "Try to Remember" (Tom Jones, Harvey Schmidt) – 4:04

Personnel
Harry Belafonte – vocals
Orchestra conducted by Howard A. Roberts
Arrangements by Hugo Montenegro
Production notes:
Andy Wisell – producer
Bob Simpson – engineer
Bill Eaton – musical coordinator

Chart positions

References

1966 albums
Harry Belafonte albums
RCA Victor albums
Albums arranged by Hugo Montenegro
Albums conducted by Howard Roberts


Elnur Hüseynov  (born 3 March 1987) is an Azerbaijani singer. He was Azerbaijan's representative to perform "Day After Day" at the Eurovision Song Contest 2008 alongside Samir Javadzadeh as duo Elnur and Samir. In 2015, he won the fourth season of The Voice of Turkey and represented Azerbaijan in the 60th Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Hour of the Wolf".

Career
Hüseynov was born in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, to ethnic Azeri parents. His father was a military serviceman and his mother specializes in music theory. At age five, Elnur was admitted to a music school where he was trained as a piano player. In 1999, the family moved to Baku, Azerbaijan, where Elnur studied at a medical school and graduated with a degree in dentistry. In 2004, he graduated from the Asaf Zeynally Music College and took up hairstylist courses. He worked shortly at the Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre and with the choir group of the Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Society, in addition to singing in a church choir.

In 2003, he received first prize in the musical competition Sing Your Song aired on Azerbaijan's Lider TV.

Eurovision Song Contest 2008

Elnur Huseynov and Samir Javadzadeh were selected to represent Azerbaijan at the Eurovision Song Contest 2008, marking the country's debut in this song contest. Identified as the duo Elnur and Samir, together they sang "Day After Day". They were placed eighth in the finals. Following the contest, the duo split.

Further career moves
In December 2009, Elnur Hüseynov announced his intention to move permanently to Ukraine to further pursue his musical career. In June 2010, Elnur Hüseynov performed the part of Phoebus in the musical Notre-Dame de Paris, which was staged in Heydar Aliyev Palace.

In October 2010, he submitted an application to represent Azerbaijan at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 but did not compete in the semifinals, with the exception of making a cameo appearance in one of the performances of the semifinalist Diana Hajiyeva.

Elnur Hüseynov later performed in the Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall.

O Ses Türkiye

In 2014, Huseynov, while on a visit to Istanbul applied to take part in season 4 of O Ses Türkiye, the Turkish version of The Voice. During the blind auditions, and on the 19th session broadcast on 1 December 2014 broadcast on the Turkish station TV8, singing "Latch" from the British garage-house duo Disclosure featuring vocals from Sam Smith. All four judges turned their chairs. Upon insistence of the judges and the public, he also performed on his audition five additional traditional and pop tunes, including "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)" from Eurythmics and "Aşk" from Sertab Erener. Judge Gökhan Özoğuz joined on stage to sing with the contestant in his final audition rendition. With rave comments and comments from all judges, he opted to be on judge Ebru Gündeş's team.

The strong favourite throughout the season, on 18 February 2015, Elnur Hüseynov was declared the winner of the O Ses Türkiye season, with Kaya Aslantepe as runner-up.

His performances during the season:
 1 December 2014: Blind audition: "Latch". All four judges turned chairs. In Team Ebru Gündeş
 30 December 2014: Duel round: "Stayin' Alive" against Ümit Ortaç. Safe
 21 January 2015: One on One round: "Golden Eye" against Şermin Özlem Turhan. Safe
 4 February 2015: Cross matches: "Get Lucky" against Seda Yiyin. Next round by score 56-44
 11 February 2015: Live show 1: ""Exogenesis Symphony Part 1" against Sarper Arda Akkaya and Ceyda Tezemir. Won by public vote and in Final 8
 17 February 2015: Quarter Finals - first song: "Yalgızam" (in Final 6)
 17 February 2015: Semi Finals - second song: "Vur Yüreğim" (in Final 4)
 18 February 2015: Finals (four contestants)
 First part: "O Sole Mio" & "Aşk" - In Final 3 - Zeo Jaweed of Team Hadise eliminated
 Second part: "Latch" - In Final 2 - Emrah Güllü of Team Gökhan eliminated
 Third part: "Latch" - Season Winner - Kaya Aslantepe of Team Gökhan runner-up

Eurovision Song Contest 2015

Elnur Hüseynov represented Azerbaijan for a second time in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015 with the song "Hour of the Wolf". He finished in 12th place in the final.

See also
 Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest
 Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008
 Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015

References

External links

1987 births
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Azerbaijan
21st-century Azerbaijani male singers
Countertenors
English-language singers from Azerbaijan
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2008
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 2015
Living people
People from Ashgabat
Turkmenistan people of Azerbaijani descent
Azerbaijani pop musicians
The Voice (franchise) winners


Aubert Pallascio (August 19, 1937 – July 5, 2020) was a Canadian actor. Pallascio trained at the CNSAD and for a period of time worked under the pseudonym Luis Aubert. He has performed on the stages of the Théâtre du Nouveau Monde, Théâtre du Rideau Vert, Théâtre Denise-Pelletier, Trident and Théâtre Jean-Duceppe among others. His notable television credits include roles in Terre humaine, Le parc des Braves, L'Héritage and Omertà. Pallascio portrayed the Canadian Prime Minister in the 1980 film The Kidnapping of the President. He was nominated in 1996 for a Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role for his role in Black List (Liste noire).

Death
He died on July 5, 2020, at the age of 82 in Montreal after a battle with cancer.

Filmography

References

External links

1937 births
2020 deaths
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male television actors
French Quebecers
Male actors from Montreal
Place of birth missing


Winners of the West is a 1921 American silent Western film serial directed by Edward Laemmle. This serial is considered to be a lost film.

Cast
 Art Acord as Arthur Standish / The Mysterious Spaniard
 Myrtle Lind as Betty Edwards
 Burton Law as John C. Fremont (credited as Burton C. Law)
 J. Herbert Frank as Squire Blair (credited as Bert Frank)
 Burton S. Wilson as Dr. Edwards (credited as Burt Wilson)
 Jim Corey as Godney
 Scott Pembroke as Louis Blair (credited as Percy Pembroke)
 Bob Kortman as Sioux Warrior (uncredited)

Chapter titles
Power of Gold
Blazing Arrow
Perils of the Plains
The Flame of Hate
The Fight for a Fortune
Buried Alive
Fires of Fury
Pit of Doom
Chasm of Peril
Sands of Fear
Poisoned Pool
Duel in the Night
Web of Fate
Trail of Mystery
Unmasked
Hidden Gold
Cave of Terror
The End of the Trail

See also
 List of film serials
 List of film serials by studio
 List of lost films

References

External links

1921 films
1921 lost films
1921 Western (genre) films
American silent serial films
American black-and-white films
English-language Western (genre) films
Universal Pictures film serials
Films directed by Edward Laemmle
Lost American Western (genre) films
Silent American Western (genre) films
1920s American films
1920s English-language films


Lodderena nana is a species of minute sea snail or micromollusc, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Skeneidae.

Description
The height of the shell attains 0.46 mm, its diameter 0.72 mm.

Subspecies
 Lodderena nana nana Powell, 1930
 Lodderena nana pooki Fleming, 1948

Distribution
This marine species is endemic to New Zealand.

References

 Powell A.W.B. (1930) New species of New Zealand Mollusca from shallow-water dredgings. Part 2. Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand 61: 536-546. page(s): 541
 Powell A. W. B., New Zealand Mollusca, William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1979

nana
Gastropods of New Zealand
Gastropods described in 1930


Gyan Bharati School is an English medium co-educational school, established in 1980. It is located in Saket next to PVR, New Delhi, India, and has classes from Nursery to the 12th standard. The school has 8 houses: Abhimanyu (Light Blue), Bharat (Violet), Dhruv (Indigo), Kasturba (Green), Prahlad (Yellow), Shravan (Orange), Lakshmibai (Red) & Siddharth (Maroon).

The founding Principal of this school was M. N. Kapur. It is owned by the Ansal Group.

Overview
Facilities include cricket pitch, football field, ground hockey field, running track, basketball court, open air amphitheatre, indoor auditorium and library. The director of the school is Mrs Lata Vaidyanathan.

See also
Education in India
List of schools in India
List of schools in Delhi affiliated with CBSE

References

External links
 Gyan Bharati School website
 Central Board of Secondary Education

Schools in Delhi
Educational institutions established in 1980
1980 establishments in Delhi


Crocodile Shop (later simply Croc Shop) is an electro-industrial aggrotech EBM band formed in Berlin, Germany in 1987 by Mick Hale and R. A. Werner from New Jersey.

Background
Crocodile Shop was formed after Hale and Werner ended their previous new wave project, Mod Fun. They became inspired by the "darker" post-punk sounds of Joy Division, New Order, Wire, Red Lorry Yellow Lorry and The Jesus and Mary Chain, which deviated from the styles that other members of the band favored. Over a two week period during a European tour the band fell apart, clearing the way for Hale and Werner to start a new band. According to the band's official website, the name "Crocodile Shop" was just something the group entitled a demo tape as a reminder of its contents, and the name stuck.

Originally a three-piece band (guitar, bass and drums) with drummer John Figlar of Lord John fame, the group's first release was the 1987 EP entitled "Head" released on the Minneapolis-based Susstones Records. At the time, the group had a strong indie rock sound which they rapidly evolved from; eventually referring to "Head" as their version of Ministry's "With Sympathy" which was unrepresentative of the band. The following full-length album "Lullaby", produced by Chameleons UK's Dave Fielding, developed their overall sound further towards gothic and included more dark guitar work. Eventually, the band would also slowly abandon the "guitar goth" sound, first replacing their drummer with a drum machine, releasing the Red Lorry Yellow Lorry influenced "Measure By Measure" EP and then finally with the addition of keyboard player V. Markus, (who was influenced by the likes of Front 242, Laibach and Nitzer Ebb), they turned to an entirely electronic-based outfit. The band followed up with the fully electro-industrial sounding EP "Technological Optimism".

Crocodile Shop's debut on CD  came about in 1993 with the release of the album "Celebrate the Enemy" on Tinman Records. The album, produced by Chris Randall of Wax Trax! Records and Sister Machine Gun, was a clean blend of the latest electro-sounds and mixed elements of trance, break-beat, and EBM. An Alternative Press review described the work as "a hard and harsh blend of high energy rock with the melodic aspects of electro and the high angst of industrialism." The album was followed up by the remix EP "Crush Your Enemies" which was also praised on the dance floor.

In 1995, Crocodile Shop signed to Metropolis Records and continued to expand their repertoire releasing the full-length albums "Beneath" in 1996 and "Pain" in 1997. The remix EPs "Metalwerks" and "Soviet" also followed the studio albums. Also released was "Live Action", a 777-copy limited edition live performance recorded in Germany and distributed on SubMission/SPV label.

As the band's popularity in the electro-underground grew, Mick Hale began working on other side projects releasing two electro-dub albums under the name Division #9, and teaming up with V. Markus as progGREX.iv. The band had also gone on to produce remixes for such artists as Collide, Battery, and Android Lust.

After extensive tours over the next few years, in 1999, the band recruited new member Len9 and changed their musical direction once again. With Len9's influences and taking advantage of the newest and more affordable synthesizer technology that was out there, the door opened for new possibilities in their sound. They released "Everything is Dead and Gone" which was followed in 2000 by "Order + Joy", under the shortened name Croc Shop. (The album's title is a play off two of the group's original influences: New Order and Joy Division). Belgium's SIDE-LINE magazine called "Order + Joy" Crocodile Shop's "best album ever", hailing it as a return to their earlier and gritter EBM sound. "Order + Joy" was followed by the remix EP "Wrong" which was released on CD and distributed exclusively through their website.

In 2002 the band released "World" which, while continuing much of the EBM sound of "Order + Joy", represented another shift in the music style to a cleaner Synth Pop vibe. While the band embarked on another tour they released a remix EP for "World" called "Translated", and again, it saw exclusive distribution over the internet.  In 2004 they released the 2 cd best of "CS_Sea: Self Extracting Archive" with 37 tracks covering all their releases, after which they took a long break and returned with the "Resist!" full length in 2020; followed almost immediately by another 30-song collection entitled "The Rest In Pieces," featuring nearly all the back catalogue tracks that did not appear on "CS_Sea."  These latest releases can both be found at all the streaming online outlets.

The band has in the past shared the stage with such acts as Nitzer Ebb, Front 242, Project Pitchfork, Switchblade Symphony and Rammstein.

Discography

Albums
 Lullaby - LP (1988) Susstones
 Celebrate the Enemy - CD (1994) Tinman
 Beneath - CD (1996) Metropolis
 Pain - CD  (1997) Metropolis
 Everything is Dead and Gone - CD (1999) Metropolis – #39 CMJ RPM Charts
As Croc Shop
 Order + Joy - CD (2000) Metropolis
 World - CD (2002) Metropolis
 Resist! - Digital (2020) DAMN!
 Perpetual Sequence - Digital  (2021) Metropolis

EPs
 Head - 12" (1987) Susstones
 Measure By Measure - 7" (1989) Susstones
 Technological Optimism - 12"  DAMN!
 Celebrate the Enemy - 12" (1993) Danse Assembly Productions
 Crush Your Enemies - CD (1995) Tinman
 Metalwerks - CD  (1997) Out of Line
 Soviet - CD  (1998) Tinman

Compilations
 Self Extracting Archive - 1987-2004 - A Collection - 2xCD (2004) DAMN!

Compilation appearances
 It's Midnight Xmess Part III - LP side #2 track #2 "December Mourning" (1987) Midnight Records
 Rivet Head Culture - CD track #17 "Growing Stronger (Steroid Mix)" (1993) If It Moves...
 There Is No Time - 4xCD disc #4 track #7 "Celebrate the Enemy" (1995) Ras Dva Records
 Sound-Line Vol. 4 - CD track #10 "Growing Stronger (The Fuhs Remix)" (1997) Side-Line
 100 Tears - A Tribute to The Cure - CD track #7 "Let's Go to Bed" (1997) Cleopatra
 Awake the Machines - On the Line Vol. 2 - 2xCD disc #1 track #2 "Blinding" (1997) Out of Line, Sub/Mission Records
 Bodyhorst's Popshow - CD track #7 "Some Nothing" (1997) Zoth Ommog Records
 Vertigo Compilation 01/1997''' - CD track #9 "High and Deep" (1997) Celtic Circle Productions
 Empire One - CD track #1 Celebrate the Enemy, track #8 "Soviet (Colder)", and track #16 "Grey Day Reign" (1998) Tinman Records
 Hymns of the Warlock - A Tribute to Skinny Puppy - CD track #7 "The Choke" (1998) Cleopatra, Synthetic Symphony
 Sounds from the Asylum 1 - CD track #12 "Funeral March (SMP Remix)" (1998) Base Asylum
 Five Years of Electronic Tears - 2xCD disc #2 track #10 "Waiting Game" (1999) Cyberware Productions
 Metropolis 1999 - CD track #9 "Core" (1999) Metropolis
 Base Asylum - Sounds form the Asylum Two - 2xCD disc #2 track #1 "Useless (Sanity's Edge Remix)" (2000) Base Asylum
 Critical M@55 - CD track #13 "Order + Joy (Dessau Remix)" (2000) Metropolis
 Cryonica Tanz V.1 - 2xCD disc #2 track #6 "New Ideal (UK Remix)" (2000) Cryonica Music
 Electropolis: Volume 2 -  CD track #6 "Order + Joy (Exclusive Remix)" (2000) Metropolis
 Essential Industrial Masters - 3xCD disc #3 track #7 "The Choke" (2001) Big Eye Music
 Critical M@55 Volume 4 - CD (listed as Croc Shop) track #6 "World (Global Mix)" 2001 Metropolis
 Tinman 21 - Promo CD track #2 World, and track #9 "Higher" (2002) Tinman Records
 Futronik Structures 4 - CD (listed as Croc Shop) track #5 "Nu Precedence" (2003) DSBP Records
 Interbreeding II: Industrial Mutation - 2xCD (listed as Croc Shop) disc #2 track #13 "Hide (V 1.3)" (2003) BLC Productions
 Fully Automated: The Headache Remixes - CD (listed as Croc Shop) track #4 "Generation (2nd Generation Mix)" (2004) Uncoiled Loops Production
 State of Synthpop 2005'' - 6xCD (listed as Croc Shop) disc #5 track #2 "Safe Harbour" (2005) A Different Drum

References

External links
Croc Shop Official Site
Croc Shop on MySpace

Electro-industrial music groups
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups from New Jersey
American industrial music groups
Metropolis Records artists


Christos Melissis, (; born 1 December 1982) is a Greek football player who played for Sudanese club Al-Hilal Omdurman. He has played in the past for Naoussa, Panserraikos, PAOK, Panathinaikos, Larissa, Panthrakikos, Marítimo in Portugal and the Greece national football team. He usually plays as a center back but when called upon he is used as a right back or a defensive midfielder.

Playing career
He started his career in Naoussa, and then played for five years in Panserraikos before attracting the interesting of PAOK. He was signed by PAOK Thessaloniki FC in January 2006 and has become an important first team player ever since. He scored his first goal for PAOK in a home game versus Aris FC in 2007.

In the last games of the 2007–08 season he was named captain of the PAOK Thessaloniki FC squad, indicating his role for the years to come and rewarding his commitment. He is very good in air, with good technique.

On 28 July 2008 he was transferred from PAOK to Panathinaikos for a fee of 2,000,000 € plus Filippos Darlas. He played in 11 games of the team's 2008–09 season but his appearances were not convincing and on 31 August 2009 he was loaned to AEL for one year, making a total of 29 appearances and scoring 1 goal.

On 31 September 2010, Melissis completed a loan move to the Portuguese Club Sport Marítimo, but failed to make a single appearance for the club. On 19 January 2011, he rejoined his old club Larissa on loan.

After having not appeared in a single league game for Panathinaikos during the 2011–12 season, Melissis left the club after his contract ran out in June 2012.

In summer 2013, Melissis signed a contract with Olympiakos Volou 1937 F.C. He made his debut against Glyfada F.C. and he scored his first goal against Fostiras F.C. in a 5–1 home win. In January 2015, he signed a 1,5-year contract with Panthrakikos returning to Super League after a year. On 11 January 2015, he debuted with the club in a 1–1 home draw against Atromitos. On 28 November 2015, he scored in a surprise away victory for Panthrakikos, its first at 2015-16 season against Atromitos helping his club to escape with a 2–1 win.

On 24 June 2016, Melissis signed a one-year contract with Superleague side Veria F.C.

On 26 October 2017, Melissis signed a two-years contract with Sudanese club Al-Hilal Omdurman

International career
He was called to the Greece national football team for the first time on 1 February 2008, and made his debut against the Czech Republic on 5 February. He was recalled to the national team for a friendly against Cyprus and so on 19 May 2008, he earned his second cap coming on as a second-half substitute.

References

External links

1982 births
Living people
Greek men's footballers
Greece men's international footballers
Greek expatriate men's footballers
PAOK FC players
Panathinaikos F.C. players
Panserraikos F.C. players
Athlitiki Enosi Larissa F.C. players
Naoussa F.C. players
C.S. Marítimo players
Veria F.C. players
Greek expatriates in Portugal
Super League Greece players
Men's association football central defenders
Footballers from Edessa, Greece


The Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN) is an international non-governmental organization (NGO) established in 1949 in conjunction with the formation of the Council of Europe. FUEN is an umbrella organization, as of 2023, it has more than 100 member organizations representing ethnic, linguistic and national minorities within Europe. FUEN has been instrumental in encouraging the Council of Europe to adopt the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. FUEN was organized to give expression to European cultures and languages that do not possess form as a nation-state. One in seven Europeans are members of such minorities and fifty-three languages are spoken in Europe by such minorities.

Its predecessor was the pre-war European Congress of Nations () founded by Ewald Ammende. The Congress published a journal "Nation und Staat" (1927–1944).

FUEN organises the Europeada association football tournament. In 2017-2018, FUEN collected 1,124,322 signatures from EU citizens for the Minority SafePack European Citizens' Initiative.

It is based in Flensburg, Germany, with offices in Berlin and Brussels. Its president is Lóránt Vincze, Hungarian from Romania and MEP.

See also
Minority SafePack
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
European Centre for Minority Issues
European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages

References

External links
Official site
Language Diversity Portal

International organizations based in Europe
Stateless nationalism in Europe
Ethnic minorities
Organizations established in 1949
Non-profit organisations based in Schleswig-Holstein
Minority rights activists


Schaefer (along with various similar spellings) is a surname of Germanic origin.

Schaefer, Schaffer, or Shafer may also refer to:

Places
Cities and towns:
 Schaffer, Kansas, an unincorporated community in Rush County
 Shafer, Minnesota, a city in Chisago County
 Shafer Township, Chisago County, Minnesota, the township adjacent to the city
 Schaffer, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Delta County
 Schafer, North Dakota, an unincorporated community in McKenzie County
Landforms
 Lake Shafer, Indiana
 Schaefer Head, mountain in Pennsylvania
 Schaefer Islands, Antarctica
 Shafer Peak, Antarctica
 Shaffer Creek, a tributary of Brush Creek in Bedford County, Pennsylvania

Other uses
 Schäferhund, German Shepherd Dog
 Schaefer Beer, a brand of beer from the United States
 Shaffer (company), a wholly owned subsidiary of National Oilwell Varco
 Schaefer Music Festival, formerly an annual music festival held in New York City's Central Park
 Schaffer paragraph, a five-sentence paragraph style developed by Jane Schaffer, used to write essay
 Willi Schaefer, a German wine grower and producer based in the Mosel wine region of Germany.

See also
 Schaeffer (surname)
 Schafer automation system, a system for automating radio station programming
 Schaefer-Bergmann diffraction, the resulting diffraction pattern of light interacting with sound waves in transparent crystals or glasses
 Schaffer collaterals, given off by CA3 pyramidal cells in the hippocampus
 Shafer Commission, another name for the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse formed in the 1970s to study marijuana abuse in the United States
 Schaefer's theorem, either of two unrelated mathematical theorems


Yakov Nikolaevich Korotayev () (1892, Onon-Borzya railway station - 1937) was a Soviet partisan in Transbaikal during the Russian Civil War.

He was a Baikal Cossack and participant of World War I in the Persian Campaign. After the end of th,e war Korotayev returned to Transbaikal and joined the Soviets in their struggle against Ataman Grigory Semyonov on the Transbaikal Front. After the fall of the Soviets in Siberia in the summer of 1918 he was one of the founders of the Altagachansky Commune, the nucleus of the Partisan resistance to Grigory Semyonov's troops and the Japanese Expeditionary Corps. In December 1919 Koroayev headed the 1st Cavalry Regiment. After Pavel Zhuravlev's death he was appointed the commander-in-chief of the Eastern Transbaikalian Front. At the outbreak of the three operattons of retakin,g Chita all partisan formations were reorganized into regular t,roops and Korotayev headed the Transbaikal Cavalry Division named after him. He was decorated with the Order of the Red Banner.

After the Russian Civil War Korotayev served at many military posts. He was repressed and shot during the Purge of 1937-1938.

People of the Russian Civil War
History of Zabaykalsky Krai
1892 births
1937 deaths


The Maryland Drydock Company was a shipbuilding company that operated in Baltimore, Maryland during the 20th century.

The company started life in 1920 as the Globe Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Maryland. Its president at this time was B. C. Cooke. The company bought land along the Patapsco River across the Bay from Fort McHenry. It later changed its name to the simpler "Maryland Drydock Company". Sometime after 1950, its name was changed again, to the Maryland Shipbuilding and Drydock Company.

Maryland Drydock specialized in ship conversions, upgrades and repairs rather than with shipbuilding per se. During World War II, the company was employed in the conversion of numerous warships built at other yards for the US war effort. Unlike many other shipbuilding companies of the period, it survived the postwar downturn in the shipbuilding industry.

In 1970, the company's yard in Baltimore was purchased by the Fruehauf Trailer Corporation which spent $30 million upgrading the site. Adverse economic conditions caused the yard to close in 1984 and much of the site was razed, although one drydock was preserved and was being used by Kurt Metal for the scrapping of old ships in 1995.

Not counting the many vessels "jumbosized" there, a total of at least eighteen vessels were built during the shipyard's history.

List of vessels built by the company

This is an incomplete list.

Gov. Harry W. Nice (ferry), keel laid September 15, 1937, launched December 11, 1937 and delivered to the Claiborne-Annapolis Ferry Company April 30, 1938. Later sold and used in Puget Sound.
Gov. Herbert R. O'Conor (ferry), launched 1946, used in Puget Sound.
M/V Islander (ferry), launched 1950.
 M/V North River, launched 1974, still in service for New York City DEP. (Photo).

References

Defunct shipbuilding companies of the United States
Defunct companies based in Baltimore
Water transportation in Maryland

Fruehauf Trailer Corporation
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Maryland


In espionage terminology, honeypot and honey trap are terms for an operational practice involving the use of a covert agent (usually female), to create a sexual or romantic relationship to compromise a (usually male) target. The operator may be a government spy service or organized crime syndicate and the target, or victim, can unwittingly provide intelligence or perform other services for the operator. These situations are a very common trope in spy fiction and media portrayals of female espionage. Variations include same-sex relationships and complications may involve the covert agent falling in love with the target.

Examples

Literature
In the Tom Clancy novel Rainbow Six (1998), Kirk McLean is used as a honey trap in order to recruit subjects for testing the Shiva virus.
 In the Alex Rider novel Nightshade (2012), it is revealed that MI6 chief of operations Mrs Jones was seduced by a Russian honeytrap while she was starting her career: they married and had children together, but he eventually escaped once his cover was blown, later selling their children to the terrorist group/cult Nightshade to be brainwashed into unconventional assassins.

Feature films
In Spione (Spies, 1928), Fritz Lang's silent spy thriller, the diabolical villain deploys two different female honeypots to ensnare his adversaries.
In Super Troopers, Captain John O'Hagen refers to the honeypot when Foster falls for, and is presumably betrayed by, female officer Ursula Hanson.
In The Green Berets, Colonel Cai uses his sister-in-law, a top Vietnamese/French fashion model named Lin, as a honey trap to lure a North Vietnamese general commanding Viet Cong forces to a former French colonial mansion so he can be captured by Special Forces personnel.
In The Interview Dave Skylark accuses CIA Agent Lacey of being a honeypot when she recruits him to assassinate Kim Jong-un.
North by Northwest has Eva Marie Saint as both the honeypot and a double agent
In Munich, Avner says: "beware the local honey trap" of a seductive woman at a bar who turns out to be an assassin, killing one of the team. She is later tracked and murdered in retaliation.
Traffic features a same-sex honeytrap
In Bad Boys 2, Martin Lawrence's character refers to his sister as a honeypot for the DEA.
 In The Recruit, Bridget Moynahan seduces Colin Farrell in a bar as part of her CIA training. After successfully leading him out of the bar, she utters 'Op completed', and says her operation was to prevent him from completing his.
In the 1970 film Darling Lili starring Julie Andrews and Rock Hudson, Julie Andrews plays a German spy in World War I using her womanly charms to secure Allied secrets from an American officer, played by Rock Hudson.

Television
 In Criminal Minds, Emily Prentiss is a honeypot who seduces former IRA terrorist Ian Doyle.
 In Strike Back, a honey pot agent is ordered to sleep with Sgt. John Porter in order to boost his confidence.
In an episode of Life on Mars, Sam Tyler arrests the henchman of a local Mr. Big, only to be humiliated in a honey trap.
The M*A*S*H episode "Are you now, Margaret?" from September 24, 1979.
In Alias, Laura Bristow, the mother of the central character Sydney Bristow was a honeypot.
In Battlestar Galactica, a copy of Sharon "Boomer" Valerii, pretending to be the real Valerii, staged a rescue of the stranded Helo on occupied Caprica. The rescue mission was an elaborate ruse to get Helo to fall in love with Valerii, but backfired when Valerii also fell in love and betrayed her own people to flee with Helo.
 In Archer, the honeypot is a commonly referred to style of espionage.  It is specifically dealt with in the fifth episode of the series, named Honeypot, in which the main character, Archer, is sent on an unorthodox mission required to seduce and have sex with another man in order to recover a video disc.

Video games
 In the game Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic, the player character can defend a Republic agent accused of murder. It is revealed that the murder victim was a Sith woman sent to seduce the Republic agent and gain information.
 In Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, EVA is a honeypot as well as a double agent.

James Bond novels and films
 In the novel Casino Royale and its 2006 film adaptation, Vesper Lynd is a double agent—for SMERSH in the novel, and  Quantum in the film. In the film, it is revealed that Vesper Lynd was herself recruited by a male honeypot, and Bond's search for this male honeypot drives Bond's actions throughout much of the film's sequel, Quantum of Solace.
 In From Russia, with Love, SMERSH uses Tatiana Romanova in an attempt to lure James Bond to his death. In the film adaptation, Romanova is instead used by SPECTRE.
In both Live and Let Die and its film adaptation, Solitaire transfers her allegiance from Mr. Big to Bond, becoming a double agent.
 In GoldenEye, Xenia Onatopp is the archetypal honey-trap assassin who can kill targets with her thighs.

See also
Honeypot (disambiguation)
Honeypot (computing)
Sexpionage

References

Spy fiction
Seduction


Eilen Jewell (born April 6, 1979) is an American singer-songwriter from Boise, Idaho. She has released 13 albums.

Early life and education
Jewell grew up in Boise, Idaho and attended St. John’s College in Santa Fe, New Mexico. After living in Boston for several years, she returned to Boise in 2015. Her 2015 album, Sundown Over Ghost Town, was largely inspired by her return to Boise.

Career
Jewell began her musical career busking on the streets of Santa Fe while attending college. She then moved to Los Angeles and performed on the streets of Venice Beach. Jewell moved to Massachusetts where she performed at local music clubs.

In December 2005, Jewell recorded a "live demo" album called Nowhere in Time and later recorded the album Boundary County with Jason Beek on percussion, Daniel Kellar on violin, Jerry Glenn Miller on guitars and Johnny Sciascia on upright bass.

Her album Letters from Sinners & Strangers, was recorded at the Signature Sounds studio in Pomfret, Connecticut.

In early 2009 Jewell released the album Sea of Tears which was called a "startling departure"  by a Sydney Morning Herald music critic.

In 2010, Jewell released the album Butcher Holler, an album of Loretta Lynn covers and in 2011, her fourth album of original music, Queen of the Minor Key.

Jewell and her band toured the U.S., Canada, Europe, the UK and Australia beginning in 2005 including performances at South by Southwest and NPR's World Cafe.

Discography
 Boundary County (2006)
 Letters from Sinners & Strangers (2007)
 Heartache Boulevard (2007) EP
 The Sacred Shakers (The Sacred Shakers) (2008)
 Sea of Tears (2009)
 Butcher Holler:  A Tribute to Loretta Lynn (2010)
 Queen of the Minor Key (2011)
 Live (The Sacred Shakers) (2014)
 Live at The Narrows (2014) 2CD
 Sundown over Ghost Town (2015)
 Down Hearted Blues (2017)
 Gypsy (2019)
Get Behind the Wheel (2023)

Notes and references

External links

1979 births
Living people
American women country singers
American country singer-songwriters
American women singer-songwriters
American street performers
Torch singers
Musicians from Boise, Idaho
Country musicians from Idaho
St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe) alumni
21st-century American singer-songwriters
21st-century American women singers
Signature Sounds artists
Singer-songwriters from Idaho


Globe Shipbuilding may refer to:
 Globe Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company of Maryland, former name of Maryland Drydock Company
 Globe Shipbuilding Company, company operated in World War I in Superior, Wisconsin that built ships for the United States Shipping Board
 Globe Shipbuilding Company, company operated in World War II in Superior, Wisconsin that built ships for the United States Maritime Commission under Walter Butler Shipbuilders

References


SACYR S.A. () is a Spanish infrastructure operator and developer company based in Madrid.

History
The company was founded in 1986 as Sociedad Anónima Caminos y Regadíos and was renamed Sacyr in 1991. The company received their first concession in 1996, which was the Chilean El Elquí highway. From this moment on, it began its expansion by adding concessions in Chile and Spain and making purchases such as that of Avasa, the highway between Bilbao and Zaragoza.

In 2002, it acquired 24.5% of Vallehermoso, a leading Spanish housing business founded in 1921. In 2003 it merged with Vallehermoso to form Sacyr Vallehermoso.

In June 2006, Isolux Corsán presented a takeover bid for Europistas at a price of 4.8 euros per share, which meant valuing the company at 646 million euros.

On December 1, 2008, an agreement between the Citigroup fund and Sacyr was announced, whereby Sacyr disposed of its subsidiary for €7,887 million, €2,874 million in cash plus €5,013 million in net debt that would be assumed by the fund. The agreement did not include concessions under development and concessions in operation that were not highways. In addition, the group would later acquire from Citigroup a series of toll roads worth €478.3 million and a series of concession activities in the launch and construction phase for a total amount of €450 million. Sacyr seeks to bring together all the concessions it holds in a new subsidiary, Sacyr Concesiones. Abertis also agreed with Citigroup to buy assets in Spain and Chile for a value of €621 million. Also, Atlantia would acquire stakes in toll roads in Portugal, Brazil and Chile for €420 million.

Major projects
Major projects involving the business include the Torre Sacyr Vallehermoso, completed in 2008.

Shareholdings
Sacyr was the largest shareholder in the Spanish oil company Repsol YPF, holding an approximate 20% stake. On December 20, 2011, Repsol YPF bought half of Sacyr's stake back in order to save the shares from being seized in a foreclosure. As of June 2021, SACYR owned 7.8% of Repsol YPF.

References

External links

Construction and civil engineering companies of Spain
Companies based in Madrid
Spanish companies established in 1999
Multinational companies headquartered in Spain
Spanish brands
Companies listed on the Madrid Stock Exchange
Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1999
IBEX 35


James "Jim" Bryan Erb (January 25, 1926 – November 11, 2014) was an American composer, arranger, musicologist, and conductor. The founding conductor of the Richmond Symphony Chorus, Erb led that chorus from 1971 to 2007 while also directing chorus activities at the University of Richmond, where he was for a while chair of the music department. Erb is most broadly known for his arrangement of the folk song "Shenandoah", and among musicologists of the Renaissance for his work on the magnificats of Orlando di Lasso published by Bärenreiter.

Career
Erb was born in La Junta, Colorado. After serving in the United States Army during World War II, Erb completed his undergraduate education in music at Colorado College. He also studied at the University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna. He later earned a master's degree in voice at Indiana University and a doctorate from Harvard University.

He began teaching music at a junior high school in Cheyenne, Wyoming. Beginning in 1954 he taught music and conducted the choirs and glee clubs at the University of Richmond in Richmond, Virginia, where he taught until his retirement in 1994. While teaching at Richmond, he was a three-time winner of the university's Distinguished Educator Award. It was during this period that he composed his arrangement of the folk tune "Shenandoah", for a tour of Europe by the University of Richmond Choir.

In addition to the Richmond Symphony Chorus, Erb also conducted the group Chorus of Alumni and Friends of the University of Richmond (CAFUR), which was originally associated with the University of Richmond. CAFUR's final concert was in 1994 with the singing of Rachmaninoff's Vespers. In 2014, he died at the age of 88 in Richmond.

Works
Erb's published arrangements include sources from classical, liturgical, and folk music. Among the better known arrangements is Erb's version of "Shenandoah", called "one of the classic arrangements sung by high school and college choirs across the country." The arrangement has been performed by numerous choirs, including the Virginia Glee Club (who commissioned the TTBB version), the Chanticleer ensemble in an arrangement that combines it with the Marshall Bartholomew version, and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, whose performance of it appeared on the soundtrack to the 1995 film Nixon.

References

External links

1926 births
2014 deaths
Colorado College alumni
University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna alumni
Indiana University alumni
Harvard University alumni
University of Richmond faculty
American male composers
20th-century American composers
American choral conductors
American male conductors (music)
People from La Junta, Colorado
20th-century American musicologists
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American composers
21st-century American musicologists
21st-century American conductors (music)
21st-century American male musicians
Classical musicians from Colorado


Chocorua is an unincorporated community within the town of Tamworth in Carroll County, New Hampshire, United States.  It is located in the general area where Routes 16 and 113 meet, south of Mount Chocorua and Chocorua Lake.

Mount Chocorua is commonly known in the area as the "Matterhorn" of the White Mountains due to its triangular summit. Chocorua Lake, along NH 16 at the southern base of the mountain, is a common stopping place for photos of the mountain landscape.

Notable people

 Truman Howe Bartlett, sculptor, Abraham Lincoln photography historian (summer resident)
 Raymond W. Bliss, Army surgeon general
 James Read Chadwick, gynecologist and medical librarian (summer resident)
 William James, philosopher and US founder of experimental psychology; died in Chocorua
 Paul Scott Mowrer, New Hampshire's first Poet Laureate; lived in Chocorua
 Hadley Richardson, the first wife of Ernest Hemingway.
 Robert I. Rotberg, former President of the World Peace Foundation (vacation resident)

References

External links
Chocorua Public Library

Unincorporated communities in New Hampshire
Unincorporated communities in Carroll County, New Hampshire
Tamworth, New Hampshire
New Hampshire placenames of Native American origin


Terence Croucher (born 1944 in Jutogh, India) is a British composer and performer based in north Cumbria, England.

He has a BA Hons, a Certificate of Education and Licentiate of the Guildhall School of Music (LGSM). His varied musical output includes orchestral and ensemble music, solo instrumental music and numerous teaching materials.

Terry Croucher has been a concert guitarist, playing classical music, rock music, blues music and jazz. For a number of years he wrote monthly columns in guitar magazines.

Over his long musical career he has played in many bands including:
 The Rod Davies Blues Band
 Blind Dogs for the Guides
 Shud B Banned
 The Solway Band

During his time with The Rob Davies Blues Band he played with many famous names including Muddy Waters. He also played with Georgie Fame at the West End Club.

During the 1970s, he co-founded the Leicester Guitar Society and the Leicester Guitar Studio with Julian Wright.

Recordings
 "Jonathan Richards Plays Latin-American Gems" (2006) - Published by: Sain. Performed by Jonathan Richards. Audio CD.
 "Elegy 20th Century Guitar Music" (2006) - Published by: Divine Art. Performed by Jonathan Richards. Audio CD.
 "Forever 30 Romantic Guitar Miniatures" (2006) - Published by: Divine Art. Performed by Jonathan Richards. Audio CD.

Sheet music
 "Elegy" - Published by: Novello. Guitar solos.
 "20 South American Melodies" - Published by: Boosey & Hawkes. Guitar solos.
 "Three Variations on a Japanese Theme" - Published by: Clarendon Music. For four guitars.
 "Divertimento for Guitar" - Published by: Clarendon Music. For guitar.
 "In the Forest ... Drawings by Marlene Croucher" - Published by: Clarendon Music. For guitar.
 "At the Zoo... Drawings by Marlene Croucher"  - Published by: Clarendon Music. For guitar.
 "By the Sea... Drawings by Marlene Croucher"  - Published by: Clarendon Music. For guitar.
 "Playford's Fancy" - Published by: Clarendon Music. For guitar and various other instruments. (Approx. 40 pieces in 7 books).

References

External links
 Terry Croucher official website

British composers
1944 births
Living people
People from Cumbria
British male guitarists
British classical guitarists
British rock guitarists
British blues guitarists
British jazz guitarists
People from Shimla district
Alumni of the Guildhall School of Music and Drama


Rached Merdassi (Arabic: رشيد المرداسي) is a Tunisian boxer who has won the Africa Games 2007 at welterweight

Career
At the AllAfrica Games he beat Ghanaian puncher Bastir Samir in the final.

At the Olympic qualification he was disqualified against Joseph Mulema from Cameroon.

References
AllAfrica
2008 qualifier

Living people
Welterweight boxers
Tunisian male boxers
African Games gold medalists for Tunisia
African Games medalists in boxing
Year of birth missing (living people)
Competitors at the 2007 All-Africa Games
21st-century Tunisian people


Polkit (formerly PolicyKit) is a component for controlling system-wide privileges in Unix-like operating systems. It provides an organized way for non-privileged processes to communicate with privileged ones. Polkit allows a level of control of centralized system policy. It is developed and maintained by David Zeuthen from Red Hat and hosted by the freedesktop.org project. It is published as free software under the terms of version 2 of the GNU Lesser General Public License.

Since version 0.105, released in April 2012, the name of the project was changed from PolicyKit to polkit to emphasize that the system component was rewritten and that the API had changed, breaking backward compatibility.

Fedora became the first distribution to include PolicyKit, and it has since been used in other distributions, including Ubuntu since version 8.04 and openSUSE since version 10.3. Some distributions, like Fedora, have already switched to the rewritten polkit.

It is also possible to use polkit to execute commands with elevated privileges using the command pkexec followed by the command intended to be executed (with root permission). However, it may be preferable to use sudo, as this command provides more flexibility and security, in addition to being easier to configure.

Implementation
The polkitd daemon implements Polkit functionality.

Vulnerability

A memory corruption vulnerability PwnKit (CVE-2021-4034) discovered in the pkexec command (installed on all major Linux distributions) was announced on January 25, 2022.  The vulnerability dates back to the original distribution from 2009. The vulnerability received a CVSS score of 7.8 ("High severity") reflecting serious factors involved in a possible exploit: unprivileged users can gain full root privileges, regardless of the underlying machine architecture or whether the polkit daemon is running or not.

See also

 Pluggable authentication module
 Principle of least privilege
 PackageKit
 User Account Control – a similar feature introduced in Windows Vista and still exists in Windows 11

References

External links

 polkit GitLab repository at freedesktop.org
 Documentation at freedesktop.org
 Why polkit explaining polkit's role in a modern system

Free software programmed in C
Freedesktop.org
Unix software


Coolio.com is the fourth studio album by American rapper Coolio. The album was released exclusively in Japan on April 18, 2001, on JVC Victor Records. The songs "I Like Girls", "Gangbangers", "Show Me Love", "Would You Still Be Mine", "Skirrrrrrrt" and "Ghetto Square Dance" would later appear on Coolio's 2002 album El Cool Magnifico.

Track listing

Coolio albums
2001 albums
Gangsta rap albums by American artists


Lovells is a London-based international law firm that merged with Hogan & Hartson in 2010 to form Hogan Lovells.

Lovells may also refer to:

 Lovells Township, Michigan, USA
 Lovells Athletic F.C., a former works football club for Lovell's sweet factory in Newport, South Wales, England
 Lovells Island, Massachusetts, USA

See also
 Lovell (disambiguation)


In computers spindling is the allocation of different files (e.g., the data files and index files of a database) on different hard disks.  This practice usually reduces contention for read or write resources, thus increasing the system's performance.

The word comes from spindle, the axis on which the hard disks spin.

Computer jargon
Databases