Brent Hill is the site of an Iron Age hill fort situated close to South Brent in Devon, England. The fort occupies the top of Brent Hill at approx 311 Metres above Sea Level.

References

External links
 Brent Hill at legendarydartmoor.co.uk

Hill forts in Devon
Hills of Devon


William Fullerton may refer to:
 William Fullerton (politician) (1888–?), Australian politician
 William Young Fullerton (1857–1932), Irish hymnwriter
 William Morton Fullerton (1865–1952), American journalist
 William Fullerton (lawyer) (1817–1900), American lawyer
 William Fullerton Jr. (1854–1888), his son, American-born composer in London
 Billy Fullerton, see the song Billy Boys
 William Fullerton (diplomat) (born 1939), British diplomat
 William Fullerton (surgeon) (died 1805), Scottish surgeon

See also
 William Fullarton (disambiguation)


In fluid dynamics, a Stokes wave is a nonlinear and periodic surface wave on an inviscid fluid layer of constant mean depth.
This type of modelling has its origins in the mid 19th century when Sir George Stokes – using a perturbation series approach, now known as the Stokes expansion – obtained approximate solutions for nonlinear wave motion.

Stokes's wave theory is of direct practical use for waves on intermediate and deep water. It is used in the design of coastal and offshore structures, in order to determine the wave kinematics (free surface elevation and flow velocities). The wave kinematics are subsequently needed in the design process to determine the wave loads on a structure. For long waves (as compared to depth) – and using only a few terms in the Stokes expansion – its applicability is limited to waves of small amplitude. In such shallow water, a cnoidal wave theory often provides better periodic-wave approximations.

While, in the strict sense, Stokes wave refers to progressive periodic waves of permanent form, the term is also used in connection with standing waves and even for random waves.

Examples

The examples below describe Stokes waves under the action of gravity (without surface tension effects) in case of pure wave motion, so without an ambient mean current.

Third-order Stokes wave on deep water

According to Stokes's third-order theory, the free surface elevation η, the velocity potential Φ, the phase speed (or celerity) c and the wave phase θ are, for a progressive surface gravity wave on deep water – i.e. the fluid layer has infinite depth:

where
 x is the horizontal coordinate;
 z is the vertical coordinate, with the positive z-direction upward – opposing to the direction of the Earth's gravity – and z = 0 corresponding with the mean surface elevation;
 t is time;
 a is the first-order wave amplitude;
 k is the angular wavenumber,  with λ being the wavelength;
 ω is the angular frequency,  where τ is the period, and
 g is the strength of the Earth's gravity, a constant in this approximation.

The expansion parameter ka is known as the wave steepness. The phase speed increases with increasing nonlinearity ka of the waves. The wave height H, being the difference between the surface elevation η at a crest and a trough, is:

Note that the second- and third-order terms in the velocity potential Φ are zero. Only at fourth order do contributions deviating from first-order theory – i.e. Airy wave theory – appear. Up to third order the orbital velocity field u = ∇Φ consists of a circular motion of the velocity vector at each position (x,z). As a result, the surface elevation of deep-water waves is to a good approximation trochoidal, as already noted by .

Stokes further observed, that although (in this Eulerian description) the third-order orbital velocity field consists of a circular motion at each point, the Lagrangian paths of fluid parcels are not closed circles.  This is due to the reduction of the velocity amplitude at increasing depth below the surface. This Lagrangian drift of the fluid parcels is known as the Stokes drift.

Second-order Stokes wave on arbitrary depth

The surface elevation η and the velocity potential Φ are, according to Stokes's second-order theory of surface gravity waves on a fluid layer of mean depth h:

Observe that for finite depth the velocity potential Φ contains a linear drift in time, independent of position (x and z). Both this temporal drift and the double-frequency term (containing sin 2θ) in Φ vanish for deep-water waves.

Stokes and Ursell parameters

The ratio  of the free-surface amplitudes at second order and first order – according to Stokes's second-order theory – is:

In deep water, for large kh the ratio  has the asymptote

For long waves, i.e. small kh, the ratio  behaves as

or, in terms of the wave height  and wavelength :

with

Here  is the Ursell parameter (or Stokes parameter). For long waves () of small height H, i.e. , second-order Stokes theory is applicable. Otherwise, for fairly long waves () of appreciable height H a cnoidal wave description is more appropriate. According to Hedges, fifth-order Stokes theory is applicable for , and otherwise fifth-order cnoidal wave theory is preferable.

Third-order dispersion relation

For Stokes waves under the action of gravity, the third-order dispersion relation is – according to Stokes's first definition of celerity:

This third-order dispersion relation is a direct consequence of avoiding secular terms, when inserting the second-order Stokes solution into the third-order equations (of the perturbation series for the periodic wave problem).

In deep water (short wavelength compared to the depth):

and in shallow water (long wavelengths compared to the depth):

As shown above, the long-wave Stokes expansion for the dispersion relation will only be valid for small enough values of the Ursell parameter: .

Overview

Stokes's approach to the nonlinear wave problem

A fundamental problem in finding solutions for surface gravity waves is that boundary conditions have to be applied at the position of the free surface, which is not known beforehand and is thus a part of the solution to be found.
Sir George Stokes solved this nonlinear wave problem in 1847 by expanding the relevant potential flow quantities in a Taylor series around the mean (or still) surface elevation. As a result, the boundary conditions can be expressed in terms of quantities at the mean (or still) surface elevation (which is fixed and known).

Next, a solution for the nonlinear wave problem (including the Taylor series expansion around the mean or still surface elevation) is sought by means of a perturbation series – known as the Stokes expansion – in terms of a small parameter, most often the wave steepness. The unknown terms in the expansion can be solved sequentially. Often, only a small number of terms is needed to provide a solution of sufficient accuracy for engineering purposes. Typical applications are in the design of coastal and offshore structures, and of ships.

Another property of nonlinear waves is that the phase speed of nonlinear waves depends on the wave height. In a perturbation-series approach, this easily gives rise to a spurious secular variation of the solution, in contradiction with the periodic behaviour of the waves. Stokes solved this problem by also expanding the dispersion relationship into a perturbation series, by a method now known as the Lindstedt–Poincaré method.

Applicability

Stokes's wave theory, when using a low order of the perturbation expansion (e.g. up to second, third or fifth order), is valid for nonlinear waves on intermediate and deep water, that is for wavelengths (λ) not large as compared with the mean depth (h). In shallow water, the low-order Stokes expansion breaks down (gives unrealistic results) for appreciable wave amplitude (as compared to the depth). Then, Boussinesq approximations are more appropriate. Further approximations on Boussinesq-type (multi-directional) wave equations lead – for one-way wave propagation – to the Korteweg–de Vries equation or the Benjamin–Bona–Mahony equation. Like (near) exact Stokes-wave solutions, these two equations have solitary wave (soliton) solutions, besides periodic-wave solutions known as cnoidal waves.

Modern extensions

Already in 1914, Wilton extended the Stokes expansion for deep-water surface gravity waves to tenth order, although introducing errors at the eight order. A fifth-order theory for finite depth was derived by De in 1955. For engineering use, the fifth-order formulations of Fenton are convenient, applicable to both Stokes first and second definition of phase speed (celerity). The demarcation between when fifth-order Stokes theory is preferable over fifth-order cnoidal wave theory is for Ursell parameters below about 40.

Different choices for the frame of reference and expansion parameters are possible in Stokes-like approaches to the nonlinear wave problem. In 1880, Stokes himself inverted the dependent and independent variables, by taking the velocity potential and stream function as the independent variables, and the coordinates (x,z) as the dependent variables, with x and z being the horizontal and vertical coordinates respectively. This has the advantage that the free surface, in a frame of reference in which the wave is steady (i.e. moving with the phase velocity), corresponds with a line on which the stream function is a constant. Then the free surface location is known beforehand, and not an unknown part of the solution. The disadvantage is that the radius of convergence of the rephrased series expansion reduces.

Another approach is by using the Lagrangian frame of reference, following the fluid parcels. The Lagrangian formulations show enhanced convergence, as compared to the formulations in both the Eulerian frame, and in the frame with the potential and streamfunction as independent variables.

An exact solution for nonlinear pure capillary waves of permanent form, and for infinite fluid depth, was obtained by Crapper in 1957. Note that these capillary waves – being short waves forced by surface tension, if gravity effects are negligible – have sharp troughs and flat crests. This contrasts with nonlinear surface gravity waves, which have sharp crests and flat troughs.

By use of computer models, the Stokes expansion for surface gravity waves has been continued, up to high (117th) order by . Schwartz has found that the amplitude a (or a1) of the first-order fundamental reaches a maximum before the maximum wave height H is reached. Consequently, the wave steepness ka in terms of wave amplitude is not a monotone function up to the highest wave, and Schwartz utilizes instead kH as the expansion parameter. To estimate the highest wave in deep water, Schwartz has used Padé approximants and Domb–Sykes plots in order to improve the convergence of the Stokes expansion.
Extended tables of Stokes waves on various depths, computed by a different method (but in accordance with the results by others), are provided in .

Several exact relationships exist between integral properties – such as kinetic and potential energy, horizontal wave momentum and radiation stress – as found by . He shows, for deep-water waves, that many of these integral properties have a maximum before the maximum wave height is reached (in support of Schwartz's findings). , using a method similar to the one of Schwartz, computed and tabulated integral properties for a wide range of finite water depths (all reaching maxima below the highest wave height). Further, these integral properties play an important role in the conservation laws for water waves, through Noether's theorem.

In 2005, Hammack, Henderson and Segur have provided the first experimental evidence for the existence of three-dimensional progressive waves of permanent form in deep water – that is bi-periodic and two-dimensional progressive wave patterns of permanent form. The existence of these three-dimensional steady deep-water waves has been revealed in 2002, from a bifurcation study of two-dimensional Stokes waves by Craig and Nicholls, using numerical methods.

Convergence and instability

Convergence
Convergence of the Stokes expansion was first proved by  for the case of small-amplitude waves – on the free surface of a fluid of infinite depth. This was extended shortly afterwards by  for the case of finite depth and small-amplitude waves.

Near the end of the 20th century, it was shown that for finite-amplitude waves the convergence of the Stokes expansion depends strongly on the formulation of the periodic wave problem. For instance, an inverse formulation of the periodic wave problem as used by Stokes – with the spatial coordinates as a function of velocity potential and stream function – does not converge for high-amplitude waves. While other formulations converge much more rapidly, e.g. in the Eulerian frame of reference (with the velocity potential or stream function as a function of the spatial coordinates).

Highest wave

The maximum wave steepness, for periodic and propagating deep-water waves, is , so the wave height is about one-seventh () of the wavelength λ. And surface gravity waves of this maximum height have a sharp wave crest – with an angle of 120° (in the fluid domain)  – also for finite depth, as shown by Stokes in 1880.

An accurate estimate of the highest wave steepness in deep water () was already made in 1893, by John Henry Michell, using a numerical method. A more detailed study of the behaviour of the highest wave near the sharp-cornered crest has been published by Malcolm A. Grant, in 1973. The existence of the highest wave on deep water with a sharp-angled crest of 120° was proved by John Toland in 1978. The convexity of η(x) between the successive maxima with a sharp-angled crest of 120° was independently proven by C.J. Amick et al. and Pavel I. Plotnikov in 1982
.

The highest Stokes wave – under the action of gravity – can be approximated with the following simple and accurate representation of the free surface elevation η(x,t):

with
for

and shifted horizontally over an integer number of wavelengths to represent the other waves in the regular wave train. This approximation is accurate to within 0.7% everywhere, as compared with the "exact" solution for the highest wave.

Another accurate approximation – however less accurate than the previous one – of the fluid motion on the surface of the steepest wave is by analogy with the swing of a pendulum in a grandfather clock.

Large library of Stokes waves computed with high precision for the case of infinite depth, represented with high accuracy (at least 27 digits after decimal point) as a Padé approximant can be found at StokesWave.org

Instability
In deeper water, Stokes waves are unstable.  This was shown by T. Brooke Benjamin and Jim E. Feir in 1967. The Benjamin–Feir instability is a side-band or modulational instability, with the side-band modulations propagating in the same direction as the carrier wave; waves become unstable on deeper water for a relative depth  (with k the wavenumber and h the mean water depth). The Benjamin–Feir instability can be described with the nonlinear Schrödinger equation, by inserting a Stokes wave with side bands. Subsequently, with a more refined analysis, it has been shown – theoretically and experimentally – that the Stokes wave and its side bands exhibit Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou recurrence: a cyclic alternation between modulation and demodulation.

In 1978 Longuet-Higgins, by means of numerical modelling of fully non-linear waves and modulations (propagating in the carrier wave direction), presented a detailed analysis of the region of instability in deep water: both for superharmonics (for perturbations at the spatial scales smaller than the wavelength )  and subharmonics (for perturbations at the spatial scales larger than ).
With increase of Stokes wave's amplitude, new modes of superharmonic instability appear. Appearance of a new branch of instability happens when the energy of the wave passes extremum. Detailed analysis of the mechanism of appearance of the new branches of instability has shown that their behavior follows closely a simple law, which allows to find with a good accuracy instability growth rates for all known and predicted branches.
In Longuet-Higgins studies of two-dimensional wave motion, as well as the subsequent studies of three-dimensional modulations by McLean et al., new types of instabilities were found – these are associated with resonant wave interactions between five (or more) wave components.

Stokes expansion

Governing equations for a potential flow

In many instances, the oscillatory flow in the fluid interior of surface waves can be described accurately using potential flow theory, apart from boundary layers near the free surface and bottom (where vorticity is important, due to viscous effects, see Stokes boundary layer). Then, the flow velocity u can be described as the gradient of a velocity potential :

Consequently, assuming incompressible flow, the velocity field u is divergence-free and the velocity potential  satisfies Laplace's equation

in the fluid interior.

The fluid region is described using three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z), with x and y the horizontal coordinates, and z the vertical coordinate – with the positive z-direction opposing the direction of the gravitational acceleration. Time is denoted with t. The free surface is located at , and the bottom of the fluid region is at .

The free-surface boundary conditions for surface gravity waves – using a potential flow description – consist of a kinematic and a dynamic boundary condition.
The kinematic boundary condition ensures that the normal component of the fluid's flow velocity,  in matrix notation, at the free surface equals the normal velocity component of the free-surface motion :

The dynamic boundary condition states that, without surface tension effects, the atmospheric pressure just above the free surface equals the fluid pressure just below the surface. For an unsteady potential flow this means that the Bernoulli equation is to be applied at the free surface. In case of a constant atmospheric pressure, the dynamic boundary condition becomes:

where the constant atmospheric pressure has been taken equal to zero, without loss of generality.

Both boundary conditions contain the potential  as well as the surface elevation η. A (dynamic) boundary condition in terms of only the potential  can be constructed by taking the material derivative of the dynamic boundary condition, and using the kinematic boundary condition:

At the bottom of the fluid layer, impermeability requires the normal component of the flow velocity to vanish:

where h(x,y) is the depth of the bed below the datum  and n is the coordinate component in the direction normal to the bed.

For permanent waves above a horizontal bed, the mean depth h is a constant and the boundary condition at the bed becomes:

Taylor series in the free-surface boundary conditions

The free-surface boundary conditions  and  apply at the yet unknown free-surface elevation . They can be transformed into boundary conditions at a fixed elevation  by use of Taylor series expansions of the flow field around that elevation.
Without loss of generality the mean surface elevation – around which the Taylor series are developed – can be taken at . This assures the expansion is around an elevation in the proximity of the actual free-surface elevation. Convergence of the Taylor series for small-amplitude steady-wave motion was proved by .

The following notation is used: the Taylor series of some field  around  – and evaluated at  – is:

with subscript zero meaning evaluation at , e.g.: .

Applying the Taylor expansion to free-surface boundary condition  in terms of the potential Φ gives:

showing terms up to triple products of η, Φ and u, as required for the construction of the Stokes expansion up to third-order ((ka)3). Here, ka is the wave steepness, with k a characteristic wavenumber and a a characteristic wave amplitude for the problem under study. The fields η, Φ and u are assumed to be (ka).

The dynamic free-surface boundary condition  can be evaluated in terms of quantities at  as:

The advantages of these Taylor-series expansions fully emerge in combination with a perturbation-series approach, for weakly non-linear waves .

Perturbation-series approach

The perturbation series are in terms of a small ordering parameter  – which subsequently turns out to be proportional to (and of the order of) the wave slope ka, see the series solution in this section. So, take :

When applied in the flow equations, they should be valid independent of the particular value of ε. By equating in powers of ε, each term proportional to ε to a certain power has to equal to zero. As an example of how the perturbation-series approach works, consider the non-linear boundary condition ; it becomes:

The resulting boundary conditions at  for the first three orders are:

First order:

Second order:

Third order:

In a similar fashion – from the dynamic boundary condition  – the conditions at  at the orders 1, 2 and 3 become:

First order:

Second order:

Third order:

For the linear equations ,   and  the perturbation technique results in a series of equations independent of the perturbation solutions at other orders:

The above perturbation equations can be solved sequentially, i.e. starting with first order, thereafter continuing with the second order, third order, etc.

Application to progressive periodic waves of permanent form

The waves of permanent form propagate with a constant phase velocity (or celerity), denoted as c. If the steady wave motion is in the horizontal x-direction, the flow quantities η and u are not separately dependent on x and time t, but are functions of :

Further the waves are periodic – and because they are also of permanent form – both in horizontal space x and in time t, with wavelength λ and period τ respectively. Note that Φ(x,z,t) itself is not necessary periodic due to the possibility of a constant (linear) drift in x and/or t:

with φ(x,z,t) – as well as the derivatives ∂Φ/∂t and ∂Φ/∂x – being periodic. Here β is the mean flow velocity below trough level, and γ is related to the hydraulic head as observed in a frame of reference moving with the wave's phase velocity c (so the flow becomes steady in this reference frame).

In order to apply the Stokes expansion to progressive periodic waves, it is advantageous to describe them through Fourier series as a function of the wave phase θ(x,t):

assuming waves propagating in the x–direction. Here  is the wavenumber,  is the angular frequency and  is the phase velocity.

Now, the free surface elevation η(x,t) of a periodic wave can be described as the Fourier series:

Similarly, the corresponding expression for the velocity potential Φ(x,z,t) is:

satisfying both the Laplace equation  in the fluid interior, as well as the boundary condition  at the bed .

For a given value of the wavenumber k, the parameters: An, Bn (with ), c, β and γ have yet to be determined. They all can be expanded as perturbation series in ε.  provides these values for fifth-order Stokes's wave theory.

For progressive periodic waves, derivatives with respect to x and t of functions f(θ,z) of θ(x,t) can be expressed as derivatives with respect to θ:

The important point for non-linear waves – in contrast to linear Airy wave theory – is that the phase velocity c also depends on the wave amplitude a, besides its dependence on wavelength  and mean depth h. Negligence of the dependence of c on wave amplitude results in the appearance of secular terms, in the higher-order contributions to the perturbation-series solution.  already applied the required non-linear correction to the phase speed c in order to prevent secular behaviour. A general approach to do so is now known as the Lindstedt–Poincaré method. Since the wavenumber k is given and thus fixed, the non-linear behaviour of the phase velocity  is brought into account by also expanding the angular frequency ω into a perturbation series:

Here ω0 will turn out to be related to the wavenumber k through the linear dispersion relation. However time derivatives, through , now also give contributions – containing ω1, ω2, etc. – to the governing equations at higher orders in the perturbation series. By tuning ω1, ω2, etc., secular behaviour can be prevented. For surface gravity waves, it is found that  and the first non-zero contribution to the dispersion relation comes from ω2 (see e.g. the sub-section "Third-order dispersion relation" above).

Stokes's two definitions of wave celerity

For non-linear surface waves there is, in general, ambiguity in splitting the total motion into a wave part and a mean part. As a consequence, there is some freedom in choosing the phase speed (celerity) of the wave.  identified two logical definitions of phase speed, known as Stokes's first and second definition of wave celerity:

Stokes's first definition of wave celerity has, for a pure wave motion, the mean value of the horizontal Eulerian flow-velocity ŪE at any location below trough level equal to zero. Due to the irrotationality of potential flow, together with the horizontal sea bed and periodicity the mean horizontal velocity, the mean horizontal velocity is a constant between bed and trough level. So in Stokes first definition the wave is considered from a frame of reference moving with the mean horizontal velocity ŪE. This is an advantageous approach when the mean Eulerian flow velocity ŪE is known, e.g. from measurements.
Stokes's second definition of wave celerity is for a frame of reference where the mean horizontal mass transport of the wave motion equal to zero. This is different from the first definition due to the mass transport in the splash zone, i.e. between the trough and crest level, in the wave propagation direction. This wave-induced mass transport is caused by the positive correlation between surface elevation and horizontal velocity. In the reference frame for Stokes's second definition, the wave-induced mass transport is compensated by an opposing undertow (so ŪE < 0 for waves propagating in the positive x-direction). This is the logical definition for waves generated in a wave flume in the laboratory, or waves moving perpendicular towards a beach.

As pointed out by Michael E. McIntyre, the mean horizontal mass transport will be (near) zero for a wave group approaching into still water, with also in deep water the mass transport caused by the waves balanced by an opposite mass transport in a return flow (undertow). This is due to the fact that otherwise a large mean force will be needed to accelerate the body of water into which the wave group is propagating.

Notes

References

By Sir George Gabriel Stokes

Reprinted in:

Other historical references

Reprinted in:

More recent (since 1960)

 And in (including corrections):

  and

External links

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Water waves
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Radio stations established in 2002
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GEDI Gruppo Editoriale
2002 establishments in Italy


A conflict continuum is a model or concept various social science researchers use when modeling conflict on a continuum from low to high-intensity, such as from aggression to irritation to explosiveness.

The mathematical model of game theory originally posited only a winner and a loser (a zero-sum game) in a conflict, but was extended to cooperation (a win-win situation and a non-zero sum game), and lets users specify any point between cooperation, peace, rivalry, contest, crisis, and conflict among stakeholders.

Overview
By the decade of the 2010s, military planners realized that additional capabilities in communications, sensors and weapons countermeasures made it possible for competitors to react to a contestant's moves in the "gray zone" just short of conflict. In 2018 Kelly McCoy identified a continuum within competition itself, as explored in the United States Joint Staff's Joint Concept for Integrated Campaigning (JCIC), up to the point just short of armed conflict, while noting Perkins' connection to deterrence in the continuum. In 2020, Donald Stoker and Craig Whiteside cautioned that for strategists, the "gray zone" must not blur peace and war; they offered an analysis of the need for strategists to clearly distinguish peace, competition, contest, conflict, and war.

Standoff is the condition of deadlock between antagonists, sometimes measured by the distance between them (standoff distance). For  antagonists in a non-zero sum game, von Neumann and Morgenstern showed in 1944 that this condition is equivalent to a zero-sum game with +1 antagonists, where the +1st player ("the fictitious player") is not an entity. Rather the fictitious player represents the global profit (or loss) of the  players in the non-zero sum game.
 If we reduce this game to a zero-sum 3-player game by the introduction of a fictitious player 3, then the characteristic function becomes the one given In Tibor Scitovsky's terminology (more commonly known as the Kaldor–Hicks criterion), this global profit (or loss) of the +1st player represents the amount that the gainers would have been prepared to pay to the losers (or, in a global loss, the global amount that the  players have lost in total), in order to attain a desired global policy.

Overmatch is the condition where protagonist A is able to present multiple dilemmas to an antagonist E. Thus if E can recognize that E risks total destruction (annihilation), then it is possible to bring an end to conflict between A and E. If A can bring about overmatch for all E's, the hegemony of A would result, temporarily. In other confrontations between A and the Es, deterrence can be the mutual recognition that power need not be used to destroy one another (mutually assured destruction). Instead A might display or project its power to the Es as a substitute for battle with them. If A's power can remain leashed (potential rather than kinetic) then soft power and hard power are also optional possibilities on a continuum of possible conflict between A and the Es.

Various continuum models

Elise Boulding's conflict continuum
Elise M. Boulding was a Quaker sociologist influenced by the events of World War II. Examining how war becomes peace, she posited a continuum between  and .

This is Boulding's conflict continuum:
{|
|-
| War of extermination
|-
| Limited war
|-
| Threat systems (deterrence)
|-
| Arbitration
|-
| Mediation
|-
| Negotiation (exchange)
|-
| Mutual adaptation
|-
| Alliance
|-
| Co-operation
|-
| Integration
|-
| Transformation
|}

Andra Medea's types of conflict
Theorist Andra Medea seeks to explain how individuals, small groups, organizations, families, ethnicities, and even whole nations function when disputes arise between them. She posits that there are four types or levels of conflict, each operating under distinct rules:
{|
|-
| (1) Problem Solving ||
| (2) Domination      ||
| (3) Blind Behavior  ||
| (4) Rogue Messiah
|}
Each level moving from first to fourth is characterized by increasing degrees of separation from reality, and decreasing degrees of maturity, in this context, defined as the ability to control anger and settle differences without violence or destruction. Problem-solving behavior is based in reality and maturity, and is therefore more rational and mature than domination. Domination is more rational and mature than blind behavior, which is more rational and mature than the Rogue Messiah.

However, each level moving from fourth to first is more capable than the one below it at forcing victory in a conflict. The rogue messiah overpowers blind behavior, blind behavior thwarts domination, and domination deadlocks problem-solving.

Perkins' continuum of conflict

Before 2017, winning a conflict was seen as the objective of the US Army. By 2018, the US Air Force showed it was important to reformulate this strategy, as part of a larger process of  (MDO), which involve more than an army in a theater of war (World War II and Cold War model). Specifically, MDO can offer options short of war which can defuse armed conflict from total war into deterrence, compromise, or cooperation between competitors.

Multi-domain operations occur as overlapped, integrated operation of cyberspace, space (including satellite operations), land, maritime, and air. A multi-domain task force was stood up in 2018 in I Corps for the Pacific. Multi-domain battalions, first stood up in 2019, comprise a single unit for air, land, space, and cyber domains.

The MDO model recognizes that near-peer competitors might not actually seek conflict with each other, but perhaps merely near-term advantage in order to buy time for themselves in the face of overmatch. For example, the X-37B space plane can change its orbit; this capability has military applications. On 15 July 2020, Cosmos 2543 emitted a kinetic vehicle, which emitted a tertiary object. This maneuver is interpreted as a test of anti-satellite capability. Cosmos 2542 has been tailing USA-245, a KH-11. Other multi-domain operations short of war, but still escalating the conflict, might include the shooting-down of military drones as in June 2019. By May 2023 a robotic Chinese space plane (similar to the X-37B) in orbit from October 2022 to May 2023 had successfully released, and then recaptured an orbiting object. In August 2023 USSF Space Systems Command and the NRO revealed countermeasures to China's maneuverable space vehicles that are in geosynchronous orbit.

Other operations short of war in 2018 include undeclared conflicts, involving proxy military units funded by oligarchs, but specifically disclaimed by near-peer competitors. This is in direct response to the strategy which the US has promulgated since 1949.
Destruction of infrastructure such as fuel pipelines, the energy grid, or the GPS network, or the financial markets, or confidence in national law and order may be goals for partners, competitors, or adversaries depending on where they might be in the continuum of conflict. Directed energy attacks on US embassies, and even the White House are cropping up, as reported April 2021.

Conflicts of belief, and conflicts of their underlying narratives can lead to social disorder, sometimes resulting in depression or suicide.
Thus disinformation could be a tactic in the spectrum of conflict;

Competition continuum
In 2021 the 40th Chief of Staff of the United States Army identified three dimensions of military competition: 1) narrative, 2) direct (zero-sum), and 3) indirect (non-zero sum) competition. Narrative competition shapes and frames a baseline within which direct, or indirect competition with adversaries are related. In progressive stages of the narrative, allies, partners, neutral parties, observers, and rivals are encouraged to cooperate with the protagonist. Alternatively, adversaries are deterred from military conflict against the protagonist.

If an adversary persists in direct competition, the protagonist simply continues to advance with direct competition, thereby gaining leverage over the adversary. The protagonist might find it possible only to impede the adversary; in this case, allies and partners may interoperate against the adversary for mutual advantage with the protagonist.

If rivals or adversaries persist in indirect competition, the protagonists seek advantage over them by building relationships with cooperating allies, partners, neutral parties, or observers; in addition the protagonists keep a forward presence in the theater; the protagonists also must keep their capabilities relevant, competitive, and current. Cost becomes a factor, as adversaries learn by simply trying to keep up. Eventually indirect competition could stabilize; however, the 40th Chief of Staff notes competition is an infinite game.

Notes

Footnotes

References

Anthropology
Cognition
Peace and conflict studies


Werner Nicolai Ekman (15 May 1893 – 3 October 1968) was a Finnish sport shooter who competed in the 1924 Summer Olympics. In 1924 he won the bronze medal as member of the Finnish team in the team clay pigeons competition. He also participated in the individual trap and finished eleventh.

References

External links
Profile

1893 births
1968 deaths
People from Rantasalmi
People from Mikkeli Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Finnish male sport shooters
Olympic shooters for Finland
Shooters at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Finland
Trap and double trap shooters
Olympic medalists in shooting
Medalists at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from South Savo


Newton C. Loken (February 27, 1919 – June 28, 2011) was an artistic gymnast and coach of gymnastics, trampolining and cheerleading. While a member of the Minnesota Golden Gophers men's gymnastics team, Loken was NCAA all-around gymnastics champion in 1942 and the Big Ten Conference all-around champion in 1941 and 1942. He was the coach of the University of Michigan gymnastics team for 36 years from 1948-1983. Loken's gymnasts won the NCAA championships in 1963 and 1970, as well as 12 Big Ten championships. His record as Michigan's gymnastics coach was 250-72-1. Loken also coached the Michigan trampolining team to NCAA championships in 1969 and 1970.

University of Minnesota

Born in Breckenridge, Minnesota, of Norwegian descent, Loken attended West High School in Minneapolis where he became Minnesota's all-around gymnastics champion in the late 1930s. After high school, he attended the University of Minnesota. Loken was named captain of the Minnesota team coached by Ralph Piper in 1942 and was also named an All-American. He won Big Ten all-around championships in 1941 and 1942. He also won the NCAA all-around championship in 1942. Loken later recalled that Coach Piper was so confident in Loken that he had a trophy engraved for Loken's all-around championship in 1942 two weeks before Loken actually won the competition. Loken also won the NCAA individual championship in the horizontal bar in 1941 and Big Ten championships in the parallel bars (1941) and the flying rings (1942). Loken was also an All-American cheerleader and captain of the Minnesota cheerleading squad. Life magazine published an article featuring Loken on May 18, 1942, titled, "All-around Gym Champion: Newt Loken is a Combination Strong Man and Acrobat."

World War II
During World War II, Loken served in the U.S. Navy. He taught physical conditioning to the Naval aviators in the pre-flight school in Iowa City, Iowa, and co-authored the Navy's book Gymnastics and Tumbling. He later served on the aircraft carrier USS Prince William. From 1943 to 1944, the Prince William operated between the west coast and such places as New Caledonia, Canton Island, Samoa and Espiritu Santo. As an athletic welfare officer in the Navy, he conducted a conditioning program to keep the men on the ship in good physical shape; Loken used a trampoline as part of the program.

University of Michigan
Loken came to the University of Michigan in 1944 as a master's degree student. On the side, he coached the cheerleading team. At the time of Loken's arrival, Michigan did not have a men's gymnastics program, which had been dropped several years earlier during the Great Depression. In 1946, Loken received his master's degree and sought to resurrect men's gymnastics as a varsity sport at Michigan. In 1947, the athletic board awarded varsity status to men's gymnastics. Loken, who had been leading a group of club gymnasts on the road performing at the halftime of basketball games, was named the coach of the new men's gymnastics team.

Loken remained the coach of Michigan's men's gymnastics team for 36 years and compiled a record of 250-72-1. His teams won NCAA men's gymnastics championships in 1963 and 1970 and 12 Big Ten championships. Loken coached 71 Big Ten individual event winners and 21 NCAA individual event winners.

Loken received a doctorate in education in 1955 and was a kinesiology professor at Michigan until 1983.

Loken also coached the cheerleading team at Michigan as well as the varsity sport of trampoline. From 1947 through 1964, trampoline was included as an event in gymnastics competitions by both the AAU and NCAA. The first trampoline world championships were held in 1964, and trampoline was first recognized as a sport in its own right in the United States in 1967. Loken led the Michigan trampoline team to NCAA championships in 1969 and 1970. Loken produced more trampoline champions and World Medal winners than any other collegiate coach.

Loken was also the author of several books on gymnastics, tumbling, and cheerleading. Among other works, Loken wrote Cheerleading, published by The Ronald Press in 1945, Gymnastics, published by Sterling Publishing Co. in 1966, and the Complete Book of Gymnastics, published by The Athletic Institute in 1963.

Loken also led Michigan's efforts as host of the 1971 NCAA championship attended by a record 25,000 fans. The final day's events alone were attended by a record crowd of 16,781, and Loken was presented the American Association of Gymnastics Coaches' "Coach of the Year" award at the conclusion of the event.

One of Loken's best trampoline athletes was Ron Munn. Munn described his experience with Loken: “His great personality and tremendous coaching talent helped him develop outstanding teams on a yearly basis; therefore I accepted his invitation to attend Michigan.. . . .  His wonderful personality and spirit inspired everyone on the team, and certainly added to the success their success.  He always had a very positive attitude and the ability to bring out the best performance in everyone.”

As of 2007, the 88-year-old Loken was still a regular at Michigan's men's gymnastics practices and events. It was reported that he not missed a single Michigan home meet from 1948 to 2007. Rich Dopp, a Michigan gymnast from the 1990s, recalled that Loken was still on the field with the alumni cheerleaders at the Homecoming games as recently as 2001 or 2002. Dopp said, “It may sound a little dorky, but it just makes me want to go, 'Meechigan! Meechigan! Rah, rah!' " In 2007, assistant coach Scott Vetere said: “He knows everybody on the team, and if he forgets, he's 80-some years old, and he'll ask again. He's just a pure gymnastics guy - always wants to be around gymnastics, always wants to learn more, (always) wants to praise guys for what a wonderful job they're doing."

Honors and accolades
Loken has received numerous awards, honors and accolades for his lifetime of service to gymnastics and to the University of Michigan. These include:
In 1963 and again in 1971, Loken was named Collegiate Gymnastics Association National Coach of the Year.
In 1968, Loken was given the Richard Aronson Special Service Award.
In 1971, Loken was inducted into the U.S. Gymnastics Association Hall of Fame.
In 1975, Loken received the Collegiate Gymnastics Association Honor Coach Award.
Loken has served on the Board of Directors of  the National Association of Collegiate Gymnastics Coaches and held titles as President, Vice President, and Secretary-Treasurer at various times.
Loken was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 as part of the fourth induction class.
When he retired in 1983, Loken was honored by the Michigan Marching Band before 100,000 football fans at Michigan Stadium spelled "NEWT" on the field.
He has been inducted into the University of Minnesota Athletic Sports Hall of Fame.
In 2003, the men's gymnastics training site at the University of Michigan was renamed the Newt Loken Gymnastics Training Center. The building, formerly known as the Weinberg Coliseum, was built in 1913 and was originally an ice rink.
The award for best performance of the night on either team, presented at each men's gymnastics home meet, is named after Loken.
Because of World War II, no Olympic games were held between 1936 and 1948. Loken was part of the generation of athletes that lost the opportunity to compete in the Olympic as a result of the war. In 2002, National Collegiate Gymnastics Alumni Association magazine asked a group of Olympians and Hall of Famers to name an honorary U.S. 1944 Summer Olympics Team, and Loken made the honorary team – 58 years after the fact.

Loken and his wife, Dorothy, had four children, daughters Christine and Lani, and sons Jon and Newt.

See also

University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor

Notes

External links
Newt Loken's obituary

1919 births
2011 deaths
People from Breckenridge, Minnesota
American people of Norwegian descent
American gymnastics coaches
American male artistic gymnasts
American cheerleaders
Michigan Wolverines men's gymnastics coaches
Minnesota Golden Gophers men's gymnasts
United States Navy sailors
United States Navy personnel of World War II
1944 Summer Olympics
University of Michigan faculty


The American Concrete Institute (ACI, formerly National Association of Cement Users or NACU) is a non-profit technical society and standards developing organization. ACI was founded in January 1905 during a convention in Indianapolis. The Institute's headquarters are currently located in Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA. ACI's mission is "ACI develops and disseminates consensus-based knowledge on concrete and its uses."

ACI History
A lack of standards for making concrete blocks resulted in a negative perception of concrete for construction. An editorial by Charles C. Brown in the September 1904 issue of Municipal Engineering discussed the idea of forming an organization to bring order and standard practices to the industry. In 1905 the National Association of Cement Users was formally organized and adopted a constitution and bylaws. Richard Humphrey was elected its first President. The first committees were appointed at the 1905 convention in Indianapolis and offered preliminary reports on a number of subject areas. The first complete committee reports were offered at the 1907 convention. The association's first official headquarters was established in 1908 at Richard Humphrey's office in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Clerical and editorial help was brought on to more effectively organize conventions and publish proceedings of the institute. The "Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete" was adopted at the 1910 convention and became the association's first reinforced concrete building code. By 1912 the association had adopted 14 standards. At the December 1912 convention the association approved publication of a monthly journal of proceedings. In July 1913 the Board of Direction of NACU decided to change its name to the American Concrete Institute. The new name was deemed to be more descriptive of the work being conducted within the institute.

ACI 318
ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete provides minimum requirements necessary to provide public health and safety for the design and construction of structural concrete buildings. It is issued and maintained by the American Concrete Institute. The latest edition of the code is ACI 318-19.

Previous versions:
ACI 318-14   Major update, reordered chapters.
ACI 318-11
ACI 318-08
ACI 318-02.  Features major rewrite for seismicity.

Concrete International
Concrete International is a monthly magazine published by the American Concrete Institute. Searchable abstracts of articles are available via the magazine's web page.

Awards
The Wason Medal for Most Meritorious Paper has been awarded each year since 1917 to the author or authors of a paper published by ACI. Notable recipients include:
 1922: Harold M. Westergaard
 1927: Abraham Burton Cohen
 1933: Charles S. Whitney
 1936: Hardy Cross
 1950: Chester P. Siess, George E. Beggs and Nathan M. Newmark
 1953: Charles S. Whitney, Boyd Anderson and Mario Salvadori
 1969: Uğur Ersoy
 1970: W. Gene Corley and Neil M. Hawkins
 1971: Fazlur Khan and Mark Fintel

References

External links

American engineering organizations
Trade associations based in the United States
Organizations based in Michigan
Organizations established in 1905
1905 establishments in Indiana


Yellowberries Copse is an Iron Age enclosure, or possibly hill fort situated South of South Brent in Devon, England. The fort is situated on the North West slope of Cutwell Hill at approx 155 Metres above Sea Level.

References

Hill forts in Devon


Jacir Palace or Qasr Jacir () is the largest hotel in Bethlehem in the central West Bank. The building's original design was based on typical Palestinian architecture and the characteristics of an Arab household. Jacir Palace has three floors, each spanning 800 sq m. The newly built hotel added an outdoor swimming pool, a health spa, two meeting rooms, 250 available rooms and 11 food and beverage outlets including restaurants and bars.

Jacir Palace was built in 1910 by local craftsmen on commission of the former mayor of Bethlehem, also a merchant, Suleiman Jacir (great-grandfather of Nasri Jacir, Emily and Annemarie Jacir), who intended that he and his five brothers’ families would live in the mansion together. So they did for a time, however, the family went bankrupt in the 1920s and were forced to sell the palace and its furniture. Jacir Palace was eventually taken over by the British who used it as a women's prison in the 1940s. In the 1950s it was a private school called al-Ummah, later the house became a public boys school and at a still later stage was transformed into a public girls  school. The house was also used by the Israel Defence Forces, particularly during the First Intifada, as a point of control considering its advantageous location and continued to be a major point of confrontation between local stone-throwing youths and the IDF.

In 2000, a group of Palestinian investors belonging to PEDCAR — which is linked to the Palestinian National Authority — acquired Jacir Palace; they refurbished and renovated it soon after. Munib il Masri,  father of filmmaker Mai Masri,  now owns the Palace.
 However, the hotel was closed down from 2000 to 2005. It closed again in 2021 because of the COVID-19 epidemic, and remains shut in January 2023.

See also
Abd al-Hadi Palace
Orient House

References

Buildings and structures completed in 1910
Buildings and structures in Bethlehem
Hotels in the State of Palestine
Palaces in the State of Palestine


"Live Without It" is a song by Australian rock band Killing Heidi, released as the third single from their debut album, Reflector, in April 2000.

Track listing
Yellow cover
 "Live Without It"
 "Teen Angst Unrequited Love Song" (Raw mix)
 "Pins and Needles" (Raw mix)

Purple cover
 "Live Without It" (Radio mix)
 "Teen Angst Unrequited Love Song" (Raw mix)
 "Pins and Needles" (Raw mix)
 "Mascara" (Acoustic mix)
 "Live Without It" (Music video)

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certification

References

2000 singles
Killing Heidi songs
Songs written by Ella Hooper
Songs written by Jesse Hooper
2000 songs
Warner Records singles


WJFD-FM (97.3 MHz) is a commercial radio station licensed to New Bedford, Massachusetts.  The station is owned by Henry M. Arruda with the license held by WJFD-FM, Inc.  Studio and offices are on Orchard Street in New Bedford.  The transmitter is located off Arcene Street in Fairhaven.  WJFD-FM airs a Portuguese language music format.  It is aimed at the Portuguese, Brazilian and Cape Verdean communities in Southeastern New England.

History
On February 22, 1949, the station signed on as WBSM-FM.  It was the FM counterpart to AM 1230 WBSM (now on AM 1420).  WBSM-AM-FM were owned by the Bay State Broadcasting Company.  At first, WBSM-FM simulcast its AM sister station, but with a large Portuguese-speaking population in the region, many of whom came to Coastal New England to work in the fishing industry, management decided to devote WBSM-FM to Portuguese programming.

In 1972, the call letters switched to WGCY.  It was owned by Gray Communications, and continued its Portuguese pop music and talk.  In 1975, local prosecutor and political leader Edmund Dinis, born in the Azores and of Portuguese descent, acquired the station.

The station was assigned the WJFD-FM call sign by the Federal Communications Commission on December 1, 1980.  Edmund Dinis wanted to honor his father by using his initials in the new call sign, Jacinto F. Diniz.  (The father used a Z at the end of the family name, while Edmund used an S.)

Edmund Dinis owned the station until his death on March 14, 2010, at age 85. On August 2, 2010, ownership of the station was transferred to Dinis' close friend and business partner, Henry M. Arruda.  The station moved its studios and offices from an historical downtown location on Union Street, to the third floor of the Howland Place professional building in the south end of New Bedford shortly after.

In 2015, WJFD-FM joined the iHeartRadio platform of streaming radio stations, becoming the first and only Portuguese language radio station in the U.S. to be offered.  Over time, immigration from Portugal has dropped off, so many of WJFD-FM's newer listeners are of Portuguese-Brazilian-Cape Verdean-descent and non-Portuguese listeners. Beginning in 2018, they have also provided a live broadcast of the Eurovision Song Contest final, with commentary in English and Portuguese.

References

External links
WJFD-FM official website

JFD-FM
Portuguese-American culture in Massachusetts
Portuguese-language radio stations in the United States
New Bedford, Massachusetts
Mass media in Bristol County, Massachusetts
Radio stations established in 1949
JFD-FM
1949 establishments in Massachusetts


Entoloma rhodopolium, commonly known as the wood pinkgill, is a poisonous mushroom found in Europe and Asia. In fact, it is one of the three most commonly implicated fungi in cases of mushroom poisoning in Japan (Other two are Omphalotus japonicus and Tricholoma ustale). E. rhodopolium is often mistaken for edible mushroom, E. sarcopum. Symptoms are predominantly gastrointestinal in nature, though muscarine, muscaridine, and choline have been isolated as toxic agents.

The taxonomy of this species is currently unclear, with several different forms identified in North America, and questions over whether the European and North American fungi are even the same species.

Entoloma is a genus of pink spored fungi. An alternate scientific name seen is Rhodophyllus rhodopolius, from Quelet's broader genus containing a larger subsection of pink-spored fungi.

Entoloma nidorosum, previously considered a separate species, is now classified as a variety of this fungus.

See also
List of Entoloma species

Gallery

References

Poisonous fungi
Entolomataceae
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of Asia
Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries


Dundee  was a ship wrecked in 1808 off the coast of New South Wales, Australia.

History
Dundee left Sydney for Fiji to obtain Sandalwood to take to China in August 1808. As it sailed past the entrance to the Hunter River the ship encountered a heavy gale and foundered on the sandbars at the mouth of the river. Shortly after the ship broke up drowning two Lascars. The remaining crew made it to shore, although the chief mate gave up swimming in a state of exhaustion and was only rescued when other sailors went back into the surf to rescue him.

References

Shipwrecks of the Hunter Region
Sail ships of Australia
Individual sailing vessels
History of Newcastle, New South Wales
Maritime incidents in 1808
1808 in Australia
1788–1850 ships of Australia
Merchant ships of Australia
1800s ships


Hecla Island may refer to:

Hecla-Grindstone Provincial Park in Canada
Hecla Island (Western Australia)


The 1992 Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards Presentation () was held in January 1993. It is part of the Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards Presentation series held in Hong Kong.

Top 10 song awards
The top 10 songs (十大勁歌金曲) of 1992 are as follows.

Additional awards

References
 Top ten songs award 1992, Tvcity.tvb.com
 Additional awards 1992, Tvcity.tvb.com

Jade Solid Gold Best Ten Music Awards Presentation, 1992


Robert Waldemar Huber (30 March 1878 – 25 November 1946) was a Finnish sport shooter, who competed in the 1912 and the 1924 Summer Olympics.

Shooting

He won silver at the 1929 ISSF World Shooting Championships in the trap team event.

He won five Finnish national championship golds in shotgun events in 1927–1933.

Other
Konrad Huber, who won bronze in the same shotgun team in 1924, was his brother. He was a member of the City Council of Helsinki in 1916–1918.

References

Sources

1878 births
1946 deaths
Finnish male sport shooters
Olympic shooters for Finland
Shooters at the 1912 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Olympic bronze medalists for Finland
Trap and double trap shooters
Olympic medalists in shooting
Medalists at the 1924 Summer Olympics


Christendom Astray From the Bible (commonly: Christendom Astray) is a polemic work by the Christadelphian Robert Roberts that claims to demonstrate that the main doctrines shared by most Christian denominations are at variance with the teachings of the Bible. In the preface to the book the author states the rationale of Christendom Astray From the Bible as follows:

History
The content of Christendom Astray was first delivered as a series of fortnightly lectures in Huddersfield in 1862. It was subsequently republished under the title of Twelve Lectures on the Teaching of the Bible. Additional chapters were added in subsequent reprints until the fifth edition, which was published as a cloth-bound book in 1869 with a total of seventeen chapters. Subsequent editions were simple reprints from the same plates. It was expanded to 18 chapters and republished as Christendom Astray From the Bible in 1884.

Content
Christendom Astray covers topics such as The Bible—What it is, and how to interpret it (chapter 1), The Dead Unconscious till the Resurrection, and consequent error of popular belief in heaven and hell (chapter 3), The Devil not a personal supernatural being, but the scriptural personification of sin in its manifestations among men (chapter 7) and The Promises made to the Fathers (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), yet to be fulfilled in the setting up of the Kingdom of God upon earth (chapter 9).

The last section of the book is a summary of the preceding chapters comparing and contrasting, in table form, Roberts' understanding of the Bible against the beliefs of mainstream Christendom. This is followed by a brief introduction to the Christadelphian community, which Roberts claims are 'a body of people ... who hold the views advocated in this book of lectures'.

Editions
1899 Edition - paragraphs on resurrection revised.
(1899 edition p.79, 1951 modern p.130)
Following his debate with John James Andrew in 1894, Roberts revised two paragraphs which originally left open the possibility that unbaptised but responsible rejectors of the Gospel might not be raised and judged till the end of the millennium.

1951 Edition - chapter removed.
In the 1951 Edition published by the Christadelphian Office, Chapter 16 called 'Evidence that the End is Near' was deleted because the start of the millennium age did not start as predicted by 1910.  As the editor wrote, 'the suggested time of the Lord's appearing proved to be premature.  Two world wars and worldwide changes could not go unnoticed in an adequate treatment of the subject, but this would have entailed an entire rewriting of the chapter'. '

References

External links
Christendom Astray From the Bible, by Robert Roberts.

Christadelphian books
1884 books
1884 in Christianity


The Vultee V-1 was a 1930s American single-engined airliner built by the Airplane Development Corporation, designed by Gerard Vultee and financed by automobile manufacturer Errett Cord.

Design and development
The prototype (designated the V-1) was an all-metal low-wing cantilever monoplane with a retractable tailwheel landing gear. It had accommodation for a pilot and six passengers and first flew on February 19, 1933.

The production aircraft were designated the V-1A and had a slightly larger and longer fuselage for two pilots and eight passengers.  Production ended in 1936 after 24 aircraft plus the prototype had been built.

A floatplane version, sold to the USSR along a manufacturing license was designated V-1AS and an executive transport version was designated V-1AD (for Deluxe). No production ensued in the USSR.

Operational history

American Airlines bought at least 13 V-1As and the V-1 prototype (after it had been modified for two pilot operation) and they entered service in 1934. On introduction, they were the fastest commercial airliners of their day. They were used on routes from the Great Lakes to Texas. Bowen Airlines of Texas also operated the type. By 1936, they were sold, having been replaced with twin-engined aircraft when the Bureau of Air Commerce severely limited the use of single engine airliners.

V-1ADs were operated by several private companies or individuals as high-speed executive aircraft. The sole V-1AD Special was used prewar by newspaper magnate Randolph Hearst. It later served airlines in Panama and Nicaragua before returning to the United States postwar.

Fitted with twin floats and extra fuel tanks, the sole V-1AS Special was sold to the Soviet Union and used for a 10,000 mile Santa Monica to Moscow flight.

A V-1AD was used in 1936 during an attempt at the first New York-London-New York double crossing, flown by Harry Richman and Henry T. "Dick" Merrill, in the famous "Ping Pong" flight, when to ensure buoyancy in case of ditching, empty spaces in the aircraft were filled with ping pong balls. It was later used by Nationalist forces in Spain as a transport and high speed bomber.

On August 6, 1936 Sigizmund Levanevsky and  began an 11,800+ mile multistage flight from Los Angeles to —Moscow in a Vultee V-1A floatplane. They arrived in Moscow in on September 11. For this flight Levanevsky was awarded with Order of the Red Banner of Labour, while Levchenko with given the Order of Lenin. A greeting telegram to the pilots was sent by Otto Schmidt, who was at that time on the icebreaker "Litke" and was making a through passage along the Northern Sea Route

Seven former American Airlines aircraft, plus eight others were used by the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, with machine guns and under-fuselage bomb racks fitted. Four of the aircraft were captured by the Nationalists.

The V-1 was used in the filming of Jungle Queen (1944) with Clark Gable, and The Tarnished Angels (1957).

Variants
V-1
Prototype with a  Wright SR-1820-F2 Cyclone engine, one built, later modified to V-1A standard before delivery to American Airlines.
V-1A
Production variant with two crew and a  Wright Cyclone R-1820-F2 radial engine, 18-built and one converted from prototype.
V-1AD
Deluxe executive variant with a  Wright Cyclone R-1820-G2 radial engine, six built.
V-1AD Special
As V-1AD but fitted with a  Wright Cyclone R-1820-G2 radial engine, one built.
V-1AS Special
Special variant with either  R-1820-F52 or  R-1820-G2 radial engine, with twin floats, one built for the Russian government.

Survivors

The V-1AD Special NC16099 is the sole survivor of the type and is preserved on public display at  in Fredericksburg, Virginia. It is painted as Lady Peace II to commemorate the original Lady Peace used for the double crossing attempt. It was restored and flown in 1971 by Harold Johnston from Colorado.

Operators

 Spanish Republican Air Force – Republican Spain purchased 16 V-1s from various sources, including 10 from American Airlines. At least one was destroyed by sabotage before delivery and four more were seized by Nationalists during delivery.

 Aviación Nacional

Civil operators

Canadian Colonial Airways

China National Aviation Corporation

American Airlines (1 V-1 and 10 V-1A)
Bowen Airlines
Crusader Oil Corporation
William Randolph Hearst

Specifications (V-1A)

See also

References

Notes

Bibliography
 Andersson, Lennart. A History of Chinese Aviation: Encyclopedia of Aircraft and Aviation in China to 1949. Taipei, Republic of China: AHS of ROC, 2008. .

 Davies, R.E.G. Airlines of the United States. McLean, Virginia: Paladwr Press Inc, 1998. .
 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft (Part Work 1982–1985). London: Orbis Publishing, 1985.
 King, Jack. Wings of Man: The Legend of Dick Merrill. Seattle: Aviation Book Co., 1981. .
 Ogden, Bob. Aviation Museums and Collections of North America. Tonbridge, Kent: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd, 2007. . Page 541.
 Pattillo, Donald M. Pushing the Envelope: The American Aircraft Industry. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2001. .
 Richard, Allen S. "Jerry Vultee's V1." Air Classics Magazine, Challenge Publications, June 1976.
 Wegg, John. General Dynamic Aircraft and their Predecessors. London: Putnam, 1990. .

External links

 Vultee Aircraft, on Aerofiles

V-1
1930s United States airliners
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1933


Konrad Walentin Huber (4 November 1892 – 4 December 1960) was a Finnish sport shooter who competed in the 1924 Summer Olympics and the 1952 Summer Olympics. In 1924 he won the bronze medal as member of the Finnish team in the team clay pigeons competition and the silver medal in the individual trap event.

References

External links
Profile

1892 births
1960 deaths
Sportspeople from Helsinki
Sportspeople from Uusimaa Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)
Swedish-speaking Finns
Finnish male sport shooters
Olympic shooters for Finland
Shooters at the 1924 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 1952 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for Finland
Olympic bronze medalists for Finland
Trap and double trap shooters
Olympic medalists in shooting
Medalists at the 1924 Summer Olympics


Be'er Ora () is a community settlement 19 kilometers north of Eilat in  the far south of Israel. Located in the Arava region, just west of Highway 90, north of kibbutz Eilot, and south of Elifaz and Timna Park, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Eilot Regional Council. In  its population was .

History

Before the settlement was founded, Be'er Ora was previously the site of an Israeli army base.  In 1968, Be'er Ora was the site of the bombing of a school bus carrying Israeli high school students, an incident that led to Israeli Defense Forces retaliating against a Palestine Liberation Organization base in neighboring Jordan in the Battle of Karameh.

The current Be'er Ora settlement was founded in 2001 as part of a program to populate the Arava and to bring people from central Israel to the Negev, which was determined to be a preferred place for new settlement. Previously there was a Gadna army base, also called Be'er Ora, in that location.

The word "Be'er" means "well of water". Before the community was established, there was a well within its area that served as the first source of freshwater for Eilat, before Eilat was connected to the national water network. The word "Ora" (light) is borrowed from the nearby Ora Mountain and Ora Creek.

Aviation
In 2004, the government decided to move the activity of Eilat Airport to a then empty area near Be'er Ora. Ramon Airport opened in 2019.

References

Community settlements
Populated places in Southern District (Israel)
Populated places established in 2001
2001 establishments in Israel


William, Will, Bill, or Billy Holland may refer to:

Politicians
 William Holland (merchant), English merchant and MP for Dartmouth
 William Holland (politician) (1782–?), Irish-born farmer and politician in Nova Scotia
 William H. Holland (politician) (1841–1907), member of the Fifteenth Texas Legislature
 William Holland, 1st Baron Rotherham (1849–1927), British industrialist and politician

Sportsmen

Baseball
 Will Holland (baseball) (1862–1930), baseball player
 Billy Holland (baseball) (1874–?), pitcher, Negro league career 1894–1908
 Bill Holland (right-handed pitcher) (Elvis William Holland, 1901–1973), pitcher, Negro leagues career 1920–1941
 Bill Holland (left-handed pitcher) (William David Holland, 1915–1997), pitcher, Major League career 1939

Other sports
 Bill Holland (sprinter) (1874–1930), track and field athlete
 Bill Holland (1907–1984), American racing driver
 Bill Holland (basketball) (1914–2000), American professional basketball player
 Billy Holland (born 1985), Irish rugby union player

Others
 William Holland (diarist) (1746–1819), English diarist
 William Holland (publisher) (1757–1834), British radical, author and publisher
 William Holland (stained glass maker) (1809–1883), British maker of stained glass
 William Jacob Holland (1848–1932), zoologist and paleontologist
 William L. Holland (1907–2008), Institute of Pacific Relations
 Will Holland (born 1980), musician

See also
 Holland (surname)