Washington-Hoover Airport was an airport serving the city of Washington, D.C., in the United States from 1933 to 1941. It was created by the merger of Hoover Field and Washington Airport on August 2, 1933. It was in Arlington, Virginia, near the intersection of the Highway Bridge and the Mount Vernon Memorial Highway (where The Pentagon and its parking lots now stand). Washington-Hoover Airport, like its predecessors, suffered from safety problems, short runways, and little room to grow. It closed for public use in June 1941, and the United States Department of War purchased the site in September, closing it for good. Washington National Airport (now known as Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport), which opened in June 1941, was built as its replacement. The Pentagon now occupies the site.

Hoover Field

Hoover Field was built in 1925 by Thomas E. Mitten, president of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company. It was constructed on Hell's Bottom, a  site at the foot of the Highway Bridge in Arlington County, Virginia (formerly a horse racing track) directly across the Potomac River from the city. The single sod runway was  long. A single hangar,  by  in size, was constructed. The field was expanded, and the "new" airfield dedicated on July 16, 1926. It was named for then-Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, a major promoter of civil aviation.

Hoover Field suffered from significant safety problems. Arlington Beach, a local amusement park, was northeast of the airport next to the Highway Bridge, and a landfill stood on the north-northwestern edge of the field. The trash in the landfill was also on fire. The smoke sometimes obscured the landing field. The United States Department of Agriculture owned the  Arlington Experimental Farm immediately adjacent to the northeastern end of the runway. A public swimming pool was located at the airport, and local children would cross the runway to get to it. Safety conditions at the airport were so poor due to these and other obstructions that local businesses and city officials began calling for the construction of a city-owned airport in a safer location just three months after Hoover Field opened.

In February 1927, a group of aviators and aviation companies, led by aviation pioneer Henry Berliner, called for the establishment of a new, larger airport to be built on vacant land across Military Road (the southern boundary of Hoover Field). This plan was not immediately acted on however. In June, Berliner began leasing Hoover Field, and soon took a majority financial interest in the airport. A fire at the field on July 3, 1928, destroyed eight planes and a hangar, causing $100,000 in damages ($1.275 million in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars). Berliner's finances were significantly damaged by the fire, and he sold his interest in Hoover Field to E. W. Robertson's Mount Vernon Airways on July 20, 1928. By November 1928, a Canadian company, International Airways, had taken over control of the airfield from Mount Vernon Airways.

In early 1929, a new holding company, Atlantic Seaboard Airways, was created by the owners of nearby Washington Airport and took over International Airways and its subsidiary aviation businesses. For a few months, both fields were owned by the same investors (although they never merged operations). On December 30, 1929, a group of investors led by R.H. Reiffen, chairman of the New Standard Aircraft Company, seized control of Atlantic Seaboard Airways and Hoover Field.

Safety at the airfield improved somewhat in mid-1932, after Arlington County commissioners revoked permits for the burning of trash at all landfills in the county—including the one next to Hoover Field, but not the one next to Washington Airport.

Washington Airport

Washington Airport was built because a newly formed airline needed a terminal in Washington, D.C. The new Washington Airport opened without fanfare in late 1927 as a field for sight-seeing planes. Its owners included Robert E. Funkhouser (an investor in various airlines), Herbert Fahy (a well-known Lockheed Aircraft Company test pilot), and other investors. The airport added acreage and improved its facilities, and in February 1928 Funkhouser, Fahy and the others formed Seaboard Airways. Seaboard's base of operations was Washington Airport. But Washington Airport was only marginally safer than Hoover Field. The owners could not afford to pave the runway, and the burning trash dumps near Hoover Field and at Washington Airport's own eastern border often obscured the new field's runways.

The field was dramatically enlarged (and the shoreline of the Potomac River altered) in April 1928. Safety improvements were also made. Arlington Beach amusement park was purchased and razed; three new runways built on the theme park grounds; a new paved runway planned for the existing airport; and a new terminal, hangar, and office building constructed. Arlington County commissioners also banned the burning of trash at the landfill next to Hoover Field in mid-1932 (but not the one next to Washington Airport). In May 1932, the airport paid local electric power and telephone companies to bury their lines obstructing the landing and take-off lanes. But numerous other safety issues remained.

In the summer of 1931, Washington Airport faced a new safety battle. The commission overseeing the construction of Arlington Memorial Bridge proposed erecting two  granite columns on the Virginia side of the bridge as a beautification measure. The columns, however, posed a serious hazard to planes landing at Washington Airport, and an 18-month political and legislative battle ensued before the threat was defeated in February 1932.

Merger

First merger effort
Washington Airport's owners first attempted to take control of Hoover Field and merge the two entities in the late 1920s. In June 1928, Funkhouser and Fahy created United States Air Transport, a holding company which took over Seaboard Airways, Washington Airport, and Funkhouser's other aviation businesses. In March 1929, Funkhouser and Fahy formed a second, independent company—Atlantic Seaboard Airways—and used it to take over International Airways and Hoover Field. Ira C. Eaker was named general manager of Atlantic Seaboard.

United States Air Transport was itself taken over in June 1929 by Federal Aviation Corporation, an airline based in New York City. Federal Aviation announced it was buying an additional  for $675,000, with the goal of merging the two airports and creating a six-runway field with one runway dedicated solely to departing flights. But on December 30, 1929, Federal Aviation sold Hoover Field to the New Standard Aircraft Co., ending unified control of the two fields. Nonetheless, beginning around 1930, the two fields entered into a cooperative agreement. Hoover Field agreed to host all sight-seeing, flight schools, and small planes, while Washington Airport agreed to only be used by larger military, mail, and passenger aircraft.

In July 1931, Federal Aviation was slated to be purchased by National Aviation Corporation, an airline financing corporation originally organized in 1928. But this transaction never occurred.

Second merger effort
Hoover Field and Washington Airport both suffered significant financial setbacks during the Great Depression. In 1933, both airports merged after a series of quick financial transactions.

Washington Airport was the first to be sold, and the buyers were the Ludingtons. Nicholas S. Ludington and his brother, Charles Townsend Ludington, were co-owners of the Philadelphia Flying Service, a pilot training school and demonstration airplane manufacturer established in 1922. The Ludingtons became quite wealthy, and in 1929 Charles was on the board of directors of the Aviation Corporation—an aviation investment company in which some of the richest men in shipping, railroads, and investment banking had invested. In June 1930, the Ludingtons founded New York-Philadelphia-Washington Airways (soon to be renamed Ludington Airlines), an eastern seaboard airline. The Ludingtons sold their airline to Eastern Air Transport in February 1933, and Eastern Air Transport was in turn acquired by North American Aviation a month later. These transactions left the Ludingtons with plenty of cash. On July 8, 1933, Federal Aviation announced it was unable to make payments on its airfield mortgages and put Washington Airport up for auction. D.C. attorney H. Rozier Dulany, Jr. (son of the famous Virginia horse breeder) held a $255,000 first mortgage against the property and the Ludingtons held a $160,000 second mortgage. North American Aviation (owner of the former Ludington airline) passed on the chance to buy the property. At auction on July 17, 1933, an unidentified buyer purchased Washington Airport for $432,000.

Hoover Field was sold just days later. New Standard Aircraft Corp. had also had been unable to make good on its mortgages by July 1933. The Ludingtons owned a $155,442 first mortgage on Hoover Field, while William Morgan (a D.C. physician) held a second mortgage worth $9,500. The Hoover Field auction was set for July 31. At auction, the Ludingtons bought Hoover Field for $174,500.

The evening after the Hoover Field auction, the secret buyer of Washington Airport emerged: National Airport Corporation, a division of National Aviation Corporation. Within 24 hours it purchased Hoover Field from the Ludingtons for an undisclosed sum.

Airlines and destinations

American Airlines served Hoover Airport with northbound service to Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York, westbound service to Elkins, Clarksburg, Charleston, Huntington, Cincinnati, Indianapolis and Chicago, and transcontinental service to the Tri-Cities, Knoxville, Nashville, Memphis, Little Rock, Dallas, Fort Worth, Abilene, Big Spring, El Paso, Douglas, Tucson, Phoenix and Los Angeles.

Eastern Airlines also served Baltimore, Philadelphia and New York from Hoover Airport, with southbound service to Miami via Richmond, Raleigh, Charleston, Savannah, Brunswick, Jacksonville, Daytona Beach, Orlando, Vero Beach and West Palm Beach; to Tampa via Richmond, Greensboro, Charlotte, Greenville, Atlanta and Tallahassee; to Houston via Atlanta, Birmingham, Montgomery, Mobile and New Orleans; and to Brownsville, Texas (then one of the primary Latin American terminals of Pan American World Airways) via Atlanta, New Orleans, Houston, San Antonio and Corpus Christi.

Pennsylvania Central Airlines operated flights from Washington to Baltimore, Harrisburg, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Akron/Canton, Detroit, Lansing, Grand Rapids and Chicago.

Operation of Washington-Hoover Airport
The merged and newly named Washington-Hoover Airport was  in size and roughly square in size. Its dirt runways were partly oiled to reduce dust, and it had no paved runways. It had no drainage system, partial nighttime lighting, no radio for traffic control, and its three hangars were already considered obsolete.

Safety concerns and traffic stoppages on Military Road
As soon as the merger was complete, the newly named Washington-Hoover Airport came in for harsh criticism for its dangerous location and other safety concerns. Pilots rated it the most dangerous airport in the nation. Famed aviator Wiley Post declared there were better airstrips in Siberia. Airways Age magazine, then the publication of record for the aviation industry, reported that Hoover-Washington "provided the national capital with probably the poorest aviation ground facilities of any important city in either the United States or Europe." Harold Gatty, "Prince of Navigators" (according to Charles Lindbergh), called it "the worst in the United States in any town of more than 15,000 population. In size, conditions, obstructions, and approach, the field has shortcomings. From the point of view of national dignity, it is a disgrace." He strongly attacked the field's inability to keep the sod runways and taxiing areas properly drained, and said there was no reason why mere rain should close the airport. Major J. Carroll Cone, assistant director for aeronautic development within the U.S. Department of Commerce, said the airport was "the worst in the United States", said it was "admittedly inadequate", and that "its continuing use is out of the question." James C. Edgerton, an aide to the Assistant Secretary of Commerce, said planes were in "imminent danger" when using the field. Amelia Earhart said a month after the merger, "I wouldn't think of flying my own plane here."

Several safety hazards had been worsened by the joining of the two airfields. Now the field was actually crossed by Military Road. At first, an airport employee tried to stop traffic with a rope when planes landed. When this proved hazardous, the airport tried using guards to stop traffic. The guards also proved ineffective. The airport then installed a traffic light in mid-1934 to prevent vehicles from crossing the runway when planes took off or landed. Arlington County officials fined the airport manager for obstructing traffic, and the light was removed. The presence of the road was not the only hazard. High-tension electrical wires and tall radio towers still lined the field's west side, and a high smokestack and U.S. Route 1 were to its south.

Some safety improvements were made over time, however. Assistant Secretary of Commerce Ewing Y. Mitchell asked the United States Department of War in August 1933 to close Military Road and relocate it, and pledged to seek newly elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt's intervention if this effort failed. The Department of Commerce also undertook legal research to identify any obstacles to the closing of the road. Secretary of War George Dern also supported the road closure. But no closure was made at this time. A land-swap that would give the Arlington Experimental Farm most of the old Hoover Field site while giving Washington-Hoover about  to the south (thus permitting extension of the runways to a safer length) was proposed in September 1933. The Commission of Fine Arts, the region's most powerful planning body, supported the land-swap as well as closure of Military Road. The land-swap was completed by April 1935, and the airport spent $10,000 widening the runways and building a blimp hangar. Samuel Solomon, a D.C. lawyer, was appointed head of Washington-Hoover Airport in October 1933, and began lobbying heavily for Military Road's closure as well. The Washington Board of Trade threw its weight behind the road closure in March 1934. Arlington County managers said at the same time that they were already planning to move the road. But again, no closure came. Legislation was introduced in Congress in June 1935 to close Military Road, and Arlington County groups began meeting again to determine where the rerouted road would go. But again, no closure was made.

The safety situation at Washington-Hoover was very serious. In 1934, a plane attempting to land nearly hit a military truck traveling along Military Road. In August 1935, a passenger airliner with 14 people aboard had to swerve during take-off to avoid hitting a car on the road. The airliner crashed into a hangar, but no one was killed.

Some other improvements did get made. Two new terminal wings, expanding the building by more than 50 percent, were built in 1934. A new, glass-walled control tower was also built which markedly improved air traffic control, and the Arlington Experimental Farm permitted Washington-Hoover to reclaim several acres of marshy land northwest of the airport to slightly extend the runways. In September 1935, three years of negotiations bore fruit when the Potomac Electric Power Company (Pepco) agreed to move its high-tension electrical lines along Arlington Pike (which hindered the flight path near the northern end of the field).

Although Military Road did not close, Congress passed legislation allowing traffic on the highway to be stopped. On January 31, 1936, Representative John D. Dingell, Sr. warned Washington-Hoover Airport that Military Road posed a serious flying hazard. On February 14, airport officials (faced with legal action from Arlington County for obstructing traffic), stopped attempting to close the road using traffic guards, chains, or lights, leading the Department of Commerce to announce it would close the airport if traffic were not stopped. Two days later, the United States Post Office Department declared it would suspend airmail operations at Washington-Hoover unless the road were closed, leading both houses of Congress to introduce legislation demanding closure and realignment of the road. A fight broke out in the United States Senate over payment for the road: Some Senators wanted Washington-Hoover's owners to pay $50,000 in exchange for a quitclaim deed from the War Department. The airport refused, calling this blackmail. Eventually, after several failed compromises, Congress passed and Roosevelt signed federal legislation permitting traffic to be temporarily stopped whenever planes took off or landed, and paying for guards to do the traffic stops.

Washington-Hoover officials quickly announced plans to significantly extend one airport runway across the road, allowing far larger plans to land (and land more safely). But even with the extensions, the runways were too short. The main runway was now  long, and the secondary runway (also extended) , but both were short of the  considered safe for the new, heavier aircraft (like the Douglas DC-3). Amelia Earhart testified before the U.S. Senate in May 1936 that the airport was still unsafe.

Other improvements to facilities and safety
The airport continued to expand through the late 1930s, albeit slowly. A new Airmail Building was constructed at the field in August 1936, enabling the Bureau of Air Commerce to move its headquarters to the airport's administration building, and Central Airlines moved its headquarters to the field. A new radio and arc lamp control system for planes began installation later that month, and planning began for paving the runways and taxiing strip. The extended runway over Military Road was laid down in mid-September, the radio control system was finished a few days later, and the new runways completed in late October. A new drainage system helped to keep the field dry during wet weather, and the control tower was also expanded again.

Other efforts through 1937 also helped to improve safety at the field, but only in part. Some high-tension electrical wires and tall trees near the field were removed in December 1936. But in June 1937, Representative Charles Plumley told the House of Representatives that Washington-Hoover was still unsafe for planes and a "national disgrace." A month later the Air Line Pilots Association voted not to fly planes to the airfield due to the safety issues there. Two weeks later, short haul air transport between Washington, D.C., and New York City ended due to the dangers at the airport. Members of Congress proposed legislation paying for improvements to the field, but the Air Line Pilots Association declared the field inherently unsafe and demanded its closure. To address these demands, the Washington Board of Trade urged once again in late July that Military Road be closed (even as local motorists asked that the road be upgraded and repaved).

The House and Senate again introduced airport improvement legislation in July 1937. This bill, which would have provided for construction of a new Military Road and transferred  of the Arlington Experimental Farm to the airport, was vetoed by President Roosevelt. But as this legislation was moving forward, Arlington County and Washington-Hoover Airport reached an agreement in mid-August whereby the county would close Military Road in exchange for a $25,000 payment to help pay for its rerouting. The House of Representatives passed legislation the following day to permit closure of the federal road. The Senate followed suit 10 days later. Again President Roosevelt vetoed the legislation, arguing that it turned federal property over to a private entity without payment in return. In September, the Bureau of Air Commerce directed all airports in the United States to assume responsibility for directing the take-off and landing of large air transport planes. But Washington-Hoover personnel refused to take on that responsibility, due to the airfield's poor radio and lighting systems. After negotiations among the Air Line Pilots Association, the Bureau of Air Commerce, transport airlines, and the airport, tighter rules for large air transport craft were adopted but special provisions enacted just for Washington-Hoover which established a slightly lower threshold of safety and permitted large air transport ships to land at the airfield. But still the Air Line Pilots Association pressed for the complete closure of Washington-Hoover.

Push for federalization and boundary issues
Throughout this period, efforts were also made to have the city or federal government purchase Washington-Hoover. In late 1933, the city asked the Public Works Administration to purchase the airport, but the agency refused (citing the high cost of land). Despite this setback, some city and federal leaders kept pushing for Washington-Hoover as the city's municipal airport. Arlington County officials opposed the proposal, however, as the private airport generated tax revenues it would not if it were a federal facility.

One of the reasons why purchase was opposed was the boundary question. In April 1933, a filling station near Washington Airport refused to pay taxes to the state of Virginia, arguing that the land on which it stood was part of the District of Columbia. Despite the Supreme Court's earlier ruling, this claim threw into question where the border really was.

In an attempt to fix the border permanently, Congress enacted legislation on March 21, 1934, creating the District of Columbia-Virginia Boundary Commission. For the next 20 months, the Boundary Commission held hearings and studied ancient maps to determine whether the low tide or high tide level of the Potomac River constituted Virginia's boundary with the District of Columbia. In December 1935, the Boundary Commission issued a compromise report, giving the federal government (which represented the District) title to all land east of the Mount Vernon Memorial Highway. This compromise would have given Washington-Hoover Airport to the state of Virginia while giving nearby Gravelly Point to the federal government.

But a major congressional battle over the report led to no action, and the dispute continued to simmer. Finally, in October 1945, Congress enacted legislation essentially enacting the recommendations of the Boundary Commission report, but giving title over National Airport to the federal government (with some caveats for law enforcement).

Closing of Military Road and approval of Washington National Airport
The rapid expansion in aircraft size and weight as well as the need for enhanced airfield safety led the U.S. Department of Commerce to threaten to close Washington-Hoover again. In June 1937, the department promulgated new rules requiring runways to be lengthened by as much as  and for all obstructions for take-off and landing flight paths to be removed. The department also instituted an airport classification system designed to rate fields on safety and other factors. Aircraft would be permitted to use only at those fields which had a rating indicating it was safe for them, and air traffic volumes would be limited at fields with lower ratings. The rules threatened to close Washington-Hoover, or permit its use for local traffic only.

In early September, the War Department agreed to allow planes to land at Bolling Field in an emergency. This led the Air Line Pilots Association to cancel its boycott of Washington-Hoover. But shortly thereafter, the association renewed its push to have the airport closed altogether. Under intense pressure, the National Aviation Corporation said it was putting Washington-Hoover Airport up for sale. Airport officials later said they hoped that the federal government would take over Washington-Hoover, greatly expand it, and operate it as a joint public-private enterprise with National Aviation. Two months later, Washington-Hoover officials announced that the blimp hangar at the field was being closed and removed. The airfield also proposed filling in part of the lagoon that formed the southern end of Boundary Channel, so that a much-needed, much longer cross-runway could be built at the field.

One important improvement at Washington-Hoover Airport went almost unnoticed, but proved historic. J. Willard Marriott, noticing the many passengers at Washington-Hoover Airport without access to food, opened the world's first airline catering business there in 1937.

Closure of Military Road
The year 1938 saw the closure at last of Military Road. For six months, the Department of Commerce's new rules had threatened to close the airport, but neither airport officials nor the federal government had acted to improve the safety situation. But pressure for closure began to build again. In early 1938, federal aviation officials began regulating air traffic in the D.C. area to prevent too many planes from using the field at once. In February, highly influential Time magazine called Washington-Hoover "one of the world's most dangerous" airports. Representative Charles Albert Plumley castigated the airfield as "both a public menace and a national disgrace."

The national publicity given to the airport's problems led to action. This time, Congress adopted a different legislative strategy. In late March, the Senate approved two bills (rather than a single bill), one to close Military Road and one to expand the airport by transferring a portion of the Arlington Experimental Farm to the facility. The House passed both bills in early April. President Roosevelt signed the bill closing Military Road on April 14. Washington-Hoover officials immediately announced a plan to secure an additional  of land and build five runways about  long. The airport tendered its $25,000 payment to the county in late April. Military Road closed on Monday, May 15, 1938. In mid-September hearings began to set a date for the final removal of the blimp hangar.

The March 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows 41 weekday airline departures: 24 Eastern (including 11 nonstops to Newark), 9 American and 8 Pennsylvania Central.

Washington National Airport

But in a surprise move, President Roosevelt announced on September 28, 1938, that a new  airport would be built on existing and reclaimed land at Gravelly Point. Roosevelt, worried that war in Europe and Asia was looming, became convinced that a new, modern, safe facility was needed for national defense reasons. These concerns led the President to select Gravelly Point for a new National Airport. Roosevelt approved the expenditure of $9 million in Public Works Administration funds, $2 million in Works Progress Administration funds, and $200,000 of Civil Aviation Administration funds to build the airport, whose construction was to begin in early November 1938.

Roosevelt's decision had been nearly two years in the making. Roosevelt had long favored closure of Washington-Hoover and the construction of a new, large, modern airport at a safer location. But Roosevelt faced a problem: The Air Commerce Act of 1926 barred the federal government from building or supplying the funds to build commercial airports. However, pressure for substantial reform of federal air commernce policy was rising, so in August 1937 (around the time he vetoed the road closing bills) Roosevelt formed an advisory panel to make recommendations regarding reform of national civil aviation policy. Both the Roosevelt administration and several members of Congress introduced air commerce legislation in January 1938, and on May 28, 1938, Roosevelt signed the Civil Aeronautics Act into law. The statute established the Civil Aeronautics Authority, and permitted this agency to spend federal funds for the construction of airports if such construction was required by the national defense.

It was under this authority that Roosevelt acted to authorize the construction of National Airport (for years, the only commercial airport operated by the U.S. government). The closure of Military Road kept Washington-Hoover open while Roosevelt pursued his civil aviation bill and built his new airport.

Over the next two years, a number of improvements were made to the area around Washington-Hoover Airport. Few of these were intended to make the airport safer, but rather to make it safe for the new National Airport and to prepare the area for the construction of military facilities (as mobilization was under way in anticipation of World War II). The blimp hangar was gone as of November 1939, although the Goodyear Blimp continued to dock at Washington-Hoover. In October 1940, Congress passed legislation transferring the Arlington Experimental Farm to the United States Army, and authorizing the purchase of Washington-Hoover by the federal government. The Arlington Radio Towers, built around 1915 and long a hazard to planes at Washington-Hoover, were removed in early 1941. With the closure of Washington-Hoover clearly coming, Samuel Solomon resigned as Washington-Hoover's manager in May 1941 to become president of Northeast Airlines.

Closure
Washington-Hoover Airport closed as a public use airport in 1941 when Washington National Airport opened on June 16, 1941. After transfer of passenger and air transport flights to National, Washington-Hoover was used as a private field by a pilot training school.

In late June 1941, the Army selected Washington-Hoover for the site of a proposed $3 million supply depot. The supply depot was never built; instead, The Pentagon was constructed on the site of the old airfield. In June 1941, Congress finally appropriated money for the purchase of the airfield for military use. On September 16, 1941, the War Department bought Washington-Hoover Airport for $1 million for construction of The Pentagon.

The Goodyear Blimp moved to National Airport in November 1941. Ground was broken for the construction of The Pentagon on November 8, 1941, and Washington-Hoover ceased to exist.

References

Bibliography
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Arlington Historical Society. Arlington. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2000.
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Bednarek, Janet R. Daly. America's Airports: Airfield Development, 1918-1947. College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Bell, Chip R. and Patterson, John R. Take Their Breath Away: How Imaginative Service Creates Devoted Customers. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2009.
Botti, Timothy J. Envy of the World: A History of the U.S. Economy and Big Business. New York: Algora Publishing, 2006.
Brendon, Piers. The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s. New York: Knopf, 2000.
Budianksy, Stephen. Battle Of Wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. New York: The Free Press, 2000.
Carroll, James. Crusade: Chronicles of an Unjust War. New York: Henry Holt, 2004.
Crouch, Tom D. Wings: A History of Aviation From Kites to the Space Age. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, 2004.
Dietrich, Zula. Zula Remembers. Fort Valley, Va.: Loft Press, 2005.
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External links
History of Reagan Washington National
Washington-Hoover Airport at Virginia Aeronautical Historical Society (includes photos of Washington-Hoover Airport in the 1930s and 1940s)

Defunct airports in Virginia
History of Washington, D.C.
Transportation in Arlington County, Virginia
Demolished buildings and structures in Virginia
Airports in the Washington metropolitan area


PublicAffairs (or PublicAffairs Books) is a book publishing company located in New York City and has been a part of the Hachette Book Group since 2016.

PublicAffairs was launched in 1997 by Peter Osnos. The current Publisher is Clive Priddle. The company publishes mostly non-mainstream non-fiction books about politics and current affairs, both American and international.

It has published several books by Nobel Prize-winning authors, including Muhammad Yunus’s Banker to the Poor and Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo’s two books Poor Economics and Good Economics for Hard Times.

In 2019, it published Shoshana Zuboff’s international bestseller The Age of Surveillance Capitalism.

Perseus Books won Publishers Weekly's "Publisher of the Year" award for 2007.

References

External links
 Company web site

 Panel discussion on the 20th anniversary of PublicAffairs Books, April 17, 2018, C-SPAN

Book publishing companies based in New York (state)
Publishing companies established in 1997


The James Smith First Nation ( nihtâwikihcikanihk, meaning: at the place of good growth) is a Plains Cree Indigenous band government whose reserve is north of Melfort, Saskatchewan, Canada. James Smith has two reserves, James Smith 100 and Cumberland 100A. James Smith has a current population of 2,412, with the on-reserve population estimated to be at 1,592 members. James Smith is part of the Prince Albert Grand Council. Bordering the reserve are the rural municipalities of Kinistino No. 459 and Torch River No. 488.

History

The First Nation takes its name after Chief James Smith, a brother of Chief John Smith, who founded the Muskoday First Nation.

James Smith signed Treaty Six at Fort Carlton in 1876. The population at the time of the signing was 134 members or 32 families. The original language spoken was Cree. James Smith, alongside John Smith, migrated to the area from the Red River district of Manitoba, and his Cree name has been recorded as Notaw(k)eecheekanis (ᓂᐦᒑᐏᑭᐦᒋᑲᓂᐢ nihcâwikihcikanis). However, the term ᓂᐦᑖᐏᑭᐦᒋᑲᓂᕽ nihtâwikihcikanihk means "good growing area" and is better applied to the community rather than the chief.

The Chakastaypasin First Nation later joined the people of James Smith following the dissolution of their reserve near St. Louis, Saskatchewan, after the North-West Rebellion. As they are separate signatories to Treaty 6, the Chakastapaysin do have some legal status as a separate nation, but their status as a separate First Nation remains in limbo, while an inquiry announced in 1999 has yet to move forward.

The people of the Peter Chapman First Nation were incorporated into the same band in 1902, but they are generally recognized as a separate band, with their legal status disputed both in court and by an ongoing commission of inquiry. Recently the three nations who had been forced under one government by the name of James Smith decided to separate into their founding bands.

The Margaret Turner Health Clinic, named after Margaret Turner in memory of her health work in the 1980s–90s, is located in the Middle Village.

The Bernard Constant Community School (BCCS), formerly known as James Smith School, was renamed after teacher Bernard Constant in the 1990s. The James Smith School was originally in the South Village but in 1991 it was torn down and the new school was built in the Middle Village which opened on May 2, 1992. Buildings from the 1980s–90s were demolished, due to the lack of funds, but the South Hockey Ring was left.

The current chiefs are Wally Burns, Robert Head, and Calvin Sanderson.

2022 stabbings

On September 4, 2022, multiple people were stabbed at the James Smith Cree Nation. Eleven people were killed, and eighteen others were injured. The perpetrator, Myles Sanderson was arrested on September 7, 2022, but died shortly thereafter, possibly from self-inflicted injuries, or by an overdose. Among those killed was perpetrator's brother, Damien Sanderson, who was initially considered a suspect, but was later reclassified as victim of the stabbings.

See also

 Muskoday First Nation
 Fort de la Corne

References

External links
 Prince Albert Grand Council site on James Smith
 Government of Saskatchewan site on James Smith
 Map of James Smith 100 at Statcan

Saulteaux
Cree governments
First Nations governments in Saskatchewan


SKY 1 may refer to:

Sky One in England
Sky 5 in New Zealand, formerly Sky 1


You Have No Idea What You're Getting Yourself Into is the debut album from Does It Offend You, Yeah?. It was released on March 24, 2008.

Track listing

All tracks were written and recorded by Does It Offend You, Yeah? except tracks 2 and 7 which were co-written with Eliot James and Sebastien Grainger respectively.

Personnel

 James Rushent – lead vocals, bass, guitar, synth, vocoder
 Rob Bloomfield – drums, bass, guitar, synth, backing vocals
 Dan Coop – synth
 Sebastien Grainger – vocals on "Let's Make Out"
 Elliot James – guitar
 Morgan Quaintance – guitar on "Doomed Now"

Usage in popular culture

 "Attack of the 60 ft Lesbian Octopus" was played during the 81st Academy Awards on February 22, 2009, over a montage of 2008 animated films.
 "Dawn of the Dead" was used in the 2008 series of the UK's Big Brother as the backing track to Mikey "the blind guy's" best bits which was played on the finale.
 "We Are Rockstars" is featured in trailers for Fast & Furious.
 "We Are Rockstars" is featured as the soundtrack in the VW GTI Project online game.
 "We Are Rockstars" is also featured as the theme song for Home and Garden Network TV.
 "We Are Rockstars" is featured in the game Saints Row 2 on the station K12 97.6.
 "We Are Rockstars" is the theme song for the sketch show Horne and Corden.
 "Epic Last Song" is featured in episode 2390 of Hollyoaks, when John Paul follows first love Craig to the train station and they ride off into the sunset together.
 "Battle Royale" is included in The Sims 2 expansion Apartment Life as part of the soundtrack.
 "Battle Royale" is on the EA Sports FIFA Street 3 soundtrack.
 "With A Heavy Heart (I Regret To Inform You)" was featured in the game Gran Turismo 5 Prologue
 "With A Heavy Heart (I Regret To Inform You)" is featured in preview ads for the upcoming FOX drama Human Target.
 "With A Heavy Heart (I Regret To Inform You)" was featured in episode 18 of season 2 in Gossip Girl, when Dan and Miss Carr have sex in the dark.

Production

 Producers: Does It Offend You, Yeah?, Eliot James
 Mix: Rich Costey

Charts

References

Does It Offend You, Yeah? albums
2008 debut albums
Startime International albums
Virgin Records albums


Emergency! is the debut double album by the American jazz fusion group The Tony Williams Lifetime featuring Williams with guitarist John McLaughlin and organist Larry Young. It was recorded and released in 1969 and was one of the first significant fusion recordings. The album is commonly regarded as an influential album in the jazz, rock, and fusion genres.

Composition
According to jazz scholar Christopher Meeder, the Lifetime eschewed the funk influence of Miles Davis' early fusion music with a mixture of heavy rock drumming and the "light, rapid swing" that was Williams' signature. "Emergency! synthesized the best elements of free jazz, modal jazz, and British rock", Meeder wrote, "and added a rhythmic complexity in tracks like 'Via the Spectrum Road,' a blues of sorts in the unusual time signature of 11/8." In Paul Hegarty's opinion, the music was more oriented with progressive music's rock side rather than its jazz, fusing psychedelic elements while featuring "reprises, crescendos, an oscillation between the simpler time signatures of rock and the more progressive metres of jazz". He cited "Via the Spectrum Road" as an example of how Williams' singing approached the "non-rock, non-jazz softness" of progressive rock pioneer Robert Wyatt.

"Via the Spectrum Road" was viewed by Stuart Nicholson as one of the album's most blatant explorations of rock rhythms. "Spectrum", on the other hand, utilized rhythms from post-bop. Composed by McLaughlin, it was first recorded for his 1969 Extrapolation debut and was regarded by Nicholson as an extension of that album's "free-flowing approach ... but reinforced by the volume and energy associated with rock".

A mistake during Emergencys production led Meeder to believe it helped lend a "raw power" to the music: "A cynical engineer used to recording mainstream jazz recorded the band carelessly, allowing the tape to distort, unintentionally adding satisfyingly raw edges to the album."

Release and reception

Emergency! was originally released in 1969 by Polydor/PolyGram Records, receiving widespread acclaim from major American publications. In a contemporary review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau hailed Williams as "probably the best drummer in the world" and was astonished by the album, calling it "a frank extrapolation on the most raucous qualities of new thing jazz and wah-wah mannerist rock". Coda was less enthusiastic, finding it "intriguing" with some "substantial" pieces of music but not as much as other hard rock bands attempting the same kind of music, nor as imaginative and coherent as the music Williams, McLaughlin, and Young had made outside the group. The album was later issued on CD by Polydor/PolyGram Records in 1991 but with a "restoration" remix by Phil Schaap to overcome "Marked sonic problems". The original album mix was reissued on CD for the first time by Verve/PolyGram Records in 1997.

According to J. D. Considine in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (1992), jazz fusion started on Emergency! where McLaughlin was first given the chance to combine jazz and rock. In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Leo Stanley said that it "shattered the boundaries between jazz and rock" with its "dense, adventurous, unpredictable soundscapes". Dennis Polkow of the Chicago Tribune wrote that in spite of the album's questionable sound quality, the music has an "energy and spirit" that has never been surpassed in fusion. According to Nicholson, recordings like Emergency! and the 1975 Miles Davis LP Agharta showed jazz rock paralleling free jazz by being "on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s", suggesting the genre's "potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, he said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s. Mojo regarded it as "jazz-rock's equivalent of Are You Experienced?".

Track listing
Side one
 "Emergency" (Williams) – 9:37
 "Beyond Games" (Williams) – 8:19
Side two
 "Where" (McLaughlin) – 12:11
 "Vashkar" (Carla Bley) – 5:01
Side three
 "Via the Spectrum Road" (McLaughlin, Williams) – 7:51
 "Spectrum" (McLaughlin) – 8:52
Side four
 "Sangria for Three" (Williams) – 13:08
 "Something Spiritual" (Dave Herman) – 5:40 (Mistitled "Something Special" on some CD issues)

Personnel

The Tony Williams Lifetime
John McLaughlin – electric and acoustic guitars
Tony Williams – drums, vocals
Larry Young  – organ

Production

1969 LP (Polydor)
Ralph J. Gleason – liner notes
Elaine Gongora – cover design
Monte Kay – producer
Jack Lewis – producer
Sid Maurer – art direction, photography
Gene Radice – recording, mixing

1991 CD (Polydor) remix by Phil Schaap
James Isaacs – liner notes
Joseph M. Palmaccio – digital mastering, final editing
Paul Ramey – reissue producer
Phil Schaap – liner notes ("Engineer's Comments & Disclaimer"), restoration, remastering
Richard Seidel – reissue producer

1997 CD (Verve) original album mix
Bill Levenson – executive producer
Gary N. Mayo – remastering
John McDermott – liner notes
Jerry Rappaport – reissue producer
Richard Seidel – executive producer

References

External links

The Tony Williams Lifetime albums
1969 debut albums
Verve Records albums
PolyGram albums
Albums produced by Monte Kay
Psychedelic rock albums by American artists
Instrumental albums
Jazz-rock albums


O'Neill's Adventureland was a small amusement park located in Edmondson Park, New South Wales, Australia.

The park was promoted in the 1970s and 1980s on television commercials with the lyric "Something for mum and something for dad, something for grandma and old grandad... at Adventureland".

The park operated under the name of Adventureland Sydney and was open throughout the year. Rides included the Warthog ghost train, giant slide, water slide, miniature train, dodgem cars and many more.

The park was used as a set for the television show Double the Fist.  The rides at the park have also featured in movies such as Babe and Ghost Rider.

The park was also used extensively in the 1983 Australian drama Hostage, and was where the first section of the movie was based. This movie was known internationally as The Christine Maresch Story, and starred Judy Nunn and Kerry Mack.

The park now opens occasionally, operating only portable rides.

References

External links
  Google Maps satellite image showing one of the remaining slides
   An RTA document about road upgrade showing photos of Adventureland - see page 30 of the pdf

Defunct amusement parks in Australia
Amusement parks in New South Wales
1970s establishments in Australia
1970 establishments in Australia


Regional 1 South West (formerly South West Premier and National League 3 South West) is a level five league in the English rugby union system. It is one of six leagues at this level. When this division began in 1987 it was known as South West Division 1. The format of the league was changed at the beginning of the 2009–10 season following reorganisation by the Rugby Football Union, and the name change from National League 3 to South West Premier was introduced for the 2017–18 season by the RFU in order to lessen confusion for what is a series of regional leagues. Regional 1 South West, is the highest regional rugby union league covering South West England. The club finishing in first place is automatically promoted to National League 2 West. Relegated teams drop down to either Regional 2 South West or Regional 2 Severn, depending on their location.

Camborne are the current champions.

Format
The season runs from September to May and comprises twenty-two rounds of matches, with each club playing each of its rivals, home and away. The results of the matches contribute points to the league as follows:
    4 points are awarded for a win
    2 points are awarded for a draw
    0 points are awarded for a loss, however
    1 losing (bonus) point is awarded to a team that loses a match by 7 points or fewer
    1 additional (bonus) point is awarded to a team scoring 4 tries or more in a match

Current season
Nine of last years teams participate in this seasons competition. Champions, Camborne were promoted to National League 2 West while Old Centralians (11th) and Drybrook (12th) were both relegated to Regional 2 Severn. Six of the teams are from Devon, while Cornwall, Gloucestershire and Somerset each have two clubs.

Participating teams and locations

League table

Results

2022–23

Participating teams and locations

Final league table

Results

2021–22
The first matches were played on 4 September 2021 and the final league matches on 23 April 2022. Exeter University (as champions), Old Redcliffians (as runner-up) and Hornets (3rd) are all promoted to National League 2 West (formerly National League 2 South). The RFU will announce the format of the tier 5 leagues during the summer of 2022.

Participating teams
Nine of the fourteen teams participated in the previous competition (2019–20). The champions, Barnstaple were promoted to National League 2 South, while Newbury and Bracknell were both relegated to South West 1 East. Maidenhead have been level transferred to London & South East Premier. The teams coming into this seasons competition are Old Redcliffians and Bournemouth, both relegated from National League 2 South in 15th and 16th position respectively. Teams promoted into this seasons competition are Hornets, champions of South West 1 West, and two teams from South West 1 East, Royal Wootton Bassett and Old Centralians (1st and 2nd respectively).

Final league table

2020–21
Due to the ongoing pandemic, the 2020–21 season was cancelled.

2019–20
The season ended before all the matches were completed because of the coronavirus pandemic and the RFU used a best playing record formula to decide the final table. Barnstaple are the champions.

Participating teams
Ten of the thirteen teams participated in last season's competition. They are joined by three promoted sides; Launceston, Newbury Blues and Okehampton. Bournemouth were promoted to National League 2 South, while relegated sides included Newton Abbot and Cleve (both South West 1 West), and Old Patesians (South West 1 East). Initially, Bromsgrove were due to be level transferred from Midlands Premier but the withdrawal of Birmingham & Solihull from the league system meant that they stayed put, leaving South West Premier with just thirteen teams.

Final league table

2018–19

Participating teams
Nine of the fourteen teams participated in last season's competition. They are joined by Barnstaple, who were relegated from National League 2 South, and by three promoted sides; Drybrook, Exeter University and Old Patesians. Dings Crusaders (last seasons champions) were promoted to National League 2 South, while Hornets and Lydney were both relegated to South West 1 West, and Newbury Blues relegated to South West 1 East.

Final league table

Promotion play-off
Each season, the runners-up in the South West Premier (formerly National League 3 South West) and London & South East Premier (National League 3 London & South East) participate in a play-off for the third promotion place to National League 2 South. The team with the best playing record, in this case Westcliff, hosted the match and beat their opponents Barnstaple 44 – 5  to win promotion to National League 2 South for the first time. This was Westcliff's first appearance in the play-offs and Barnstaple's second; in 2016 Barnstaple beat Tonbridge Juddians 31 – 30 at Tonbridge. The home team have won fifteen out of 19 play-off matches and the south-east team have won the play-off thirteen times.

2017–18

Participating teams
Ten of the fourteen teams participated in last season's competition (when it was known as National League 3 South West). They are joined by Exmouth, who were relegated from National League 2 South, and by three promoted sides; Weston-super-Mare, Maidenhead and Newbury Blues. Old Redcliffians (champions) were promoted to National League 2 South, while Launceston were relegated to
(South West 1 West), Salisbury to  (South West 1 East) and Bromsgrove to (Midlands 1 West).

Final league table

Promotion play-off
Each season, the runners-up in the South West Premier (formerly National League 3 South West) and London & South East Premier (formerly National League 3 London & SE) participate in a play-off for the third promotion place to National League 2 South. The team with the best playing record, in this case Guernsey, hosted the match and beat their opponents Bournemouth 38 – 23 to win promotion. This was Guernsey's first appearance in the play-offs and Bournemouth's second. Bournemouth's previous appearance was in 2011 when they lost to Hertford 23 – 22.

2016–17
Nine of the fourteen teams participated in last season's competition. They are joined by Launceston who were relegated from National League 2 South, and by two promoted sides: Camborne and Salisbury. Exmouth (champions) and Barnstaple (play-off) were promoted to National League 2 South, while Chippenham were relegated to South West 1 West, and Old Patesians and Old Centralians to South West 1 East. To address a league imbalance due to only one team coming down from National League 2 South, both Bromsgrove and Bracknell have been level transferred into the league from National League 3 Midlands and National League 3 London & SE respectively, Bromsgrove having finished 9th and Bracknell 11th.

Final league table

Promotion play-off
Each season, the runners-up in the National League 3 London & SE, and National League 3 South West participate in a play-off for the third promotion place to National League 2 South. The team with the best playing record, in this case Wimbledon, hosted the match and destroyed their opponents Dings Crusaders 55 – 5 to win promotion.

2015–16
Nine of the fourteen teams participated in last season's competition. They are joined by two teams relegated from National League 2 South, Dings Crusaders and Lydney; and by three promoted teams Cleve, Chippenham and Ivybridge. The teams leaving the league were the 2014–15 champions, Redingensians who were promoted to National League 2 South and the relegated teams, Chard and Weston-super-Mare to play in South West 1 West, and Oxford Harlequins to South West 1 East. Bracknell, who finished 3rd last season, transferred to National League 3 London and SE.

Participating teams

Final league table

Promotion play-off
Each season, the runners-up in the National League 3 London and SE, and National League 3 South West participate in a play-off for promotion to National League 2 South. The team with the best playing record, in this case Tonbridge Juddians, host the match and their opponents were Barnstaple, who won the match 30 – 31, scoring the winning points with a penalty in the last seconds of the match.

2014–15

Participating teams

Final league table

Promotion play-off
Each season, the runners-up in the National League 3 London and SE, and National League 3 South West participate in a play-off for promotion to National League 2 South. The team with the best playing record, in this case Exmouth, hosts the match; their opponents were Barnes and the match was played on 25 April 2015. At the end of full-time the match score was 22 – 22, and Barnes scored the only points in extra-time, to win the match 27– 22.

After extra time (80 mins: 22 – 22)

2013–14
 Amersham & Chiltern RFC
 Avonmouth Old Boys
 Barnstaple
 Bracknell (promoted from South West 1 East)
 Brixham
 Chippenham
 Lydney (relegated from National League 2 South)
 Newton Abbot
 Old Centralians (promoted from South West 1 East)
 Old Patesians
 Old Redcliffians (promoted from South West 1 West)
 Redingensians
 Weston-super-Mare
 Worcester Wanderers (promoted from Midlands 1 West)

League winners
 Lydney (promoted to National League 2 South)

Relegated
 Avonmouth Old Boys (relegated to South West 1 West)
 Chippenham (relegated to South West 1 East)
 Worcester Wanderers (relegated to Midlands 1 West)

Transferred
 Amersham & Chiltern RFC (transferred to National League 3 London & SE)

Final league table

2012–13
Amersham & Chiltern RFC
Avonmouth Old Boys
Barnstaple
Brixham
Chippenham
Exmouth
London Irish Amateur (transferred from National League 3 London & SE)
Maidenhead (promoted from South West 1 East)
Malvern
Newton Abbot
Old Patesians
Oxford Harlequins
Redingensians
Weston-super-Mare

2011–12
Amersham & Chiltern RFC
Barnstaple
Bournemouth
Bridgwater & Albion
Chinnor
Chippenham
Exmouth
Newbury Blues (relegated from National League 2 South)
Newton Abbot
Old Patesians
Old Redcliffians
Oxford Harlequins
Redingensians
Weston-super-Mare

2010–11
Barnstaple
Bournemouth
Bridgwater & Albion
Cheltenham
Chinnor
Cleve
Coney Hill
Exmouth
Hartpury College
Newton Abbot
Old Patesians
Oxford Harlequins
Redingensians
Weston-super-Mare

2009–10
The first season as a national league

Barnstaple
Bournemouth
Chinnor
Chippenham
Cleve
Coney Hill
Exmouth
Maidenhead (promoted from South West 1 East)
Old Patesians
Oxford Harlequins
Reading
Redingensians
Taunton
Weston-super-Mare

2007–08

Original teams
When league rugby began in 1987 this division contained the following teams:

Bournemouth
Bridgwater & Albion
Clifton
High Wycombe
Oxford
Maidenhead
Redruth
St Ives
Taunton
Torquay Athletic
Weston-super-Mare

Regional 1 South West honours
In the first season of the English rugby union league pyramid, sponsored by Courage, there was four, tier five leagues. The geographical area for teams in South West Division One covered an area of south-west England from Oxfordshire and Berkshire in the east to Cornwall in the west. There were eleven teams in the league and they played each team once, giving each team ten matches. The other tier five leagues were London 1, Midlands 1 and North 1. This system prevailed for five seasons, and in 1992–93 the number of teams increased from eleven to thirteen. The following season (1993–94) the league was reorganised and the four tier five leagues became two; National 5 North and National 5 South. After three seasons, in 1996–97, a further reorganisation occurred, and there was a return to four, tier five leagues; with South West Division One covering the area of south-west England from Berkshire westwards. This system prevailed until 2009–10 when the number of teams was increased from twelve to fourteen and renamed National League Three South West. There was a name change for the beginning of season 2017–18 when the division was renamed the South West Premier.

South West 1 (1987–1993)
The original South West 1 was a tier 5 league with promotion up to Area League 2 South and relegation down to South West 2 (presently split into two leagues known as South West 1 East and South West 1 West).

South West 1 (1993–96)
The top six teams from South West 1 and the top six from London 1 were combined to create National 5 South.  South West 1 dropped to become a tier six league and was one of two feeder leagues for National 5 South.  Relegation continued to South West 2 (currently South West 1 East and South West 1 West).

South West 1 (1996–2009)
At the end of the 1995–96 season National 5 South was discontinued and South West 1 returned to being a tier 5 league.  Promotion was up to National 4 South (now known as National League 2 South), while the splitting of South West 2 into two regional divisions, meant that relegation was now down to either South West 2 East or South West 2 West (currently South West 1 East / South West 1 West).

National League 3 South West (2009–2017)
The division was renamed National League 3 South West following a restructuring of the national leagues which led to changes at all levels.  It remained a tier 5 league with promotion up to National League 2 South (formerly National League 3 South) and relegation to either South West 1 East or South West 1 West (formerly South West 2 East / South West 2 West).

South West Premier (2017–2022)
For the 2017–18 season all divisions at tier 5 were renamed from National League 3 to Premier meaning that National League 3 South West became known as South West Premier. Promotion continued to National League 2 South and relegation to either South West 1 East or South West 1 West.

Regional 1 South West
From 2022–33 season the number of tier 5 leagues was increased from four to six.

Promotion play-offs
From 2000–01 season there has been a promotion play-off game between the runners-up of London & South East Premier and South West Premier for the third and final promotion place to National League 2 South, with the team with the superior league record having home advantage. As of the 2018–19 season, the London and south-east teams have been most successful with thirteen wins to the south-west teams six, while the home side have won fifteen of the nineteen ties. The last play-off was in 2018–19, with the next two seasons cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom and following the increase of leagues at this level to three, only the champions are promoted.

Number of league titles

Bournemouth (2)
Chinnor (2)
Clifton (2)
Dings Crusaders (2)
Reading (2)
Barnstaple (1)
Berry Hill (1)
Bracknell (1)
Bridgwater & Albion (1)
Camborne (1)
Cheltenham (1)
Cinderford (1)
Exeter University (1)
Exmouth (1)
Hartpury College (1)
Henley (1)
High Wycombe (1)
Launceston (1)
London Irish Amateur (1)
Lydney (1)
Maidenhead (1)
Mounts Bay (1)
Newbury (1)
Old Patesians (1)
Old Redcliffians (1)
Penzance & Newlyn (1)
Redingensians (1)
Redruth (1)
Taunton (1)
Weston-super-Mare (1)

Note

See also
 South West Division RFU
 English rugby union system
 Rugby union in England

References

External links
 Rugby union in the South West
 South West Premier fixtures at the RFU

5
Recurring sporting events established in 1987
Sports leagues established in 1987


The Diocese of Málaga  () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical jurisdiction or diocese of the Catholic Church in Spain. Its episcopal see is the city of Málaga. The diocese is a suffragan diocese in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Granada.

History
 4 August 1486: Established as Diocese of Málaga

Special churches
Minor Basilicas:
Basílica del Dulce Nombre de Jesús Nazareno del Paso y Maria Santísima de la Esperanza, Málaga, Málaga, Andalucía

Leadership

Pedro Díaz de Toledo y Ovalle (5 Dec 1487 – 23 Aug 1499 Died)
Diego Ramírez de Fuenleal (7 Feb 1500 – 1518 Appointed, Bishop of Cuenca)
Raffaele Sansone Riario (12 Apr 1518 – 9 Jul 1521 Died)
Cesare Riario (3 Sep 1518 – 18 Dec 1540 Died)
Raffaele Sansone Riario (3 Sep 1518 – 9 Jul 1521 Died)
Bernardo Manrique, O.P. (18 Feb 1541 – 25 Sep 1564 Died)
Francisco Blanco Salcedo (13 Apr 1565 – 4 Jun 1574 Appointed, Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela)
Francisco Pacheco de Córdoba (30 Aug 1574 – 14 Jan 1587 Appointed, Bishop of Córdoba)
Luis García Haro de Sotomayor (7 Aug 1587 – 14 Aug 1597 Died)
Diego Aponte Quiñones, O.S. (31 Aug 1598 – 24 Apr 1599 Died)
Tomás de Borja y Castro (19 Jan 1600 – 30 Apr 1603 Appointed, Archbishop of Zaragoza)
Juan Alonso Moscoso (9 May 1603 – 21 Aug 1614 Died)
Luis Fernández de Córdoba (9 Feb 1615 – 26 Oct 1622 Appointed, Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela)
Francisco Hurtado de Mendoza y Ribera (14 Nov 1622 – 27 Jan 1627 Appointed, Bishop of Plasencia)
Gabriel Trejo y Paniagua (28 Apr 1627 – 12 Feb 1630 Died)
Antonio Henriquez Porres, O.F.M. (5 Sep 1633 – 20 Feb 1648 Died)
Alfonso de la Cueva-Benavides y Mendoza-Carrillo (27 Jul 1648 – 10 Aug 1655 Died)
Diego Martínez Zarzosa (31 Jan 1656 – 24 Jun 1658 Died)
Antonio Peña Hermosa (31 Mar 1659 – 11 Aug 1664 Appointed, Bishop of Jaén)
Alfonso Enríquez de Santo Tomás, O.P. (15 Sep 1664 – 30 Jul 1692 Died)
Bartolomé Espejos y Cisneros (13 Apr 1693 – 2 Mar 1704 Died)
Francisco de San José Pedro Mesía y Portocarrero, O.F.M. (15 Sep 1704 – 2 Feb 1713 Died)
Manuel de Santo Tomás y Mendoza, O.P. (11 Dec 1713 – 19 Aug 1717 Died)
Giulio Alberoni (6 Dec 1717 – 19 Nov 1725 Resigned)
Diego González Toro y Villalobos (19 Nov 1725 – 5 May 1734 Appointed, Bishop of Cuenca)
Gaspar de Molina y Oviedo, O.S.A. (5 May 1734 – 30 Aug 1744 Died)
Juan Eulate Santacruz (25 Jan 1745 – 16 Sep 1755 Died)
José de Franquís Laso de Castilla (24 May 1756 – 19 Sep 1774 Died)
José Molina Lario y Navarro (29 Jan 1776 – 5 Jun 1783 Died)
Manuel Ferrer y Figueredo (14 Feb 1785 – 21 Jul 1799 Died)
José Vicente Lamadrid (11 Aug 1800 – 9 Mar 1809 Died)
Ildefonso Cañedo y Vigil (19 Dec 1814 – 27 Jun 1825 Confirmed, Archbishop of Burgos)
Manuel Martínez Ferro, O. de M. (27 Jun 1825 – 3 Jun 1827 Died)
Juan Francisco Martínez y Castrillón (23 Jun 1828 – 11 Aug 1828 Died)
Juan Nepomuceno Gómez Durán (27 Jul 1829 – 30 Sep 1830 Died)
Juan José Bonel y Orbe (28 Feb 1831 – 29 Jul 1833 Appointed, Bishop of Córdoba)
José Gómez y Navas, T.O.R. (29 Jul 1833 – 26 Dec 1835 Died)
Salvador José Reyes y García de Lara (20 Jan 1848 – 5 Sep 1851 Confirmed, Archbishop of Granada)
Juan Nepomuceno Cascallana y Ordóñez (5 Sep 1851 – 26 Feb 1868 Died)
Esteban José Pérez Fernández (22 Jun 1868 – 16 Jan 1874 Appointed, Archbishop of Tarragona)
Zeferino González y Díaz Tuñón, O.P. (16 Jan 1874 – 21 Jun 1875 Resigned)
Esteban José Pérez Fernández (5 Jul 1875 – 8 Oct 1878 Died)
Manuel Gómez-Salazar y Lucio-Villegas (31 Dec 1878 – 10 Jun 1886 Appointed, Archbishop of Burgos)
Bl. Marcelo Spinola y Maestre (10 Jun 1886 – 2 Dec 1895 Appointed, Archbishop of Sevilla; beatified 1987)
Juan Muñoz y Herrera (2 Dec 1895 – 26 Dec 1919 Died)
St. Manuel González García (22 Apr 1920 – 5 Aug 1935 Appointed, Bishop of Palencia; canonized 2016)
Balbino Santos Olvera (5 Aug 1935 – 24 Nov 1946 Appointed, Archbishop of Granada)
Ángel Herrera Oria (24 Apr 1947 – 27 Aug 1966 Retired)
Emilio Benavent Escuín (7 Apr 1967 – 26 Aug 1968 Appointed, Coadjutor Archbishop of Granada)
Ángel Suquía Goicoechea (28 Nov 1969 – 13 Apr 1973 Appointed, Archbishop of Santiago de Compostela)
Ramón Buxarrais Ventura (13 Apr 1973 – 11 Sep 1991 Resigned)
Antonio Dorado Soto (26 Mar 1993 – 10 Oct 2008 Retired)
Jesús Esteban Catalá Ibáñez (10 Oct 2008 – )

See also
Roman Catholicism in Spain

References

Sources
 GCatholic.org
 Catholic Hierarchy
  Diocese website

Religion in Málaga
Roman Catholic dioceses in Spain
Religious organizations established in the 1480s
Roman Catholic dioceses established in the 15th century


"Tonefloating : The Use of Ashes vs Steven Wilson" is a seven-inch LP single released by Dutch record label Tonefloat in order to promote two of their most recognized signed artists. It was recorded during an acoustic concert in Delft, the Netherlands on Feb 27, 2000 where both artists performed. There are about 200 copies in existence which were given to people attending the concert.

The Steven Wilson side of the single features a demo recorded in July 1999 of a song written for Porcupine Tree but not recorded yet at the time. That song was later included in the single for Shesmovedon and in the compilation album Recordings.

Track listing

 A/ The Use of Ashes - Rainbird (demo)
 B/ Steven Wilson - Cure for Optimism (edit) (3:58)

Porcupine Tree songs
2000 singles


Motion interpolation or motion-compensated frame interpolation (MCFI) is a form of video processing in which intermediate film, video or animation frames are generated between existing ones by means of interpolation, in an attempt to make animation more fluid, to compensate for display motion blur, and for fake slow motion effects.

Hardware applications

Displays
Motion interpolation is a common, optional feature of various modern display devices such as HDTVs and video players, aimed at increasing perceived framerate or alleviating display motion blur, a common problem on LCD flat-panel displays.

Difference from display framerate
A display's framerate is not always equivalent to that of the content being displayed. In other words, a display capable of or operating at a high framerate does not necessarily mean that it can or must perform motion interpolation. For example, a TV running at 120 Hz and displaying 24 FPS content will simply display each content frame for five of the 120 display frames per second. This has no effect on the picture other than eliminating the need for 3:2 pulldown and thus film judder as a matter of course (since 120 is evenly divisible by 24). Eliminating judder results in motion that is less "jumpy" and which matches that of a theater projector. Motion interpolation can be used to reduce judder, but it is not required in order to do so.

Relationship to advertised display framerate
The advertised frame-rate of a specific display may refer to either the maximum number of content frames which may be displayed per second, or the number of times the display is refreshed in some way, irrespective of content. In the latter case, the actual presence or strength of any motion interpolation option may vary. In addition, the ability of a display to show content at a specific framerate does not mean that display is capable of accepting content running at that rate; most consumer displays above 60 Hz do not accept a higher frequency signal, but rather use the extra frame capability to eliminate judder, reduce ghosting, or create interpolated frames.

As an example, a TV may be advertised as "240 Hz", which would mean one of two things:

 The TV can natively display 240 frames per second, and perform advanced motion interpolation which inserts between 2 and 8 new frames between existing ones (for content running at 60 FPS to 24 FPS, respectively). For active 3D, this framerate would be halved.
 The TV is natively only capable of displaying 120 frames per second, and basic motion interpolation which inserts between 1 and 4 new frames between existing ones. Typically the only difference from a "120 Hz" TV in this case is the addition of a strobing backlight, which flickers on and off at 240 Hz, once after every 120 Hz frame. The intent of a strobing backlight is to increase the apparent response rate and thus reduce ghosting, which results in smoother motion overall. However, this technique has nothing to do with actual framerate. For active 3D, this framerate is halved, and no motion interpolation or pulldown functionality is typically provided. 600 Hz is an oft-advertised figure for plasma TVs, and while technically correct, it only refers to an inter-frame response time of 1.6 milliseconds. This can significantly reduce ghosting and thus improve motion quality, but is unrelated to interpolation and content framerate. There are no consumer films shot at 600 frames per second, nor any TV processors capable of generating 576 interpolated frames per second.

Software applications

Video playback software
Motion interpolation features are included with several video player applications.

 WinDVD uses Philips' TrimensionDNM for frame interpolation.
 PowerDVD uses TrueTheater Motion for interpolation of DVD and video files to up to 72 frame/s.
 Splash PRO uses Mirillis Motion² technology for up to Full HD video interpolation.
 DmitriRender uses GPU-oriented frame rate conversion algorithm with native DXVA support for frame interpolation.
 Bluesky Frame Rate Converter is a DirectShow filter that can convert the frame rate using AMD Fluid Motion.
 SVP (SmoothVideo Project) comes integrated by default with MPC-HC; paid version can integrate with more players, including VLC.

Video editing software
Some video editing software and plugins offer motion interpolation effects to enhance digitally-slowed video. FFmpeg is a free software non-interactive tool with such functionality. Adobe After Effects has this in a feature called "Pixel Motion". AI software company Topaz Labs produces Video AI, a video upscaling application with motion interpolation. The effects plugin "Twixtor" is available for most major video editing suites, and offers similar functionality.

Neural networks
 Depth-Aware Video Frame Interpolation
 Channel Attention Is All You Need
 Real-Time Intermediate Flow Estimation
 Intermediate Feature Refine Network
 Deep learning super sampling used specifically to interpolate frames in real-time for video games

Side effects

Visual artifacts

Motion interpolation on certain brands of TVs is sometimes accompanied by visual anomalies in the picture, described by CNET's David Carnoy as a "little tear or glitch" in the picture, appearing for a fraction of a second. He adds that the effect is most noticeable when the technology suddenly kicks in during a fast camera pan. Television and display manufacturers refer to this phenomenon as a type of digital artifact. Due to the improvement of associated technology over time, such artifacts appear less frequently with modern consumer TVs, though they have yet to be eliminated entirely "the artifacts happens more often when the gap between frames are bigger".

Soap opera effect
As a byproduct of the perceived increase in frame rate, motion interpolation may introduce a "video" (versus "film") look. This look is commonly referred to as the "soap opera effect" (SOE), in reference to the distinctive appearance of most broadcast television soap operas or pre 2000s multicam sitcoms, which were typically shot using less expensive 60i video rather than film.
Many complain that the soap opera effect ruins the theatrical look of cinematic works, by making it appear as if the viewer is either on set or watching a behind the scenes featurette. Almost all manufacturers provide ways to disable the feature, but because methods and terminology differ, the UHD Alliance proposed that all televisions have a "Filmmaker Mode" button on remote controls to disable motion smoothing.

Sports viewers appreciate motion interpolation, as it reduces motion blur produced by camera pans and shaky cameras, and thus yields better clarity of such images. It may also be used to increase the apparent framerate of video games for a more realistic feel, although the addition of display lag may be an undesired side effect. This "video look" is created deliberately by the VidFIRE technique to restore archive television programs that only survive as film telerecordings. The main differences between an artificially (interpolated) and naturally (in-camera) high framerate are that in-camera is not subject to any of the aforementioned artifacts, contains more accurate (or "true to life") image data, and requires more storage space and bandwidth, since frames are not produced in real time.

The soap-opera effect also appears in Canadian and British TV shows and films because they usually film at 30fps and 25fps respectively, which divides evenly into the framerate of the viewing device rather than the 24fps that American media (other than soap-operas) typically film in which requires a 3:2 pulldown, thus giving them a "hyper-realistic and smooth" look compared to the "cinematic" look of US content.

See also
 Inbetweening
 Motion compensation
 Motion interpolation (computer graphics)
 Flicker-free
 Television standards conversion
3:2 pulldown

References

External links
 High Frame Rate Motion Compensated Frame Interpolation in High-Definition Video Processing
 A Low Complexity Motion Compensated Frame Interpolation Method

Display technology
Video processing
Interpolation
Video
Film and video technology


Washington Airport was the second major airport to serve the city of Washington, D.C., in the United States. Located in Arlington, Virginia, near the intersection of the Highway Bridge and the Mount Vernon Parkway (where The Pentagon's south parking lots, Metrobus bus bays, and a portion of Interstate-395 now exist). The first airport to serve the city was Hoover Field, a private airfield constructed in 1925. Washington Airport, a private airport triple the size of Hoover Field, was built literally across the road in late 1927. The airfield suffered from short and unpaved runways, numerous life-threatening obstructions around the field, poor visibility (due to a burning garbage dump adjacent to each field), and poor drainage. Washington Airport nearly went bankrupt in 1933, and it was auctioned off to a new owner. The new owner also owned Hoover Field, and merged the two into a single airfield, Washington-Hoover Airport.

Washington-Hoover Airport closed in 1941 when Washington National Airport (now Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport), a replacement facility, was opened.

Hoover Field

Hoover Field was built in 1925 by Thomas E. Mitten, president of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Company (which held the airmail contract between Washington, D.C., and Philadelphia). A small expansion of the then-unnamed field led to its rededication on July 16, 1926. It was given the name Hoover Field in honor of then-Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, a major promoter of civil aviation.

Hoover Field suffered from numerous, highly dangerous safety issues, including nearby hills, high-tension electrical power lines near the field, an amusement park to one side, a landfill that was on fire (and which sometimes obscured the field), unpaved sod runways, tall smokestacks blocking the approaches, and more. Almost as soon as it opened, there were calls to close Hoover Field and build a large, modern airport at another location. In February 1927 a group of aviators and aviation companies, led by aviation pioneer Henry Berliner, called for the establishment of a new, larger airport across Military Road (the southern boundary of Hoover Field). When this did not immediately occur, Berliner began leasing and then took a majority ownership in Hoover Field.

A fire at Hoover Field on July 3, 1928, destroyed eight planes and the lone hangar, causing $100,000 in damages ($1.275 million in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars). Flights out of Hoover Field were suspended for 18 days. Berliner's finances were significantly damaged by the fire, and he sold his interest in Hoover Field to Elvin W. Robertson's Mount Vernon Airways on July 20, 1928. Mount Vernon Airways soon sold out to International Airways.

In early 1929, a new holding company, Atlantic Seaboard Airways, took over International Airways and its subsidiary aviation businesses. But on December 30, 1929, a group of investors led by R.H. Reiffen, chairman of the New Standard Aircraft Company, seized control of Atlantic Seaboard Airways and control of Hoover Field.

Construction of Washington Airport
Washington Airport emerged due to the need of a newly formed airline for a terminal in Washington, D.C. The new Washington Airport opened without fanfare in late 1927 as a field for sight-seeing planes. Its owners included Robert E. Funkhouser, Herbert Fahy, and other investors. Funkhouser was an investor and officer in several different small airlines in the mid-Atlantic region. Herbert J. "Hub" Fahy was a Lockheed Aircraft Company test pilot. The airport added acreage and improved its facilities, and in February 1928 Funkhouser, Fahy and the others formed Seaboard Airways. Seaboard's base of operations was Washington Airport.

But Washington Airport was only marginally safer than Hoover Field. Arlington Beach, a local amusement park with a Ferris wheel and high rollercoasters, was located to the northeast (on the downstream side of Highway Bridge), and a landfill existed on the eastern side. The trash in the landfill was also on fire. The smoke sometimes obscured the landing field, and the stench was notorious through the city of Washington. The owners also could not afford to pave the runways.

Improvements at Washington Airport
The field was dramatically enlarged (and the coastline of the Potomac River altered) in April 1928 when Washington Airport contracted to receive tens of thousands of cubic yards of earth, dug during the construction of the Federal Triangle complex of buildings in the District of Columbia, and used them to fill in the sides and ends of the field. An airport office was also constructed at Military Road. The expansion and land reclamation increased the size of the airport six times, to . The airport's new size was so impressive that in March 1930 President Herbert Hoover proposed that the federal government loan the government of the District of Columbia $2.5 million to take over both Hoover Field and Washington Airport, fill in the Boundary Channel between the Virginia shoreline and Columbia Island, and create a new city-owned municipal airport that would be a model for the nation. In August 1930, with construction largely completed on the new facilities, Washington Airport announced that it would begin 10 hourly flights between Washington, Philadelphia, and New York City.

The expansion effort ran into serious problems in September 1929 when the Smoot Sand and Gravel Corp. began constructing a rock wall along the high-water mark of the Potomac River. The rock wall was being built by the federal government, and was intended to support the fill dirt that was being placed there for the construction of Mount Vernon Boulevard (that portion of what is now the George Washington Memorial Parkway from Arlington Memorial Bridge to Mount Vernon). Washington Airport claimed it had title down to the low-water mark. The legal case went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States, which held two years later in Smoot Sand & Gravel Corp. v. Washington Airport, Inc.,  283 U.S. 348 (1931) that the proper boundary of the state of Virginia was the high-water mark.

Although this changed the company's plans, work still went ahead on the razing of the Arlington Beach amusement park, construction of three paved new runways on the theme park grounds, a new paved runway on the site of the existing airport, razing of the old hangar and office building, construction of a new hangar  by  in size and a new and larger office building. By year's end, however, the airport had changed its plans.  It now intended to build two hangars, one  by  in size and the other  by  in size. (Paving of the runways was also canceled in favor of oiled earth.) Construction on the new buildings began in January 1930. The hangars were designed by the firm of Lockwood, Green & Co., while the terminal was designed by the architectural firm of Holden, Stott, & Hutchinson. Total cost of the two structures, whose designs were approved by the United States Commission of Fine Arts, was $85,000. Forty-five days later, however, some shareholders in the company sued the Funkhouser, Fahy, and others, arguing that they had reneged on a deal to buy them out and further alleging that they were driving the airport into bankruptcy with their profligate spending. As the suit lingered in the courts, Arlington County commissioners stopped the burning of trash at the landfill next to Hoover Field in mid-1932 (but not the one next to Washington Airport).

The improvements at Washington Airport were so significant that in April 1932 the night airmail flight was transferred from Bolling Field to Washington Airport. A month later, in a continuing effort to improve safety, the airport paid local electric power and telephone companies to bury their lines obstructing the landing and take-off lanes. The airport had improved so much that legislation was introduced in Congress to authorize the lease of the airfield as a municipal airport. Washington Airport authorities conditioned their acceptance on the payment of $25,000 a year and the closure of Military Road. They also suggested that Hoover Field be added to the lease. The lease proposal, however, was complicated by the federal government's claim to the Potomac River up to the high-water mark on the Virginia shore.  Local small businesses had sold the airport land they claimed to own.  But this land had formerly been part of Roaches Run, a creek that emptied into a bay of the same name on the Potomac River.  The creek and a large portion of the bay had silted up and turned to dry land after the construction of the Long Bridge in 1903 changed the flow of water, and it was this property which the businesses were built on, and which had been sold to Washington Airport. The Supreme Court's decision in Smoot Sand & Gravel two years earlier did not apply, parties in the dispute said, because the Roaches Run land had been created naturally rather than artificially. But no legislative action was taken, and the government never leased the airport.

Merger

First merger effort
In June 1928, Funkhouser and Fahy created United States Air Transport as a holding company for Seaboard Airways, Washington Airport, and Funkhouser's other aviation businesses. In March 1929, Funkhouser and Fahy formed Atlantic Seaboard Airways with the intent of taking over International Airways and Hoover Field. Ira C. Eaker was named general manager of Atlantic Seaboard, and for about nine months the two airfields were owned by the same company (although they did not merge into a single field).

United States Air Transport was taken over in June 1929 by Federal Aviation Corporation, an airline based in New York City. Federal Aviation announced it was buying an additional  (which included the Arlington Beach theme park) for $675,000, with the goal of expanding into a six-runway airport with one runway dedicated solely to departing flights.

But on December 30, 1929, Federal Aviation sold Hoover Field to the New Standard Aircraft Co., ending unified control of the two fields. In July 1931, Federal Aviation was slated to be purchased by National Aviation Corporation, an airline financing corporation originally organized in 1928. This transaction did not occur, but that did not end National Aviation Corp.'s relationship with Washington Airport. Although the two airports were now distinct again, they did enter into a cooperative agreement some time in early 1930. Hoover Field agreed to host all sight-seeing, flight schools, and small planes, while Washington Airport agreed to only be used by larger military, mail, and passenger aircraft.

Second merger effort
Hoover Field and Washington Airport both suffered significant financial setbacks during the Great Depression. In 1933, both airports merged after a series of quick financial transactions.

Washington Airport was the first to be sold, and the buyers were the Ludingtons. Nicholas S. Ludington and his brother, Charles Townsend Ludington, were co-owners of the Philadelphia Flying Service, a pilot training school and demonstration airplane manufacturer established in 1922. The Ludingtons became quite wealthy, and in 1929 Charles was on the board of directors of the Aviation Corporation—an aviation investment company in which some of the richest men in shipping, railroads, and investment banking had invested. The brothers also were managers of Camden Airport, near Philadelphia. In June 1930, the Ludingtons founded New York-Philadelphia-Washington Airways (soon to be renamed Ludington Airlines), an eastern seaboard airline which famous aviator Amelia Earhart had agreed to join as vice president. The Ludingtons sold their airline to Eastern Air Transport in February 1933, and Eastern Air Transport was in turn acquired by North American Aviation a month later. These transactions left the Ludingtons with plenty of cash. On July 8, 1933, Federal Aviation put Washington Airport up for auction. D.C. attorney H. Rozier Dulany, Jr. (son of the famous Virginia horse breeder) held a $255,000 first mortgage against the property and the Ludingtons held a $160,000 second mortgage, payments on which Washington Airport was unable to make. North American Aviation (the new owner of the former Ludington airline) passed on the chance to buy the property. At auction on July 17, 1933, an unidentified buyer purchased Washington Airport for $432,000.

Hoover Field was sold just days later. New Standard Aircraft Co. had also been unable to make payments on Hoover Field's mortgages by July 1933. The Ludingtons owned a $155,442 first mortgage on Hoover Field, while William Morgan (a D.C. physician) held a second mortgage worth $9,500. The Hoover Field auction was set for July 31. At auction, the Ludingtons bought Hoover Field for $174,500.

The evening after the Hoover Field auction, the secret buyer of Washington Airport emerged:  National Airport Corporation, a division of National Aviation Corp. Almost unknown in aviation circles, within 24 hours it purchased Hoover Field from the Ludingtons for an undisclosed sum.

Washington-Hoover Airport

Hoover Field and Washington Airport were merged by their new owner and renamed Washington-Hoover Airport. It opened on August 2, 1933, and closed to the public when Washington National Airport opened on June 16, 1941. It remained open as a private field for small aircraft, but closed on September 16, 1941, when the United States Department of War purchased Washington-Hoover Airport for $1 million to construct The Pentagon.

References

Bibliography
American Jurisprudence: A Modern Comprehensive Text Statement of American Law, State and Federal. St. Paul, Minn.: West Group, 1962.
Arlington Historical Society. Arlington. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2000.
Bednarek, Janet R. Daly. America's Airports: Airfield Development, 1918-1947. College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.
Crouch, Tom D. Wings: A History of Aviation From Kites to the Space Age. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, 2004.
Dailey, Franklyn E. The Triumph of Instrument Flight: A Retrospective in the Century of U.S. Aviation. Wilbraham, Mass.: Dailey International Publishers, 2004.
Dietrich, Zula. Zula Remembers. Fort Valley, Va.: Loft Press, 2005.
Evans-Hylton, Patrick. Aviation in Hampton Roads. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia, 2005.
Goode, James M. Capital Losses: A Cultural History of Washington's Destroyed Buildings. 2d ed. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2003.
Goode, James M. "Flying High: The Origin and Design of Washington National Airport." Washington History. 1:2 (Fall 1989).
Leuchtenburg, William Edward. Herbert Hoover. New York: Times Books, 2009.
Peck, Margaret C. Washington Dulles International Airport. Charleston, S.C.: Arcadia Publishing, 2005.
Schom, Alan. The Eagle and the Rising Sun: The Japanese-American War, 1941-1943, Pearl Harbor Through Guadalcanal. New York: W.W. Norton, 2004.
Vogel, Steve. The Pentagon: A History. New York: Random House, 2008.
Walch, Timothy. Uncommon Americans: The Lives and Legacies of Herbert and Lou Henry Hoover. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2003.
Zukowsky, John and Bosma, Koos. Building for Air Travel: Architecture and Design for Commercial Aviation. Munich:  Prestel, 1996.

External links
History of Reagan Washington National
Washington Airport and Washington-Hoover Airport at Virginia Aeronautical Historical Society (photos of both airports in the 1930s and 1940s)

Defunct airports in Virginia
History of Washington, D.C.
Transportation in Arlington County, Virginia
Demolished buildings and structures in Virginia
Airports established in 1927
1927 establishments in Virginia
Airports disestablished in 1941
1941 disestablishments in Virginia
Airports in the Washington metropolitan area


Susquehanna Bank was a Lancaster, Pennsylvania-based bank which operated over 260 branches in four states including Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and West Virginia. Susquehanna Bank's parent company was Susquehanna Bancshares, Inc. () a regional financial services holding company based in Lititz, Pennsylvania with assets of approximately  and 3,400 employees.

History
Susquehanna Bank was founded in 1901 as the Farmers National Bank of Lititz.  In 1972 this bank changed its name to Farmers First Bank, and beginning in the 1970s it began to acquire other banks in the region, establishing Susquehanna Bancshares as its holding company in 1982 and expanding its reach into the states south of Pennsylvania beginning in the late 1980s. In 2004, Susquehanna Bancshares consolidated its operations into three banks, all using the Susquehanna name.  The company continued to expand, including two large acquisitions in 2008.

In 2008, Susquehanna Bank acquired the naming rights to the Susquehanna Bank Center in Camden, New Jersey.

In 2011, Susquehanna Bank announced its purchase of Abington Bank.

In 2014, BB&T (now Truist Financial), announced the acquisition of Susquehanna Bank. The deal was finalized on August 3, 2015, and all Susquehanna Bank branches, as well as the Entertainment Center in Camden, were converted to BB&T four months later.

References

Banks established in 1901
Banks disestablished in 2015
Defunct banks of the United States
Defunct companies based in Pennsylvania
History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania
2015 mergers and acquisitions


The Welsh Local Government Association (WLGA) () represents the interests of local authorities in Wales. It is an affiliated member of the Local Government Association of England and Wales and the regional employers organisation.

The Welsh Local Government Association was established in 1996 to represent the interests of local government in Wales.  Since 1999 the WLGA has had a specific role in representing local government to the Welsh Government and the Senedd (Welsh Parliament).

Its members are the twenty-two local authorities in Wales.  The four police authorities, three fire and rescue authorities, and three national park authorities in Wales are associate members.

The WLGA considers that its primary purposes are to promote better local government and the reputation of local government, and to support local authorities in the development of policies and priorities which will improve public services and democracy.
Town and community councils are outside the WLGA's ambit.  They are represented by One Voice Wales

Autism spectrum awareness program
Tesco, a multinational supermarket chain, has implemented training for its employees to meet the needs of its customers who are on the autism spectrum, which is estimated to be one of every 100 people in the United Kingdom. Employees use an online training site and respond to a questionnaire to assess the extent to which they became more aware of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Tesco is the first company to participate in an awareness program led by the Welsh Local Government Association (WLGA). The online training and questionnaire tool is intended to be used by many organizations in Wales to identify and commend businesses that are "ASD Aware".

Notes and references

External links
  The Welsh Local Government Association (Cymdeithas Llywodraeth Leol Cymru)

Local government in Wales
1996 establishments in Wales
Government agencies established in 1996
Local government organizations
Organisations based in Cardiff
Council of European Municipalities and Regions
Regional employers organisations


Charles Jackson (March 4, 1797January 21, 1876) was the 18th Governor of Rhode Island from 1845 to 1846.

Early life
Jackson was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on March 4, 1797, and was the son of Richard Jackson, Jr. He graduated from Brown University in 1817, and received a master's degree in 1820.  He also studied law with James Burrill, Jr., and was admitted to the bar in 1820.

Business career
In addition to practicing law, Jackson was involved in several businesses, including a cotton manufacturing company.  He also built a rubber factory after acquiring patent rights from Charles Goodyear.  Jackson's ventures proved successful, and he later expanded into firearms as operator of the Burnside Rifle Works and a company that manufactured railroad equipment.

Political career
Jackson was active in politics as a Whig, served several terms in the Rhode Island House of Representatives, and was Speaker from 1841 to 1842.  In 1843 he was a delegate to the state constitutional convention.

Jackson served as governor from 1845 to 1846, after defeating incumbent James Fenner.  He was elected as a Whig identified with the Liberation movement, which advocated freedom for those imprisoned as a result of the Dorr Rebellion.  Jackson signed a bill freeing rebellion leader Thomas Wilson Dorr and all others who had been convicted.  In response, Whig opponents of freeing Dorr organized a "Law & Order Party." Jackson was nominated for governor by the Democrats, and was defeated by Lieutenant Governor Byron Diman.

In 1857 Jackson was an unsuccessful candidate for the United States Senate.

Death and burial
Jackson died in Providence on January 21, 1876.  He was buried at North Burial Ground in Providence.

Family
Jackson was married twice.  His first wife was Catherine Dexter (1805-1832), whom he married in 1827.  In 1836 he married Phebe Tisdale (died March 3, 1883) of Scituate, Rhode Island.  He had seven children, five of whom lived to adulthood.

References

External links
Charles Jackson at National Governors Association

Charles Jackson (1797-1876) at The Political Graveyard

|-

1797 births
1876 deaths
Politicians from Providence, Rhode Island
Rhode Island lawyers
19th-century American businesspeople
Governors of Rhode Island
Speakers of the Rhode Island House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the Rhode Island House of Representatives
Brown University alumni
Rhode Island Whigs
Dorr Rebellion
Burials at North Burying Ground (Providence)
Whig Party state governors of the United States
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American lawyers


The Diocese of Alcalá de Henares  () is a Latin Church ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Spain. Its episcopal see is Alcalá de Henares. The diocese is a suffragan in the ecclesiastical province of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Madrid.

History
An ancient diocese of Complutum (the current Alcala de Henares) was founded in the IV or V century but it was abolished under the muslim government (VIII-XI century) and not restored by the Christian Kings and its territory given to the Archdiocese of Toledo. In 1885, a Diocese of Madrid and Alcala (suffragan of Toledo) was founded, now the Archdiocese of Madrid.

On July 23, 1991, it was established as Diocese of Alcalá de Henares from the Archdiocese of Madrid (as its suffragan diocese), with the latin name of Complutensis to remember the ancient diocese.

Bishops
 Manuel Ureña Pastor (23 July 1991 – 1 July 1998)
 Jesús Esteban Catalá Ibáñez (27 April 1999 – 10 October 2008)
 Juan Antonio Reig Pla (7 March 2009 – 21 September 2022)
 Antonio Prieto Lucena (1 April 2023 – present)

Curiosities
The diocese has a pop-rock group of Catholic music called The Voice of the Desert that is made up of three diocesan priests and four laymen. This musical group born in 2004 has given concerts throughout Spain, in the United States and in Panama, participating twice with their music in the World Youth Day.

See also
Catholic Church in Spain

Sources
 GCatholic.org
 Catholic Hierarchy
  Diocese website

References

Roman Catholic dioceses in Spain
Roman Catholic dioceses established in 1991
Alcalá de Henares
Roman Catholic dioceses and prelatures established in the 20th century
1991 establishments in Spain