The 2008 Buffalo Bills season was the 39th season for the team in the National Football League (NFL) and their 49th season overall. The team finished with a record of 7–9 for the third consecutive year. It started the season 5–1 before a 2–8 stretch to finish the season.

After a 5–1 beginning to the season, starting quarterback Trent Edwards suffered a concussion in week 5 at Arizona after an Adrian Wilson hit. Edwards had started the year throwing 4 touchdowns and two interceptions through the first five games. After the injury, he threw 7 touchdowns and 8 interceptions, before missing two of the final four games of the season with a groin injury. After their 4–0 start, the Bills won only three of their final 12 games of the year.

Despite strong years from second-year running back Marshawn Lynch (1,036 rushing yards, 1,336 yards from scrimmage) and wide receiver Lee Evans (1,017 receiving yards), the team was eliminated from playoff contention in week 15, which secured their ninth straight year without a playoff appearance.

Staff

Off-season

Acquisitions
The Bills signed Minnesota Vikings defensive tackle Spencer Johnson, New York Jets fullback Darian Barnes and New York Giants linebacker Kawika Mitchell in free agency.

Also, the Bills traded for Jacksonville Jaguars defensive tackle Marcus Stroud.

NFL draft

Buffalo found some impact players in the 2008 NFL Draft. Leodis McKelvin was named to the Sporting News All-NFL team in his rookie year; he became a dynamic kick- and punt-return specialist. Demetress Bell eventually won a starting job at offensive tackle in Buffalo, a position he held for four seasons. Stevie Johnson had a breakout year in 2010; he is the first receiver in Bills history to gain 1,000 receiving yards in consecutive seasons.

Roster

Preseason

Schedule

Schedule

 Green background indicates win.
 Red background indicates loss.
 An asterisk (*) indicates games potentially moved to Sunday Night Football due to flex scheduling.

One regular season home game per year will be played at the Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario as part of a five-year deal.  For 2008, December 7's matchup with the Miami Dolphins was staged in Toronto.

Standings

Regular season

Week 1: vs. Seattle Seahawks

The Bills began their 2008 campaign at home against the Seattle Seahawks.  In the first quarter, Buffalo drew first blood as running back Marshawn Lynch got a 21-yard touchdown run.  In the second quarter, the Bills increased their lead with wide receiver/punt returner Roscoe Parrish returning a punt 63 yards for a touchdown.  The Seahawks responded with quarterback Matt Hasselbeck completing a 20-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Nate Burleson.  Buffalo closed out the half with kicker Rian Lindell getting a 35-yard and a 38-yard field goal.  In the third quarter, Seattle responded with kicker Olindo Mare nailing a 45-yard field goal.  Afterwards, Buffalo dug into their bag of tricks. Appearing to attempt a 32-yard field goal, holder Brian Moorman completed a 19-yard touchdown pass to defensive end Ryan Denney.  The Bills pulled away with quarterback Trent Edwards completing a 30-yard touchdown pass to tight end Robert Royal.

With this win, the Bills started their season with a 1–0 record.

Week 2: at Jacksonville Jaguars

Coming off an impressive home win over the Seahawks, the Bills flew to Jacksonville Municipal Stadium for a Week 2 duel with the Jacksonville Jaguars.  In the first quarter, Buffalo drew first blood as RB Marshawn Lynch got an 11-yard TD run.  In the second quarter, the Jaguars responded with kicker Josh Scobee getting a 28-yard field goal.  The Bills closed the half with kicker Rian Lindell's a 21-yard field goal. In the third quarter, Jacksonville took the lead with RB Maurice Jones-Drew getting a 2-yard TD run and Scobee getting a 50-yard field goal.  In the fourth quarter, the Jaguars increased their lead with Scobee nailing a 39-yard field goal. Buffalo rallied as QB Trent Edwards completed a 7-yard TD pass to rookie WR James Hardy, along with Lindell's yard field goal.

With yet another win, the Bills improved to their first 2–0 start since 2003.

Week 3: vs. Oakland Raiders

Coming off their road win over the Jaguars, the Bills went home, donned their throwback uniforms, and played a Week 3 duel with the Oakland Raiders. In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Raiders kicker Sebastian Janikowski got a 23-yard and a 35-yard field goal.  In the second quarter, the Bills got on the board with RB Marshawn Lynch's 14-yard TD run.  Oakland responded with Janikowski's 32-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, the Raiders increased their lead with QB JaMarcus Russell getting a 1-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, Buffalo began to rally as Lynch got a 3-yard TD run.  Oakland immediately responded with Russell completing an 84-yard TD pass to WR Johnnie Lee Higgins.  Afterwards, the Bills completed its rally with QB Trent Edwards completing a 14-yard TD pass to WR Roscoe Parrish.  Then, Buffalo sealed the win with kicker Rian Lindell nailing the game-winning 38-yard field goal.

With the win, the Bills improved to 3–0 for the first time since 1992.  With the Patriots' loss to the Dolphins, the Bills are now in first place in the AFC East after 3 weeks.

Also, during halftime, former Bills DE Bruce Smith (the NFL's All-Time Sack Leader) was added to the Bills Wall of Fame.

Week 4: at St. Louis Rams

Coming off their last-second home win over the Raiders, the Bills flew to the Edward Jones Dome for a Week 4 interconference duel with the winless St. Louis Rams.  In the first quarter, Buffalo drew first blood as kicker Rian Lindell got a 45-yard field goal.  The Rams responded with WR Donnie Avery getting a 37-yard TD run.  The Bills answered with Lindell's 35-yard field goal.  In the second quarter, St. Louis increased its lead with RB Steven Jackson getting a 29-yard TD run.

In the third quarter, Buffalo began to rally as RB Fred Jackson got a 22-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, the Bills completed their comeback with CB Jabari Greer returning an interception 33 yards for a touchdown, QB Trent Edwards completing a 39-yard TD pass to WR Lee Evans, and Lindell nailing a 45-yard field goal.

With the win, Buffalo got its first 4–0 start since 1992.

Week 5: at Arizona Cardinals

Coming off their road win over the Rams, the Bills flew to the University of Phoenix Stadium for a Week 5 interconference game with the Arizona Cardinals.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Cardinals QB Kurt Warner completed a 2-yard TD pass to WR Larry Fitzgerald.  In the second quarter, Arizona increased its lead as RB Tim Hightower got a 17-yard TD run.  The Bills responded as QB J.P. Losman completing an 87-yard TD pass to WR Lee Evans, yet the Cardinals replied with RB Edgerrin James getting a 1-yard TD run.  Buffalo answered with Losman's 1-yard TD run, yet Arizona closed out the half with kicker Neil Rackers getting a 47-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, the Bills tried to catch up as kicker Rian Lindell got a 48-yard field goal, but the Cardinals answered with Warner completing a 2-yard TD pass to Fitzgerald.  In the fourth quarter, Arizona pulled away as Rackers nailed a 38-yard field goal, along with Hightower getting a 2-yard TD run,

With the loss, Buffalo went into their bye week at 4–1.

QB Trent Edwards (3/3 for 18 yards), who originally started, was knocked out the game on the Bills' third offensive play by Cardinals safety Adrian Wilson with a concussion.

Week 7: vs. San Diego Chargers

Coming off their bye week, the Bills played a Week 7 duel with the San Diego Chargers.  In the first quarter, Buffalo drew first blood as kicker Rian Lindell got a 38-yard field goal.  The Chargers responded with QB Philip Rivers completing a 14-yard TD pass to WR Malcom Floyd.  In the second quarter, the Bills regained the lead with QB Trent Edwards (fully recovered from his concussion) completing a 2-yard TD pass to WR Lee Evans, along with Lindell getting a 27-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, San Diego regained the lead with Rivers completing a 12-yard TD pass to WR Vincent Jackson.  Buffalo answered with RB Marshawn Lynch getting a 9-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, the Bills pulled away with Lindell nailing a 44-yard field goal.

With the win, not only did Buffalo improve to 5–1, they also got their first 3–0 home start since 1995.

A power outage at Ralph Wilson Stadium, caused by three helium balloons coming in contact with a transformer, led to portions of the game not being televised. For a short time during the first and second quarters, the game was played with no public address announcers, no scoreboard, and the time being kept by the officials on the field.

Week 8: at Miami Dolphins

Coming off their win over the Chargers, the Bills flew to Dolphin Stadium for a Week 8 AFC East duel with the Miami Dolphins.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Dolphins QB Chad Pennington completed a 2-yard TD pass to TE Anthony Fasano.  The Bills responded with kicker Rian Lindell getting a 19-yard field goal.  In the second quarter, Buffalo took the lead as Lindell got a 43-yard and a 47-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, the Bills increased their lead as RB Marshawn Lynch got an 8-yard TD run.  However, Miami began to respond as kicker Dan Carpenter got a 43-yard field goal, while RB Ricky Williams got a 3-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, the Dolphins sealed Buffalo's fate as Carpenter made a 45-yard field goal, LB Joey Porter causing QB Trent Edwards to fumble the ball in his own endzone (leading to a safety), and Carpenter nailing a 35-yard field goal.

With the loss, the Bills fell to 5–2.

Week 9: vs. New York Jets

The Bills went home for a Week 9 AFC East duel with the New York Jets.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Jets kicker Jay Feely got a 37-yard field goal.  Buffalo responded as QB Trent Edwards completed a 9-yard TD pass to rookie TE Derek Fine.  However, New York responded as Feely got a 26-yard field goal, along with safety Abram Elam returning an interception 92 yards for a touchdown.  After a scoreless second quarter, the Bills' deficit increased in the third quarter as Feely got a 20-yard field goal.  Buffalo responded with kicker Rian Lindell getting a 53-yard field goal, but the Jets replied with RB Thomas Jones getting a 7-yard TD run.  In the fourth quarter, the Bills tried to rally as CB Jabari Greer returned an interception 31 yards for a touchdown.  However, New York pulled away with Feely making a 31-yard field goal.

With the loss, Buffalo fell to 5–3.

Week 10: at New England Patriots

Trying to snap their two-game losing streak, the Bills wrapped up their three-straight divisional games in Gillette Stadium with a Week 10 AFC East duel with the New England Patriots.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Patriots QB Matt Cassel got a 13-yard TD run.  In the second quarter, New England increased their lead as kicker Stephen Gostkowski got a 32-yard field goal.  The Bills closed out the half with kicker Rian Lindell getting a 25-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, the Patriots answered with Gostkowski nailing a 37-yard field goal.  In the fourth quarter, New England pulled away with RB BenJarvus Green-Ellis getting a 1-yard TD run.  Buffalo ended the game with QB Trent Edwards completing a 14-yard TD pass to rookie WR James Hardy.

With their third-straight loss, the Bills fell to 5–4.

Week 11: vs. Cleveland Browns

Trying to snap a three-game losing streak, the Bills went home for a Week 11 MNF duel with the Cleveland Browns.  In the first quarter, Buffalo struggled early as early interceptions from QB Trent Edwards helped Browns kicker Phil Dawson get a 40-yard and a 33-yard field goal.  In the second quarter, Cleveland increased their lead as WR/KR Joshua Cribbs got a 2-yard TD run.  The Bills answered as Edwards completed an 18-yard TD pass to RB Marshawn Lynch, along with kicker Rian Lindell getting a 26-yard field goal.

In the third quarter, the Browns answered with Dawson getting a 43-yard field.  Buffalo replied with Lindell getting a 31-yard field goal.  In the fourth quarter, Cleveland greatly answered as RB Jerome Harrison got a 72-yard TD run. The Bills immediately replied as rookie CB Leodis McKelvin returned a kickoff 98 yards for a touchdown.  The Browns responded as Dawson got a 22-yard field goal.  Buffalo took the lead as Edwards got a 1-yard TD run.  Cleveland regained the lead as Dawson nailed a 56-yard field goal.  The Bills' Lindell missed a 47-yard field goal wide right.

With their fourth-straight loss, Buffalo fell to 5–5.

Week 12: at Kansas City Chiefs

Hoping to snap a four-game losing streak, the Bills flew to Arrowhead Stadium for a Week 12 duel with the Kansas City Chiefs.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Chiefs QB Tyler Thigpen completed a 36-yard TD pass to RB Jamaal Charles.  The Bills responded with RB Marshawn Lynch getting a 1-yard TD run.  In the second quarter, Buffalo took the lead as kicker Rian Lindell made a 21-yard field goal.  Kansas City answered with Thigpen completing a 2-yard TD pass to TE Tony Gonzalez.  Buffalo regained the lead as Lindell got a 39-yard field goal, while rookie CB Leodis McKelvin returned an interception 64 yards for a touchdown.  The Chiefs struck back with kicker Connor Barth getting a 45-yard field goal, yet the Bills continued their offensive explosion as Lindell got a 34-yard field goal, along with QB Trent Edwards getting a 15-yard TD run.

In the third quarter, Buffalo continued its poundings with Edwards getting a 5-yard TD run, while Lindell got himself a 38-yard field goal.  Kansas City tried to rally as Thigpen completed a 45-yard TD pass to WR Mark Bradley, yet the Bills replied with Edwards completing an 8-yard TD pass to WR Josh Reed.  In the fourth quarter, Buffalo pulled away as Edwards completed a 17-yard TD pass to TE Derek Schouman.  The Chiefs tried to come back as QB Quinn Gray completed a 3-yard TD pass to WR Dwayne Bowe, yet the Bills' lead was too much for Kansas City to overcome.

With the win, Buffalo improved to 6–5.

This marked the first time the Bills scored 50+ points on an opponent since Sept. 1991 against the Pittsburgh Steelers (52–34).

Week 13: vs. San Francisco 49ers

Coming off a road win over the Chiefs, the Bills went home for a Week 13 interconference duel against the San Francisco 49ers.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as 49ers QB Shaun Hill completed a 12-yard TD pass to WR Isaac Bruce.  In the second quarter, the Bills continued to trail as kicker Joe Nedney made a 50-yard field goal.  In the third quarter, Buffalo tried to rally as kicker Rian Lindell nailed a 22-yard field goal, but the team struggled offensively for the rest of the game.

With the loss, the Bills fell to 6–6.

QB Trent Edwards (10/21 for 112 yards) didn't play the second half, due to a groin injury.

Week 14: vs. Miami Dolphins

Hoping to rebound from their home loss to the 49ers, the Bills flew to the Rogers Centre for their first game of their Canadian International series, with an AFC East rematch against the Miami Dolphins.  In the first quarter, Buffalo trailed early as Dolphins QB Chad Pennington completed a 20-yard TD pass to TE Anthony Fasano.  The Bills answered with kicker Rian Lindell.  After that, Miami pulled away as kicker Dan Carpenter made three field goals (50, 35, and 27 yards).

With the loss, Buffalo fell to 6–7.

Week 15: at New York Jets

Hoping to snap a two-game losing streak, the Bills flew to The Meadowlands for a Week 15 AFC East rematch with the New York Jets.  With Trent Edwards still recovering from a groin injury, J.P. Losman was given the start.

Early on in the first quarter, Buffalo trailed as Jets running back Thomas Jones got a 2-yard touchdown run.  The Bills responded with a 34-yard field goal from kicker Rian Lindell, but New York answered with quarterback Brett Favre completing an 11-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Jerricho Cotchery.  In the second quarter, Buffalo took the lead as Losman got an 8-yard touchdown run and completed a 2-yard touchdown pass to rookie wide receiver Stevie Johnson.  However, the Jets got the halftime lead with a 47-yard touchdown run from running back Leon Washington.

In the third quarter, the Bills kept pace as Lindell made a 48-yard field goal. In the fourth quarter, New York responded with kicker Jay Feely's 31-yard field goal. Buffalo regained the lead as running back Fred Jackson powered his way for an 11-yard touchdown run.  However, the Jets prevailed as safety Abram Elam forced a fumble, allowing DE Shaun Ellis to return the ball 11 yards for a touchdown.

With the loss, not only did the Bills fall to 6–8, but they were eliminated from the playoff race.

Week 16: at Denver Broncos

Hoping to snap a three-game losing streak, the Bills flew to Invesco Field at Mile High for a Week 16 duel with the Denver Broncos.  Buffalo trailed early in the first quarter as Broncos quarterback Jay Cutler got a 2-yard touchdown run, followed by kicker Matt Prater getting a 23-yard field goal.  Denver increased its lead in the second quarter with Prater's 30-yard field goal.  The Bills responded with a 37-yard field goal from kicker Rian Lindell, followed by running back Marshawn Lynch's 2-yard touchdown run.

In the third quarter, Buffalo took the lead with Lindell's 49-yard and 28-yard field goal, but the Broncos answered with Cutler's 6-yard touchdown run.  The Bills struck right back in the fourth quarter as quarterback Trent Edwards completed a 3-yard touchdown pass to rookie wide receiver Stevie Johnson.  Denver tied the game with Prater nailing a 43-yard field goal. Buffalo rallied with running back Fred Jackson getting an 8-yard touchdown run, followed the defense surviving the Broncos' late-game drive.

With the win, the Bills improved to 7–8.

Week 17: vs. New England Patriots

Coming off their road win over the Broncos, the Bills closed out their season at home with a Week 17 AFC East rematch with the New England Patriots.  Buffalo trailed early in the first quarter as Patriots kicker Stephen Gostkowski got a 33-yard field goal.  After a scoreless second quarter, the Bills' deficit increased in the third quarter as running back LaMont Jordan got a 2-yard touchdown run.  In the fourth quarter, New England added to their lead as Gostkowski nailed a 23-yard field goal.

With the loss, the Bills closed out their season at 7–9 for the third-straight season.

Notable roster additions
 DT Marcus Stroud- Acquired via trade with the Jacksonville Jaguars in exchange for 2008 3rd and 5th round selections.
 LB Kawika Mitchell- Signed as a free agent from the New York Giants.
 DT Spencer Johnson- Signed as a free agent from the Minnesota Vikings.
 TE Courtney Anderson- Signed as a free agent from the Oakland Raiders. Released on August 30.
 CB William James – Signed as a free agent from the Philadelphia Eagles. Released on August 30, after being beaten out in training camp.

Notable roster losses
 DT Anthony Hargrove- Suspended by league for one year January 24
 RB Anthony Thomas- Released on February 27
 DT Larry Tripplett- Released on February 29
 LB Coy Wire- Released on February 27, failed physical
 WR Peerless Price- Released on February 14
 WR Sam Aiken- Signed with the New England Patriots as a free agent
 CB Jason Webster- Signed with the New England Patriots as a free agent
 TE Michael Gaines- Signed with the Detroit Lions as a free agent

NFL draft
Going into the 2008 NFL Draft the team's biggest needs were at wide receiver, cornerback, and tight end. Specifically, the team's top three wide receivers were all under 5'11" in height, and a large wide receiver was a high priority for the team. The Bills had a large number of selections in the 2008 draft and addressed these needs by selecting Leodis McKelvin, considered by many to be the top cornerback in the draft, in round 1, and James Hardy, a 6'5" playmaking receiver also considered to be among the best in the class, in round 2. Tight end, however, was not addressed until Round 4, with the selection of Derek Fine. Depth picks filled out the rest of the draft order.

Draft Results
 Round 1(11)- Leodis McKelvin, CB, Troy
 Round 2(41)- James Hardy, WR, Indiana
 Round 3(72)-Chris Ellis, DE, Virginia Tech
 Round 4(114)-Reggie Corner, CB, Akron
 Round 4(132)-Derek Fine, TE, Kansas
 Round 5(147)-Alvin Bowen, OLB, Iowa State
 Round 6(179)-Xavier Omon, RB, Northwest Missouri State University
 Round 7(219)-Demetress Bell, OT, Northwestern State University
 Round 7(224)-Stevie Johnson, WR, Kentucky
 Round 7(251)-Kennard Cox, DB, Pittsburgh

ESPN draft analyst Mel Kiper, Jr. gave the Buffalo Bills a C+ grade for their 2008 NFL Draft, praising the selections of McKelvin and Hardy but criticizing the selections of Corner and Fine as reaches in the 4th round.

References

External links
 Official Website
 Buffalo Bills Team Page

Buffalo Bills seasons
Buffalo
Bills Toronto Series
Buffalo Bills


Workout Holiday is the second release for Austin, Texas-based rock trio White Denim, consisting of nine self-recorded songs. Also known as the "Tour EP", Workout Holiday was sold exclusively on tour in 2007.

At the end of 2007, the band signed with online record company RCRD LBL and released a downloadable three-song EP entitled the RCRD LBL EP. The digital EP consists of re-recorded tracks from Workout Holiday, and each track was released over the first quarter of 2008. All three tracks are available at the RCRD LBL website .

Track listing

Workout Holiday
 "World As A Waiting Room" - 2:17
 "Look That Way At It" - 1:56
 "Sam #1.war" - 0:07
 "Goldielocks" - 1:53
 "All Truckers Roll" - 2:30
 "Shake Shake Shake" - 2:39
 "Paint Silver Gold" - 3:02
 "IEIEI" - 3:32
 "Let's Get Together" - 3:28

RCRD LBL EP
 "World As A Waiting Room" - 2:17
 "Paint Silver Gold" - 3:15
 "Goldie Locks" - 2:02

Videos
"Let's Get Together" - Video that was directed by Carlos LaRotta, shot by LaRotta's family, edited by Trey Cartwright, both of Birds-on-Fire Film
"Ieiei" - Video was shot by White Denim, animation by Jason Archer, edited by Jason Archer and Carlos LaRotta, for Birds on Fire Film.

Personnel
James Petralli: Vocals, guitar
Joshua Block: Drums
Steve Terebecki: Vocals, bass

References

External links
RCRD LBL website : RCRD LBL EP is available for free download.
Daytrotter Session: Four free songs for download

White Denim albums
2007 EPs


Pacific Coast Feather Company is a Boca Raton, Florida-based manufacturer of basic bedding including pillows, comforters, sheets, and featherbeds.

Owned by the Hanauer family from 1924 through 2017, brothers Nick Hanauer and Adrian Hanauer (fourth generation) were co-chairmen until acquisition of the company by Hollander Sleep Products. President and CEO Mark Eichhorn, also CEO of Hollander Sleep Products, runs the day-to-day operations.

The company sells its products nationwide to major department store chains under the following brand names: Pacific Coast Feather, Down Around, BestFit!, EuroRest, Restful Nights, Calvin Klein, Spring Air, Sheex, Sleep for Success by Dr. Maas, Elie Tahari and Jockey. Additionally, the PCF name itself is licensed across a wide range of brands.

The company operates direct sourcing abroad and maintains six manufacturing plants in North America.

In June 2017 Hollander Sleep Products announced the acquisition of the Pacific Coast Feather Company in a statement posted on its website. Staffing changes occurred, resulting in a temporary disruption of service.

Awards
 2011 Good Housekeeping names Best Down Pillow and Best Down/Foam Pillow
 2010 Good Housekeeping selects Best Mid-weight Comforter and Best Down Comforter
 2004 QVC Vendor of the Year Award.
 2002, 2003 BJ's Wholesale Club Business Partnership Award.
 2002 QVC Q Star Award.
 2001 JCPenney Supplier Divisional Award – Home Division.
 2000 Marriott Corporation Product Innovation of the Year.
 2000 Sears Partners in Progress Award.

References

External links

American companies established in 1884
1884 establishments in Washington Territory


The double amphibrach is a variation of the double dactyl, similar to the McWhirtle but with stricter formal requirements.  Meter and lineation are consistently amphibrachic (da DA da) rather than dactylic (DA da da), and the shortened fourth and eighth lines rhyme.  In narrative sequences, the requirements that the first line be nonsense syllables and second line be a proper name are sometimes waived, but the sixth line requires a single diamphibrachic word (e.g. discriminatory, hallucinogenic, personification).

Jan D. Hodge in The Bard Double-Dactyled and Other Odd Pieces includes several pieces in this stanza form.  His version of “Humpty Dumpty” begins:

As Humpty was sitting
upon a partition,
he misplaced his balance
and suffered a fall.
A sodden, unsightly
reorganization
of yolk and albumen
appeared by the wall.

Here is the seventh stanza of his rendering of Hamlet:

Laertes returns to
avenge his dead father
and finds his dear sister
half out of her mind,
her life in all senses
deteriorating:
her father’s been killed and
her lover’s unkind.

and his Taming of the Shrew concludes:

The husbands’ last wager
provides us a further
and fitting reversal
confirming this view;
the contest makes clear the
identification
we’d always suspected—
Bianca’s the shrew.

Metrical feet


The Philadelphia Business Journal is a diversified business media company in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, publishing daily stories on its website and social networks, and a weekly edition available in print and online. It is published by the American City Business Journals.

See also
List of newspapers in Pennsylvania

References

External links

Business newspapers published in the United States
Newspapers published in Philadelphia


St Andrew's Church is an Anglican church in Church Road, Hove, in the English city of Brighton and Hove.  It is usually referred to as St Andrew (Old Church) to distinguish it from another St Andrew's Church in Waterloo Street, elsewhere in Hove.  It served as Hove's parish church for several centuries until 1892, although the building was in a state of near-ruin until Hove began to grow from an isolated village to a popular residential area in the early 19th century.

History
Hove developed independently of, and separately from, neighbouring Brighton, beginning as a linear village along a single street, now known as Hove Street, running from north to south.  A church was established in mediaeval times, possibly around the 12th century, at an isolated location in fields to the northeast of the village; access was only possible from the west.  The original building was replaced with a simple Norman-style church with an aisled nave and a tower.  By the 13th century a chancel had been added.  This church functioned as the parish church of Hove until 1531, when the parish was united with that of Preston (to the northeast) and became the parish of Hove-cum-Preston.  Although its parish church status remained, a declining population was unable to maintain it.  By the 18th century the nave and chancel were crumbling; parts of the roof were removed; and the tower fell down in 1801.

The church's fortunes changed with the development of the Brunswick estate and other residential areas around the old village in the early 19th century.  At this time, Brighton had expanded to the boundary between its own parish and that of Hove-cum-Preston, so any more development would fall within Hove; as a result, Hove's population rose from 100 in 1801 to 2,500 by 1841.  By 1871 it was to reach 11,000, as most of the available land west of the boundary was systematically built on.  Construction of the Brunswick estate began in 1824 and St Andrew's Church in Waterloo Street was built to serve it in 1828 (as a chapel of ease).

A different kind of change in the church's fortunes came about following formation of The Brighton General Gas Light Company in 1825. Although production of coal gas was notorious for the smell it produced, the company acquired a two-acre site in the fields between Hove Street and St. Andrew's Church, and in 1832 built a gasworks there. The process required substantial tonnage of coal, delivered by horse-drawn cart on the unmade tracks in the vicinity, and removal of by-products including coke, coal tar, sulphur and ammonia. This industrial site with tall chimney and two gasometers next to the churchyard was a considerable intrusion on the populace of Hove. By 1861 the site had doubled in size and there were now five gasometers, ranging in size from small to large. Due to spiralling demand a large new works was opened in Shoreham Harbour at Portslade-by-Sea in 1871, and by 1885 all gas manufacture in Brighton and Hove had been transferred there. The Hove site, in a by now primarily residential area, was then used for storage only.

Due to the increases in population parish officials realised that a rebuilding of the original St Andrew's would be needed to provide enough capacity.  A meeting was held at a nearby public house on 14 September 1833 to propose its restoration.  The following week, a vote was taken on whether to demolish it instead and rebuild it on a new, more accessible site; the parish decided against this.

Architect George Basevi was asked to assess how much the reconstruction would cost.  He quoted £1,870 exclusive of internal fittings and his fee, both of which were just over £50 His father, a Brunswick estate resident, ultimately paid the latter.  The parish borrowed £2,000, and rebuilding commenced in 1834.  London-based building firm Butler & Green carried out the construction work to Basevi's design. The budget for the construction work was tight. This caused some friction between the clerk of works and Butler. Basevi acknowledged to the Church Building Committee that he had requested some additional changes that had not been budgeted for. Butler finally accepted an amount substantially less than he had originally claimed for the work. The overspend was on the churchyard and its walls that were not completed until 1837.

St Andrew's was reopened on 18 July 1836, with a seating capacity of 430.  80 seats were subject to pew rents.  A 200-seat extension, in the form of a gallery at the west end, was added in 1839.  Rev. Walter Kelly, vicar since 1834 retired in 1878, when the united parish was split again into the Parish of Hove and the Parish of Preston.  At this point, St Andrew's became once again the parish church of Hove.  However, the new vicar, Rev. Thomas Peacey, wanted to build a new parish church; this happened in 1892 with the construction of All Saints Church, and St Andrew's became a chapel of ease to All Saints until it gained its own parish in 1957.  The parish covers an established residential area centred on the Hove Street/Church Road crossroads.

Local maps show that in 1844 the church was centred inside a roughly square site, probably less than two acres in area. By 1873 the northern boundary had moved as far as the residential development in Monmouth Street (now demolished) the churchyard being a long rectangle with an area several times that of the original site.

The churchyard was cut down in size twice, destroying historic graves.  In 1880, Church Road was widened, cutting ten feet from the southern side (an Act of Parliament was used to compulsorily purchase the land) In 1972, East Sussex County Council took much of the land on the northern side to build a school.  Other graves were destroyed when the parish hall was built in one corner of the grounds.

Architecture and fixtures
Dating from 1834, just before the time when the Early English style became the dominant force in ecclesiastical architecture locally and elsewhere, St Andrew's Church was designed in an unusual style which has been described as "Neo-Norman".  This refers to a revival of the original Norman architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries.  Although the whole of the exterior was rebuilt, some original Norman-era parts were retained inside, and possibly influenced George Basevi's design decision.  A series of round columns, pointed arcade arches and parts of the roof survive from the mediaeval era. The box-pews and pulpit were replaced in 1879, when internal restoration work was carried out.  A new font was installed in 1865.  In 1953 a lychgate was installed in the southern face of the church.

Graves and memorials

Many notable people have been buried at St Andrew's Church, although not all graves survive; and other people are commemorated by memorial tablets inside the church.

The watercolour artist Copley Fielding, who lived in Hove in his later years, was buried in a tomb in the northeast corner of the churchyard after his death in nearby Worthing in 1855.  There is a memorial tablet in the south aisle.  The Vallances, Lords of the Manor of Hove for 150 years, have their family vault outside the chancel.  Their name is also commemorated by two streets within the parish, Vallance Road and Vallance Gardens; and the wider area was originally known locally as the Vallance Estate.  The family of George Basevi, the church's architect, also have a vault and memorial stone inside the church—however, although his father, mother and sister were buried in it, George Basevi himself was buried at Ely Cathedral, where he died after falling from one of the towers.  Brighton architect Charles Busby, who had been responsible for many churches in Brighton and Hove, was buried in the churchyard, but his tomb was removed when Church Road was widened in 1880.

Rev. Walter Kelly, who died in 1887 nine years after leaving office as vicar of Hove-cum-Preston, was buried in a tomb in the churchyard, and has a memorial stone in the chancel—it is the only memorial in that part of the church.  Rev. Thomas Rooper, vicar of the other St Andrew's Church at Waterloo Street in the 1850s and 1860s, is commemorated by a wall tablet; next to it is a memorial for his son Major Edward Rooper, who died in the Crimean War.  The tomb of the Elliott family, another prominent Anglican family from Brighton, is in the churchyard. Charlotte Elliott, the hymn writer, and her brothers Rev. Henry Venn Elliott and Rev. Edward Bishop Elliott (associated with the curacies of St Mary the Virgin Church and St Mark's Church respectively) are all buried there.  Rev. Dr James O'Brien, the first incumbent at St Patrick's Church in nearby Cambridge Road, is also commemorated nearby.

One man whose name is internationally famous is also buried in a grave on the south side of the church.  Sir George Everest, the geographer who undertook the Great Trigonometric Survey in India while acting as Surveyor-General, was the first person to determine the exact height of the world's highest mountain, which was then named after him.  He died in London in December 1866 and was buried with his two children, sister and father-in-law.  However, Sir George himself had no connection with Hove or Brighton at any time during his life, and none of the family members buried at the church were known to be associated with it.

George Augustus Westphal was the last surviving naval officer who served on The Victory at Trafalgar and is buried in the churchyard. There is a plaque in his name inside the church. Another Trafalgar veteran, Rear-Admiral Sir John Hindmarsh KH RN, the first Governor of South Australia, lies here too. There are also Commonwealth War Graves Commission special memorials to a North Staffordshire Regiment officer of World War I and a Royal Air Force officer of World War II.

The church today
St Andrew's Church is a Grade II* listed building.  As of February 2001, it was one of 70 Grade II*-listed buildings and structures, and 1,218 listed buildings of all grades, in the city of Brighton and Hove.

There are Morning and Evening Prayer services every day, two services of the Eucharist on Sunday mornings, and other regular celebrations of Holy Communion.  There are children's and youth facilities, including a Sunday school.

See also
 Grade II* listed buildings in Brighton and Hove
 List of places of worship in Brighton and Hove

Notes

Bibliography

Church of England church buildings in Brighton and Hove
George Basevi buildings
Hove, Saint Andrew
Hove, Saint Andrew
Grade II* listed buildings in Brighton and Hove
Hove, Saint Andrew
Hove


Given textual and archaeological evidence, it is thought that thousands of Europeans lived in Imperial China during the Yuan dynasty. These were people from countries traditionally belonging to the lands of Christendom during the High to Late Middle Ages who visited, traded, performed Christian missionary work, or lived in China. This occurred primarily during the second half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, coinciding with the rule of the Mongol Empire, which ruled over a large part of Eurasia and connected Europe with their Chinese dominion of the Yuan dynasty. Whereas the Byzantine Empire centered in Greece and Anatolia maintained rare incidences of correspondence with the Tang, Song and Ming dynasties of China, the Holy See sent several missionaries and embassies to the early Mongol Empire as well as to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing), the capital of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. These contacts with the West were preceded by rare interactions between the Han dynasty and Hellenistic Greeks and Romans.

Mainly located in places such as the Yuan capital of Karakorum, European missionaries and merchants traveled around various parts of the Yuan dynasty and other Mongol-ruled khanates during a period of time referred to by historians as the "Pax Mongolica". Perhaps the most important political consequence of this movement of peoples and intensified trade was the Franco-Mongol alliance, although the latter never fully materialized, at least not in a consistent manner. The establishment of the Ming dynasty in 1368 and reestablishment of ethnic Han rule led to the cessation of European merchants and Roman Catholic missionaries living in China. Direct contact with Europeans was not renewed until Portuguese explorers and Jesuit missionaries arrived on Ming China's southern shores in the 1510s, during the Age of Discovery.

The Italian merchant Marco Polo, preceded by his father and uncle Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, traveled to China during the Yuan dynasty. Marco Polo wrote a famous account of his travels there, as did the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone and the merchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti. The author John Mandeville also wrote about his travels to China, but he may have based these on preexisting accounts. In Khanbaliq, the Roman archdiocese was established by John of Montecorvino, who was later succeeded by Giovanni de Marignolli. Other Europeans such as André de Longjumeau managed to reach the eastern borderlands of China in their diplomatic travels to the Yuan imperial court, while others such as Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Benedykt Polak, and William of Rubruck traveled instead to Outer Mongolia. The Turkic Chinese Nestorian Christian Rabban Bar Sauma was the first diplomat from China to reach the royal courts of the Christendom in the West.

Background

Hellenistic Greeks

Before the 13th century AD, instances of Europeans going to China or of Chinese going to Europe were very rare. Euthydemus I, Hellenistic ruler of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia during the 3rd century BC, led an expedition into the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China) in search of precious metals. Greek influence as far east as the Tarim Basin at this time also seems to be confirmed by the discovery of the Sampul tapestry, a woolen wall hanging with the painting of a blue-eyed soldier, possibly a Greek, and a prancing centaur, a common Hellenistic motif from Greek mythology. However, it is known that other Indo-European peoples such as the Yuezhi, Saka, and Tocharians inhabited the Tarim Basin before and after it was brought under Han Chinese influence during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC). Emperor Wu's diplomat Zhang Qian (d. 113 BC) was sent to forge an alliance with the Yuezhi, a mission that was unsuccessful, but he brought back eyewitness reports of legacies of Hellenistic Greek civilization with his travels to "Dayuan" in the Fergana Valley, with Alexandria Eschate as its capital, and the "Daxia" of Bactria, in what is now Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Later the Han captured Dayuan in the Han-Dayuan war. It has also been suggested that the Terracotta Army (sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, first Emperor of China; dated to ~210 BCE), in the Xi'an region of Shaanxi Province, might be inspired by Hellenistic sculptural art, a hypothesis that has caused some controversy.

At the cemetery in Sampul (Shanpula; 山普拉), ~14 km from Khotan (now in Lop County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang), where the aforementioned Sampul tapestry was found, the local inhabitants buried their dead there from roughly 217 BC to 283 AD. Mitochondrial DNA analysis of the human remains has revealed genetic affinities to peoples from the Caucasus, specifically a maternal lineage linked to Ossetians and Iranians, as well as an Eastern-Mediterranean paternal lineage. Seeming to confirm this link, from historical accounts it is known that Alexander the Great, who married a Sogdian woman from Bactria named Roxana, encouraged his soldiers and generals to marry local women; consequentially the later kings of the Seleucid Empire and Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had a mixed Persian-Greek ethnic background.

Ancient Romans

Beginning in the age of Augustus (r. 27 BC – 14 AD), the Romans, including authors such as Pliny the Elder, mentioned contacts with the Seres, whom they identified as the producers of silk from distant East Asia and could have been the Chinese or even any number of middlemen of various ethnic backgrounds along the Silk Road of Central Asia and Northwest China. The Eastern-Han era Chinese general Ban Chao, Protector General of the Western Regions, explored Central Asia and in 97 AD dispatched his envoys Gan Ying to Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire). Gan was dissuaded by Parthian authorities from venturing further than the "west coast" (possibly the Eastern Mediterranean) although he wrote a detailed report about the Roman Empire, its cities, postal network and consular system of government, and presented this to the Han court.

Subsequently, there was a series of Roman embassies in China lasting from the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD, as recorded in Chinese sources. In 166 AD the Book of Later Han records that Romans reached China from the maritime south and presented gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD), claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Andun 安敦, r. 161–180 AD). There is speculation that they were Roman merchants instead of official diplomats.

At the very least, archaeological evidence supports the claim in the Weilüe and Book of Liang that Roman merchants were active in Southeast Asia, if not the claim of their embassies arriving in China through Jiaozhi, the Chinese-controlled province of northern Vietnam. Roman golden medallions from the reigns of Antoninus Pius and his adopted son Marcus Aurelius have been found in Oc Eo (near Ho Chi Minh City), a territory that belonged to the Kingdom of Funan bordering Jiaozhi. Suggestive of even earlier activity is a Republican-era Roman glass bowl unearthed from a Western Han tomb of Guangzhou (on the shores of the South China Sea) dated to the early 1st century BC, in addition to ancient Mediterranean goods found in Thailand, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The Greco-Roman geographer Ptolemy wrote in his Antonine-era Geography that beyond the Golden Chersonese (Malay Peninsula) was a port city called Kattigara discovered by a Greek sailor named Alexander, a site Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed was Chinese-controlled Hanoi, but given the archaeological evidence could have been Oc Eo. Roman coins have been found in China, but far fewer than in India.

It is possible that a group of Greek acrobatic performers, who claimed to be from a place "west of the seas" (i.e. Roman Egypt, which the Book of Later Han related to the "Daqin" empire), were presented by a king of Burma to Emperor An of Han in 120 AD. It is known that in both the Parthian Empire and Kushan Empire of Asia, ethnic Greeks continued to be employed as entertainers such as musicians and athletes who engaged in athletic competitions.

Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered how silk was made. From this revelation, monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527–565) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs. This resulted in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in Thrace, in northern Greece, and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe until the loss of its territories in Southern Italy. The Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta, writing during the reign of Heraclius (r. 610–641), relayed information about China's geography, its capital city Khubdan (Old Turkic: Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an), its current ruler Taisson whose name meant "Son of Heaven" (Chinese: 天子 Tianzi, although this could be derived from the name of Emperor Taizong of Tang), and correctly pointed to its reunification by the Sui dynasty (581–618) as occurring during the reign of Maurice, noting that China had previously been divided politically along the Yangzi River by two warring nations.

The Chinese Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang mention several embassies made by Fu lin (拂菻; i.e. Byzantium), which they equated with Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire), beginning in 643 with an embassy sent by the king Boduoli (波多力, i.e. Constans II Pogonatos) to Emperor Taizong of Tang, bearing gifts such as red glass. These histories also provided cursory descriptions of Constantinople, its walls, and how it was besieged by Da shi (大食; the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate) and their commander "Mo-yi" (摩拽; i.e. Muawiyah I, governor of Syria before becoming caliph), who forced them to pay tribute. From Chinese records it is known that Michael VII Doukas (Mie li sha ling kai sa 滅力沙靈改撒) of Fu lin dispatched a diplomatic mission to China's Song dynasty that arrived in 1081, during the reign of Emperor Shenzong of Song. Some Chinese during the Song period showed interest in countries to the west, such as the early 13th-century Quanzhou customs inspector Zhao Rugua, who described the ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria in his Zhu fan zhi.

Merchants

According to the 9th-century Book of Roads and Kingdoms by ibn Khordadbeh, China was a destination for Radhanite Jews buying boys, female slaves and eunuchs from Europe. During the subsequent Song period there was also a community of Kaifeng Jews in China. The Spaniard, Benjamin of Tudela (from Navarre) was a 12th-century Jewish traveler whose Travels of Benjamin recorded vivid descriptions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, preceding those of Marco Polo by a hundred years.

Polo, a 13th-century merchant from the Republic of Venice, describes his travels to Yuan-dynasty China and the court of Mongol ruler Kublai Khan, along with the preceding journeys made by Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, his father and uncle, respectively, in his Travels of Marco Polo. Polo related this account to Rustichello da Pisa around 1298 while they shared a Genoese prison cell following their capture in battle. In his return trip to Persia from China (setting out from the port at Quanzhou in 1291), Marco Polo said that he accompanied the Mongol princess Kököchin in her intended marriage to Arghun, ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate, but she instead married his son Ghazan following the former's sudden death. Although Marco Polo's presence is omitted entirely, his story is confirmed by the 14th-century Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in his Jami' al-tawarikh.

Marco Polo accurately described geographical features of China such as the Grand Canal. His detailed and accurate descriptions of salt production confirm that he had actually been in China. Marco described salt wells and hills where salt could be mined, probably in Yunnan, and reported that in the mountains "these rascals ... have none of the Great Khan's paper money, but use salt instead ... They have salt which they boil and set in a mold ..." Polo also remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.

When visiting Zhenjiang in Jiangsu, China, Marco Polo noted that Christian churches had been built there. His claim is confirmed by a Chinese text of the 14th century explaining how a Sogdian named Mar-Sargis from Samarkand founded six Nestorian Christian churches there in addition to one in Hangzhou during the second half of the 13th century. Nestorian Christianity had existed in China earlier during the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) when a Persian monk named Alopen (Chinese: Āluósī; 阿羅本; 阿羅斯) came to the capital Chang'an in 653 to proselytize, as described in a dual Chinese and Syriac language inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.

Others were soon to follow. The Italian Franciscan friar John of Montecorvino took a journey starting in 1291, setting out from Tabriz to Ormus, sailing from there to China while accompanied by the Italian merchant Pietro de Lucalongo. While Montecorvino became a bishop in Khanbaliq (Beijing), his friend Lucalongo continued to serve as a merchant there and donated a large amount of money to maintain the local Catholic Church. Marco Polo mentioned the heavy presence of Genoese Italians at Tabriz (modern Iran), a city that Marco returned to from China via the Strait of Hormuz in 1293–1294. John Mandeville, a mid-14th-century author and alleged Englishman from St Albans, claimed to have lived in China and even served at the Mongol khan's court. However, certain parts of his accounts are considered dubious by modern scholars, with some conjecturing that he simply concocted his stories by using written accounts of China penned by other authors such as Odoric of Pordenone.

In Zaytun, the first harbour of China, there was a small Genoese colony, mentioned in 1326 by André de Pérouse. The most famous Italian resident of the city was Andolo de Savignone, who was sent to the West by the Khan in 1336 to obtain "100 horses and other treasures." Following Savignone's visit, an ambassador was dispatched to China with one superb horse, which was later the object of Chinese poems and paintings.

Other Venetians lived in China, including one who brought a letter to the West from John of Montecorvino in 1305. In 1339 a Venetian named Giovanni Loredano is recorded to have returned to Venice from China. A tombstone was also discovered in Yangzhou, in the name of Catherine de Villioni, daughter of Dominici, who died there in 1342.

In about 1340, Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a merchant from Florence, compiled a guide about trade in China based on records from travellers who visited China (Pegolotti himself never went to China). The guide notes the size of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) and how merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk.

The History of Yuan (chapter 134) records that a certain Ai-sie (transliteration of either Joshua or Joseph) from the country of Fu lin (i.e. the Byzantine Empire), initially in the service of Güyük Khan, was well-versed in Western languages and had expertise in the fields of medicine and astronomy that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards. Kublai Khan eventually honored him with the title of Prince of Fu lin (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng). His biography in the History of Yuan lists his children by their Chinese names, which are similar to the Christian names Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.

Europeans of the 13th and 14th century called Northern China by place-names similar to "Cathay", while Southern China was called "Mangi" or "Manzi".

Missionaries and diplomats

The Italian explorer and archbishop Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and Polish friar and traveler Benedykt Polak were the first papal envoys to reach Karakorum after being sent there by Pope Innocent IV in 1245. The "Historia Mongalorum" was later written by Pian del Carpini, documenting his travels and a cursory history of the Mongols. Catholic missionaries soon established a considerable presence in China, due to the religious tolerance of the Mongols, due in no small part to the Khan's own great tolerance and open encouragement of the development of trade and intellectual avocation. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon commented on the Mongols' religious tolerance and went as far as to compare the "religious laws" of Genghis Khan to equivalent ideas propounded by the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.

Oghul Qaimish, the widow of Güyük Khan, ruled as regent over the Mongol realm from 1249 to 1251. In 1250 the French diplomats André de Longjumeau, Guy de Longjumeau, and Jean de Carcassonne arrived at her court located along the Emil River (on the Kazakh-Chinese border), bearing gifts and representing their sovereign Louis IX of France, who desired a military alliance. Empress Qaimish viewed the gifts as tributary offerings and, in addition to gifts given in return, entrusted to Louis' diplomats, she sent the French monarch a letter demanding his submission as a vassal.

The Franciscan missionary John of Montecorvino (Giovanni da Montecorvino) was ordered to China by Pope Nicholas III in 1279. Montecorvino arrived in China at the end of 1293, where he later translated the New Testament into the Mongol tongue, and converted 6,000 people (probably mostly Alans, Turks, and Mongols rather than Chinese). He was joined by three bishops (Andre de Perouse, Gerard Albuini and Peregrino de Castello) and ordained archbishop of Beijing by Pope Clement V in 1307. A community of Armenians in China sprang up during this period. They were converted to Catholicism by John of Montecorvino. Following the death of John of Montecorvino, Giovanni de Marignolli was dispatched to Beijing to become the new archbishop from 1342 to 1346 in an effort to maintain a Christian influence in the region. Marignolli, although not mentioned by name in the History of Yuan, is noted in that historical text as the "Frank" (Fulang) who provided the Yuan imperial court with an impressive war horse as a tributary gift.

On 15 March 1314 the killings of Francis de Petriolo, Monaldo of Ancona, and Anthony of Milan occurred in China. This was followed by the Killing of James, Quanzhou's bishop, in 1362. His predecessors were Andrew, Peregrinus, and Gerard.

The Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone visited China. Friars in Hangzhou and Zhangzhou were visited by Odorico. His total travels took place from 1304 to 1330, although he first returned to Europe in 1330. China's Franciscans were mentioned in his writings, the Itinerarium.

In 1333, John de Montecorvino was officially replaced by Nicolaus de Bentra, who was chosen by Pope John XXII. There were complaints of the absence of the archbishop in 1338. Toghon Temür (the last Mongol ruler of the Yuan dynasty in China before their retreat to Mongolia to form the Northern Yuan dynasty) sent an embassy including Genoese Italians to Pope Benedict XII in 1336, requesting a new archbishop. The pope answered by sending legates and ecclesiastical leaders to Khanbaliq in 1342, which included Giovanni de Marignolli.

In 1370, following the ousting of the Mongols from China and the establishment of the Chinese Ming dynasty, the Pope sent a new mission to China, comprising the Parisian theologian Guillaume du Pré as the new archbishop and 50 Franciscans. However, this mission disappeared, apparently eliminated. The Ming Hongwu Emperor sent a diplomatic letter to the Byzantine Empire, through a European in China named Nieh-ku-lun. John V Palaiologos was the Byzantine Emperor at the time the message was sent by Hongwu, with the proclamatory letter informing him about the establishment of the new Ming dynasty. The message was sent to the Byzantine ruler in September 1371 when Hongwu met with the merchant Nieh-ku-lun (捏古倫) from Fu lin (Byzantium). The Khanbaliq bishop Nicolaus de Bentra is speculated to be the same person as Nieh-ku-lun, for instance, by Emil Bretschneider in 1888. More recently, Edward N. Luttwak (2009) also mused that Nicolaus de Bentra and this alleged Byzantine merchant Nieh-ku-lin were one and the same.

Friar William of Parto, Cosmas, and John de' Marignolli were among the Catholic clerics in China. The Oriens Christianus by Michel Le Quien (1661–1733) recorded the names of Khanbaliq's previous bishops and archbishops.

Captives
For his travels from 1253 to 1255, the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck reported numerous Europeans in Central Asia. He described German prisoners who had been enslaved and forced to mine gold and manufacture iron weapons in the Mongol town of Bolat, near Talas, Kyrgyzstan. In Karakorum, the Mongol capital, he met a Parisian named Guillaume Boucher, and Pâquette, a woman from the French city of Metz, who had both been captured in Hungary during the Mongol invasions of Europe. He also mentions Hungarians and Russians.

Spread of Chinese gunpowder

William of Rubruck, a Flemish missionary who visited the Mongol court of Mongke Khan at Karakorum and returned to Europe in 1257, was a friend of the English philosopher and scientific thinker Roger Bacon. The latter recorded the earliest known European recipe for gunpowder in his Opus Majus of 1267. This came more than two centuries after the first known Chinese description of the formula for gunpowder in 1044, during the Song dynasty. The earliest use of Chinese prototype firearms occurred at an 1132 siege during the Jin-Song Wars, whereas the oldest surviving bronze hand cannon dates to 1288 during the Yuan period. Following the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281), a Japanese scroll painting depicted explosive bombs used by Yuan-dynasty forces against their samurai. By 1326 the earliest artistic depiction of a gun was made in Europe by Walter de Milemete. Petrarch wrote in 1350 that cannons were then a common sight on the European battlefield.

Diplomatic missions to Europe

Rabban Bar Sauma, a Nestorian Christian Turkic Chinese born in Zhongdu (later Khanbaliq, Beijing, capital of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty), China, was sent to Europe in 1287 as an ambassador for Arghun, ruler of the Ilkhanate and grandnephew of Kublai Khan. He was preceded by Isa Kelemechi, an Assyrian Nestorian Christian who worked as a court astronomer for Kublai Khan in Khanbaliq, and was sent by Arghun to Pope Honorius IV in 1285. A decade earlier, Bar Sauma had originally set out on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, passing through Gansu and Khotan in Northwest China, yet spent time in Armenia and Baghdad instead to avoid getting caught up in nearby armed conflicts. He had been accompanied by Rabban Markos, another Uyghur Nestorian Christian from China who was elected as the Patriarch of the Eastern Church and advised Arghun Khan to have Bar Sauma lead the diplomatic mission to Europe.

Bar Sauma, who spoke Chinese, Persian, and Old Uyghur, traveled with a cohort of Italians who served as translators, with Europeans communicating to him in Persian. Bar Sauma is the first known person from China to reach Europe, where he convened with the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, Philip IV of France, Edward I of England, and Pope Nicholas IV (shortly after the death of Pope Honorius IV) to form an alliance against the Mamluk Sultanate. Edward N. Luttwak depicts the arrival of these Nestorian envoys to the court of the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II as something akin to "receiving mail from his in-law in Beijing," since Kublai Khan was a grandson of Genghis Khan and Andronikos had two half-sisters who were married to great-grandsons of Genghis. Moving further west, Bar Sauma witnessed a naval battle at the Bay of Naples, Italy in June, 1287 between the Angevins and the Kingdom of Aragon, while being hosted by Charles Martel of Anjou, whose father Charles II of Naples was imprisoned in Aragon (in modern Spain) at the time. Aside from his desire to see Christian sites, churches, and relics, Bar Sauma also showed a keen interest in the university life and curricula of Paris, which Morris Rossabi contends was rooted in how exotic it must have seemed from his perspective and educational background in Muslim Persia and Chinese Confucian teaching. Although he managed to secure an audience with these leaders of Christendom and exchanged letters from them to Arghun Khan, none of these Christian monarchs were fully committed to an alliance with the latter.

Renewed contacts during the Ming dynasty

In 1368 the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty collapsed amid widespread internal revolt during the Red Turban Rebellion, whose ethnic Han leader would become the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty. A formal resumption of direct trade and contact with Europeans would not be seen until the 16th century, initiated by the Portuguese during the Age of Discovery. The first Portuguese explorer to land in southern China was Jorge Álvares, who in May 1513 arrived at Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta to engage in trade. This was followed by Rafael Perestrello, a cousin of the wife of Christopher Columbus, who landed at Guangzhou in 1516 after a voyage from newly conquered Portuguese Malacca. Although the 1517 mission by Fernão Pires de Andrade ended in disaster and his imprisonment by Ming authorities, relations would be smoothed over by Leonel de Sousa, the first governor of the Portuguese trade colony at Macau, China, in the Luso-Chinese treaty of 1554. The writings of Gaspar da Cruz, Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza, and Antonio de Morga all impacted the Western view and understanding of China at the time, offering intricate details about its society and items of trade.

The Italian Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri would be the first European invited into the Ming-era Forbidden City in Beijing (during the reign of the Wanli Emperor); Matteo Ricci, in 1602 he would publish his map of the world in Chinese that introduced the existence of the American continents to Chinese geographers. He arrived in Macau in 1582, when he began to learn the Chinese language and information about China's ancient culture, yet was unaware of the events that had transpired there since the end of the Franciscan missions in the mid 14th century and establishment of the Ming dynasty. Since that time the Islamic world presented an obstacle for the West in reaching East Asia and, barring the grand treasure voyages of the 15th-century admiral Zheng He, the Ming dynasty had largely pursued policies of isolationism that kept it from seeking far-flung diplomatic contacts.

See also
 Arcadio Huang, 17th-century Chinese visitor to Europe
 Cathay, Medieval European name for China
 Fan Shouyi, 18th-century Chinese visitor to Europe
 Fonthill Vase, first Chinese porcelain ware to reach Europe
 Foreign relations of imperial China
 Giuseppe Castiglione (Jesuit painter), 18th-century Jesuit priest and court painter in China
 Hasekura Tsunenaga, 17th-century Japanese visitor to Europe
 Johann Adam Schall von Bell, 17th-century Jesuit priest in China
 Liqian (village)
 Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, 17th-century Chinese visitor to Europe
 Niccolò de' Conti, European explorer and merchant who travelled to India, Southeast Asia, and possibly China in the 15th century
 Nicolas Trigault, 17th-century Jesuit priest in China
 Orientalism in early modern France
 Wang Dayuan, Chinese visitor to North Africa in the 14th century

Notes

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External links
Franciscans in China
Princely Gifts & Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China & Its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250–1350

European diaspora in China
13th century in Europe
14th century in Europe
Yuan dynasty
Ming dynasty
Foreign relations of Imperial China
Medieval international relations