William Welch Kellogg (February 14, 1917 – December 12, 2007) was an American meteorologist and climatologist. He served as associate director and senior scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). His research included pioneering studies of the role that satellites could play in weather observation and prediction.

Biography

Kellogg was born in New York Mills, New York, to Fredrick and Elisabeth Kellogg. He attended the Brooks School in North Andover, Massachusetts, and graduated from Yale in 1939 with a BA in physics. At Yale, he was a member of Skull and Bones. His graduate studies at U.C., Berkeley were interrupted by World War II, when he served in the Air Force's new meteorological program. As a pilot and weather officer, with his strong passion for flying, he collected some of the first data on the dynamics of thunderstorms by flying B-25s into the heart of the storms.

Weather satellites

After the war, while working on a PhD from UCLA, he joined the RAND Corporation in Santa Monica, California, where he was instrumental in establishing the potential value of satellites in meteorological research. His 1951 research paper (written with S. M. Greenfield) introduced many of the concepts still in use today, including the effects of Earth's oblate shape, which is now exploited to produce solar synchronous satellites for weather observation and other forms of remote sensing. He chaired the committee that set the specifications for TIROS-1, the first operational weather satellite.

Later work

He also collaborated on a procedure to predict close-in radioactive fallout from nuclear explosions. This resulted in the first unclassified report in a scientific journal describing such fallout and his testimony on this subject before a joint committee of Congress. In 1964, he was invited by Walter Orr Roberts to join NCAR as director of the Laboratory of Atmospheric Sciences. He was a chief organizer of the international Study of Man's Impact on Climate (SMIC) held in Sweden in 1971. In 1973, he decided to devote himself to full-time climate research and pursue his growing interest in climate change. He and his wife lived in Geneva, Switzerland in 1978–79, where he was advisor to the Secretary General of the World Meteorological Organization. In 1981, he and sociologist Robert Schware co-authored one of the first books on the subject of climate change. He retired from NCAR in 1987.

Positions held

He served on the National Academy of Science's Space Science Board (teaming with Carl Sagan to review our knowledge of the atmospheres of Mars and Venus), the Atmospheric Science Committee, and the Polar Research Board. He also served on the President's Science Advisory Committee, the USAF Scientific Advisory Committee, and the NASA Space Program Advisory Council.

He was Past President of the American Meteorological Society (1973) and the Meteorology Section of the American Geophysical Union. He was a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society, the American Association for the Advancement of Science and the American Geophysical Union.

Selected writings
Kellogg, William W. and Carl Sagan. 1961. The Atmospheres of Mars and Venus: A Report by the Ad Hoc Panel on Planetary Atmospheres of the Space Science Board (Publication 944). Washington, D. C.: The National Academy of Sciences National Research Council.
Kellogg, William W. (1971). "Predicting the Climate." In Man's Impact on the Climate [Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP) Report], edited by William H. Matthews, et al., pp. 123–32. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Kellogg, William W., and Stephen H. Schneider (1974). "Climate Stabilization: For Better or for Worse?" Science 186: 1163–72.
Kellogg, William W., et al. (1975). "Effect of Anthropogenic Aerosols on the Global Climate." In Proceedings of the WMO/IAMAP Symposium on Long-Term Climatic Fluctuations, Norwich, Aug. 1975 (WMO Doc. 421) pp. 323–30. Geneva: World Meteorological Organization.
Kellogg, William W., and Margaret Mead. 1977. The Atmosphere: endangered and endangering. Fogarty International Center proceedings, no. 39. [Bethesda]: U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health.
Kellogg, William W. (1980). "Aerosols and Climate." In Interactions of Energy and Climate, edited by W. Bach et al., pp. 281–96. Kluwer Academic.
Kellogg, William W., and Robert Schware (1981). Climate Change and Society: Consequences of Increasing Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Kellogg, William W. (1987). "Mankind's Impact on Climate: The Evolution of an Awareness." Climatic Change 10: 113–36.

References

Further reading

1917 births
2007 deaths
People from New York Mills, New York
American climatologists
American meteorologists
Fellows of the American Geophysical Union
Brooks School alumni
Yale University alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Scientists from New York (state)
Fellows of the American Meteorological Society
United States Army Air Forces bomber pilots of World War II
United States Army Air Forces officers
Members of Skull and Bones


Edgar Villamarín Arguedas (born 1 April 1982) is a Peruvian footballer who plays as a centre back.

International career
Villamarín also featured four times for the Peru national team.

Honours

Club
Universitario de Deportes
 Torneo Descentralizado: 2009
FBC Melgar
 Torneo Descentralizado: 2015

External links

1982 births
Living people
Footballers from Lima
Men's association football fullbacks
Peruvian men's footballers
Peru men's international footballers
Peruvian Segunda División players
Peruvian Primera División players
Sporting Cristal footballers
Atlético Universidad footballers
Unión Huaral footballers
Cienciano footballers
FC Chornomorets Odesa players
Club Universitario de Deportes footballers
Club Alianza Lima footballers
FBC Melgar footballers
Alianza Atlético footballers
Club Deportivo Universidad César Vallejo footballers
Ukrainian Premier League players
Peruvian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Ukraine
Peruvian expatriate sportspeople in Ukraine
2007 Copa América players


The Case Concerning the Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad) [1994] is a public international law case decided by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) concerning the border between the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and the Republic of Chad. The case was put forward to settle a territorial dispute between the two countries, particularly over a strip of land called the Aouzou Strip which Libya had occupied since the Chadian–Libyan War, and an area which Libya called the Libya–Chad Borderlands or simply the Borderlands. Libya's claim of the Borderlands included parts of the regions of Borkou, Ennedi and Tibesti, including the localities of Erdi, Kanem and Ounianga.

Libya argued that there was no existing boundary between itself and Chad and asked the court to define one. It also claimed that it had clear rights to territory north of a demarcated line which was on the 15th parallel north for much of its length. Libya called this area the Libya–Chad Borderlands; this was the disputed territory between Chad and Libya. Chad on the other hand argued that there was an existing border and asked the court to define it. It maintained that the Aouzou Strip was part of its territory. Chad's territorial claim was based on the 1955 Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness between France and Libya which would place the Aouzou Strip within the borders of Chad.

The case was decided on 3 February 1994. The ICJ ruled in favor of Chad against Libya and declared Libya's occupation of the Aouzou Strip illegal. The court recognised Chad's territorial claim and sovereignty over the Borderlands and Aouzou Strip.

Facts

The Aouzou Strip is a barren piece of land located on the border of Chad and Libya. Libya had begun to stage troops on the strip in order to assist with the defense of its citizens who lived in the area. Despite the land having no strategic or functional value to Chad, the government saw the Aouzou Strip as part of their sovereign territory. Due to the inability of both countries to internally establish a line of demarcation, the case was referred to the International Court of Justice for adjudication in 1990.

Each country has a differing basis from which it is deriving its claims of the Aouzou Strip:
 Libya's claim is on "the basis of a coalescence of rights and titles of the indigenous inhabitants, the Senoussi Order, the Ottoman Empire, and through an agreement that its government made with Italy."
 Chad has argued that the border was established through the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness which was concluded between France and Libya in 1955.

From Libya's perspective, there is not enough evidence to show that a boundary was ever established and that they have adequately lay claim to the Aouzou Strip through administrative control. Chad's use of the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness as basis of its claim has also been challenged due to the treaty being in effect for only 20 years (1955-1975).

Judgment

The case was decided on 3 February 1994. The ICJ ruled that the boundary between Chad and Libya is defined by the Treaty of Friendship and Good Neighborliness which was concluded between France and Libya in 1955. Conversely, this recognised Chad's territorial claims and gave it territorial sovereignty over the Aouzou Strip and the Borderlands. Libya's occupation of the strip was declared illegal.

See also
 Chadian–Libyan conflict

References

External links
The case documents on ICJ website

International Court of Justice cases
Territorial disputes of Chad
Territorial disputes of Libya
Chad–Libya border
1994 in case law
1994 in Chad
1994 in Libya
1994 in international relations


Farnham Castle is a 12th-century castle in Farnham, Surrey, England. It was formerly the residence of the Bishops of Winchester.

History

Built in 1138 by Henri de Blois, Bishop of Winchester, grandson of William the Conqueror,  Farnham castle became the home of the Bishops of Winchester for over 800 years. The original building was demolished by Henry II in 1155 after 'the Anarchy' and then rebuilt in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. In the early 15th century, it was the residence of Cardinal Henry Beaufort who presided at the trial of Joan of Arc in 1431. It is for this reason that St Joan of Arc's Church in Farnham is dedicated to her.

The castle's architecture reflects changing styles through the ages, making it one of the most important historical buildings in the south of England. It is an impressive stone motte and bailey fortress, and has been in almost continuous occupation since the 12th century. The large motte was formed around the massive foundations of a Norman tower and then totally enclosed by a shell keep, with buttress turrets and a shallow gatehouse. Attached to the motte is a triangular inner bailey, with a fine range of domestic buildings and a fifteenth-century brick entrance tower. The formidable outer bailey curtain wall has square flanking towers, a 13th-century gatehouse and a large ditch.

The stables burnt down during a visit by King James, Anne of Denmark, and Prince of Wales in July 1609. The castle was slighted again after the Civil War in 1648. Since then more buildings have been constructed in the castle's grounds, the most impressive being those built by Bishop George Morley in the 17th century.

The castle is set in  of gardens overlooking the town of Farnham. A letter in 1594 mentions that white clay was dug in Farnham Park to make drinking vessels used by lawyers at the Inner Temple in London.

Camouflage Development & Training Centre

During the Second World War, the castle was the home of the Camouflage Development and Training Centre (CDTC) of the Camouflage Branch of the Royal Engineers. Here, artists such as Roland Penrose and Julian Trevelyan as well as the magician Jasper Maskelyne were trained in the arts of military camouflage.

Since 1962, the castle has been used as an intercultural training and conference centre.

Public tours

With the help of the Heritage Lottery Fund, the keep and Bishop's Palace have undergone a complete renovation, and are now managed by Farnham Castle. The keep re-opened in July 2010 displaying the extended research that has been undertaken into the history surrounding the castle; there is also an exhibition on site open to the public covering the 900 Years of Living History of Farnham Castle.

English Heritage has guardianship of the keep but Farnham Castle now manages the visitors to the keep. Entry is free. Local guides provide tours of the Bishop's Palace (certain days only, charge applies).<ref>Three Palaces of the Bishops of Winchester, 2000, English Heritage</ref>

See also
Caesar's Camp
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England

Notes

Further reading
Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, The David & Charles Book of Castles'', David & Charles, 1980.

External links

Farnham Castle official charity website
Farnham Castle official commercial website
History of Farnham Castle
CastleExplorer.co.uk
Farnham Castle Keep

Castles in Surrey
Episcopal palaces of the bishops of Winchester
History of Surrey
Grade I listed castles
Grade I listed buildings in Surrey
Historic house museums in Surrey
Farnham
Scheduled monuments in Surrey
English Heritage sites in Surrey
Buildings and structures in Farnham


Utricularia tridentata is a small terrestrial carnivorous plant that belongs to the genus Utricularia. U. tridentata is endemic to South America, where it is found in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay.

See also
 List of Utricularia species

References

Carnivorous plants of South America
Flora of Argentina
Flora of Brazil
Flora of Uruguay
tridentata


"Listen to the Mocking Bird" (1855) is an American popular song of the mid-19th century. Its lyrics were composed by Septimus Winner under the pseudonym "Alice Hawthorne", and its music was by Richard Milburn.

It relates the story of a singer dreaming of his sweetheart, now dead and buried, and a mockingbird, whose song the couple once enjoyed, now singing over her grave. However, the melody is moderately lively.

"Listen to the Mocking Bird" was one of the most popular ballads of the era and sold more than twenty million copies of sheet music. It was popular during the American Civil War and was used as marching music.  Abraham Lincoln was especially fond of it, saying, "It is as sincere as the laughter of a little girl at play."

Some of the earliest popular recordings were by John Yorke AtLee (1891); Joe Belmont (1899); Frank Stanley and Corinne Morgan (1904); and Alma Gluck (1915).

Adaptations
The song's melody was reprised by Louis Prima & Keely Smith for their 1956 version of the song, with new lyrics, entitled "Nothing's Too Good For My Baby."

Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961)

Its verse was the instrumental introduction to a number of the early short films from 1935 to 1938 by The Three Stooges, rendered in a comical manner with birds chirping in the background. The first Stooges short to employ this theme was 1935's Pardon My Scotch; in later shorts the song was replaced with "Three Blind Mice." Perhaps not coincidentally, once and future Stooge Shemp Howard whistles it repeatedly throughout The Bank Dick.

The song later became associated as the theme of Terrytoons talking magpie characters Heckle and Jeckle.

"Listen to the Mocking Bird" was parodied in the television series, The Flintstones, as a swinging jazz tune called "Listen to the Rocking Bird".

"Listen to the Mocking Bird" was remade into a children's version for the show Barney & Friends. The tune is still the same but the lyrics were changed to make it more kid friendly. It debuted in Barney's Sense-Sational Day.

A Hawaiian-style arrangement is used as background music in later seasons of SpongeBob SquarePants.

In the movie The Alamo (2004), Davy Crockett plays "Listen to the Mocking Bird" on his fiddle to a crowd, although the song was not composed until 1855, 19 years after the Battle of the Alamo where Crockett died.

"Listen to the Mockingbird" was played on the piano by Jason Walton (Jon Walmsley) at the request of Miss Mamie and Miss Emily Baldwin (Helen Kleeb and Mary Jackson) on The Waltons TV series, Season 4, Episode 19 "The Burnout" (1976).

A 1953 Lux Radio Theatre adaptation of Daphne du Maurier's story "The Birds" includes a scene in which a character, listening to the radio for news of the bird attacks, flips the dial to one station only to hear Louis Armstrong's recording of the song being played.

The melody is a standard in the repertoire of many bluegrass and old-time country fiddlers, often as a novelty tune and including various bird calls played on the violin strings.

In the movie The Palm Beach Story (1942) The Ale and Quail Club is seen singing "Sweet Adeline" to Claudette Colbert. "Listen to the Mocking Bird" follows. It can be heard in the background.

See also
 List of best-selling sheet music

References

External links
"Listen to the Mocking Bird" on the Library of Congress National Jukebox site
Lyrics
1856 Sheet Music
Sheet Music for "Listen to the Mocking Bird", 1856.
Listen to the Mockingbird on The Waltons

American folk songs
1855 songs
Songs about death


Giovanni Battista Zuddas (1 March 1928 in Cagliari – 21 October 1996) was a bantamweight professional boxer from Italy, who won the silver medal at the 1948 Summer Olympics, losing to Tibor Csik of Hungary in the championship match.

1948 Olympic results
Zuddas competed in the bantamweight division at the 1948 London Olympics:

 Round of 32: defeated Bonifacio Zarcal (Philippines) on points
 Round of 16: defeated Jean-Marie Grenot (France) on points
 Quarterfinal: defeated Willie Lenihan (Ireland) referee stopped contest in third round
 Semifinal: defeated Alvaro Vicente (Spain) on points
 Final: lost to Tibor Csik (Hungary) on points (was awarded silver medal)

Professional career
Zuddas turned professional in 1950 and fought primarily in Italy and other European countries. He held the Italian bantamweight title and fought for the title several times throughout his career. In 1959 he lost a decision to Eder Jofre, and retired the following year.

References

External links

 DatabaseOlympics.com profile

1928 births
Bantamweight boxers
Olympic boxers for Italy
Olympic silver medalists for Italy
Boxers at the 1948 Summer Olympics
1996 deaths
Olympic medalists in boxing
Italian male boxers
Medalists at the 1948 Summer Olympics
Sportspeople from Cagliari


Abra Cadabra is a 1983 Australian animated fantasy comedy film written and directed by Alexander Stitt, based loosely on the tale of the Pied Piper of Hamelin. Starring John Farnham and Jacki Weaver, it is the first ever animated feature film to be made in 3-D.

The film was theatrically released in stereoscopic 3D as well as in a regular version.

See also
 Grendel Grendel Grendel, the first animated feature directed by Alexander Stitt
 List of animated feature films of 1983
 List of 3D films

References

External links

 Abra Cadabra at Oz Movies

1983 animated films
1983 films
Australian animated feature films
1980s children's fantasy films
1983 3D films
Australian 3D films
Films based on Pied Piper of Hamelin
1980s Australian animated films
1980s English-language films
1980s Australian films
Australian animated comedy films


Jennifer Lynn Allard (born 1968) is a former All-American softball player at the University of Michigan and the current head coach of the University of Pittsburgh softball team. Allard played for the Michigan Wolverines softball team from 1987–1990, where she was named an All-Big Ten player four straight years. She was a third baseman as a freshman and sophomore and a pitcher as a junior and senior. In 1989, Allard was named the Big Ten Player of the Year and a nominee for the Honda-Broderick Cup. She has been the head coach at Harvard since 1995, where she led the Crimson to its first Ivy League championship in 1992 and has followed with three more Ivy League crowns. In 1997, Allard told her team that she was a lesbian, becoming one of the first major college coaches to openly announce her homosexuality. In 2008, Allard was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor.

University of Michigan (1987–1990)
After graduating from Woodbridge High School in Irvine, California, Allard played softball for Hall of Fame coach Carol Hutchins at the University of Michigan from 1987-1990. She began at Michigan as a third baseman, but became a pitcher in her junior and senior years. As a freshman, Allard led the Wolverines with 26 RBIs, while hitting .331, second best on the team. She led the team in batting average in 1988 and 1989 and was named an All-American and Big Ten Player of the Year in 1989. She was also a four-time All-Big Ten Conference selection, earning Academic All-Big Ten honors as a senior. In 1989, Allard was also nominated for the Honda Broderick Award. She was the recipient of Michigan’s Conference Medal of Honor, an award given to the highest-achieving female student-athlete. Named to the Big Ten All-Decade team in 1992, Allard ranked in the top four all-time in 15 hitting and pitching categories at the time of her graduation from Michigan. In 2008, Allard was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor, only the fourth softball player inducted into the Hall (after Penny Neer, Vicki Morrow, and Alicia Seegert).

Head coach at Harvard (1995–2023)
In 1992, Allard accepted a full-time coaching position as an assistant coach at the University of Iowa. In 1995, Allard accepted the head coaching position for the Harvard University softball team.  She has been the head coach at Harvard for 21 seasons, compiling a career record of 536-400-3, and is the longest tenured softball coach in the Ivy League.    She holds 313-249-1 overall record at Harvard, including a 127-49 record in the Ivy League.   Harvard has won four Ivy League softball titles in its history, all during Allard’s time as coach.  Allard has also been Harvard’s coach during each of its four 30-win seasons and its three NCAA Championship berths. She has coached 33 first-team All-Ivy League players selections, four Ivy League Players of the Year, three Ivy Pitchers of the Year and two Ivy Rookies of the Year.

In 1998, Allard led Harvard to the best season in the history of the program, as the team recorded a 34-22 record, captured its first Ivy League championship with a perfect 12–0 league record and earned its first bid to the NCAA Championship, where it defeated Boston College in the regional.  The Crimson was led in 1998 by Ivy Player of the Year Tara LaSovage and Pitcher of the Year Tasha Cupp.

In 2000, Allard’s team won its second Ivy League championship and NCAA tournament berth.  The 2000 Crimson went 11-1 in league play.  In 2001, Harvard again won the Ivy League title after posting an 11–3 League record.  In 2002, the team had a 31-10 record in 2002, breaking the record set by the 1998 team, and winning the ECAC championship.  In 2007, Harvard won its fourth Ivy League championship under Allard with a record of 31–15 record and a 14–6 record in the Conference. Harvard also won back-to-back Ivy championships in 2011 and 2012.

Allard earned a master's degree from the Harvard School of Education in 1999 and a master's in psychology from the Harvard Extension School in 2003.

Personal life
In 1997, Allard told her team that she was a lesbian, becoming one of the first major college coaches to openly affirm her homosexuality.  Allard made the announcement to her players in an email.  "What I wrote," Allard recalled, "was something like, 'I know you'll potentially be stopping by my suite or calling, and I just want to let you know that my partner has decided to move on campus with me and you'll soon get the opportunity to meet her.'"   She added, "I wanted to be very honest about how I was living and not be shamed or silenced by it.  I ask and expect my athletes to be honest about things. They don't have to tell me everything, but if they are going to tell me something, I want them to be truthful. And because I want to model that, I couldn't tell them I'm hiding my partner behind the left field fence and I'm embarrassed to have them know her."   Allard has spoken at conferences on the subject of homosexuality in athletics and has become an advocate for the rights of gay and lesbian athletes.  "As a coach, I'd like to see increased dialogue among teams, and resources for gay athletes need to come more to the forefront," she said. "It's a big learning experience to have a gay athlete on the team."

See also
University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor

Notes

1960s births
Living people
Softball coaches from California
Michigan Wolverines softball players
Iowa Hawkeyes softball coaches
Harvard Crimson softball coaches
Harvard Extension School alumni
Harvard Graduate School of Education alumni
Lesbian sportswomen
American lesbians
American LGBT sportspeople
LGBT people from California
Sportspeople from Irvine, California
Softball players from California
LGBT softball players
Pittsburgh Panthers softball coaches


Mary Ann McCall (May 4, 1919 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States – December 14, 1994 in Los Angeles, California) was an American pop and jazz singer. Aside from solo work, she sang for Charlie Barnet, Tommy Dorsey, Artie Shaw and Woody Herman. She was briefly married to Al Cohn. In 1949, she won the Down Beat Readers' Poll for "Girl Singer (With Band)".

Discography
 Mary McCall Sings (Discovery, 1950)
 An Evening with Charlie Ventura and Mary Ann McCall (Norgran, 1954)
 Easy Living (Regent, 1957)
 Detour to the Moon (Jubilee, 1958)
 Melancholy Baby (Coral, 1959)

As guest
 Nat Pierce, 5400 North (Hep, 1979)

References

1919 births
1994 deaths
American women jazz singers
American jazz singers
Traditional pop music singers
Jazz musicians from Philadelphia
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
Discovery Records artists


Patrick Lamont McNeil (born February 28, 1954) is a former professional American football running back. He played college football at Baylor University. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in 1976 NFL Draft in the 17th round (472nd overall pick). He played during the 1976 and 1977 seasons.

References

1964 births
Living people
American football running backs
Baylor Bears football players
Edmonton Elks players
Kansas City Chiefs players
People from Pittsburg, California
Players of American football from Contra Costa County, California


Philadelphia Greek Mob, also known as the Philadelphia Greek Mafia or simply the Greek Mafia, are a low-profile criminal organization of ethnic Greek Americans in Philadelphia with alleged connections to the Italian Philadelphia crime family and the Greek Velentzas crime family of New York city.

History

The Greek Mob was formed in southern Greece by the original boss Steve Pattakos. Pattakos also had strong ties with the Karakostas and Efthimiades families of Macedonia in Northern Greece. When the Karakostas family was run out of power in the 1960s, Pattakos decided to move his operations to the US. When Pattakos was sentenced to jail to serve life for murder, mobster Chelsais "Steve" Bouras of Upper Northeast Philadelphia took over.

Throughout the 1970s until 1981, Bouras headed the Greek Mob in Philadelphia, participating in mostly loansharking, extortion, methamphetamine trade, and illegal gambling. Bouras directed the mob efficiently, and he carried out business with more prominent families such as the Philadelphia Mafia. He was a close associate of Italian wiseguy and Scarfo soldier Raymond Martorano.

Assassination of Bouras

On May 27, 1981, at the Venetis Greek restaurant in South Philadelphia, Bouras and his girlfriend, Jeannette Curro, were gunned down while dining with Ray Martorano and Philadelphia radio personality Jerry Blavat.

Bouras was 50 years old and Jeannette Curro was 54. Though Bouras and Curro were killed, Martorano and Blavat were only wounded. It is reported that Nicodemo Scarfo of Philadelphia's notorious Philadelphia crime family ordered the hit, as Bouras had refused to pay Scarfo's street taxes, specifically for his meth ring. There have also been speculations that Martorano arranged the hit for Scarfo because of eyewitness claims that the gunman motioned for Martorano to move out of the way before opening fire. To this day, no one has ever been connected with the hit. The assassination took place just one day after the murder of another Greek mobster, Harry Boulas of Upper Darby.

Curro's family also had ties to the Mafia; the FBI had been investigating her nephew, Joe "Crutch" Curro, a made member of the Philadelphia Cosa Nostra, after they recorded him on a 1976 FBI wiretap at Frank’s Cabana Steaks in South Philadelphia, at the time a base of operations for Philadelphia Mafia capo Frank Sindone.

After Bouras' assassination, the Greek Mob did get involved with the mob war in Philadelphia in the 1980s, attempting to gain rackets in Atlantic City, but activity declined after the war.  They were also involved in the high profile prosecution of Mafia lawyer Robert F. Simone in 1994. Simone was a close associate in the 1980s.

A two-year FBI investigation into a cocaine ring run by the Greek mafia in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C. resulted in charges being filed in August 1987.

Current activity

Although rather prominent in the 1970s and 1980s, the Greek Mob has cooled down and remains rather dormant. However, there have been some occurrences of members being found loan sharking in Philadelphia in modern times. The reason for this dormant period could be traced back to the leaders' loss in the 1980s mob war in Philadelphia, which was initiated after Martineos' assassination.

References

Greek-American organized crime groups
Gangs in Philadelphia
Greek-American culture in Pennsylvania


TV3 is a Ghanaian free-to-air television network in Ghana. Launched in 1997 by Malaysian company Sistem Televisyen Malaysia Berhad, TV3 airs and produces a variety of television programmes including acclaimed news bulletins, dramas and successful reality television and entertainment shows. It was taken over by a Ghanaian company called Media General Ghana Limited in 2011.

TV3 Ghana established itself as the most watched free-to-air television station in Ghana, having achieved 65% nationwide penetration at end-2006 and aiming to reach 90% by 2008. TV3 is a privately owned TV in Ghana.

However, TV3 has experienced major competition in the likes of Metro TV which has succeeded not only in broadcasting its network to all the regions in the country but it also struck a deal with South Africa's MultiChoice allowing it to be broadcast throughout Africa. Despite this, TV3 remains popular for its showing of Mexican telenovelas, Korean series and music and a variety of local and foreign movies. TV3 entertains and educates its viewers through all the programs aired.

Programs

Current

Children's
Ben 10
Generator Rex
LazyTown

Former

Overseas
Beauty and The Beast

Comedy
Home Improvement
Family Feud Africa (localised version, hosted by U.S. host Steve Harvey)

Children's

Aladdin
Barney & Friends
Dennis the Menace
Dennis and Gnasher
Basket Fever
Betty's Voyage
Cedric the Crow
Conan the Adventurer
Dennis and Gnasher
G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero (1983 TV series)
Legends of the Hidden Temple
The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa
Max Steel
Ocean Girl
Postman Pat
Power Rangers
Roughnecks: Starship Troopers Chronicles
Return to Jupiter
Talented Kids
Teen Wolf
Teletubbies
Thunderstone
Tweenies
Tommy and Oscar

Drama
Desperate Housewives
Hill Street Blues

Reality

 Date Rush
 Ghana's most beautiful

Staff

Present

 Berla Mundi
 Giovani Caleb
 Alfred Akrofi Ocansey
 Komla Adom
 Wendy Laryea
 Josephine Antwi Adjei
 Portia Gabor

Past

 Bridget Otoo
 Nana Aba Anamoah

See also
Media of Ghana

References

External links
TV3 Network Ltd.

Broadcasting in Ghana
Television channels and stations established in 1997
Television stations in Ghana
Mass media in Accra


The Greek Mob may refer to various ethnic Greek criminal organizations, including:
 The Greek mafia, various loosely interconnected crime groups based primarily in Greece (and sometimes including Greek-American organized crime, as listed below)
 The Philadelphia Greek Mob, a Greek American crime group based primarily in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 The Velentzas crime family, a Greek American crime group based primarily in New York City


Community and Family Services International (CFSI) is an international humanitarian organisation, based and founded in Philippines in the early 1980s to promote peace and social development, with a particular interest in psychosocial care. The populations of primary concern are refugees, internally displaced persons, survivors of disasters, and others in exceptionally difficult circumstances in the Asia-Pacific Region. As a non-profit organisation, CFSI relies solely on funding and donations from organisations and generous individuals to continue their services to provide humanitarian assistance to beneficiaries, both in the Philippines and abroad. The organisation is registered to the Securities and Exchange Commission in the Philippines, and the headquarters is in Pasay.

Established on 1 June 1981, CFSI started as the Community Mental Health Services, originally helping the Vietnamese refugees in Bataan. It has since worked closely with the international community as well as national and local actors responsible for uprooted persons in the Philippines, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Myanmar (Burma), Timor-Leste (East Timor), New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea.

At present, CFSI is carrying out activities in the Philippines, Myanmar, and Viet Nam. CFSI also provides training in various parts of the world for humanitarian workers, social services personnel, human rights specialists, and journalists covering humanitarian emergencies. The tagline of CFSI is Rebuilding Lives.

References

External links
 CFSI website

Non-profit organizations based in the Philippines


The Mad Genius (1931) is an American pre-Code  drama film produced and distributed by Warner Bros. and directed by Michael Curtiz. The film stars John Barrymore, Marian Marsh, Donald Cook, Charles Butterworth, and in small roles, Boris Karloff and Frankie Darro. The film is based on the play The Idol (1929) by Martin Brown, which opened in Great Neck, Long Island but never opened on Broadway.

Plot
A crippled puppeteer, Ivan Tsarakov (Barrymore), is frustrated that he will never dance ballet.  He adopts a protégé, Fedor Ivanoff (Darro as a child, Cook as an adult), whom he makes into the greatest dancer in the world. Fedor falls in love with a dancer, Nana Carlova (Marsh), but Tsarakov fears that she will ruin Fedor as a dancer. He tries to separate them and ultimately fires Nana from the ballet troupe. Fedor runs away with Nana to Paris, but Tsarakov has blacklisted him, and he cannot get ballet jobs and is reduced to working in a cabaret. Nana begs Tsarakov to give Fedor his job back. Tsarakov agrees, if Nana will leave Fedor and marry another man; she agrees.  Fedor returns embittered; he sees Nana on opening night and realizes that she still loves him; he refuses to dance. Tsarakov threatens to kill him, but the ballet master, under the influence of drugs that Tsarakov has given him, kills Tsarakov. Fedor is reunited with Nana.

In the film Svengali, released earlier the same year, Barrymore played the title character who similarly manipulated the life of a female singer, also played by Marsh.

Cast
 John Barrymore as Vladimar Ivan Tsarakov
 Marian Marsh as Nana Carlova
 Charles Butterworth as Karimsky
 Donald Cook as Fedor Ivanoff
 Luis Alberni as Sergei Bankieff
 Carmel Myers as Sonya Preskoya
 Andre Luguet as Count Robert Renaud
 Frankie Darro as Young Fedor

Production
Warner Bros. was so pleased by the box office returns for Svengali (1931), also starring Barrymore and Marsh, that they rushed The Mad Genius into production, and released it on November 7, 1931.

Box Office
According to Warner Bros., the film earned $278,000 domestically and $122,000 foreign.

Preservation
The film survives complete. It is preserved in the Library of Congress collection.

See also
 Boris Karloff filmography

References

External links

 trailer available for free download at Internet Archive

1931 films
1930s drama films
Films about ballet
Films set in 1916
Films set in 1931
Films set in Berlin
Films set in Paris
American black-and-white films
1930s English-language films
American films based on plays
Films directed by Michael Curtiz
Warner Bros. films
American drama films
1931 drama films
1930s American films


The Romanian Carpathians () are a section of the Carpathian Mountains, within the borders of modern Romania. The Carpathians are a "subsystem" of the Alps-Himalaya System and are further divided into "provinces" and "subprovinces".

This is an overview of the geological subdivisions of the Romanian section of the Carpathian Mountains. The broadest divisions are shown in the map on the right. The last level of the division, i.e. the actual mountain ranges and basins, is usually called "units". The lowest-level detail for those units is maintained on separate pages.

Naming conventions
Traditional Romanian naming conventions differ from this list.  In Romania, it is usual to divide the Eastern Carpathians in Romanian territory into three geographical groups (North, Centre, South), instead in Outer and Inner Eastern Carpathians.

The Transylvanian Plateau is encircled by, and geologically a part of, the Carpathians, but it is not a mountainous region and its inclusion is disputed in some sources. Its features are included below.

The Outer Carpathian Depressions lay outside the broad arc of the entire formation and are usually listed as part of the individual divisions of the Carpathian Mountains, i.e. of Western Carpathians, Eastern Carpathians etc.

Romanian divisions
The Romanian Carpathians chain is classified, according to the geomorphological and geological differences, into three major morphotectonic units:
 Eastern Romanian Carpathians (Carpații Orientali) - with 3 main groups subdivided into 40 mountain groups
 Southern Carpathians (Carpații Meridionali) - with 4 main groups subdivided into 24 mountain groups
 Western Romanian Carpathians (Carpații Occidentali Românești) - with 3 main groups subdivided into 18 mountain groups

Eastern Romanian Carpathians

Romanian classification

The Eastern Carpathians are divided into three geographical groups; the Romanian approach is shown by adding the following abbreviations to the names of units within Romania:
 MMB = Maramureș-Bukovinian Carpathians (Munții Carpați ai Maramureșului și Bucovinei) (North group)
 MMT = Moldavian-Transylvanian Carpathians (Munții Carpați Moldo-Transilvani) (Centre group)
 MC = Curvature Carpathians (Munții Carpați de Curbură) (South group)

Other classification

 Outer Eastern Carpathians
 Moldavian-Muntenian Carpathians
 Inner Eastern Carpathians
 "Volcanic Ridge" (the Romanian portion of the Vihorlat-Gutin Area group)
 Bistrița Mountains
 Căliman-Harghita Mountains
 Giurgeu-Brașov Depression

Southern Romanian Carpathians

 Bucegi Mountains Group
 Făgăraș Mountains group
 Parâng Mountains group
 Retezat-Godeanu Mountains group

Western Romanian Carpathians

 Apuseni Mountains
 Poiana Ruscă Mountains
 Banat Mountains

Transylvanian Plateau

See also
 List of mountains in Romania
 Bukovinian Subcarpathians
 Divisions of the Carpathians

External links
 Pictures and landscapes from the Romanian Carpathians

Mountain ranges of Romania
Lists of landforms of Romania
Mountain ranges of the Eastern Carpathians
Mountain ranges of the Western Romanian Carpathians
Mountain ranges of the Southern Carpathians


Paul "P.H." Naffah is best known as the former drummer for the Refreshments. He is now the drummer for Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers, the band he created with fellow Refreshment Roger Clyne.

Biography

Early years
Called the "calmest, low maintenance guy I know," by frontman Roger Clyne, Naffah prefers to slip behind his drum set for concerts, and then disappear into the shadows once the night is done. His set-up is unorthodox with a cymbal layout that pushes outward towards the audience and a stiff-armed match grip.

A native of Chicago, Naffah remembers his first drum set that he received when he was 10, and still has it today. What started as a boyhood hobby became a drumming passion as he methodically taught himself the craft using a jukebox of 45s in his family's basement as his "instructors." Naffah mimicked the songs’ percussion parts until he mastered more and more complex combinations and beats. Patterning himself after drummers of the 1970s and 1980s (Keith Moon, John Bonham, and Stewart Copeland), he also found inspiration in lesser-known drummers including Mark Kingsmill of Hoodoo Gurus and Benny "Papasita" Benjamin who was part of the Motown rhythm section. By age 15, Naffah was in a band and because he was underage, had to be smuggled in to play a variety of Chicago clubs. The band played original music and Naffah quickly became attuned to the nuances of working with songwriters.

Early music career
As a doctor's son, Naffah headed to college to seek a degree in science at Arizona State University.  During school, he drummed for local bands and met a string of musicians that performed in the vibrant local scene. At a party he had a fleeting and impromptu jam with the Mortals and their lead vocalist, Roger Clyne.

The Refreshments
After graduation in 1993, he left the band scene, took his MCATs and passed the time building cabinets for a Phoenix contractor. He rarely followed the local bands but was aware of buzz surrounding the Refreshments, a group which included Clyne and Naffah's friend, guitarist Brian Blush. In 1995, Blush called Naffah, inviting him to audition for the band's then-open drummer slot. Naffah decided that a career in medicine could wait and he joined the band. Signed by Mercury months later, the Refreshments grew from garage band to an early contender in the post-grunge landscape. Their first label album from 1996 to 1997 was the well-received Fizzy Fuzzy Big & Buzzy, which spawned two radio hits, "Banditos" and "Down Together". New management was installed at the Mercury label and despite another noteworthy album, The Bottle and Fresh Horses, the Refreshments were cut loose and eventually disbanded.

Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers
Naffah and Clyne soon after began playing Phoenix-area happy hours as a twosome. Jamming with a series of guitarists and bassists, they formed Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers in late 1998 with bassist Danny White and guitarist Scotty Johnson, who left the band in 2002.

Naffah's role with Roger Clyne and the Peacemakers expanded and he co-produced the first three albums, Honky Tonk Union, Real to Reel, and Sonoran Hope and Madness. Naffah is usually the first to hear the vocalist's original compositions and lyrics. Clyne was present when Naffah and White recorded the bass parts for ¡Americano!.

References

American drummers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Musicians from Arizona


Alesha Dixon, a British R&B singer, has released four studio albums, nine lead singles (not including two singles on which she is featured and three promotional singles) and thirteen music videos. Dixon was also a member of the popular music group Mis-Teeq, together with whom she released four albums and several successful singles.

Dixon's discography as a solo artist began with the release of "Lipstick" under the mononym "Alesha" on 14 August 2006 in the United Kingdom, intended as the lead single from her album Fired Up. The song reached number fourteen on the UK Singles Chart, and was followed by "Knockdown," the poor performance of which caused the album's release to be cancelled and Alesha to be dropped by record label Polydor. However, Fired Up was released both physically and digitally in Japan, where it reached number 54 on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart.

Following Dixon's success on BBC reality television programme Strictly Come Dancing, she was signed to Asylum Records to release her second album The Alesha Show. The album yielded four singles, two of which reached the top ten of the UK Singles Chart. One, titled "The Boy Does Nothing" is Dixon's best-selling single release to date, as it achieved worldwide chart success. The Alesha Show went on to be certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry, denoting shipments of 300,000 copies and allowing her to begin recording for her third studio album The Entertainer, which was preceded by the single "Drummer Boy". Despite yielding four singles, the album peaked at just number 81 on the UK Albums Chart and was not certified, leading to Dixon parting with her record label.

Albums

Studio albums

Compilation albums

Extended play

Singles

As lead artist

As featured artist

Promotional singles

Music videos

References

External links
Alesha Dixon Official Website
Alesha Dixon Discography Discogs

Contemporary R&B discographies
Pop music discographies
Discographies of British artists


SISNE plus is a DOS 3.3 compatible clone created by Itautec and Scopus Tecnologia in Brazil prior to the end of the Market Reserve in 1991, which, at that time, forbade the importation of electronic equipment and software for general use.
The system was sold with PC/XT compatible Itautec IS 30 computers and with Itautec IS 386 computers.
With the widespread use of MS-DOS after the importations were allowed, the SISNE plus operating system was discontinued.

Before SISNE plus, Scopus developed and offered SISNE. Version 1.6 was compatible to DOS 1.1 and had the same user interface as CP/M-80.

Releases

Commands
The following list of commands are supported by SISNE plus 3.30 R05.

 AJUDA
 APPEND
 ASSIGN
 ATTRIB
 BACKUP
 BEEP
 BRASCII
 BREAK
 BUFIM
 CALL
 CD
 CHDIR
 CHKDSK
 CLS
 COM
 COMENT
 COMMAND
 COMP
 CONV
 COP
 COPIA
 COPY
 CTTY
 DAT
 DATA
 DATE
 DEL
 DIR
 DIRET
 DISKCOMP
 DISKCOPY
 ECHO
 ECO
 EDITOR
 ERASE
 EXIT
 FASTOPEN
 FBACKIM
 FBACKUP
 FDISK
 FFORMAT
 FIND
 FOR
 FORMAT
 FRESTIM
 FRESTORE
 GOTO
 GRAFTABL
 GRAPHICS
 GRAVA
 HOR
 HORA
 ICC
 IF
 IMP86
 JOIN
 LABEL
 LAND
 LISTA
 MD
 MENU
 MKDIR
 MODE
 MORE
 MOS
 MOSTRA
 PATH
 PAU
 PAUSA
 PAUSE
 PREAJUDA
 PRINT
 PROMPT
 RD
 RECOVER
 REM
 REN
 RENAME
 RENOMAIA
 REPLACE
 RESTORE
 RMDIR
 RX86
 SET
 SHARE
 SHIFT
 SORT
 SUBST
 SUP
 SUPRIME
 SYS
 TECLAS
 TIME
 TREE
 TRUNC
 TX86
 TYPE
 VER
 VERIFY
 VOL
 XCOPY

See also
 Comparison of DOS operating systems
 Timeline of DOS operating systems
 List of DOS commands
 SOX (operating system)

References

Further reading

External links

DOS variants
Disk operating systems
1988 software
Information technology in Brazil


John Elliot MD (1747 – 22 July 1787) was a physician and scientist in eighteenth-century London who was the first person to conjecture that different parts of the retina respond to particular colours of light. However, he was obsessed with Mary Boydell, niece of the publisher John Boydell, and in 1787 was arrested for attempting to murder her. Although acquitted of attempted murder, he starved himself to death while awaiting trial for assault in Newgate Gaol.

Bibliography

—. Narrative of the Life and Death of John Elliot, M.D. Containing an account of the rise progress and catastrophe of his unhappy passion for Miss Mary Boydell, a review of his writings together with an apology written by himself under the pressure of expected condemnation after his commitment for attempting to assassinate Miss Boydell. London, 1787.
—. "John Elliot, M.D.". The Newgate Calendar, Vol. IV, 164-168. London: Navarre Society Ltd., 1926.
Elliot, John. Elements of Natural Philosophy. London, 1792.
Mollon, J.D. "The Origins of Modern Color Science". The Science of Color. London: Elsevier Ltd, 2003. . Retrieved on 29 January 2008.
Mollon, John. "John Elliot". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. 2004. Retrieved on 30 January 2008.

References

English scientists
1787 deaths
1747 births


A pharmacy (also called drugstore in American English or community pharmacy or chemist in Commonwealth English) is a retail shop which provides pharmaceutical drugs, among other products. At the pharmacy, a pharmacist oversees the fulfillment of medical prescriptions and is available to counsel patients about prescription and over-the-counter drugs or about health problems and wellness issues. A typical pharmacy would be in the commercial area of a community.

Dispensing or compounding
Most drugs are commercially made at factories and dispensed by pharmacies.  Drugs that are not commercially made must be compounded from other ingredients.  In 1930, 75% of medications were compounded, but by 1970 only 1% were compounded.

Community pharmacies (drugstores)
In most countries, a retail outlet for prescription drugs is subject to legislation; with requirements for storage conditions, staff qualifications, equipment, record keeping (especially of controlled drugs) and other matters, all specified in legislation. It was once the case that pharmacists stayed within the premises compounding/dispensing medications, but there has been an increasing trend towards the use of trained pharmacy technicians, with the pharmacist spending more time communicating with patients. Pharmacy technicians are now more dependent upon automation to assist them in their new role dealing with patients' prescriptions and patient safety issues.

Pharmacies are typically required to have a qualified pharmacist on-duty at all times when they are open. It is also often a requirement for the owner of a pharmacy to be a registered pharmacist, but that is not the case in all jurisdictions: where permitted, many retailers (including supermarkets and mass merchandisers) now include a pharmacy as a department of their store.

Likewise, many pharmacies are now rather grocery store-like in their design. In addition to medicines and prescriptions, many now sell a diverse arrangement of additional items such as cosmetics, shampoo, office supplies, confections, electronics, home decor,  snack foods, durable medical equipment, greeting cards, and provide photo processing services.

Community pharmacies offer a unique added value by building direct relationships with their customers. They are able to provide more personalized, dedicated care to local members of their community and even offer enhanced services such as Medication Therapy Management (MTM), Medication Synchronization, and compounding. With the aid of pharmacy management systems and different integrated technologies, these smaller pharmacies are able to keep up with their large-scale competition.

Ethical standards
Community pharmacists’ understanding of ethics, confidentiality, patient autonomy, trustworthiness and reliability are essential in community practice and must influence their decision making should an ethical dilemma arise.  In some countries, community pharmacists may be asked to compromise on their values and ethical issues may arise not only because of patient's or physician's request but may also because of their employers' intrusion. Individual factors such as age, gender, work experience, and educational level and organizational factors such as the number of pharmacists in a pharmacy and location of pharmacy may affect the ethical perspectives of community pharmacists.

Characteristics of a good pharmacy
The American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy recommends that consumers choose a pharmacy at which they can have a consulting relationship with the pharmacist. Anyone using drugs benefits when they have easier access to a pharmacist. Being timely includes both processing the request quickly and having drug stock available to fill the prescription. Some consumers need drugs delivered to their home, perhaps by mail, and may select a pharmacy that offers that service. Different pharmacies may charge different prices for the same drugs, so shopping for lower prices may identify a pharmacy offering better value. In addition to fulfilling prescriptions, a pharmacy might offer preventive healthcare services like vaccinations. Up-to-date technology at a pharmacy can assist a patient with prescription reminders and alerts about potential negative drug interactions, thereby reducing medical errors.

Duties of pharmacy staff
The International Pharmaceutical Federation has declared their vision of a community-based pharmacist:

 An expert in pharmaceutical care, pharmacotherapy and health promotion
 A professional communicator with patients, other healthcare providers and decision makers
 Deliver high quality products, services and communication
 Document their work and communicate the outcome to professional colleagues.

Responsibilities

Community-based pharmacists' responsibilities include: checking and dispensing of prescription drugs, providing advice on drug selection and usage to doctors and other health professionals and counseling patients in health promotion, disease prevention and the proper use of medicines.

In most countries regulations govern how dispensaries may operate, with specific requirements for storage conditions, equipment and record keeping.

United Kingdom

It is becoming more common for pharmacists to take on extended roles that provide more clinical care directly to patients as part of a primary care team. There are around 11,400 community pharmacies in England. Many are open for extended hours in the evenings and weekends and they are accessible without appointment.

In the English NHS there were 438 million visits nationally to community pharmacies for health related reasons in 2015. More than 1 billion prescription items were dispensed in 2012. More than £14 billion is spent on prescribed drugs annually. Under the 2005 NHS Community Pharmacy contract all community pharmacists in England and Wales provide:
Dispensing Service
Repeat Dispensing Service: This allows the patient to collect regular repeat prescription medicines for an agreed period of time, without having to go back to their GP
Disposal of Unwanted Medicines.
Promotion of Healthy Lifestyles.
Signposting to other Services.
Support for Self-Care: advice on treating minor illnesses and long term conditions.

Widely available Advanced Services:

Medicines Use Review & Prescription Intervention.
New Medicine Service. For patients who have been given their first prescription for a medicine to treat Asthma and COPD, Type 2 diabetes, Hypertension or Anticoagulant Therapy.
Appliance Use Review Service.
Flu Vaccination.

Enhanced  Services which are not available unless locally commissioned:
Minimising Adverse Effects and Admissions Related to Medicines.
Discharge and Transfer Planning.
Managing Dental Pain.

The introduction of the digital hospital-to-pharmacy referral service, which was to launch in July 2020, as part of the new community pharmacy contract, was postponed to 15 February 2021 because of the COVID-19 pandemic in England.  It will enable hospitals to digitally notify community pharmacies when patients are discharged and may need advice on taking new medicines, and about changes to their prescriptions.

In 2022 the average pharmacy carried out around 19 consultations per day, averaging 5.6 minutes each - about 65 million consultations across 10,800 pharmacies in the year.

Support staff

To help pharmacists be able to take on extended roles, it is common for them to work as part of a team that can include pharmacy technicians, dispensing assistants and counter assistants.

Ownership

In parts of mainland Europe, the pharmacist is required to own the pharmacy of which she or he is the licensee. Under this arrangement, a pharmacist can be the operator of only a single outlet. In the UK, 60% of all community pharmacies are owned by companies that own multiple pharmacies.

In the United States, more than 25% of independent owners have ownership in two or more pharmacies.

Most of New Zealand's community pharmacies are owner-operated. In Australia, pharmacists recognise the need to integrate professional pharmacy services into the health system to meet the changing health care needs of the population.

Society and culture
A survey conducted by PrescribeWellness found that almost half of Americans older than 40 years-old value pharmacies that offer preventative care services, and would be willing to transfer their prescriptions to pharmacies that offer those services. Patients also value pharmacies where they can receive medical advice concerning their prescription medications, how those medications may interact with each other, and receive over-the-counter drug recommendations for the management of common ailments. In a survey of over 1,000 U.S. adults older than 40 years-old conducted by Propeller Insights, 67% of patients responded that they would prefer that their pharmacist discuss new prescriptions with them, rather than their physician, because they viewed their pharmacist as "better at explaining side effects and has more time to spend with them."

Internet pharmacies

Since about the year 2000, a growing number of Internet pharmacies have been established worldwide.  Many of these pharmacies are similar to community pharmacies, and in fact, many of them are actually operated by brick-and-mortar community pharmacies that serve consumers online and those that walk in their door.  The primary difference is the method by which the medications are requested and received. Some customers consider this to be more convenient and private method rather than traveling to a community drugstore where another customer might overhear about the drugs that they take. Internet pharmacies (also known as online pharmacies) are also recommended to some patients by their physicians if they are home-bound.

While most Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs and require a valid prescription, some Internet pharmacies sell prescription drugs without requiring a prescription.  Some customers order drugs from such pharmacies to avoid the "inconvenience" of visiting a doctor, or to obtain medications which their doctors were unwilling to prescribe. However, this practice has been criticized as potentially dangerous, especially by those who feel that only doctors can reliably assess contraindications, risk/benefit ratios, and an individual's overall suitability for use of medication. There also have been reports of such pharmacies dispensing substandard products.

Of particular concern with Internet pharmacies is the ease with which people, youth in particular, can obtain controlled substances (e.g., Vicodin, generically known as hydrocodone) via the Internet without a prescription issued by a doctor/practitioner who has an established doctor-patient relationship.  There are instances where a practitioner issues a prescription, brokered by an Internet server, for a controlled substance to a "patient" s/he has never met. In the United States, in order for a prescription for a controlled substance to be valid, it must be issued for a legitimate medical purpose by a licensed practitioner acting in the course of legitimate doctor-patient relationship. The filling pharmacy has a corresponding responsibility to ensure that the prescription is valid. Often, individual state laws outline what defines a valid patient-doctor relationship. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is also heavily involved in monitoring internet pharmacies and has issued warnings against several companies who have violated the U.S. Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act that protects individuals against rogue online pharmacies.

Canada is home to dozens of licensed Internet pharmacies, many of which sell their lower-cost prescription drugs to U.S. consumers (who must otherwise pay one of the world's highest drug prices). In recent years, many consumers in the US (and in other countries with high drug costs), have turned to licensed Internet pharmacies in India, Israel, and the UK, which often have even lower prices than in Canada.

In the United States, there has been a push to legalize the importation of medications from Canada and other countries, in order to reduce consumer costs. While in most cases importation of prescription medications violates Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations and federal laws, enforcement is generally targeted at international drug suppliers, rather than consumers.  There is no known case of any U.S. citizens buying Canadian drugs for personal use with a prescription, who has ever been charged by authorities.

Gallery

See also

References

External links

 International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP)

Pharmacy
Retailers by type of merchandise sold


is a Japanese professional footballer who plays for Veikkausliiga club  HJK Helsinki.

He was a participant at 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada and scored 1 goal in 3 appearances.

Club career
Tanaka was educated at and played for Maebashi Ikuei High School in Gunma. While he was a high school student, he was chosen as one of the Designated Players for Development by J.League and JFA. Because of this status, He was able to register as an Albirex Niigata player while he was still eligible to play for his high school club. He played two league games for Albirex in the 2005 season. He made his debut on 27 November 2005 in a J1 League away match against Nagoya Grampus Eight.

After graduating from his high school in 2006, he officially signed with Albirex Niigata. His first appearance as a professional player came on 5 March 2006 in a league match against Kawasaki Frontale. His first professional goal came on 8 April 2006 in a league match against Ventforet Kofu.

After scoring once in five matches for his new team HJK Helsinki in the 2015 Finnish League Cup, he scored on his Veikkausliiga debut against RoPS in a 3–1 away win on 12 April.

In October 2015 of the same year, HJK exercised their option of keeping Tanaka under contract for the 2016 season.

Tanaka was voted as a best eleven member in 2015 and 2016 in the Finnish League.

On 25 October 2017, it was announced that Tanaka would leave HJK at the end of the 2017 season.

He is playing for Cerezo Osaka for the 2018 season.

On 3 March 2020, Tanaka returned to Helsingin Jalkapalloklubi, after
signing a contract until the end of July.

International career
Tanaka was a U-20 international and took part in the 2006 AFC Youth Championship and 2007 U-20 World Cup. He scored 1 goal in 8 appearances for this tournament.

Career statistics

Honours

Individual
Veikkausliiga Team of the Year: 2016

Notes

References

External links
Profile at Cerezo Osaka

1987 births
Living people
Association football people from Niigata Prefecture
Japanese men's footballers
Japan men's youth international footballers
J1 League players
Albirex Niigata players
Veikkausliiga players
Helsingin Jalkapalloklubi players
Cerezo Osaka players
Japanese expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Finland
Japanese expatriate sportspeople in Finland
Men's association football midfielders
Sportspeople from Niigata (city)


Ilkka Koski (10 June 1928 – 28 February 1993) was a Finnish heavyweight boxer who competed in the 1952 and 1956 Olympics. He won a bronze medal in 1952 and lost his first bout in 1956. Domestically he held the Finnish amateur heavyweight title in 1951–1956 and 1958. In 1958 he turned professional and had a record of seven victories (three by knockout), one loss and one draw, before retiring in 1962 due to an injury. In 2008 he was inducted into the Finnish Boxing Hall of Fame.

References

1928 births
1993 deaths
Sportspeople from Jyväskylä
Boxers at the 1952 Summer Olympics
Boxers at the 1956 Summer Olympics
Heavyweight boxers
Olympic boxers for Finland
Olympic bronze medalists for Finland
Olympic medalists in boxing
Finnish male boxers
Medalists at the 1952 Summer Olympics
20th-century Finnish people


Robert J. McNeill (born October 22, 1938) is an American former professional basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1960 to 1962.

Biography
McNeill was born near 2nd and Allegheny in the Kensington section of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As a senior at North Catholic High School, McNeill once scored 46 points in a game, which is an all-time school record. He was selected as a 1st team All-Catholic player in 1956. As the team's point guard, McNeill led the 1956 Falcons basketball team to a Philadelphia Catholic League Championship, scoring 14 points in a one-point victory over La Salle. He then led the Falcons to their first ever City Basketball Championship Title by beating West Philadelphia. In the city title game, McNeill scored 29 points in a 68–67 victory at the Palestra.

McNeill then went on to play collegiately for the St. Joseph's Hawks. He led the team to the NCAA tournament in 1959 and 1960. He was named first-team All-Big 5 in 1958, 1959 and 1960 while he also earned All-American honors as a senior. Upon graduating, McNeill held the St. Joseph's record for assists in a game, a season, and a career. He still owns school record for free throws made and attempted in a game. He was inducted into the St Joseph's Athletic Hall of Fame in 2001.

McNeill was drafted in the third round by the New York Knicks in the 1960 NBA draft. He played guard during the course of his NBA career and played for the New York Knicks, Philadelphia Warriors and Los Angeles Lakers. McNeill averaged five points and three assists per game in his NBA career. He played in five games for the Lakers in the 1962 NBA Finals loss to the Boston Celtics.

In 1963, McNeill joined the Eastern Pennsylvania Basketball League (EPBL) and played alongside Paul Arizin for the Camden Bullets from 1962 until 1966. McNeill helped the Bullets win the 1964 Eastern League Championship, where he averaged 20 points per game.  He continued to play professional basketball with the Trenton Colonials of the Eastern Basketball League (EBL) in 1967 before finishing up with the Allentown Jets in 1969.

References

External links
Career statistics

1938 births
Living people
Allentown Jets players
American men's basketball players
Camden Bullets players
Los Angeles Lakers players
New York Knicks draft picks
New York Knicks players
Philadelphia Warriors players
Point guards
Saint Joseph's Hawks men's basketball players
Basketball players from Philadelphia


The Carnegie School is a school of economic thought originally formed at the Graduate School of Industrial Administration (GSIA), the current Tepper School of Business, of Carnegie Institute of Technology, the current Carnegie Mellon University, especially during the 1950s to 1970s.

Faculty at the Graduate School of Industrial Administration are known for formulating two "seemingly incompatible" concepts: bounded rationality and rational expectations. Bounded rationality was developed by Herbert A. Simon, along with James March, Richard Cyert and Oliver Williamson. Rational expectations were developed by John F. Muth and later popularized by Robert Lucas Jr., Thomas Sargent, Leonard Rapping, and others.

Depending on author and context, the term "Carnegie School" can refer to either both branches or only the bounded rationality branch, sometimes with the qualifier "Carnegie School of organization theory". The commonality between both branches is the use of dynamic optimization and forecasting techniques derived from production theory, and the early use of computers to solve planning and optimization problems. Along with other, mostly Midwestern universities, the rational expectations branch is considered part of freshwater economics, while the bounded rationality branch has been credited with originating behavioral economics and economics of organization.

History
The Graduate School of Industrial Administration (GSIA) at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania was founded in the late 1940s, after receiving a grant by William Larimer Mellon Sr. to enable graduate instruction in business and economics for the engineers the CIT already produced. This superseded an initial attempt to "restart" the economics department, which had lapsed during World War II. The founding dean was George Leland Bach, and among the first faculty hires were William W. Cooper and Herbert A. Simon. Other early appointees included Abraham Charnes, Richard Cyert, James G. March, Franco Modigliani and Merton Miller.

GSIA was set up as a "new look" business school, moving beyond the case-based method of instruction popularized by Harvard Business School to incorporate scientific methods of management. The economics faculty was the folded into the business school.

Scope
The focus of the research was on organizational behavior and the application of decision analysis, management science, and psychology as well as theories such as bounded rationality to the understanding of the organization and the firm.

"The astonishing thing about Carnegie is that it joined two fundamental and seemingly incompatible strands of research. One dealt with bounded rationality, organization theory, and behavioral economics. The leading members of that group were Herbert Simon, Richard Cyert, and James March. The second strand dealt with rational expectations and efficient markets. Members of that group include Franco Modigliani (…), John Muth, Merton Miller, and Allan Meltzer, to be joined later by Robert Lucas (…), Thomas Sargent (…), and Edward Prescott." — Oliver Williamson

People
GSIA faculty with notable contributions to their field included later Nobel Laureates in Economic Sciences Herbert A. Simon (1978), Franco Modigliani (1985), Merton Miller (1990), Robert Lucas Jr (1995), Edward C. Prescott & Finn E. Kydland (jointly 2004), and Lars Peter Hansen (2013). In addition, later Nobel Laureates Oliver Williamson (2009) and Dale Mortensen (2010) attended GSIA as Ph.D. students. John F. Muth, while heavily favored to receive the Prize for his pioneering work on rational expectations, was not included in 1995 or any other year thereafter.

The organizational branch included James G. March along with later GSIA dean and university president Richard Cyert and graduate students Oliver Williamson, William Starbuck and Victor Vroom.

A number of later Turing Award recipients also had their roots at GSIA, before the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science was founded in 1968. These include Alan Perlis (1966, the inaugural recipient), Allen Newell & Herbert A. Simon (jointly 1975), and Edward Feigenbaum (1994, jointly with Raj Reddy).

The interdisciplinary approach featured faculty at Carnegie Mellon's modern departments of economics, business, computer science, design, public policy, psychology, statistics and data science, and social and decision sciences.

Herbert Simon (1988) and his frequent collaborators Abraham Charnes and William Cooper (both 1982, jointly with Carnegie physicist Richard J. Duffin) also received the John von Neumann Theory Prize for their pioneering contributions to operations research and management science. Statistician Carlton E. Lemke (1978, jointly
with John Forbes Nash Jr., a Carnegie undergraduate), who wrote his dissertation at GSIA under Abraham Charnes, preceded all four.

Publications
Highly influential books published by researchers at the Carnegie School include, in chronological order:
 Administrative Behavior (1947) by Herbert A. Simon.
 Organizations (1959) by James G. March and Herbert A. Simon.
 Planning Production, Inventory and Work Force (1960) by Charles A. Holt, Franco Modigliani, John F. Muth, and Herbert A. Simon.
 Management Models and Industrial Applications of Linear Programming (1961) by Abraham Charnes and William W. Cooper.
 A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (1963) by Richard M. Cyert and James G. March.
 The Relative Stability of Monetary Velocity and the Investment Multiplier (1964) by Abert K. Ando and Franco Modigliani.
 The Carnegie Tech Management Game (1964) by Kalman J. Cohen, William R. Dill, Alfred A. Kuehn and Peter R. Winters
 Theory of the Firm: Resource Allocation in a Market Economy (1965) by Kalman J. Cohen and Richard M. Cyert.
 Human Problem Solving (1972) by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon.

In addition to the books, a number of articles authored or co-authored by members of the Carnegie school became foundational within their fields.

 "A Linear Decision Rule for Production and Employment Scheduling" (1955) by Charles C. Holt, Franco Modigliani, and Herbert A. Simon, Management Science.
 "Dynamic Programming Under Uncertainty with a Quadratic Criterion Function" (1956) by Herbert A. Simon, Econometrica.
 "Forecasting Seasonals and Trends by Exponentially Weighted Moving Averages" (1957) by Charles C. Holt, Office of Naval Research Report #52, reprint (2004) International Journal of Forecasting.
 "Derivation of a Linear Decision Rule for Production and Employment" (1958) by Charles C. Holt, Franco Modigliani, and John F. Muth, Management Science.
 "The Cost of Capital, Corporation Finance and the Theory of Investment" (1958) by Franco Modigliani and Merton H. Miller, American Economic Review.
 "Forecasting Sales by Exponentially Weighted Moving Averages" (1960) by Peter R. Winters, Management Science.
 "Rational Expectations and the Theory of Price Movements" (1961) by John F. Muth, Econometrica''.

References

External links

Carnegie Mellon University
Schools of economic thought


Mary Crane may refer to:

 Mary Crane, one of the Conservative Party of Canada candidates, 2008 Canadian federal election#Malpeque
 Mary Helen Peck Crane (1827–1891), activist, writer; mother of Stephen Crane

In fiction
 Mary Crane, a character in the novel Psycho
 Mary Crane, character in The Voyage

See also
 Crane (surname)


The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus), also known as the white caiman, common caiman, and speckled caiman, is a crocodilian in the family Alligatoridae. It is brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has a spectacle-like ridge between its eyes, which is where its common name come from. It grows to a length of  and a weight of , with males being both longer and heavier than females. Its diet varies seasonally, commonly consisting of crabs, fish, small mammals, amphibians and snails. Breeding occurs from May to August and 14–40 eggs are laid in July and August. This crocodilian has a large range and population; it is native to much of Latin America, and has been introduced to the United States, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

Taxonomy
The spectacled caiman was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, originally as Lacerta crocodilus. It has since been redescribed several times, including as Caiman sclerops by Schneider in 1801. Although Caiman crocodilus is now the scientific name of the species, some scientists still prefer using sclerops, as having crocodilus as the scientific name for a caiman may cause confusion.

The spectacled caiman has four recognized subspecies:

 C. c. apaporiensis (Medem, 1955), commonly known as the Rio Apaporis caiman; endemic to Colombia and possibly the Venezuelan Llanos.
 C. c. chiapasius (Bocourt, 1876); distributed in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.
 C. c. crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758), the nominate subspecies, commonly known as the spectacled caiman; found in various parts of South America, such as Venezuela, Trinidad, Tobago, Brazil, etc.
 C. c. fuscus (Cope, 1868), commonly known as the brown caiman; lives from Nicaragua to Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

The yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), while previously thought to be a subspecies of C. crocodilus, is now usually considered a separate species.

The Rio Apaporis caiman was believed to have become extinct by 1981, when the last known specimen died in a zoo. However, a specimen was captured for the television show Extinct or Alive in 2019 and identified by DNA sampling.

Characteristics

The spectacled caiman is a small to medium-sized crocodilian. Females generally grow to no more than  (the lower size typical upon the onset of sexual maturity), but can rarely grow to nearly . Adult males can regularly reach  while large mature ones grow to , although relatively few get to the upper size. The maximum reported size for the species is . The body mass of most adults is between , with males typically being considerably heavier than females. Some males in the Llanos have been reported to grow to up to .

The upperside of the species is mostly brownish-, greenish-, or yellowish-gray colored and has dark brown crossbands, with a lighter underside. It has a greenish iris. and wrinkled eyelids. It changes color seasonally – during colder weather, the black pigment within its skin cells expands, making it appear darker. The species has an enlarged 4th tooth, and the teeth in its lower jaw penetrate into a socket in its upper jaw. It has a long snout that tapers moderately, with an unexpanded tip. Several ridges begin in front of its eyes and travel to the tip of its snout. Its common name comes from a bony ridge between its eyes, which gives the appearance of a pair of spectacles.
The spectacled caiman is the most widely distributed New World crocodilian, and is the most geographically variable species in the Americas, making it a highly adaptable species.

Biology and behavior
The spectacled caiman can move rapidly when threatened, but is usually immobile, resting on shores or partly in water. In the rainy season, males become aggressive and territorial.

Hunting and diet

Usually hunting at night, the diet of the spectacled caiman varies seasonally. During the wet season, it primarily eats snails and freshwater crabs, while it mostly eats fish in the dry season. Smaller specimens tend to eat more insects and freshwater shrimp, while larger ones more frequently consume mammals and fish. Overall, the most common animals in this species' diet are crabs, fish, mammals, and snails. Other animals that have been known to be a part of its diet include amphibians, arachnids, birds, myriapods, reptiles (lizards, snakes, and turtles), and small mammals. Older animals are capable of taking larger, mammalian prey (e.g. wild pigs). Cannibalism has been reported under such conditions. It has also been known to eat plant matter; in a study of this species in Puerto Rico, about 55% of adult specimens had plants in their diet, primarily grass and seeds. About 8% of adults and 6% of juveniles in the study had gastroliths in their stomach as well. Although the species has been suggested to control piranha populations, piranhas have not been found to be a normal diet component, unlike the yacare caiman. According to the Crocodilian Species List, it is probably a generalist species, being able to adapt to a variety of prey.

Communication
The spectacled caiman uses nine different vocalizations and 13 visual displays to communicate with individuals of its species. Both adults and young produce calls for group cohesion. Males are known to communicate by moving their tail to a certain position, such as making it vertical or arched. Juveniles vocalize when in distress and adult females emit calls to warn young of threats.

Reproduction

The spectacled caiman reaches sexual maturity from four to seven years old, at a length of  for females and  for males. Usually, the more dominant individuals mature more quickly. Specimens choose mates and engage in copulation from May to August, the wet season. The females build nests as a mound of dense vegetation, in areas that are close to water but not at risk of being flooded. The nests are over  in diameter and can be  high, but the exact size depends on the resources available. Eggs are laid in July and August; the species very rarely nests in the winter, as the temperature is too low for the eggs. Clutch size is 22 on average, but can range from 14 to 40. Larger females have been known to lay larger eggs compared to smaller females. Females stay close to their nests during the incubation period, as several species, such as lizards in the genus Tupinambis, have been known to destroy nests and prey on the eggs. White-nosed coatis and foxes also raid nests. Flooding and human egg collecting can also be a threat to the nests. In a study in the Central Amazonia assessing reproductive similarities between C. crocodilus and Melanochus niger, research found that they indiscriminately separate their nests at larger distances than other species in this family, most likely to avoid predation.

Temperature is important to the developing eggs, so females build their nests in a way that insulates them from extreme temperature changes. As the vegetation in the nests decays, the nests produce heat which can keep the eggs about 5 °C (9 °F) warmer than if they were insulated by mud alone. Heat not only incubates the eggs, but also determines the sex of the developing caimans (temperature-dependent sex determination). When the temperature inside the nest is about  or higher, the caimans become female, and otherwise become male. Young hatch after 90 days, with 20–25 percent of eggs hatching successfully. They are yellow with black spots, a coloration which fades away as they grow older, with a length of . Parents raise their young in crèches, with one female taking care of her own, as well as several others' offspring. They take care of their young for 12–18 months. Young are threatened by various predators, such as raptors (like hawks) and wader birds (like herons), causing most to die in their first year. These juveniles are also preyed upon by large fish, large snakes (such as anacondas), and other crocodilians.

Distribution and habitat
The spectacled caiman has the largest range of any caiman, and of any New World crocodilian. It is found in various countries throughout the Americas. It lives in Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela, and may also be extant in Belize and Bolivia. It has been introduced to Isla de la Juventud in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida in the United States; in the latter, it is sometimes mislabeled as the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Invasive populations have become established in South Florida, with isolated records further north in the state. It is intolerant to cold climates, so its range is unlikely to expand to further north than Florida. It usually lives in forests, inland bodies of fresh water (such as wetlands and rivers), grasslands, shrublands, and savannas, but is very adaptable. It prefers habitats with calm water containing floating vegetation, usually flooding and drying seasonally. It is most common in low-lying areas, but has been found at elevations of up to . In Brazil, the species lives in the rivers Amazon, Araguaia, Araguari, Itapicuru, Rio Negro, Paranaíba, Solimões, Tapajós, Tocantins, and Xingu. It is able to live in human-inhabited areas.

The adult population of this crocodilian is estimated to be in the millions and stable. About four million spectacled caimans are found in Venezuela and surveys have shown that it is expected to increase. This is an example of how well the species is able to adapt. However, populations are not doing well in other countries, such as Peru. The population in a single area can be determined the easiest by counting individuals in the dry season at night.

Threats and conservation

The skin of the spectacled caiman is covered with osteoderms, which previously caused it to not be a major commercial target for its skin. However, harvesting of the skins of this caiman and others became very common in the 1950s, due to the declining stocks of crocodiles. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the species was frequently traded, causing its population to decrease in some areas. Its skin was often exported from South America and utilized primarily for leather; at least 6 million skins were exported from Colombia from 1996 to 2015. However, conservation efforts since have caused a significant reduction in the number of skins exported. In most countries, hunting this species is legal. Venezuela permits hunting every fall, provided the total number of kills in the season does not exceed 150,000. Because of its adaptability and wide distribution, habitat loss does not affect the species significantly globally. It is reasonably resilient to hunting as well, as hunters usually focus on large males and the species reproduces at a small size. However, it is severely threatened in Colombia, primarily the subspecies C. c. fuscus and sometimes C. c. crocodilus.

The spectacled caiman benefits from overhunting of competitive species which occupy the same home range, as this allows it to access resources normally lost to these other species. Specimens that have been introduced to Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the United States negatively impact the native animals there. They are believed to have been the main reason for the likely extirpation of the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer) from the Isla de la Juventud, Cuba. The species has a similar diet to the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) – both species eat mostly insects as juveniles and fish as adults. This causes interspecific competition, making it more difficult for the black caiman's population to recover. The spectacled caiman lives in parts of the Amazon rainforest that the black caiman was extirpated from.

Conservation programs for this species are used in many countries. The most common form of conservation is the use of cropping, which consists of manually reducing the numbers of several wild and abundant species. Long-term effects of cropping have yet to be discovered; more surveys have been recommended. Farming or ranching programs have also been used as conservation efforts for the species, but seem to be more expensive and possibly less effective. A conservation program in Colombia, which existed from 2004 to 2006, bred spectacled caimans in captivity and released the young into the wild at one year old. A similar program released over 15,000 juveniles into wetlands from 2005 to 2009. Previously, Colombia restricted the exportation of spectacled caiman skins to ones shorter than , but as of 2011 there are now only size limits for some individual pieces of the skin, rather than the overall size of the skin. These limits are less effective, as large skins could accord with the size limits if cut and trimmed. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), further surveys of the species would help with future conservation plans.

The spectacled caiman is listed as a species of least concern on the IUCN Red List, due to its large range and population globally, following two assessments as threatened in 1986 and 1988. The subspecies C. c. crocodilus is on Appendix II of CITES, C. c. apaporiensis Appendix I, and C. c. fuscus Appendix II.

References

External links

Alligatoridae
Crocodilians of North America
Crocodilians of South America
Reptiles of Brazil
Reptiles of Colombia
Reptiles of Costa Rica
Reptiles of Ecuador
Reptiles of El Salvador
Reptiles of French Guiana
Reptiles of Guatemala
Reptiles of Guyana
Reptiles of Honduras
Reptiles of Mexico
Reptiles of Nicaragua
Reptiles of Panama
Reptiles of Peru
Reptiles of Suriname
Reptiles of Trinidad and Tobago
Reptiles of the Caribbean
Reptiles of Venezuela
Reptiles described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus


Polish culture in the interwar period witnessed the rebirth of Polish sovereignty. The nationhood along with its cultural heritage was no longer suppressed by the three foreign partitioners. The cultural development saw the retreat of the 19th century elite cultures of nobility as well as the traditional folk culture, and the rise of a new mass culture integrating Polish society closer to the new intelligentsia educated in the practice of democracy.

Background
Aside from the economic paralysis caused by the century of partitions, one of the most severe consequences of foreign rule was illiteracy, affecting 33.1% of Poland's citizens in 1921, with the worst situation existing in the former Russian Empire. The territories of the Prussian Partition were most developed, although Poles were also subjected to the Germanization policies of Kulturkampf and Hakata. Meanwhile, the eastern and southern territories – parts of the former Russian Partition and Austrian Partition – were among the least developed regions in Europe.  Even though the level of economic, cultural and political development between the three former zones of occupation differed substantially, over time, the cultural hubs of Warsaw, Kraków, Wilno (modern Vilnius) and Lwów (modern Lviv) raised themselves to the level of vital European cities.

Highlights
While the term Polish culture refers primarily to the Polish-language culture in Poland, the Second Polish Republic also had numerous vibrant national minorities, most notably Jewish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Lithuanian and German. It was a multicultural society whose ethno-cultural makeup was shaped over a period of centuries. In 1921 according to the first-ever national census, the Catholic Poles constituted 69.2% of the population, the Ukrainians 14.3%, the Jews 7.8%, the Belarusians 3.9% and the Germans 3.9%. The minorities amounted to 30.8% of the total. The rise of new intelligentsia resulted in the development of a record number of political parties, lobbies and societies. In a dozen or so years the newspaper readership doubled. In 1919, new universities opened in Poznań, Wilno, and Lublin. Universities in Kraków and Lwów were polonized already five years earlier. The Elementary School Teachers Union was formed in 1919. In the first ten years of Poland's redevelopment, the total number of schools increased by almost 10,000 thanks to the official decree on public education. By the time of the Nazi-Soviet invasion of 1939, some 90% of children were in schools across the country, the number limited only by the shortage of qualified staff and lack of adequate locales especially in the villages.

In 1921 a major trade fair was established in Lwów right after the end of hostilities there; designed to facilitate new business partnerships from within Poland but also from Greater Romania, Hungary and the Soviet Union among other places. The annual Eastern Trade Fair or the Targi Wschodnie (as it was known in Polish) by 1928 could boast some 1,600 exhibitors, 400 of them being foreign firms. The fair attracted 150,000 visitors that year, with tram connections to the city, customs office and telephone exchange on site. Also in 1928, a similar trade fair was launched in Wilno (now Vilnius, Lithuania) to drum up business in northeastern Poland, reaching out to Lithuania and Latvia. The Northern Trade Fair (Targi Północne) was visited by the staggering 180,000 guests in the first year. It was the biggest annual event locally showcasting textiles, furniture, farm animals, furs, tourist equipment, production machinery and many other commercial products.

New theatres opened in Bydgoszcz (1919), Katowice (1922) and Toruń (1929). In Warsaw, the new Teatr Polski performed since 1913 already, and in 1924 the Teatr Narodowy opened, followed by the Teatr Bogusławskiego (1926, rebuilt) and the Ateneum (1928). There were also several vibrant theatre companies in Kraków and Lwów. By 1936 there were 26 permanent dramatic theatres in the country. The Kraków Philharmonic Concert Hall inspired by the Brussels' Maison du Peuple, was completed in 1931 thanks to the generous sponsorship by Prince and Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha.  Throughout the interwar period, the Kraków Philharmonic maintained also the Polish Professional Musicians Trade Union set up to protect the welfare of its members as well as the artistic level of their performances.

Music conservatories were established in Warszaw, Poznań, Katowice, Kraków, Łódź and Wilno. In 1934 the main branch of Poland's National Museum was erected in Kraków with holdings reaching 300,000 items. The film industry received major boost around 1934 when a generation of new actors joined in including Stefan Jaracz, Mieczysława Ćwiklińska, Elżbieta Barszczewska, Kazimierz Junosza-Stępowski and Adolf Dymsza. The period saw the introduction of the studio system of filmmaking with Sfinks of Warsaw, founded by Aleksander Hertz, becoming the biggest film production company locally. The studio discovered the then 17-year-old Pola Negri and made eight feature films with her, before Negri became an international sensation based in Hollywood. In 1926 the Polish Radio began its regular broadcasts from Warsaw. The number of publicly owned stations increased to 10 prior to the 1939 invasion.

In 1933, the Polish Academy of Literature (PAL) was founded in Warsaw. It was one of the most important state institutions of literary life focused on the advancement of culture and art. It was proposed by Stefan Żeromski in order to speed up the process of recovery from the century of racial anti-Polonism, and implemented on the fifth anniversary of his death. The Academy awarded two highest national honors for contribution to the development of Polish literature: the Gold and the Silver Laurel (Złoty, and Srebrny Wawrzyn). The main objective was to raise the quality level of Poland's book publishing. The honorary members included the Academy's main promoters: President of Poland Ignacy Mościcki and Marshal Józef Piłsudski.

Cultural contributions of the minorities
The spirit of rebirth affected not only Poland's mainstream society, but also national, ethnic, and religious minorities. By the late 1930s, the Ukrainian press could boast some 68 titles published mainly in Lwów, Stanisławów and Kołomyja. The most important, was the Lwów daily Dilo (The Deed) with strong cultural and liberal background. It was published on a weekly basis already since 1880, but in the interwar Poland it had expanded to 10 pages per day (16 pages on Saturday) with 10 full-time workers. Other popular dailies included Nowyi czas and the Ukrainian Visti. The Belarusian press consisted of 16 periodicals; and the Lithuanian as well as Russian press published around 10 titles each. At Warsaw University the seminars on Ukrainian history were held by renowned scholar, prof. Myron Korduba who taught Jerzy Giedroyc among others. However, the Ukrainian attempts at forming a Ukrainian-language-only university did not succeed, attesting to the lack of perspective on the part of various political entities, before the Nazi-Soviet invasion. The plentiful collection of German press included notable anti-Fascist daily Neue Lodzer Zeitung.

The Jewish cultural scene was particularly vibrant, with numerous Jewish publications and over 116 periodicals. Yiddish authors, most notably Isaac Bashevis Singer, went on to achieve international acclaim. Other renowned Jewish authors included Bruno Schulz, Julian Tuwim, Marian Hemar, Emanuel Schlechter, Jan Brzechwa, Zuzanna Ginczanka and Bolesław Leśmian. Konrad Tom and Jerzy Jurandot were less well known internationally, but made important contributions to Polish literature. Singer Jan Kiepura was one of the most famous artists of that era, and so were the Jewish composers of popular music like Henryk Wars, Jerzy Petersburski, Artur Gold, Henryk Gold, Zygmunt Białostocki or Jazzmen célèbres Szymon Kataszek and Jakub Kagan. Among the painters known for their depictions of Jewish life in Poland, were Leopold (Leib) Pilichowski trained by Samuel Hirszenberg, Artur Markowicz, award-winning master-painter Maurycy Trębacz, Izrael Lejzerowicz (pl) – one of the most promising expressionists of the new generation – killed at Auschwitz, and numerous others. Jewish children were mainly enrolled in religious schools. During the school year of 1937–1938 there were 226 elementary schools and twelve high schools as well as fourteen vocational schools with either Yiddish or Hebrew as the instructional language. A network of 219 secular Yiddish language schools was run by TSYSHO (Central Yiddish School Organization) with 24,000 students in 1929. The Realgymnazye run in Wilno by TSBK (branch of TSYSHO) was the first modern high school in history in which Yiddish was the language of instruction.

See also
 Central Industrial Region, one of the biggest economic projects of the Second Polish Republic
 Sztafeta book of analysis written by Melchior Wańkowicz
 German–Polish customs war (1925–1934), consequence of Poland's strive for independence
 Skamander group of experimental poets founded in 1918
 Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz

Notes and references

Further reading
 Bolesław Klimaszewski, An Outline History of Polish Culture, Interpress, 1984,

Cultural history of Poland
Second Polish Republic


Joseph ("Jos") Vissers (28 November 1928 – 18 April 2006) was a Belgian boxer who competed in the Lightweight division during his career.

Amateur career
Vissers was the Olympic Silver Medalist at lightweight in London in 1948, losing to Gerald Dreyer of South Africa in the final.

1948 Olympic results

Below are the results of Joseph Vissers, a Belgian lightweight boxer, who competed at the 1948 London Olympics:

 Round of 32: defeated Billy Barber (Australia) on points
 Round of 16: defeated Edy Schmidiger (Switzerland) on points
 Quarterfinal: defeated Eddie Haddad (Canada) on points
 Semifinal: defeated Wallace Smith (United States) on points
 Final: lost to Gerald Dreyer (South Africa) on points (was awarded the silver medal)

Pro career
Vissers turned pro in 1948 and fought primarily in Belgium, retiring in 1951 after an unsuccessful pro career, having won 5 and lost 6 with 3 KO.

External links
databaseOlympics

Obituary for Joe Vissers

1928 births
2006 deaths
Lightweight boxers
Olympic boxers for Belgium
Boxers at the 1948 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists for Belgium
Olympic medalists in boxing
Belgian male boxers
Medalists at the 1948 Summer Olympics