The Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway was a pre-grouping railway company that served part of south Shropshire.

Everard Calthrop was appointed Consulting Engineer in 1900, responsible for surveying the route and preparing the construction plans. Construction was authorised by an order under the Light Railways Act 1896 granted on 23 March 1901, and the line opened for passenger traffic on 21 November 1908. The line had a junction with the Wyre Forest line of the Great Western Railway (GWR) at Cleobury Mortimer and was absorbed into the GWR in 1922.

The line closed for passenger services on 26 September 1938. The line was then used by the Royal Navy which had a Royal Naval Armaments Depot (RNAD) at the end of line at RNAD Ditton Priors until the railway finally closed in 1960.

Route
Cleobury Mortimer - Cleobury Town - Stottesdon - Burwarton - Ditton Priors.  The Board of Trade report at opening gave the total length of the line as . Later Engineer's Line References (ELRs) show a shorter length of .

An extension was proposed, running east from Stottesdon to Billingsley.  Three other possible extensions were proposed in 1912 from Ditton Priors: east to join the Severn Valley Railway at Bridgnorth; north east to join the LNWR Coalport branch line at Coalport; north to join the Wellington to Craven Arms Railway at Presthope (near Much Wenlock). None of these proposed extensions were ever built.

Locomotives
The line had two locomotives, both s built by Manning Wardle and these became GWR numbers 28 and 29.  They were rebuilt by the GWR with new boilers and pannier tanks, after which they bore a strong resemblance to the GWR 1366 Class.  After the railway was absorbed into the GWR, the small shed at Cleobury Mortimer became as sub-shed of the larger GWR depot at Kidderminster (KDR). One locomotive would normally be stabled at Cleobury while in use, with the other kept at Kidderminster which was also responsible for their maintenance. At the end of the 1940s their place was taken by other locomotives based at Kidderminster including GWR 2021 Class nos. 2034, 2051, 2101 and 2144 and GWR 1600 Class no. 1661.

Following the opening of the RNAD at Ditton Priors, the steam locomotives were fitted with spark arrestors but, after the arrival of RNAD diesel locomotives, they did not enter the armaments depot.  The steam locomotive was taken off the goods train at Cleobury North (just south of Ditton Priors) and the wagons were drawn into the depot by an RNAD diesel locomotive.

Three "flameproof" diesel locomotives of 165 bhp were supplied to RNAD Ditton Priors by Ruston and Hornsby between 1952 and 1955.  A similar machine Francis Baily of Thatcham  (ex-RAF Welford) is preserved at Southall Railway Centre. Before the Rustons, a Planet diesel locomotive is believed to have been used but its dates of arrival and departure are not known.

Royal Naval Armaments Depot
The depot, which had 25 magazines and four stores for naval mines, opened in 1941 around Brown Clee Hill. The buildings were camouflaged and served by rail sidings. Trains and their dangerous cargo could then be loaded and unloaded inside.

In 1960 the railway line was finally closed but the Royal Navy continued to use Ditton Priors until 1965. The following year the depot was taken over by US forces that had left France following the French withdrawal from NATO's military structure.

The depot finally closed in 1968. Land adjacent to the defunct railway line was sold off by the MOD in 1971. Ten farms have been created in this area. Parts of the former MOD site are now occupied by an industrial estate and fireworks factory.

See also
 Clee Hill Junction
 List of closed railway stations in Britain

References

Pre-grouping British railway companies
Great Western Railway constituents
Railway lines opened in 1908
Railway companies disestablished in 1922
Rail transport in Shropshire
Railway lines closed in 1960
1908 establishments in England
Light railways


Chakesar is a town / Tehsil of the Shangla District in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is situated about 6 km in the north-west on the right bank of the Indus River. Chakesar was given the status of Tehsil in 2017. The inhabitants live primarily on agricultural products.

Chakesar is on a formation of a river delta in a valley of 5 km wide by 11 km long at the elevation of 3722 feet above sea level. The village is on suture zone / collision zone between the Indian continent and Eurasian continent. This suture zone is world-famous for hosting precious stone deposits of emeralds, rubies etc. The collision was preceded by a magmatic event known as the Kohistan Magmatic Arc some 30 million years ago. It is the least explored magmatic arc in the world. Most of the world magmatic arcs are the sources of gold and copper deposits, e.g. Pan African Nubian Shield.

Historically the place has been home to many Buddhist hermits, as well as a small Hindu community. Alexander the Great supposedly fought a battle against the locals there in 326 BC, at the mount Pir Sar (see Aornos).

The name Chakesar evolved from the word Char Hesar that means "four fortresses". Historically this village was the center of the district Shangla and thus was important for both the inhabitants and the invaders. In order to protect this village from invaders the local inhabitants set up four fortresses around this village and this was thus called Char Hesar which later evolved into Chakesar.

The inhabitants of this area belong to Azi Khel, the major Pashtun tribe. Ttribes and sects: Geographically the village is divided into four subunits traditionally called hujras and the sects residing therein are Khan Khel, Malak Khel, Begum Khel, Ghowara Khel, Imnakhel and Baba khel.

A Hindu community consisting of 7 to 8 families is also the part of the village. Locally these people are called Pukhtana which means the leaders in a sense. Pashto, or Pukhto is language of the Pashtuns and also is a code of conduct which is known with same name as Pukhto or sometimes Pukhtunwali. The leading and dominant people in this area and other nearby villages like Puran, Martung etc. were historically responsible for maintaining law and order in the area and hence were called Pukhtana which literally means Pashtoons and the people responsible for implementing the code of conduct "Pukhto".  The descendants of these ancient lords are called Pukhtana. Each sub-tribe or clan in these people carries whole or part of the name of their great-grandfather normally followed by Khel which means tribe. About 5,000 out of total population of 75,000 people are "Pukhtana" in Chakesar.

Surrounding Chakesar are many mountains and valley. The weather in the region is moderate in summer and cold in winter. The mercury goes a few degrees below the freezing point in December, January and February. People mainly burn wood and CNG for their household cooking and warming their houses. Rapid deforestation is thus a problem of this area right now and will be a great issue in the near future.

Chakesar is rich in water and has many springs and small rivers (called Khowar in the local language) which have plenty of water throughout the year.  People grow wheat, maize and rice as their major crops. Fruits and vegetables are grown too. Agriculture mainly depends upon rains and luckily Chakesar gets good annual precipitation including a rich monsoon season in July and August.

Chakesar was connected to the national grid and digital telephone network in late 1990s.

References

 Chakesar tehsil population
Conservation assessment of plant resources of Chakesar valley Pak. J. Bot., 44: 179–186, Special Issue May 2012.
Chakesur 2011 census

External links
Information on Viovio.
/Photo/

Cities and towns in Shangla District


Parliamentary elections were held in the Gambia in 1947 to elect the one elected member of the Legislative Council. It was the first time that the Council had had a directly elected representative.

Background
In 1946 the Legislative Council was reorganised and increased in size from 11 to 14 members. It would consist of three ex-officio members, three officials, six appointees and one elected member.

Results
The seat was won by Edward Francis Small, the founder of the Gambia Labour Union, who defeated I.M. Garba-Jahumpa (who later founded the Muslim Congress Party) and Sheikh Omar Fye.

References

Gambia
Parliamentary elections in the Gambia
Parliamentary
Gambia Colony and Protectorate
Election and referendum articles with incomplete results


The List of Astana Team riders contains riders from . For the 2006 team known as Astana see List of Liberty Seguros riders.

2007 (Astana Team)

2008 (Astana Team)

2009 (Astana Team)

2010 (Astana Team)

2011 (Astana Team)

2012 (Astana Team)

2013 (Astana Team)

2014 (Astana Team)

2015 (Astana Team)

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Notes

See also

References

External links

Astana Team
riders


The DAR 6 was a 1930s Bulgarian two-seat basic or advanced biplane training aircraft.

Design and development
The DAR 6 was designed by Zevtan Lazarov.  It was constructed by the Bulgarian State Aircraft Workshops (DAR).

The aircraft was a conventional biplane with a fixed tailskid landing gear.  It was powered by a radial engine.

Three versions were initially developed:
Basic training version, powered by an 85 hp (63 kW) Walter Vega engine;
Advanced training version, powered by a 145 hp (108 kW) Walter Mars I engine;
1937 Model DAR 6a.  This variant offered faired struts and redesigned divided landing gear.  It was powered by a 150 hp (112 kW) Walter Mars I engine.

Operators

 Bulgarian Air Force

Specifications (DAR 6)

References

Bibliography

 The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Aircraft, (Part Work 1982–1985), Orbis Publishing, Page 1295

1930s Bulgarian military trainer aircraft
DAR 06
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft


Cayeux-sur-Mer (, literally Cayeux on Sea; ) is a resort town in the Somme department in Hauts-de-France in northern France. The town is part of the Baie de Somme - Picardie maritime regional natural park project.

Its inhabitants are called the Cayolais.

Geography
The commune is a seaside town, situated on the D102 road, some  northwest of Abbeville.

The town of Cayeux-sur-Mer is located on the Picardy coast, in the natural region of Marquenterre, south of the Baie de Somme, 16 miles west of Abbeville as the crow flies. It is bordered by the English Channel to the west. The neighboring municipalities are Lanchères, Brutelles, Pendé, Vaudricourt and Woignarue.

The nearest cities to Cayeux-sur-Mer are Amiens (41 mi), Lille (75 mi) and Le Havre (75 mi).

Population

Places of interest
 The boardwalk (quite famous and probably the longest of Europe), with 438 cabins (as of summer 2019)
 The station of the preserved railway, the Chemin de Fer de la Baie de Somme
 The remains of the lighthouse, built in 1835, destroyed in August 1944 by the Germans
 "Benoît Champy", a 19th-century lifeboat that one can visit (Intersection Boulevard General Sizaire - Rue de la Halle)
 Woodwork decorating the marriage room of the town hall, that originate from a former church
 The largest seal colony in France

Resort
Cayeux-sur-Mer is a large seaside resort with its beach lined with characteristic cabins. The boardwalk, lined with around 400 colorful cabins and 2 km long, offers a pleasant setting for walking and relaxation. It is considered the longest in Europe. Further north is Le Hourdel, a small fishing port in the Bay of Somme. It allows boats to reach the estuary and has been home to a fishing port since 183066.

The Maison de la baie de Somme et de l'oiseau is located between the town and Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. There are nearly 250 species of migratory birds as well as seals in their natural environment.

Canoe Benoit-Champy
The Benoît-Champy canoe is a 19th-century lifeboat. It has been classified since May 21, 1992 as a Historic Monument. The canoe shelter has been listed since July 25, 2006 as a Historic Monument.

Cayeux-sur-Mer-Brighton-Plage Station

The town is at the end of the tourist line of the Somme Bay Railway linking Le Crotoy - Noyelles-sur-Mer - Saint-Valery-sur-Somme and Cayeux-sur-Mer. Cayeux-sur-Mer-Brighton-Plage station is located south of the town.

Town hall
The town hall of Cayeux-sur-Mer is a brick building with openings framed in white stone. It is built on two levels. The second level of the central part is decorated with a balcony with wrought iron gate. It is decorated with a pediment with a clock. A pinnacle lies at the top of the roof.

Lighthouse
The Cayeux lighthouse was commissioned in September 1951, the old one having been destroyed by German troops on August 31, 1944. It is 28 m high.

St. Peter's Church
The current church of Cayeux-sur-Mer dates from August 3, 1902 and its organs from 191369. It has remarkable stained glass windows and statues.

See also
Communes of the Somme department
Réseau des Bains de Mer

References

External links

 Tourism office
 City council
 Somme Bay Kitesurf School
 Photos of the seaside towns

Communes of Somme (department)
Seaside resorts in France


J. R. R. Tolkien's bestselling fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings had an initial mixed literary reception. Despite some enthusiastic early reviews from supporters such as W. H. Auden, Iris Murdoch, and C. S. Lewis, literary hostility to Tolkien quickly became acute and continued until the start of the 21st century. From 1982, Tolkien scholars such as Tom Shippey and Verlyn Flieger began to roll back the hostility, defending Tolkien, rebutting the critics' attacks and analysing what they saw as good qualities in Tolkien's writing.

From 2003, scholars such as Brian Rosebury began to consider why Tolkien had attracted such hostility. Rosebury noted that Tolkien avoided calling The Lord of the Rings a novel, and that in Shippey's view Tolkien had been aiming to create a medieval-style heroic romance, despite modern scepticism about that literary mode. In 2014, Patrick Curry analysed the reasons for the hostility, finding it both visceral and full of evident mistakes, and suggesting that the issue was that the critics felt that Tolkien threatened their dominant ideology, modernism.

Interpretations of The Lord of the Rings have included Marxist criticism, sometimes at odds with Tolkien's social conservatism; the psychological reading of heroes, their partners, and their opponents as Jungian archetypes; and comparison of Tolkien with modernist writers.

Context

J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) was an English Roman Catholic writer, poet, philologist, and academic, best known as the author of the high fantasy works The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings.

In 1954–55, The Lord of the Rings was published. In 1957, it was awarded the International Fantasy Award. The publication of the Ace Books and Ballantine paperbacks in the United States helped it to become immensely popular with a new generation in the 1960s. The book has remained so ever since, ranking as one of the most popular works of fiction of the twentieth century, judged by both sales and reader surveys. In the 2003 "Big Read" survey conducted by the BBC, The Lord of the Rings was found to be the "Nation's best-loved book." In similar 2004 polls both Germany and Australia also found The Lord of the Rings to be their favourite book. In a 1999 poll of Amazon.com customers, The Lord of the Rings was judged to be their favourite "book of the millennium." The popularity of The Lord of the Rings increased further when Peter Jackson's film trilogy came out in 2001–2003.

Enthusiastic early support

Early reviews of The Lord of the Rings were sharply divided between enthusiastic support and outright rejection. Some literary figures immediately welcomed the book's publication. The poet W. H. Auden, a former pupil of Tolkien's and an admirer of his writings, regarded The Lord of the Rings as a "masterpiece", further stating that in some cases it outdid the achievement of John Milton's Paradise Lost. Kenneth F. Slater wrote in Nebula Science Fiction, April 1955, "... if you don't read it, you have missed one of the finest books of its type ever to appear". Michael Straight described it in The New Republic as "... one of the few works of genius in modern literature." The novelist Iris Murdoch mentioned Middle-earth characters in her novels, and wrote to Tolkien saying she had been "utterly ... delighted, carried away, absorbed by The Lord of the Rings ... I wish I could say it in the fair Elven tongue." The poet and novelist Richard Hughes wrote that nothing like it had been attempted in English literature since Edmund Spenser's Faerie Queene, making it hard to compare, but that "For width of imagination it almost beggars parallel, and it is nearly as remarkable for its vividness and the narrative skill which carries the reader on, enthralled, for page after page." In 1967, the scholar of literature George H. Thomson admired Tolkien's ability to bring many aspects of a chivalric romance, complete with complex interlacing of the narrative, into a modern work. The Scottish novelist Naomi Mitchison, too, was a strong and long-time supporter, corresponding with Tolkien about Lord of the Rings both before and after publication. Tolkien's friend and fellow member of the literary group The Inklings, C. S. Lewis, wrote "here are beauties which pierce like swords or burn like cold iron."
The fantasy and science fiction author Ursula K. Le Guin had a close relationship with Tolkien's writings, and reflected on issues such as whether fantasy is escapist, the subtlety of the character portraits in The Lord of the Rings, its narrative structure, and its handling of the nature of evil in her 1979 essay collection The Language of the Night.

Literary hostility

20th century

Some literary reviewers rejected Tolkien and The Lord of the Rings outright. In 1956, the literary critic Edmund Wilson wrote a review entitled "Oo, Those Awful Orcs!", calling Tolkien's work "juvenile trash", and saying "Dr. Tolkien has little skill at narrative and no instinct for literary form." An early reply to Wilson was Douglass Parker's 1957 "Hwaet We Holbytla ..." which stood up for The Lord of the Rings as a worldbuilding fantasy.
The Inkling Hugo Dyson complained loudly at readings of the book; Christopher Tolkien records Dyson as "lying on the couch, and lolling and shouting and saying, 'Oh God, no more Elves.'"

In 1954, the Scottish poet Edwin Muir wrote in The Observer that "however one may look at it The Fellowship of the Ring is an extraordinary book", but that although Tolkien "describes a tremendous conflict between good and evil ... his good people are consistently good, his evil figures immovably evil". In 1955, Muir attacked The Return of the King, writing that "All the characters are boys masquerading as adult heroes ... and will never come to puberty ... Hardly one of them knows anything about women", causing Tolkien to complain angrily to his publisher.

In 1969, the feminist scholar Catherine R. Stimpson published a book-length attack on Tolkien, describing him as "an incorrigible nationalist", peopling his writing with "irritatingly, blandly, traditionally masculine" one-dimensional characters who live out a "bourgeois pastoral idyll". This set the tone for other hostile critics. Hal Colebatch and Patrick Curry have rebutted these charges.

The fantasy author Michael Moorcock, in his 1978 essay, "Epic Pooh", compared Tolkien's work to Winnie-the-Pooh. He asserted, citing the third chapter of The Lord of the Rings, that its "predominant tone" was "the prose of the nursery-room .. a lullaby; it is meant to soothe and console."

21st century

The hostility continued until the start of the 21st century. In 2001, The New York Times reviewer Judith Shulevitz criticized the "pedantry" of Tolkien's literary style, saying that he "formulated a high-minded belief in the importance of his mission as a literary preservationist, which turns out to be death to literature itself." The same year, in the London Review of Books, Jenny Turner wrote that The Lord of the Rings provided "a closed space, finite and self-supporting, fixated on its own nostalgia, quietly running down"; the books were suitable for "vulnerable people. You can feel secure inside them, no matter what is going on in the nasty world outside. The merest weakling can be the master of this cosy little universe. Even a silly furry little hobbit can see his dreams come true." She cited the Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey's observation ("The hobbits ... have to be dug out ... of no fewer than five Homely Houses") that the quest repeats itself, the chase in the Shire ending with dinner at Farmer Maggot's, the trouble with Old Man Willow ending with hot baths and comfort at Tom Bombadil's, and again safety after adventures in Bree, Rivendell, and Lothlórien. Turner commented that reading the book is to "find oneself gently rocked between bleakness and luxury, the sublime and the cosy. Scary, safe again. Scary, safe again. Scary, safe again." In her view, this compulsive rhythm is what Sigmund Freud described in his Beyond the Pleasure Principle. She asked whether, in his writing, Tolkien, whose father died when he was 3 and his mother when he was 12, was not "trying to recover his lost parents, his lost childhood, an impossibly prelapsarian sense of peace?"

The critic Richard Jenkyns, writing in The New Republic in 2002, criticized a perceived lack of psychological depth. Both the characters and the work itself were, according to Jenkyns, "anemic, and lacking in fiber." Also that year, the science-fiction author David Brin criticised the book in Salon as carefully crafted and seductive, but backward-looking. He wrote that he had enjoyed it as a child as escapist fantasy, but that it clearly also reflected the decades of totalitarianism in the mid-20th century. Brin saw the change from feudalism to a free middle class as progress, and in his view, Tolkien, like the Romantic poets, as opposed to that. As well as its being "a great tale", Brin saw good points in the work; Tolkien was, he wrote, self-critical, for example blaming the elves for trying to halt time by forging their Rings, while the Ringwraiths could be seen as cautionary figures of Greek hubris, men who reached too high, and fell.

The historian Jared Lobdell, evaluating the hostile reception of Tolkien by the mainstream literary establishment in the 2006 J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, noted that Wilson was "well known as an enemy of religion", of popular books, and "conservatism in any form". Lobdell concluded that "no 'mainstream critic' appreciated The Lord of the Rings or indeed was in a position to write criticism on it – most being unsure what it was and why readers liked it." He noted that Brian Aldiss was a critic of science fiction, distinguishing such "critics" from Tolkien scholarship, the study and analysis of Tolkien's themes, influences, and methods.

Rehabilitation

Tolkien studies

Tolkien's fiction began to acquire respectability in academia only at the end of his life, with the publication of Paul H. Kocher's 1972 Master of Middle-Earth. Written before the publication of The Silmarillion, Kocher inferred or guessed many of the key points about Tolkien's writings, later confirmed by Christopher Tolkien's research.

In 1973, Patrick Grant, a scholar of Renaissance literature, offered a psychological interpretation of The Lord of the Rings, identifying similarities between the interactions of the characters and Jungian archetypes. He states that the Hero appears both in noble and powerful form as Aragorn, and in childlike form as Frodo, whose quest can be interpreted as a personal journey of individuation. They are opposed by the Ringwraiths. Frodo's anima is the Elf-queen Galadriel, who is opposed by the evil giant female spider Shelob. The Old Wise Man archetype is filled by the wizard Gandalf, who is opposed by the corrupted wizard Saruman. Frodo's Shadow Gollum is, appropriately in Grant's view, also a male Hobbit, like Frodo. Aragorn has an Ideal Partner in Arwen, but also a Negative Animus in Eowyn, at least until she meets Faramir and chooses a happy union with him instead.

Richard C. West compiled an annotated checklist of Tolkien criticism in 1981. Serious study began to reach the broader community with Shippey's 1982 The Road to Middle-earth and Verlyn Flieger's Splintered Light in 1983. To borrow a phrase from Flieger, academia had trouble "taking seriously a subject which had, until he wrote, been dismissed as unworthy of attention."

Tolkien's works have since become the subject of a substantial body of academic research, both as fantasy fiction and as an extended exercise in invented languages. In 1998, Daniel Timmons wrote in a dedicated issue of the Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts that scholars still disagreed about Tolkien's place in literature, but that those critical of it were a minority. He noted that Shippey had said that the "literary establishment" did not include Tolkien among the canon of academic texts, whereas Jane Chance "boldly declares that at last Tolkien 'is being studied as important in himself, as one of the world's greatest writers'".

Alongside their analysis of Tolkien's work, scholars set about rebutting many of the literary critics' claims. Starting with his 1982 book The Road to Middle-earth, Shippey pointed out that Muir's assertion that Tolkien's writing was non-adult, as the protagonists end with no pain, is not true of Frodo, who is permanently scarred and can no longer enjoy life in the Shire. Or again, he replies to Colin Manlove's attack on Tolkien's "overworked cadences" and "monotonous pitch" and the suggestion that the Ubi sunt section of the Old English poem The Wanderer is "real elegy" unlike anything in Tolkien, with the observation that Tolkien's Lament of the Rohirrim is a paraphrase of just that section; other scholars have praised Tolkien's poem. As a final example, he replies to the critic Mark Roberts's 1956 statement that The Lord of the Rings "is not moulded by some vision of things which is at the same time its raison d'etre"; he calls this one of the least perceptive comments ever made on Tolkien, stating that on the contrary the work "fits together ... on almost every level", with complex interlacing, a consistent ambiguity about the Ring and the nature of evil, and a consistent theory of the role of "chance" or "luck", all of which he explains in detail.

The pace of scholarly publications on Tolkien increased dramatically in the early 2000s. The dedicated journal Tolkien Studies was founded in 2004; that same year, the scholar Neil D. Isaacs introduced an anthology of Tolkien criticism with the words "This collection assumes that argument about the value and power of The Lord of the Rings has been settled, certainly to the satisfaction of its vast, growing, persistent audience, but also of a considerable body of critical judgment". The open-access Journal of Tolkien Research began publication in 2014. A bibliographic database of Tolkien criticism is maintained at Wheaton College. Pressure to study Tolkien seriously came initially from fans rather than academics; the scholarly legitimacy of the field was still a subject of debate in 2015.

Tolkien was strongly opposed to both Nazism and Communism; Hal Colebatch in The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia states that his views can be seen in what he considers to be the somewhat parodic "The Scouring of the Shire". Leftist critics have accordingly attacked Tolkien's social conservatism. E. P. Thompson blames the cold warrior mentality on "too much early reading of The Lord of the Rings". Other Marxist critics, however, have been more positive towards Tolkien. While criticizing the politics embedded in The Lord of the Rings, China Miéville admires Tolkien's creative use of Norse mythology, tragedy, monsters, and subcreation, as well as his criticism of allegory.

Literary re-evaluation

With the understanding that Tolkien was worth studying, scholars, authors, and critics began to re-evaluate his Middle-earth writings as literature. The humanities scholar Brian Rosebury stated in 2003 that The Lord of the Rings is both a quest – a story with a goal, to destroy the Ring – and a journey, an expansive tour of Middle-earth through a series of tableaux that filled readers with delight; and the two supported each other. Rosebury considered why The Lord of the Rings has attracted so much literary hostility, and re-evaluated it as a literary work. He noted that many critics have stated that it is not a novel and that some have proposed a medieval genre like "romance" or "epic". He cited Shippey's "more subtl[e]" suggestion that "Tolkien set himself to write a romance for an audience brought up on novels", noting that Tolkien did occasionally call the work a romance but usually called it a tale, a story, or a history. Shippey argued that the work aims at Northrop Frye's "heroic romance" mode, only one level below "myth", but descending to "low mimesis" with the much less serious hobbits, who serve to deflect the modern reader's scepticism of the higher reaches of medieval-style romance.

Rosebury noted that much of the work, especially Book 1, is largely descriptive rather than plot-based; it focuses mainly on Middle-earth itself, taking a journey through a series of tableaux – in the Shire, in the Old Forest, with Tom Bombadil, and so on. He states that "The circumstantial expansiveness of Middle-earth itself is central to the work's aesthetic power". Alongside this slow descriptiveness is the quest to destroy the Ring, a unifying plotline. The Ring needs to be destroyed to save Middle-earth itself from destruction or domination by Sauron. Hence, Rosebury argued, the book does have a single focus: Middle-earth itself. The work builds up Middle-earth as a place that readers come to love, shows that it is under dire threat, and – with the destruction of the Ring – provides the "eucatastrophe" for a happy ending. That makes the work "comedic" rather than "tragic", in classical terms; but it also embodies the inevitability of loss, like the elves, hobbits, and the rest decline and fade. Even the least novelistic parts of the work, the chronicles, narratives, and essays of the appendices, help to build a consistent image of Middle-earth. The work is thus, Rosebury asserted, very tightly constructed, the expansiveness and plot fitting together exactly.

In Mallorn in 2004, the Tolkien scholar Caroline Galwey wrote the ironically-titled "Reasons for 'not' Liking Tolkien", inverting Turner's "Reasons for Liking Tolkien" and attacking her position, along with Edwin Muir's. In her view, "we cannot understand Tolkien-haters properly unless we go beyond their arguments to the things they do not say." Those things, she argues, include the "greatest strength" of The Lord of the Rings, that "in sensibility it is a (capital-R) Romantic work". In her view, Turner is "apparently so embarrassed by [Tolkien's Romanticism] that she won't even name it or admit that it has a pedigree." Galway writes, too, that Tolkien-haters have an "existential fear" of Tolkien's happiness: they cannot accept that "Joy, wonder, reverence, the Sublime" do mean something, that they stand alongside the world's suffering and evil, "undiminished by them, as a fact in this world."

In 2013, the fantasy author and humorist Terry Pratchett used a mountain theme to praise Tolkien, likening Tolkien to Mount Fuji, and writing that any other fantasy author "either has made a deliberate decision against the mountain, which is interesting in itself, or is in fact standing on [it]." In 2016, the British literary critic and poet Roz Kaveney reviewed five books about Tolkien in The Times Literary Supplement. She recorded that in 1991 she had said of The Lord of the Rings that it was worth "intelligent reading but not passionate attention", and accepted that she had "underestimated the extent to which it would gain added popularity and cultural lustre from Peter Jackson's film adaptations". As Pratchett had done, she used a mountain metaphor, alluding to Basil Bunting's poem about Ezra Pound's Cantos, with the words "Tolkien's books have become Alps and we will wait in vain for them to crumble." Kaveney called Tolkien's works "Thick Texts", books that are best read with some knowledge of his Middle-earth framework rather than as "single artworks". She accepted that he was a complicated figure, a scholar, a war survivor, a skilful writer of "light verse", a literary theorist, and a member of "a coterie of other influential thinkers". Further, she stated that he had much in common with modernist writers like T. S. Eliot. She suggested that The Lord of the Rings is "a good, intelligent, influential and popular book", but perhaps not, as some of his "idolators" would have it, "a transcendent literary masterpiece".

Andrew Higgins, reviewing the 2014 volume A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien, welcomed the "eminent line-up" of the authors of its 36 articles (naming in particular Shippey, Verlyn Flieger, Dimitra Fimi, John D. Rateliff and Gergely Nagy). He called it "joyous indeed that after many years of polite (and not so polite) disdain and dismissal by establishment 'academics' and the 'cultural intelligentsia that Tolkien had reached the "academic pantheon" of Blackwell Companions. Higgins applauded the volume's editor, Stuart D. Lee, for "the overall thematic structuring of this volume, which offers a progressive profile of Tolkien the man, the student, and scholar, and the mythopoeist". Curry, writing in the Companion, stated that attempts at a balanced response, finding a positive critic for each negative one, as Daniel Timmons had done, was "admirably irenic [peaceful] but misleading" as this failed to address the reasons for the hostility. Curry noted that the attacks on Tolkien began when The Lord of the Rings appeared; increased when the work became "spectacular[ly] successful" from 1965; and revived when readers' polls by Waterstones and BBC Radio 4 acclaimed the work in 1996–1998, and then again when Peter Jackson's film trilogy came out in 2001–2003. He cited Shippey's remark that the hostile critics Philip Toynbee and Edmund Wilson revealed "gross inconsistency between their self-professed critical ideals and their practice when they encounter Tolkien", adding that Fred Inglis had called Tolkien a fascist and a practitioner of "'country-based fantasy' that is 'suburban' and 'half-educated". Curry states that these criticisms are not simply demonstrably mistaken, but "rather how very (his emphasis) mistaken they are, and how consistently. That suggests that there is (as Marxists like to say) a structural or systematic bias at work". He noted that Shippey's 1982 The Road to Middle-earth and then Verlyn Flieger's 1983 Splintered Light had slowly begun to reduce the hostility. That did not prevent Jenny Turner from repeating "some of her predecessors' elementary mistakes"; Curry wrote that she seemed to fail to grasp "two of the most important things about art, literary or otherwise: that reality is (also) ineluctably fictional, and that fiction and its referents are (also) unavoidably real", pointing out that metaphor is unavoidable in language.

Summing up the history of attacks, Curry identified two consistent features: "a visceral hostility and emotional animus, and a plethora of mistakes showing that the books had not been read closely". In his view, these derived from the critics' feeling that Tolkien threatened their "dominant ideology", modernism. Tolkien is, he wrote, modern but not modernist, at least as well-educated as the critics (another thing that made them feel threatened), and not ironic (especially about his writing). The Lord of the Rings is equally "a story told by a master story-teller; a story inspired by philology; a story suffused with Catholic values; and a mythic (or mythopoeic) story with a North European pagan inflection". In other words, Tolkien was about as anti-modernist as possible. Curry concluded by noting that newer authors including China Miéville, Junot Diaz, and Michael Chabon, and the critics Anthony Lane in The New Yorker and Andrew O'Hehir in Salon were taking a more open attitude, and cited the work's first publisher, Rayner Unwin's "pithy and accurate" assessment of it: "a very great book in its own curious way".

References

Sources

History of literature in the United Kingdom
Reception of works


George Knox may refer to:
George Knox (MP, died 1827) (1765–1827), Irish member of the United Kingdom parliament
George Knox (MP, died 1741), Irish MP for County Donegal
Sir George Edward Knox (1845–1922), British judge in India
Sir George Hodges Knox (1885–1960), Australian politician
George L. Knox, escaped slave, activist, publisher and author
George L. Knox II, U.S. Army Air Force officer and Tuskegee airman
George William Knox (1853–1912), American theologian
George Williams Knox (1838–1894), British soldier
George A. Knox, zoologist and namesake of Mount Knox

See also
Knox (surname)


Gerhard Thyben (24 February 1922 – 4 September 2006) was a German military aviator who served in the Luftwaffe from 1940 until the end of World War II and later as an instructor with the Colombian Air Force. As a fighter ace, he claimed 157 enemy aircraft shot down in 385 combat missions, five of which over the Western Allies the other 152 were claimed on the Eastern Front.

Born in Kiel, Thyben volunteered for service in the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany in 1940. After a period of training at various pilot and fighter pilot schools, he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 3 "Udet" (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing), operating on the Eastern Front. He claimed his first aerial victory on 26 February 1943. In August 1943, his unit was transferred to Western Front where he claimed five aerial victories. In 1944, Thyben was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54—54th Fighter Wing) which was based on the Eastern Front. In September 1944, Thyben was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 7. Staffel (7th squadron) of JG 54 and was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross for 116 aerial victories in December. Following his 156th aerial victory, he was injured in combat and received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves in April 1945.

Following World War II, Thyben left Germany and moved Spain, later to Argentina and then to Colombia where he worked for the Colombian Air Force as an instructor. He continued to pursue a career in civil aviation until his retirement. Thyben died on 4 September 2006 in Cali, Colombia.

Early life and career
Thyben was born on 24 February 1922 in Kiel, at the time the capital of the Province of Schleswig-Holstein, a free State of Prussia in the Weimar Republic. He was the son of Fritz Thyben, a manager () with Johannsen & Schmielau, and his wife Lisbeth, née Ebelmann. While in school, Thyben joined the Hitler Youth where he learned to fly the Schneider Grunau 9 glider aircraft. Following graduation from school, he volunteered for military service in the Luftwaffe on 15 July 1940. Until October, he completed his recruit training with Fliegerausbildungs-Regiment 71 (71st Aviators Training Regiment) in Wien-Stammersdorf. He was then transferred to Flugzeugführerschule A/B 113 in Brünn, present-day Brno in the Czech Republic, where he learned to fly the Heinkel He 72 Kadett. He was then transferred to 3./Fliegerausbildungs-Regiment 32 (3rd company of the 32nd Aviators Training Regiment) in Rochefort-en-Terre for further flight training on 14 October. On 15 November he was transferred to another flight school where he was promoted to Gefreiter (Privat First Class) on 1 July 1941.

On 16 September 1941, Thyben was posted to the Jagdfliegervorschule 2 (2nd fighter pilot pre-school), passing this course on 14 December. He was then transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule 5 (5th fighter pilot school) in Wien-Schwechat. There, for disciplinary reasons, he was arrested for six days in April and further five days in May 1942. After he completed his fighter pilot training on 1 November, Thyben was then posted to the 3. Staffel (3rd squadron) of Ergänzungs-Jagdgruppe Ost, a specialized training unit for new fighter pilots destined for the Eastern Front, and on 13 November to 1. Staffel of Ergänzungs-Jagdgruppe Süd. On 13 December 1942, Thyben was posted to the II. Gruppe (2nd group) of  Jagdgeschwader 3 "Udet" (JG 3—3rd Fighter Wing), named after the World War I fighter ace Ernst Udet. This Gruppe was then based on the southern sector of the Eastern Front and Thyben was assigned to 6. Staffel.

World War II
World War II in Europe began on Friday 1 September 1939, when German forces invaded Poland. Following his posting to JG 3, Thyben travelled to Krakau, present-day Kraków, where he waited for an aircraft to shuttle to his unit on the Eastern Front. On 28 December 1942, Thyben was assigned a Messerschmitt Bf 109 and together with two other Luftwaffe pilots flew to Lemberg, present-day Lviv. Adverse weather conditions delayed his flight east. Seven days later, he flew to Kirovohrad, present-day Kropyvnytskyi, and onwards to Zaporozhye. Due to further delays, Thyben eventually arrived with II. Gruppe of JG 3, then based at Rovenky and commanded by Hauptmann Kurt Brändle, on 22 January 1943.

Thyben had arrived at the front during the closing days of the Battle of Stalingrad which ended in the defeat of the German 6th Army. On 6 February, II. Gruppe retreated  to an airfield near Makiivka where they stayed until 5 April. Flying combat missions along the Mius-Front, Thyben claimed his first aerial victory on 26 February when he shot down a Lend-Lease Douglas A-20 Havoc bomber, also known as "Boston". On 25 May 1943 following his sixth aerial victory, Thyben was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ().

Defense of the Reich
In early August 1943, II. Gruppe was withdrawn from the Eastern Front for service in Defense of the Reich on the Western Front. The Gruppe spent one-month training in northern Germany before they arrived at the Schiphol airfield near Amsterdam in the Netherlands on 12 September. Thyben claimed his first aerial victory on the Western Front on 8 October. That day the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) attacked the harbor and shipyards at Bremen and the U-boat manufacturing site at Bremen-Vegesack. At 14:08 II. Gruppe was scrambled and took off from Schiphol airfield. The Gruppe intercepted a formation of Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers and their escorting Republic P-47 Thunderbolt at 15:00 over the IJsselmeer. In this encounter, II. Gruppe pilots claimed two B-17 bombers shot down, one of which was not confirmed, and a P-47 fighter shot down by Thyben. On 24 October 1943, Thyben was personally awarded the German Cross in Gold () from Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring during a visit at Deelen Airfield. The presentation was made ad hoc when Göring learned that Thyben was credited with 33 aerial victories at the time. Since no spare German Cross was available, Siegfried Knemeyer volunteered his own German Cross which was then pinned on Thyben's uniform. On 3 November, Thyben flew as wingman to the Gruppenkomandeur, Major Brändle, the two got separated during aerial combat and Brändle was killed in action.

Thyben suffered from abdominal pain caused by lactose intolerance, the root cause not understood at the time. The pain was particularly severe while flying at high altitudes. In consequence, a Luftwaffe doctor advised to transfer Thyben to the Eastern Front where aerial combat for the most part took place below an altitude of . On 20 April 1944, Thyben was informed that he was transferred to Jagdgeschwader 54 (JG 54—54th Fighter Wing). He arrived with JG 54 on 24 April. Two days later he was assigned to 5. Staffel which was based at Idritsa. At the time, 5. Staffel was commanded by Oberleutnant Emil Lang while II. Gruppe of JG 54 to which the Staffel was subordinated was headed by Major Erich Rudorffer.

Eastern Front
In September 1944, Thyben was appointed Staffelkapitän (squadron leader) of 7. Staffel of JG 54, succeeding Leutnant Hermann Schleinhege who had temporarily led the Staffel after Hauptmann Franz Eisenach had been transferred on 8 August. On 30 September, Thyben was credited with his 100th aerial victory. He was the 93rd Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark. On 6 December 1944, Thyben was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () after 116 aerial victories. The presentation was made by General der Flieger Kurt Pflugbeil at an airfield in Libau, present-day Liepāja, on 9 December. On 9 February 1945, Thyben was promoted to Oberleutnant (first lieutenant).

Following his 156th aerial victory, Thyben was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves () on 8 April 1945. He was the 822nd member of the German armed forces to be so honored. On 8 May, with his mechanic Albert Mayers as a passenger in the radio compartment, Thyben and his wingman Feldwebel Fritz Hangebrauk flew west. Over the Baltic Sea, he shot down a Petlyakov Pe-2 bomber that was almost certainly looking for German refugee ships escaping from the besieged Courland Pocket. Thyben caught the reconnaissance Pe-2 at 07:54 and achieved what very well might have been the last Focke-Wulf Fw 190 victory of World War II.

Later life

Thyben was released from British captivity on 10 July 1945. On 17 March 1948, Thyben left Kiel heading to Spain by taking a train to Toulouse in southern France. From Toulouse, he headed to the Pyrenees on foot, crossing the border on 22 March. His ambition to continue flying in Spain remained unfulfilled. On 15 February 1949, with the aid of the Falange, a fascist party created by General Francisco Franco in 1937, Thyben borded the Rio Santa Cruz heading to Argentina. Thyben settled in Buenos Aires where he found work in automotive painting. As a member of the German community living in Buenos Aires, Thyben met and married Magda Sonnenberger, the widow of a German officer killed on the Eastern Front. In 1954, the former General der Jagdflieger, Adolf Galland, visited Thyben and rekindled Thyben's desire to fly. With the aid of another former member of the Luftwaffe, Thyben was led to believe that he could fly for Avianca airline in Colombia.

Arriving in Bogotá, Colombia, Thyben, who did not own a civil pilots license, failed to find employment as a pilot. The Colombian Civil Aviation Authority however offered him civil employment with Colombian Air Force as an instructor and consultant. His contract started on 19 July 1954 and was issued for one year with the option of extension. Based at the Captain Germán Olano Moreno Air Base near Puerto Salgar, Thyben flew the F-47, a post World war II designation of the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. He was also asked to fly combat missions during La Violencia, a ten-year civil war in Colombia from 1948 to 1958, between the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party, which he rejected. His contract was extended by a second year during which he taught at the Marco Fidel Suárez Air Base near Cali, also known as Santiago de Cali. There he flew the Boeing-Stearman Model 75, the North American T-6 Texan and the Beechcraft T-34 Mentor as a flight instructor. During this period, Magda gave birth to their son Gerhard Friedrich Wilhelm.

Thyben's contract with the Colombian Air Force ended after two years of service. Having received a civilian pilots license, he then found work flying air taxis for Aviance (Aerotaxi de Avianca). Based in Bucaramanga, Aerotaxi de Avianca was equipped with the Cessna 195 and de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver. Avianca also operated the Bell 47 helicopter which Thyben learned to fly. A flight accident on 30 December 1960 resulted in his dismissal. Thyben then found work flying agricultural aircraft in Tolima. In 1979, Thyben attended an international fighter pilot meeting held in Fürstenfeldbruck. Among others, the meeting was attended by Douglas Bader, Robert Stanford Tuck, Günther Rall, Erich Hartmann, Gerhard Barkhorn, Adolf Galland and Walter Scheel. On the return flight to Colombia, Thyben's luggage was lost, including his original Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves. The Knight's Cross later showed up again in the United States with a private collector. However, US authorities were unable to confiscate his stolen Knight's Cross and return it. Thyben died on 4 September 2006 in Cali, Colombia.

Summary of career

Aerial victory claims
According to US historian David T. Zabecki, Thyben was credited with 157 aerial victories. Spick also lists him with 157 aerial victories, 152 on the Eastern Front and five on the Western Front, claimed in 385 combat missions. In addition, Obermaier states that he flew 22 close air support missions on which he claimed two aircraft and seven trucks destroyed on the ground. Mathews and Foreman, authors of Luftwaffe Aces — Biographies and Victory Claims, researched the German Federal Archives and state that Thyben was credited with 157 aerial victories. This figure includes 152 aerial victories on the Eastern Front and 5 over the Western Allies.

Victory claims were logged to a map-reference (PQ = Planquadrat), for example "PQ 34 Ost 79142". The Luftwaffe grid map () covered all of Europe, western Russia and North Africa and was composed of rectangles measuring 15 minutes of latitude by 30 minutes of longitude, an area of about . These sectors were then subdivided into 36 smaller units to give a location area  in size.

Awards
 Iron Cross (1939)
 2nd Class (25 May 1943)
 1st Class (10 July 1943)
 Honour Goblet of the Luftwaffe on 6 September 1943 as Unteroffizier and pilot
 German Cross in Gold on 24 October 1943 as Feldwebel in the 6./Jagdgeschwader 3
 Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross on 6 December 1944 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7./Jagdgeschwader 54
 822nd Oak Leaves on 8 April 1945 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 7./Jagdgeschwader 54

Notes

References

Citations

Bibliography

1922 births
2006 deaths
Hitler Youth members
Military personnel from Kiel
German World War II flying aces
Recipients of the Gold German Cross
Recipients of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Military personnel from the Province of Schleswig-Holstein
German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom
Colombian military personnel


The British Aerosol Manufacturers' Association (BAMA) is a UK trade association based in Stevenage representing companies involved in the aerosol supply chain, including suppliers of components and ingredients to fillers and marketers.

History and objectives

It was established in 1961. 2008 marked 80 years since  Rotheim's patent for aerosols was approved in the UK and BAMA as the trade association, marked this through a trade and consumer public relations programme and by producing a series of marketing materials for member companies. BAMA also provides information to local authorities, households and businesses on recycling aerosols.

BAMA's aims are to:
 Promote the aerosol and encourage innovation
 Set high standards in safety, good manufacturing practice and on environmental issues
 Present industry's view to legislators, the media and key opinion formers

Members
Members include:
 AkzoNobel
 Beiersdorf
 DuPont
 GlaxoSmithKline
 ICI Paints
 Precision Valve - formed by Robert Abplanalp, inventor of the aerosol valve
 Procter & Gamble
 Reckitt Benckiser
 Rentokil Initial
 SC Johnson
 Unilever
 Swallowfield Plc
 Volcke Aerosol UK Ltd

References

External links
 British Aerosol Manufacturers' Association
 BAMA: Recycle more
 FEA - European Aerosol Federation

Video clips
 Sue Rogers in April 2011
 History of aerosols in April 2011

Aerosol sprays
Chemical industry in the United Kingdom
1961 establishments in the United Kingdom
Industrial gases
Organisations based in the City of Westminster
Organizations established in 1961
Trade associations based in the United Kingdom


Don't Walk Away may refer to:
Don't Walk Away (EP), an EP by Bullet for My Valentine
 "Don't Walk Away" (Electric Light Orchestra song), 1980
 "Don't Walk Away" (Rick Springfield song), 1984
 "Don't Walk Away" (Pat Benatar song), 1988
 "Don't Walk Away" (Jade song), 1992, later covered by Javine, 2004
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by the Four Tops from the album Tonight!, 1981
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Toni Childs from the album Union, 1988
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Bad English from the album Bad English, 1989
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Danger Danger from the album Danger Danger, 1989
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Michael Jackson from Invincible, 2001
 "Don't Walk Away", a song from the play What's Done in the Dark by Tyler Perry, 2006
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Sofia Rotaru from the album Ya – tvoya lybov'!, 2008
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Basshunter from the album Bass Generation, 2009
 "Don't Walk Away", a song from the soundtrack Hannah Montana: The Movie, 2009
 "Don't Walk Away", a song by Kim Jaejoong from the album WWW, 2013


Hans Solereder (11 September 1860 Munich – 8 November 1920 Erlangen), was a German botanist and university professor.

Solereder studied biology from 1880 at the University of Munich, under Radlkofer, and was awarded a PhD in 1885. From 1886 to 1890 he was Assistant, and from 1888 tutor in the botany department's laboratory. In 1890 he became curator of the  Botanical Museum in Munich. In 1899 he became associate professor and in 1901 Professor of Botany at the University of Erlangen, where he was also Director of the Botanical Gardens.

Solereder undertook field trips to Texas, California and the Yellowstone National Park. He edited the Dicotyledons according to the system devised by Radlkofer.

This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation Soler. when citing a botanical name.

Books
 (1908): Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen: Ein Handbuch für Laboratorien der wissenschaftlichen und angewandten Botanik - Stuttgart : Enke
 (1885): Über den systematischen Wert der Holzstructur bei den Dicotyledonen. (Dissertation)

See also
List of florilegia and botanical codices

References
 Ilse Jahn (Hrsg.): Geschichte der Biologie.

Botanists with author abbreviations
19th-century German botanists
German taxonomists
1869 births
1920 deaths
20th-century German botanists
Academic staff of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg


Abdelkader Chadi (born 12 December 1986) is an Algerian boxer who won the All-African title 2007 at featherweight and 2015 at junior welter. He also qualified for the 2008, 2012 and 2016 Summer Olympics.

Career
Chadi beat Roberto Adjaho in the semis and Alaa Shili in the final of the Featherweight competition at the 2007 All-Africa Games. In 2008 he qualified for the Beijing Olympics by beating Shili again. He skipped the final against Mahdi Ouatine. He had weight problems and competed at lightweight in the months before the Olympics.

At the 2008 Summer Olympics, he beat Sailom Adi in the last 16, before losing to Yakup Kılıç in the last 8.

At the 2012 Summer Olympics he competed at lightweight, losing to Fatih Keleş in the first round.

In the 2016 Summer Olympics he lost to Joedison Teixeira of Brazil in the first round of the light welterweight competition.

References

External links

 All Africa at amateur-boxing.strefa.pl
 Qualifier at amateur-boxing.strefa.pl

1986 births
Living people
Featherweight boxers
Lightweight boxers
Light-welterweight boxers
Boxers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Boxers at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Boxers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic boxers for Algeria
Sportspeople from Sétif
Algerian male boxers
African Games gold medalists for Algeria
African Games medalists in boxing
Mediterranean Games gold medalists for Algeria
Mediterranean Games medalists in boxing
Competitors at the 2007 All-Africa Games
Competitors at the 2015 African Games
Competitors at the 2013 Mediterranean Games
21st-century Algerian people


The Collins Bird Guide is a field guide to the birds of the Western Palearctic.

Its authors are Lars Svensson, Killian Mullarney, Dan Zetterström and Peter J. Grant, and it is illustrated by Killian Mullarney and Dan Zetterström (with two plates of North American passerines contributed by Larry McQueen in the first edition). It has been described as "undoubtedly the finest field guide that has ever been produced", and "the last great bird book of the 20th century".

It was originally published in Swedish and Danish in 1999, and in English in hardback in the same year, and later in paperback. A large-format English edition has also been produced, as has a German and Dutch edition. The first edition was translated to 14 European languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch and German. A second edition, revised and enlarged, was published in January 2010. A series of updates and corrections were made in 2015, with no change to the edition number. A third edition was published in 2022.

The cover of the first edition, in all formats, depicts a barn owl. On the second edition, this was replaced by an Arctic tern. Original Swedish version of the third edition features a bluethroat, while the English version shows a barn swallow.

Eleven pages of introductory material are followed by the book's main content: 366 pages of text and colour paintings. The text for each species gives brief status notes, followed by a section detailing identification, and concludes with a section on voice. Accompanying most species accounts is a small colour map showing breeding, wintering and migrant range.

The guide is also available as a paid-for app, for iPhone and Android devices. The app includes all of the text and images from the print edition, as well as audio recordings. Additional data can be bought separately; the first such package being a set of distribution maps for 271 species, from the British Trust for Ornithology's Bird Atlas 2007–11.

All versions cover Europe, North Atlantic islands, much of North Africa and the Middle East.

Most of the species covered in the main part of the guide are regular breeding, wintering or migrant species in its area of coverage, although some vagrants are also included. There are additional sections giving brief accounts of (a) vagrants and (b) introduced breeding species and species recorded only as escapes.

References

External links

 App website

Bird field guides
1999 non-fiction books
Android (operating system) software
IOS software
Books about British Birds
Non-fiction books about birds


L'Enfant may refer to:

 L'Enfant (film), a 2005 Belgian film
 L'Enfant (poster), a noted 1987 photographic poster
 Pierre Charles L'Enfant, architect and civil engineer credited with planning the city of Washington, D.C.
 , a 1943 cargo ship
 L'Enfant Plaza, a complex of office buildings, a hotel, and an underground shopping mall in Washington, D.C.
 L'Enfant Plaza Station, a transit station serving the plaza
 "L'Enfant", a song by Vangelis from the 1979 album Opéra sauvage
 "L'Enfant", a poem by Victor Hugo from the 1829 collection Les Orientales


Incisura rosea, common name the rosy slit shell, is a species of minute sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Scissurellidae.

Description
The shell grows to a height of 1.2 mm.

Distribution
This marine species occurs off New Zealand.

References

 Powell A. W. B., New Zealand Mollusca, William Collins Publishers Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand 1979
 Geiger D.L. (2012) Monograph of the little slit shells. Volume 1. Introduction, Scissurellidae. pp. 1-728. Volume 2. Anatomidae, Larocheidae, Depressizonidae, Sutilizonidae, Temnocinclidae. pp. 729–1291. Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Monographs Number 7

External links

Scissurellidae
Gastropods of New Zealand
Endemic fauna of New Zealand
Gastropods described in 1904
Endemic molluscs of New Zealand


Fernand Lizotte (March 4, 1904 – August 28, 1996) was a Canadian politician and a five-term Member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.

Background

He was born on March 4, 1904, in Lévis, Chaudière-Appalaches and became a physician.  He was an Action libérale nationale activist in the 1930s.

Federal politics

He ran as a Reconstruction candidate in the federal district of Montmagny—L'Islet in the 1935 election and finished a distant third.

Member of the provincial legislature

Lizotte ran as a Union Nationale candidate in the 1948 election in the provincial district of L'Islet and defeated Liberal incumbent and Premier Adélard Godbout.  He was re-elected in the 1952 and 1956 elections.  He did not run for re-election in the 1960 election.

He ran in the 1962 election and won against Liberal incumbent André Rousseau.  He served as Deputy House Whip from 1963 to 1966.  Lizotte was re-elected in the 1966 election.

Cabinet Member

He was appointed to the Cabinet in 1966.  He served as Minister of Communications until 1970 and as Minister of Transportation until his defeat in the 1970 election against Liberal candidate Julien Giasson.

Death

Lizotte died on August 28, 1996.

References

1904 births
1996 deaths
People from Lévis, Quebec
Union Nationale (Quebec) MNAs
French Quebecers


Megapede is a Centipede clone for the ZX Spectrum programmed by Andrew Beale and published by Softek in 1983. Beale also wrote a Berzerk clone, Robon, for the Spectrum.

Reception

CRASH magazine: "Softek’s version of the noble creepy-crawlie game is just about as good as any. Here the scorpion lends to drop fleas rather as though they were bombs, which makes an interesting variation. Machine Code, nice graphics, nine skill levels. Good".

References

External links

1983 video games
Fixed shooters
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
ZX Spectrum games
ZX Spectrum-only games
Video game clones


Tile Cross Academy is a coeducational secondary school located in the Tile Cross area of Birmingham, West Midlands, England.

Admissions
The school is ethnically diverse and contains around 700 pupils spread over three major buildings. The school is situated on Gressel Lane and is roughly one mile from Lea Hall railway station, operated by London Midland. It is close to the eastern boundary of Birmingham, close to the Solihull boundary.

History

Former schools
The genesis of the school was three schools being built next to each other in Tile Cross, East Birmingham in the late 1950s. The famous Central Grammar School for Boys was founded in 1897 on Suffolk Street and relocated to Gressel Lane in September 1957. It was a three-form entry school with around 550 boys.  During the second World War half of the school was evacuated and shared with The West Monmouth High School for Boys at Pontypool under the Headship of Leslie Bradley, who had been appointed Headmaster in 1934. They returned in 1942 and reunited with the other half to a location in Bordesley Green.

The City then created two new schools named Byng Kenrick Girls' Grammar School and Sir Wilfrid Martineau School (named after Wilfred Byng Kenrick and Wilfrid Martineau respectively, two men who had each been prominent local politicians and Lord Mayors of Birmingham).

The two schools combined would not only cater for pupils who would have gained a place in a grammar school (See Grammar schools debate) and as well for local Birmingham children wanting the best in education . Its first headmaster, however, declared that it was his intention to compete and announced it was a bilateral rather than a secondary modern school (in contemporary parlance) and the school competed with its neighbours. Central Grammar School moved from Cherrywood Road to adjoin Byng Kenrick school for Girls and Sir Wilfrid Martineau. Byng Kenrick then almagamated with Central Grammar School and became Byng Kenrick Central.

The International School and Community College East Birmingham
When the City abolished some grammar schools in 1974, Central and Byng Kenrick merged to create Byng Kenrick Central School (BKC), a co-educational comprehensive on Gressel Lane.
Sir Wilfrid Martineau, which had merged with 'Sticland Green Mixed Secondary Modern School', had a better reputation than BKC at the time

However, by 2000 Sir Wilfrid Martineau School was failing badly and so in an attempt to 'save it' the City hastily decided that the adjacent Byng Kenrick Central School would 'take it over' and be renamed. This was NOT a merger.

The school was called CAL (CENTRE FOR ACCELERATED LEARNING) for 1 year between 2000 and 2001.*

The 'new school' named: The International School and Community College East Birmingham was opened in September 2001. It has since been awarded specialist Business and Enterprise College status.

A rocky beginning was brought about by the 9% pass rate for GCSEs in the July 2003 examinations, which resulted in the instant dismissal of the then-Principal, Sarah Harris.
The school struggled through September 2003, and after negotiations and an unfavourable contract with Ninestiles-Waverly Federation, the ISCCEB was accepted as the third member to "The Federation", an organisation set up by Sir Dexter Hutt, to assist failing schools to recover.

After three years in the Federation, and many major changes in school policy, ISCCEB managed to gain independence from "The Federation", and became a specialist business school, with Microsoft Platinum membership.

The International School
The school had been chosen by the Labour government along with 82 other Birmingham schools for refurbishment or an entire re-build.

However, after the 2010 elections all plans had been scrapped by the new Conservative government in an attempt to reduce spending.

After months of negotiations and changes to the original plan, it was finally agreed 9 schools would be put forward for refurbishment by contractor Lend Lease.

Refurbishment began mid-2011 and was completed on 27 February 2012.

The school faced a series of changes, most of them to its advantage. However, the historic Martineau tower and the Central building were knocked down and the off-site Sheldon building given to the council.

Tile Cross Academy
Previously a community school administered by Birmingham City Council, in May 2017 The International School converted to academy status. The school is now sponsored by the Washwood Heath Academy Trust.

During the process of converting the school to an academy, a name change was proposed "We do propose changing the name of the school from The International School to Tile Cross Academy and would welcome your thoughts on this proposed name change" - this resulted in the school changing its name to "Tile Cross Academy".

Way back in 2015 many found it offensive to suggest that only academy schools are qualified to help others and the debate is there. Existing money (promised but with no worthy governance) to hard-working pupils & staff or as a means of driving up educational standards in disadvantaged areas (See What are academies?)

Former teachers
In the late 60's both Colin McFadyean and Sam Doble taught P.E. at Central Grammar School and played rugby union for Moseley. Colin captained England whilst teaching at Central and Sam got his England caps in the early '70's. John Wakeley and Steve Walker had a very happy time in the English department in the same period.
Schleft originated from students from Byng Kenrick Central who studied there from 1997-2002.

Academic performance
The July 2007 examination results were that 50.5% of pupils passed with 5 (or more) A*-C grades at GCSE, an increase of 41% in 5 years.
In the 2010 GCSE examination results :
 Every student in Year 11 achieved a nationally recognised qualification.
 84% of the year group achieved 5 or more GCSE A*-C grades or equivalent.
 41% of students achieved 5 or more A*-C grades at GCSE including English and Maths.  Double the figures of the 2008 results.
 92% achieved 5 or more A*-G grades.
 Significant improvements were seen in the core subjects of English, Maths, Science and ICT.

Notable former pupils

Central Grammar School for Boys
 Ron Ball, PCC since 2012 for Warwickshire
Joseph Biddulph, linguist, author and publisher.
 Bob Catley, lead singer of Magnum.
 George Chandler (librarian), Director General from 1974-80 of the National Library of Australia.
 Tony Garnett, television and film producer, produced This Life. Cathy Come Home is a 1966 BBC television play by Jeremy Sandford, produced by Tony Garnett and directed by Ken Loach, about homelessness
 John Harris, Chairman from 1982-94 of East Midlands Electricity
 Alec Hastilow CBE, Chairman from 1962-8 of Smith & Nephew
 Denver Hewlett, Chief Executive since 1996 of Glen Dimplex Home Appliances
 Trevor Jones (1941-1946) England and F.I.H International Hockey Umpire.   Hon Sec.  Great Britain Hockey Board 1982 - 4 (GB Men won the Bronze Medal at the 1984 Los Angeles Games)
 Kevin McNally, who has made many TV and film appearances, including Pirates of the Caribbean. He was first put on the state by Steve Walker in "The Long and the Short and the Tall".
 Members of The Moody Blues - John Lodge
 Jeff Watson, broadcaster and documentary maker and author, now in Sydney, Australia.
 Nicol Williamson, Shakespearian actor, once described by John Osborne as "the greatest actor since Marlon Brando.
 Tony Hiam who invented Extreme Ironing in 1980, inspired by his eccentric brother-in-law. Tony has since gone on to be more eccentric.

Sir Wilfrid Martineau School
 Mick Rathbone, Blackburn Rovers footballer, as well beginning his career at Birmingham, has a distinguished career still as physiotherapist.

Byng Kenrick Central School
 Anthony Armatrading, nationally-known actor (Casualty) and brother of singer Joan Armatrading
 June Pennell née Daniel, well known for her pro-active support in Canine Psychology Principal of The International School for Canine Behaviour and Psychology

References

External links
 Tile Cross Academy official website

Secondary schools in Birmingham, West Midlands
Academies in Birmingham, West Midlands


This article is an incomplete list of stamp catalogs.

 AFA specialkatalog: Danmark, Færøerne, Grønland, Dansk Vestindien og Slesvig (Denmark)
 Afinsa (Portugal)
 Anfils (Spain)
 Australasian stamp catalogue (Australia)
 Austria Netto Katalog (ANK) (Austria)
 BALE (Israel)
 Barefoot Catalogue (Revenues)
 Bolaffi (Italy)
 Borek (World catalogue)
 Brusden-White (Australia)
 Burak Pul Evi Kataloğu - Spesyalize Türk Pullari Kataloğu (Specialized Postage Stamp Catalog of Turkey)
 Burak Pul Evi Yayinlari - Ilk Türk Pullari / Tugrali Pullar (The First Turkish Stamps Stamps with the monogram of the Sultans)
 Catabooks Publishing - Thematic Catalogs / Gandhi Stamp Catalog (The First India theme based Stamp Caatalogs)
 Catalogue of USSR postage stamps (Soviet Union, Russia; Каталог почтовых марок СССР)
 Campbell Paterson (New Zealand)
 Chan Stamp Catalogue of China (1878-1949)
 CEI (Italy)
 Cérès (France)
 Chuchin, F.G. (Russia - Zemstvos)
 Colnect (online only)
 Comprehensive Colour Catalogue of Australian Stamps
 Dallay (France)
 Domfil (Spain)
 Edifil (Spain)
 Facit catalog (all countries of Scandinavia)
 Farahbakhash Catalogue Of 2010: The Stamps Of Iran – Qajar, Pahlavi, Islamic Republic Of Iran (Iran)
 Fischer catalog (Poland)
 Find Your Stamps Value (online only) (specializing in US, GB, and other stamps)
 Freestampcatalogue
 Froede (Germany, active to 1941)
 Hellas 2012: stamp catalogue and postal history = katalogos grammatosēmōn kai tachydromikē historia (Greece)
 Hermes (Greece)
 Hibernian (Ireland)
 Holmes (Canada, published from 1935 to 1968)
 Inoubli (Tunisia)
 Isfila (Turkey)
 Jacobs, V.A. (Russia - USSR special catalogue)
 JB Catalogue (Malta)
 JSCA Japanese Stamp Specialized Catalog (Japan)
 JSDA Japanese Stamp Dealers’ Association Catalogue (Japan)
 Katalog Prangko Indonesia = Indonesian postage stamp catalogue (Indonesia)
 LAPE (Finland)
 Len Jury Stamp catalogue - New Zealand
 Stamps NZ - New Zealand
 Lipsia (until 1990), only stamp catalog of the DDR. (Editor: Verlag Transpress Leipzig, DDR)
 Livingston "Catalog of the Shanghai Postal System" (Wei-Liang Chow 2nd edition 1990)/(L.F. Livingston First edition 1971)
 Ma's Illustrated Catalogue Of The Stamps Of China (China)
 MacDonnell Whyte (Stamps of Ireland Specialised Catalogue)
 Magyar Posta és Illetékbélyeg Katalógus (Hungary)
 Maury (France), A specialized catalog of France formed from the combination of Cérès and Dallay
 Michel catalog (Germany)
 Mundifil Postage Stamps of Portugal and Colonies
 Minkus (USA, active until 2004)
 Newfoundland specialized stamp catalogue (Canada)
 Ngo’s Catalogue of Philippine Republic Stamps & Postal Stationeries (Philippine)
 Norgeskatalogen (Norway)
 Norma Norma [year] – a specialized catalog of Finland postage stamps published annually, tri-lingual (Finnish, Swedish, English)
 NVPH Speciale Catalogus (The Netherlands & colonies)
 OBP-COB (Belgium)
Phila India (India)
 Philex (Germany)
 Pofis catalogue (Czechoslovakia)
 Postage Stamps Catalogue of the People's Republic of China  (China), China Posts and Telecom Press
 Prifix (Luxembourg)
 Pulko Osmali İmpararatorluğu ve Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Posta Pullari Kataloğu (Ottoman Empire and Republic of Turkey Postage Stamp Catalog)
 Pulhan: Türk Pullari Kataloğu (Turkey Postage Stamp Catalog)
 Richard Zimmermann Catalog (The joint stamp issues catalog)
 Ruch catalog (Poland)
 Sakura Catalogue of Japanese Stamps (Japan)
 Sanabria's Air Post Catalogue (Worldwide airmail stamps; last full catalog, 1966; partial, 1972)
 Sassone (Italy)
 Schiffer catalog: Catálogo de Selos do Brasil (Brazil)
 Scott catalogue (USA)
 Sellos postales argentinos: 1856-2010 (Argentina)
 Standard Catalogue of Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Steven Tan, International Stamp & Coin Sdn. Bhd.
 V.U. Soloviev (Russia)
 Siddiqui Stamps Catalogue (Pakistan)
 The South African stamp colour catalogue (South Africa)
 Stanley Gibbons (Great Britain)
 Suriwongse (Sakserm) until 2004 (Thailand)
 Thai Stamps Catalogue (Thailand), Somchai Saeng-Ngern
 Taiwan Color Catalogue, Alex Yeh
 Umungwan Korean Postage Stamp Catalogue (South Korea)
 Unificato (Italy)
 Unitrade Specialized Catalogue of Canadian Stamps
 Yang (Hong Kong, Liberated areas, PRC)
 Yvert et Tellier (France)
  (Russia)
 Zonnebloem (stamp catalogue) (Netherlands, Indonesia, Israel, Surinam, United Europe)
 Zumstein (Switzerland)

Notes

Reference material lists


Sam Ku West (1907–1930) was an American steel guitar player from Honolulu, Hawaii he died in Neuilly sur Seine near Paris, France.

Career
West first performed professionally as a member of  Irene West's touring band, adding the "West" surname to his birth name, Sam Ku, Jr.. After playing in Singapore in 1926, Prince George of England gave him the name "the Kreisler of the steel guitar". He also played concert harp live, though he never recorded with it.

West toured America on the vaudeville circuit and also performed abroad throughout East Asia and Europe. He recorded in 1927 and 1928 for several labels; 27 recordings are still extant. He died in Paris at the age of 23 on September 7, 1930.

Discography

Partial listing:

References

External links
Sam Ku West Biography

1907 births
1930 deaths
Musicians from Hawaii
Vocalion Records artists
20th-century American musicians


José Encarnación Jr. (November 17, 1928 – July 5, 1998) was a Filipino professor of economics at the University of the Philippines Diliman, where he served as dean of the School of Economics from 1974 until his retirement in 1994.

Education
Encarnación was educated at UP Diliman (PhB, MA Philosophy) and at Princeton University (PhD Economics). He was a member of the Upsilon Sigma Phi fraternity. At Princeton he was a student and dissertation advisee of William J. Baumol. The only Filipino economist of his generation to work in the field of theory, Encarnación was best known for advancing the theory of lexicographic preferences, which in the words of Richard Day, Encarnación "almost singlehandedly kept alive". In 1987 he was named National Scientist, the highest recognition of scientific achievement given by the Republic of the Philippines. In 2008, the main building of the School of Economics at the University of the Philippines was renamed Encarnación Hall in his honor.

Major contributions

Lexicographic preferences
Lexicographic preferences map a set of alternatives X onto a set of vectors, for which reason lexicographic preferences are also known as vector-valued preferences. (A mapping onto the set of real numbers instead yields real-valued utility.) Formally one posits a mapping V: X→ Rn, where n refers to the arbitrarily many or few dimensions of the vector and corresponds to the number of criteria of choice.  Hence, let the vector v(x) = [v1(x), v2(x),…] represent the scores vi(x) of an alternative x on various characteristics or criteria i = 1,2,…., arranged in decreasing order of importance.  Define v(y) similarly.  Then x is better than y if the first nonzero component of the vector difference v(x)- v(y) is positive.  The term lexicographic refers to the fact that dictionaries similarly order words by their successive components, i.e. letters.

L*-ordering
One disadvantage of simple lexicographic ordering as described above is that subsequent criteria come into consideration only when the objects being compared are tied with respect to the preceding criteria.  For example, in choosing a restaurant, price, cuisine quality, and ambience may be considerations, in decreasing order. Under simple lexicographic ordering, among all restaurants with the same price, those with the best cuisine would be preferred.  And among those with the same price and the same quality of cuisine, the one with the best ambience would be chosen.  These further criteria would be irrelevant, however, if there was a unique restaurant with the lowest price, since this one would always be preferred to more expensive ones, no matter how bad their cuisine or ambience. This is the implication of making price the first criterion.

Such a prediction is obviously unrealistic, however, and it is closer to experience to say that people have minimum acceptable levels or “thresholds” for certain criteria. The process of selecting a restaurant, for example, involves a continual process of narrowing down one’s choice by the application of successive criteria.  First, restaurants where a meal per head does not exceed a certain price; from among those that pass that criterion, those whose quality of cuisine falls no lower than a specified level; then finally from those that pass the two previous criteria, those whose atmosphere is best.

It is this process that Encarnación formalized in 1964.  If ui(x) represents the degree of achievement in criterion i when in possession of x, a threshold level ui*  may be defined corresponding to a satisficing or satisfactory level of that criterion.  The novel idea is that further increases in the value of ui beyond ui* do not matter.  The importance of an alternative x with respect to the ith criterion may then be written as vi(x) = min(ui(x),ui*).  Hence, ordering wants or criteria in decreasing order of importance, define the vector v(x) = [v1(x), v2(x),…].  Then in the now-familiar vector comparison, x is preferred to y if and only if the first nonzero component of the vector difference v(x) - v(y) is positive.  This revised lexicographic ordering incorporating thresholds, with which Encarnacion’s name has become inextricable, has since become known as an L* ordering to distinguish it from the ordinary lexicographic, or L-ordering.

L*-orderings under uncertainty
Lexicographic preferences have also been found useful in describing choices under uncertainty. Let wi = wi(x, p(x)) be the ith utility from a vector of prospects x = (x1,…, xk,…) which has associated probabilities p(x) = (p1(x1),…,pk(xn)).  Note that the criterion function wi depends explicitly not only on x but also on the probabilities associated with x. One may then define w¡* as the satisficing level of w¡ and proceed to define lexicographic preference in the customary manner, with v(x) = [v1(x),v2(x),…] and vi(x) = min (wi (x, p(x), wi*) for all i.  It is  straightforward to reproduce expected utility as a particular case by defining some primitive utility function u(.) that depends only on the individual xk.  In this case, one may write w1(x, p(x)•u(x)), where u(x) = [u(x1), u(x2),…] and set w1* sufficiently high to obtain the usual subjective expected utility.  If other criteria are allowed to come into play, on the other hand, different possibilities arise.  For example, for some i, wi may depend only on the probability of ruinous levels of x, or on the maximal values of x.
Encarnación [1987] uses preferences of this form in an ambitious attempt to reconstruct and explain all the apparent “paradoxes” in choice theory.  Apart from lexicographic comparisons the new element introduced into the structure was the notion of significant differences in the values of criterion functions.  Choice between two uncertain alternatives x and y, he suggests, turns on whether they differ significantly on the following lexicographically arranged criteria:  (1) expected value, (2) the possibility of a large loss, (3) the possibility of maximal gain, and finally (4) expected value once more.  Unlike his earlier 1964 formulation, however, this later version allows for intransitivity.

References

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20120321214712/http://www.nast.ph/index.php?option=com_profile&id=79&view=details&template=nast3
 https://web.archive.org/web/20111003180749/http://www.econ.upd.edu.ph/je/

1928 births
1998 deaths
Academic staff of the University of the Philippines
Princeton University alumni
20th-century Filipino economists
University of the Philippines Diliman alumni
National Scientists of the Philippines
Burials at the Libingan ng mga Bayani


This is a list of active Estonian Navy ships. In total there are 10 commissioned ships in the navy. In 2023 four of the larger Police and Border Guard patrol vessels were merged with the Estonian Navy to improve coastal patrol capabilities.

Ships

References

Active
Lists of ships by country
Lists of currently active military vehicles


Pallippuram may refer to the following places in the state of Kerala, in India:

Pallippuram, Alappuzha
Pallippuram, Ernakulam
Pallippuram, Palakkad
Pallippuram, Thiruvananthapuram


A Commissioners' church, also known as a Waterloo church and Million Act church, is an Anglican church in the United Kingdom built with money voted by Parliament as a result of the Church Building Acts of 1818 and 1824. The 1818 Act supplied a grant of money and established the Church Building Commission to direct its use, and in 1824 made a further grant of money. In addition to paying for the building of churches, the Commission had powers to divide and subdivide parishes, and to provide endowments. The Commission continued to function as a separate body until the end of 1856, when it was absorbed into the Ecclesiastical Commission. In some cases the Commissioners provided the full cost of the new church; in other cases they provided a partial grant and the balance was raised locally. In total 612 new churches were provided, mainly in expanding industrial towns and cities.

Title
The First Parliamentary Grant for churches amounted to £1 million (equivalent to £ in ), which is why the 1818 Act that provided for it is sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as the Million Pound Act.
The Second Parliamentary Grant of 1824 amounted to an additional £500,000 (£ in ), so the term "million" cannot apply to all the churches aided by the Commission. The Commission was founded on a wave of national triumph following the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815; hence the suggestion of the word "Waterloo" in the title. But even if this were a factor in founding the Commission, again it could only apply to the earlier phases of building. The term "Commissioners' church" covers the whole of the work of the Church Building Commission and it is the term normally used by architectural historians, including M. H. Port in 600 New Churches, and the authors of the Pevsner Architectural Guides.

Background
Towards the end of the 18th century the Church of England was facing a number of problems and challenges. Due to factors including the Industrial Revolution, the population of Britain had grown, and it had redistributed, tending to concentrate in urban centres, some older and expanded, others newly created. Meanwhile, the organisation of the Church of England had not been modified to reflect this change, leading to a mismatch between the population and the pastoral services provided by the church. For example, Stockport with a population of nearly 34,000 had church seating for only 2,500, Sheffield had 6,280 seats for 55,000 people, Manchester had 11,000 for nearly 80,000, and the St Marylebone district of London had only 8,700 places for 76,624 inhabitants. In addition, there was a concern in society that, following the French Revolution of 1789–99, there might be a similar uprising in Britain. It was considered that "the influence of the Church and its religious and moral teaching was a bulwark against revolution". Some argued that a major function of the church was to complement the work of the state; that "the church's main function was social control". On top of this, the Church of England had its own internal problems, some of them even amounting to abuses, such as pluralism (vicars owning more than one benefice), absenteeism (vicars employing curates to run their parishes) and non-residence. There was a great disparity between the incomes of the parochial clergy. The educational level of the clergy and their training was often inadequate. Challenges to the church came from main two sources, dissent and secularism. Dissenters were those Christians who did not ascribe to the practices of the established church (the Church of England), and they included the older independent churches such as the Quakers, Baptists and Congregationalists, and the newer movement of Methodism. The rise of these movements was blamed partly on the lack of accommodation in the churches provided by the state church.

A major impediment to increasing the number of churches in the newly expanded towns was the difficulty in providing a regular income for an incumbent parson. Most parish livings in the Church of England were then primarily supported from agricultural tithes collected from farms in the parish. In expanding towns and cities, new churches had tended to be provided in association with residential developments as proprietary chapels, whose licensed ministers received an income from pew rents. Neither method of finance had proved capable of funding the provision of clergy for poorer urban populations.

During the early 1810s groups were formed to address these problems by both active parties in the Church of England, the Evangelicals and the High Churchmen. Joshua Watson, a layman, was a prominent member of the High Church group; he has been described as "the greatest lay churchman of his day" and was to become "the cornerstone of the [Church Building] Commission", on which he served for 33 years. Because of the legal structure of the Church of England, it was "almost indispensable to obtain an Act of Parliament before a church was rebuilt, or a new one built " and "to divide a parish an Act was essential". There was growing pressure for Parliament to meet the problems. Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 there was also a movement to build churches "as a "national thank-offering". In December 1815 Joshua Watson and the pamphleteer John Bowdler, wrote a "memorial" to the prime minister, Lord Liverpool, arguing the case for more churches. There was initial reluctance from the politicians to agree to the proposal, partly because of the financial deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. In 1817 a committee was appointed to form a society for "promoting public worship by obtaining additional church-room for the middle and lower classes". This was successful and at a public meeting on 6 February 1818 in the Freemasons' Hall, London, chaired by Charles Manners-Sutton, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Duke of Northumberland proposed a motion to form the Church Building Society, and this was accepted. This led to Parliament's agreement to provide the First Parliamentary Grant of £1 million for building new churches. The Church Building Act 1818 was debated in Parliament and passed later that year.

The Commission

The first Commission consisted of 34 members, both clergy and laity being represented. In addition to providing grants of money, the Commission had powers to divide and subdivide parishes and to provide endowments.

The Commission appointed George Jenner as its secretary, and then had to decide how to apportion its funds. It set its maximum sum for a grant at £20,000 (equivalent to £ in ) each, but this would have built only 50 churches. A degree of economy was necessary, but it was considered that the churches should be recognisable as those of the Church of England, with a tower and even a spire. Thomas Rickman was appointed to prepare plans in the diocese of Chester. Applicants for grants had to abide by rules drawn up by the Commission. The designs for the churches were to be decided by competition, but the churches had to be soundly built. In some cases the Commission provided the whole cost of the building. On occasions this exceeded the cost of the building and also included the cost of the site and legal charges. Often the grant was less than the cost of the building, the difference being met by private donations and public subscription. In no case was the recommended ceiling of £20,000 exceeded. The highest grant was of £19,948 for St Martin's Church in Liverpool.  Designs for churches funded in the first grant in London were mainly classical in style; but outside London most Commissioners' churches conformed to a characteristic late Georgian Gothic revival style, with little concern for accurate reproduction of medieval Gothic features.  It was common for architects to re-use designs on a number of sites; perhaps varying the window tracery to conform with one or another different period of English Gothic architecture.  A few architects - notably Thomas Rickman, Frances Goodwin and Robert Smirke won a large number of commissions.

Plans of churches to be funded had to be approved by the Commission; and their stipulations conformed to the 'High Church' principles of the day, representing a decisive moving away from the 'preaching box' principles that had governed much Georgian church and chapel architecture. The Commission were determined the new churches should instead give appropriate architectural expression to the rites of Holy Communion and Baptism; and that these sacraments should not be visually subordinated to pulpit preaching. Hence, the Commission insisted that the communion table should be set apart in a shallow eastern apse or sanctuary behind a communion rail; and raised on three steps so as to be visible from all seats in the church. Larger churches should have galleries along the sides and west end, to provide the required seating capacity; the largest Commissioners Churches could seat a nominal congregation of 2,000. Except in the side galleries, all seats should face (ritual) east. The baptismal font should be at the west end of the church, accommodated within a christening pew. The pulpit and parson's reading desk were normally to be set at the east end of the church, on either side of the sanctuary. The Commission would not approve plans where services were to be led by parson and parish clerk from a centrally located triple-decker pulpit, although a number of incumbents subsequently arranged for the pulpit to be moved into the central aisle, with or without the approval of the Commission. Pews in the body of the nave were expected to be subject to pew rents but the Commission insisted that a substantial proportion of seating, in the galleries and on benches in the aisles, should be free.  Nevertheless within two decades, these design principles had been overtaken by the widespread adoption of 'ecclesiological' ideals in church design, as promoted by the Cambridge Camden Society; so that mid-Victorian High Churchmen routinely deprecated the original liturgical arrangements of Commissioners Churches, commonly seeking to rearrange their eastern bays with a ritual choir and chancel on ecclesiological principles.

By February 1821, 85 churches had been provided with seating for 144,190. But only £88,000 (equivalent to £ in ) of the original £1 million remained. Applications for 25 more churches had to be postponed and it was clear that more money would be needed from Parliament. Fortuitously in 1824 the Austrian government repaid a £2 million war loan that the British Treasury had written-off within the national accounts, creating an unexpected windfall that could be applied for the purpose. This led to the Church Building Act 1824 that provided the Second Parliamentary Grant of £500,000 (equivalent to £ in ). This money was distributed much more widely and, on the whole the grants supported a smaller proportion of total building costs. The First Parliamentary Grant was shared between fewer than 100 churches; the Second Parliamentary Grant went to more than 500 churches. The highest grant in this second phase was of £10,686 to All Saints Church, Skinner Street in the City of London, but this was exceptional. Most second-phase grants were between £100 and £1,000; on some occasions the grant was a mere £5. The Church Building Commission continued to function until 1 January 1857, when it was absorbed into the Ecclesiastical Commission.

List of churches
List of Commissioners' churches in eastern England
List of Commissioners' churches in the English Midlands
List of Commissioners' churches in London
List of Commissioners' churches in Northeast and Northwest England
List of Commissioners' churches in southwest England
List of Commissioners' churches in Wales
List of Commissioners' churches in Yorkshire

See also
Victorian restoration

References
Notes

Bibliography

Romanesque Revival church buildings in England
Gothic Revival church buildings in England


List of Estonian Navy ships is a comprehensive listing of all ships that have been in service to the Estonian Navy.

1918–1940

Destroyers
Lennuk (Izyaslav class)
Wambola (Orfey class)

Torpedo boat
Sulev (A class)

Submarines
Kalev (Kalev class)
Lembit (Kalev class)

Gunboats
Lembit (Gilyak class)
Tasuja (converted icebreaker)
Mardus (auxiliary gunboat)
Meeme (auxiliary gunboat)
Ahti (auxiliary gunboat)
Ilmatar (auxiliary gunboat)
Taara (auxiliary gunboat)
Tartu (auxiliary gunboat)
Uku (auxiliary gunboat)
Vanemuine (auxiliary gunboat)

Patrol boats
Laine (former submarine escort ship)
Pikker (Pikker class)

Minelayers
Ristna (converted paddle steamer)
Suurop (converted paddle steamer)

Minelayers/Minesweepers
Kalev (Teplokhod class, later renamed Keri)
Tahkona (Teplokhod class)
Olev (Teplokhod class, later renamed Vaindlo)
Lehtma (Teplokhod class)

Landing ship
Kalevipoeg (converted passenger ship)

Depot ships
Ingerman
Kotka

1991–present

Patrol ship
 (Beskytteren class)

Minelayers/Support ships
 (Lindormen class)
 (Lindormen class)

Minesweepers
 (Frauenlob class)
 (Frauenlob class)
 (Frauenlob class)

Minehunters
 (Lindau class)
 (Lindau class)
 (Sandown class)
 (Sandown class)
 (Sandown class)

Patrol boats
 (Kondor class)
 (Kondor class)
 (Zhuk class)
 (Zhuk class)
 (Maagen class)
 (R class)
 (R class)
 (NAVY 18 WP class)
 (NAVY 18 WP class)
 (PATROL 45 WP class)
 (Pikker class)
 (PATROL 24 class)

Pollution control vessel
 (Kindral Kurvits class)

References

Ships of the Estonian Navy
Navy ships
Estonia transport-related lists