Sakaldwipiya Brahmins (also known as Suryadhwaj Brahmin or Bhojaka Brahmins or Maga Brahmins) are a class of Brahmin priests primarily concentrated in northern India.

Mentions

Hindu texts
The earliest extant Hindu text to mention the Magas is Samba Purana (c. 7th-8th century CE); the legend made its way into the Bhavishya Purana and even a twelfth century inscription in Eastern India.

After being cursed into a leper, Samba urged Krishna to restore his youth who expressed his inability and deferred to the Sun-God. So, acting upon the advice of Narada, Samba left for the forests of Mitravan on the banks of Chandrabhaga, where the Sun-God resided. There, he propitiated the Sun-God into appearing before himself and secured a cure but, in return, had to accept setting up a solar temple. While the temple was set up using an image received from the Sun-God himself, securing a priest for the temple proved difficult — Brahmins could not be recruited since such worshippers took the offerings for themselves and had to ran afoul of Manusmriti.

At this juncture, Narada and Gauramukha suggested that Magas were the only classes fit for the task but neither knew about their location except to be far away from Dwarka. The Sun-God was consulted, who confirmed what Narada said and noted that the Magas, fluent in Vedas and His ideal worshippers, were to be found among the inhabitants of Sakdwipa, an entire creation of His own mirroring Jammudwipa. Subsequently, eighteen Maga families would travel across an ocean on the back of Garuda and thus, the first Sun-temple was established in Sambapura.

No further details about the Magas are provided in the Samba Purana but Bhavishya Purana continues to chronicle their afterlifein India, often in self-contradictory ways. Samba apparently arranged for the women of Bhojas (id. uncertain; might be the eponymous Kings of early medieval India) to be married to the Maga migrants; this went against the earlier narrative of bringing eighteen Maga "families". Later, it is claimed that eight of the migrant Magas were actually born of Mandagas and hence had to marry Dasas; their progenies were not Brahmins unlike those from the union with Bhojas.

Analysis
On the basis of terminological similarities in relevant Puranic verses with proto-Iranian roots and a common tradition of Sun worship, most scholars deem the legend to reflect the migration of Magis of Persia — or some region under the influence of Persian cosmopolis — in multiple waves to India across years. Sambapura has been traditionally identified with Multan — and the temple with the eponymous institution — but there exists little evidence in support and Heinrich von Stietencron rejects the idea.

Buddhist texts
Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra, a Buddhist text from Kashmir c. 2nd century C.E. notes the Magas to be Mlechhas (lit. barbarians) for not seeing anything objectionable in pursuing sexual relations within one's own family. Karma Prajnapti, dated to around the same time, repeats the observations of incest; Magas apparently held women as property of the commons — like cooked rice and pestle, roads and river banks, and fruits and flowers — whose sexuality was accessible to all. In Tarkajvālā (6th century CE), Bhāviveka notes the Magas to be perverted people from Persia: their religious doctrines exhibited similarities with Vedas, in that agamyā-gamana — illicit sex — was supported. Never were they held to be Brahmins.

Analysis

Bronkhorst sees no reason to doubt that the Buddhist texts were referring to the Magas. However, that the Magas are always held to be in the West of India proper, Jonathan Silk doubts that the Magas might not have followed such practices and they were merely — but reasonably — confused with the Persians.

Others
Varāhamihira's (6th century CE) Bṛhat Saṃhitā mention the Magas; he himself might have been a Maga. In his Pañcasiddhāntikā, one "Year of Magas" mention 30 names of the "lords of degree of signs" — they are since understood to be a Saivite rendering of the list of Yazatas. Ptolemy's Geography (2nd century CE) noted a particular town to be inhabited by Maga Brahmins. Al-Biruni, an 11th-century Persian polymath, noted some Zoroastrians to have migrated to India where they were known as Magas and in a hostile relation with Buddhists.

Social status
In the Brahminical corpus all Mlechhas (lit. foreigners) are routinely referred to in the most disagreeable terms and are either held to be below Sudras or avarna. Saura literature is very scarce in the Hindu cannon and in all probabilities, Magas failed to ever exert considerable influence on any royal power. Consequently, why were the Magas allowed the Brahmin status in society remains a pertinent locus of enquiry.

R. C. Hazra—a preeminent scholar of Puranic literature—believes the Magas and their particular brand of Sun-worship to have gained immense popularity under Scythian patronage; hence, the Brahmins were compelled to draft the Samba Purana, infuse aspects of their cult into prevalent, and accommodate them in the elites. Stietencron, on a comparative assessment of Samba Purana with other texts, disagrees: little foreign influence was visible in the descriptions of the Puranic episode and if at all, the Magas had popularized a pre-existing cult of solar worship. Bronkhorst remarks that even if the Magas had claimed descent from Persian priestly traditions, the Brahminic classes of India (Jambudvīpa) won't have easily accommodated foreigners at the highest echelons of society. On a comparison with Buddhist texts and secular records, he proposes that Sakadvipa was not Persia (or some other territory, west of India) but a "mythico-geographical region" for classical Hindu authors, wherein prevailed the Brahmanical order of society for reasons unknown. Descendants of the Magi migrants of Persia staked a claim to this Brahminic space rather than their native place. By the Common Era, their claims would be accepted and serviced in the restrospective construction of Puranic legends.

Modern India
The Sakaldwipiya Brahmins of Bihar, Odisha, Bengal and Uttar Pradesh are Ayurvedic physicians, priests and landholders.

Notes

References

Brahmin communities of Bihar
Brahmin communities of Odisha
Brahmin communities of Uttar Pradesh
Brahmin communities of West Bengal


Bren is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Suillellus luridus (formerly Boletus luridus), commonly known as the lurid bolete, is a fungus of the family Boletaceae, found in calcareous broadleaved woodlands in Europe. Fruit bodies appear in summer and autumn and may be locally abundant. It is a firm bolete with an olive-brown cap up to  in diameter, with small orange or red pores on the underside (yellow when young). The stout ochre stem reaches  high and  wide, and is patterned with a red network. Like several other red-pored boletes, it stains blue when bruised or cut.

While edible and good when cooked, it can cause gastric upset when eaten raw and can be confused with the poisonous Boletus satanas; as a result, some guidebooks recommend avoiding consumption altogether. When consumed with alcohol, Suillellus luridus has been implicated in causing adverse reactions similar to those caused by the compound coprine, though laboratory testing has not revealed any evidence of coprine in the mushroom.

First described in 1774, the species has been transferred to various Boletaceae genera in its taxonomic history, although it retained the original name given to it by German botanist Jacob Christian Schaeffer until a transfer to genus Suillellus in 2014. Several varieties, a subspecies, and a form have been described by European mycologists. Suillellus luridus is mycorrhizal, forming a symbiotic association with broad-leaved trees trees as oak, chestnut, birch and beech, and has been found to have a growth-enhancing effect on conifers in experiments. The fruit bodies are highly attractive to, and often infested by, insects, and several species of fly have been recorded feeding on them. Chemical analyses have revealed some aspects of the mushroom's components, including its volatile flavour compounds, its fatty acid and amino acid compositions, and the identities of the carotenoid compounds responsible for its colour.

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Boletus luridus was described by German botanist Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774, in his series on fungi of Bavaria and the Palatinate, Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones. The specific epithet is the Latin adjective luridus, 'sallow'. French botanist Pierre Bulliard's 1791 Boletus rubeolarius is a heterotypic synonym (based on a different type). The following year, Johann Friedrich Gmelin called it Boletus subvescus, from the Latin words sub "nearly" or "under", and vescus "edible". However, this is a nomen nudum.  Several taxonomical synonyms arose when the species was transferred to different genera within the family Boletaceae by different authorities, including Leccinum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821, Tubiporus by Petter Karsten in 1881, Dictyopus by Lucien Quélet in 1888, and Suillellus by William Murrill in 1909.

The variety Boletus luridus var. erythropus, published as "beta" by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum, is synonymous with Boletus erythropus. Boletus luridus var. rubriceps was originally described from Spain (as a species of Tubiporus) by René Maire in 1937, and later formally transferred to Boletus by Aurel Dermek in 1987. Other varieties of B. luridus include Roman Schulz's var. obscurus and var. rubromaculatus published in 1924; Josef Velenovský's 1939 var. tenuipes, found in the Czech Republic; and Jean Blum's 1969 var. lupiniformis and var. queletiformis, originally described from France and Spain, respectively. Boletus erythrentheron, originally described as a distinct species by Jan Bezděk, was later recombined as the variety B. luridus var. erythrentheron by Albert Pilát and Dermek in 1979, and finally as a subspecies by Jiri Hlavácek in 1995. Carmine Lavorato and Giampaolo Simonini defined the form primulicolor from Sardinia in 1997. Rolf Singer's 1947 variety caucasicus, later recombined as an independent species, Boletus caucasicus Singer ex. Alessio, has never been validly published  and is a nomen nudum. Boletus luridus f. sinensis, found in Hainan Province, China, was later elevated to species status and transferred to another genus with the name Neoboletus sinensis.

Boletus luridus was the type species of Boletus section Luridi, originally circumscribed by Fries in 1838. This section traditionally included species producing medium to large fruit bodies with thick, swollen stems, and minute pores that are coloured red, orange, or rarely yellow. However, early phylogenetic investigations indicated that Boletus is strongly paraphyletic in its traditional delimitation. As further studies have resolved phylogenetic and taxonomical relationships to a finer detail, Boletus has been fragmented and additional genera were recognised. Molecular phylogenetics inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences by Manfred Binder and David Hibbett, showed B. luridus to be related to a group containing B. torosus and B. luteocupreus (now placed in genus Imperator), with B. vermiculosus and Pulveroboletus ravenelii as more distant relatives. In a separate molecular study by Mello and colleagues, B. luridus clustered together with B. rhodoxanthus, while further genetic analyses in 2013 indicated that B. luridus and some red-pored boletes are part of a dupainii clade (named after Boletus dupainii), quite distant from the core group of Boletus edulis and its relatives. However, more refined analyses based on a larger number of sequences, have since demonstrated that B. luridus and its allied species form a distinct generic clade, and since 2014 the fungus has been placed in genus Suillellus.

Common names
The English common name is lurid bolete. Both S. luridus and Boletus satanas are known as ayimantari (meaning "bear mushroom"), in Eastern Turkey.

Description

Suillellus luridus is a stout fungus with a thick yellow-olive to olive-brown convex cushion-shaped cap that can reach  in diameter. The cap colour tends to darken with age, and regions of red, orange, purple, brown, or olive-green can often be present. The cap surface is finely tomentose (velvety) at first, becoming smoother with old age, and viscid in wet weather. The pore surface is initially yellowish-orange or orange, before turning orange-red to sometimes red and stains strongly blue when injured or handled. The pore surface usually has a lighter-coloured zone encircling the margin, as the pores tend to darken from their point of attachment to the stem outwards. There are 2–3 rounded pores per millimetre, and the tubes are  long. The tubes are shorter around the cap margin and close to the stem, where they form a circular depression. Initially pale yellow, the tubes gradually become olive-yellow and stain bluish-green upon exposure to air. A frequent feature is the presence of a maroon layer between the tubes and the flesh (known as Bataille’s line), but this is not always present and subhymenial flesh can occasionally be yellow or straw-coloured. The stem is  tall and  wide, and bears a distinctive, elongated (or "stretched") orange-red reticulum (network) pattern on a paler yellowish, orange, or ochre background, often becoming darker and vinaceous towards the base. The flesh is yellowish, sometimes with red patches in the cap but almost always rhubarb to vinaceous-red towards the stem base, and stains an intense dark blue when bruised or cut. There is a faint sour smell, and the taste is described as mild. The mycelium is an unusual yellow colour.

Variety queletiformis can be distinguished from the main form by the reddish discolouration of the stem base that occurs both on the exterior surface and in the flesh. Variety rubriceps has a deep crimson red cap, while var. lupiniformis has a pale yellow or dirty ochre cap and pores, sometimes with pink tones throughout.

The spore print is olive to brownish olive. Under the microscope, the spores are elliptical to somewhat fusiform (spinde-shaped), measuring 11–15 μm long by 4.5–6.5 μm wide and have a median spore quotient of 2.2. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are club-shaped and four-spored, and measure 29.2–36.5 by 11.0–12.4 μm. Cystidia on the sides of the tubes (pleurocystidia) are fuse-shaped with swollen middles and long necks, measuring 33–48 by 7.3–13.5 μm; cheilocystidia (on the edges of the pores) have a similar morphology. The cap cuticle is made of cylindrical hyphae 3.7–5.8 μm wide that are interwoven compactly, and the hyphal tips are erect and arranged in bundles. In contrast, the hyphae of the cap flesh is loosely interwoven with hyphae that are cylindrical and branched, measuring 3.7–8.8 μm. Hyphae do not contain clamp connections.

Some chemical tests can be used to help identify the mushroom. A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide placed on the cap cuticle will stain dark red to blackish, and orange-yellow on the flesh, while ferrous sulfate solution turns the cuticle yellow and then greenish-yellow. Melzer's reagent will turn the flesh dark blue, after the natural bluing reaction to injury has faded.

Similar species
Suillellus mendax, a species described from Italy in 2014 and subsequently confirmed in Cyprus and France, is very similar to S. luridus and found under the same host-trees. It produces more robust fruit bodies with a markedly tomentose cap, has a reticulum that is less pronounced and often restricted to the upper part of the stem, and is mostly found on acidic rather than calcareous soil. Microscopically, S. mendax has more elongated, narrowly fusiform (spinde-shaped) spores than S. luridus, measuring (12.4–)13.3–14.7(–15.5) × (4.5–)4.9– 5.5(–5.7) μm, and with a higher spore quotient of 2.7. Collections from southern Europe previously classified as Boletus caucasicus on the basis of a yellow subhymenial layer (the flesh in the cap tissue immediately above the tube layer known as Bataille’s line), have been shown to phylogenetically correspond to either S. luridus or S. mendax. As shown by Vizzini and colleagues, the name Boletus caucasicus has been invalidly published (nomen nudum) and the Bataille's line is not reliable for discriminating between species in the Luridi complex, as it can be randomly present or absent in both S. luridus and S. mendax.

Another similar species is Suillellus comptus, a Mediterranean bolete sharing a lot of features with S. luridus and S. queletii. This uncommon species is also found on chalky soil under oak, but generally produces more slender and dull-coloured fruit bodies, with a rudimentary, incomplete, or at times completely absent reticulation, rarely extending below the top (apex) of the stem. Under the microscope, S. comptus has very similar spores to S. luridus, but the hyphae of its cap cuticle are more loose and prostrate, running more or less parallel to the cap. Also in the same genus, Suillellus queletii shares with S. luridus a vinaceous stem base and strongly bluing flesh, but completely lacks reticulation on the stem.

The edible Neoboletus luridiformis can be distinguished from S. luridus by its dark brown cap and absence of any reticulation on the stem; it also grows on sandy soils associated with conifers. In genus Rubroboletus, R. satanas is also found on chalky soils, but produces larger and more robust fruit bodies with a pale cap and differently patterned reticulation to S. luridus. Its flesh does not turn blue so intensely on bruising or cutting, while overripe mushrooms often carry a smell of decay. Another red-pored species in this genus, Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus, has characteristic pinkish tones in the cap and a very dense, differently patterned reticulation. When longitudinally cut, its flesh is bright yellow in the stem and stains blue only in the cap.

A number of extra-European boletes share a similar appearance with S. luridus and have been a source of confusion in past. Suillellus hypocarycinus (found in North America) and Boletus subvelutipes (reported from North America and Asia and of yet unclear phylogenetic placement), can be somewhat similar, but lack reticulation on the stem. Initially collected in Michigan under oak,  Boletus vinaceobasis resembles S. luridus, but has shorter spores and its cystidia are dark brown in Melzer's reagent. This species' phylogenetic position also remains unresolved. Also in North America, Rubroboletus pulcherrimus can be somewhat similar, but has a more robust stem and deeper red pores. The Chinese species Neoboletus sinensis, originally described as a form of S. luridus but now placed in a different genus, has considerably larger spores, reported to reach 12–17 by 5.5–7 μm. Collections closely resembling S. luridus have also been recorded in Australia, though later renamed Boletus barragensis as they differ in spore size and a preference for trees of the family Myrtaceae.

Ecology and distribution
The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with broad-leaved trees such as oak (Quercus), birch (Betula), chestnut (Castanea) and beech (Fagus), on chalky (calcareous) soils. In the Czech Republic, the variety rubriceps has been reported growing under linden (Tilia). It is also suspected of being a mycorrhizal associate of subshrub rock roses in the genus Helianthemum.

Field studies indicate that the fungus, when paired as a mycorrhizal partner with seedlings of the conifer Cunninghamia lanceolata, increases the seedling's survival rate, augments its height and ground diameter, and increases the chlorophyll content in the leaves. A similar growth-enhancing effect had been noted earlier with Pinus taiwanensis seedlings. These beneficial effects on plant growth are a result of multiple interactions among the fungus, host plant, and indigenous soil microbes that increase the biomass of carbon, and increase the bacterial diversity in the mycorrhizosphere. In a study comparing the salinity resistance of three common ectomycorrhizal fungi (the others were Suillus bovinus and S. luteus), S. luridus was the most tolerant to high concentrations of salt, and is a good candidate species for the inoculation of tree seedlings to be planted on saline soil.  Fruit bodies grow singly or scattered on the ground, from June to November after summer rains. S. luridus may occur in parks near a single tree, though it is very rarely found in acidic soils.

The predilection of insects for this mushroom was noted by 19th-century British mycologist Anna Maria Hussey, who wrote in 1847: there are very few of the soft-fleshed tribes, all of which are the nurseries of innumerable insects, so much in favour as the poisonous Boletus luridus, on breaking an old one it is a living mass of larvae. Our present subject is so soon attacked by insects that it is very rare to find specimens devoid of wriggling life, and being a very common and abundant kind, it must be of great service in the economy of insect existence. Several fly species have been recorded feeding on the fruit bodies, including Phaonia boleticola, P. rufipalpis, Thricops diaphanus, and, in North America, Drosophila falleni, Pegomya mallochi, P. winthemi, Megaselia pygmaeoides, and Muscina assimilis. In contrast, slugs tend to avoid consuming this species.

Based on phylogenetically verified collections and belowground DNA studies of mycelial distribution, the fungus appears to be native to Europe and has been so far documented in Austria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, France, Italy, Montenegro and Sweden. Its distribution may extend east to the Black Sea and eastern Anatolia regions of Turkey, and south to the Bar'am Forest in the Upper Galilee region of northern Israel, although these reports are in need of molecular verification.

A number of extra-European reports can be found in literature predating DNA studies, ranging from India and Pakistan, to Canada, the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, China and Taiwan, but these have not been confirmed by molecular testing and are more likely to represent similar, misidentified taxa.

Toxicity/edibility
Mild tasting, Suillellus luridus is often reported as edible after thorough cooking. It is highly regarded in France, while it is commonly consumed in Italy, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia as well as other parts of Europe. However, caution is advised if choosing this species for consumption, as it resembles some poisonous blue-staining boletes and some guidebooks recommend avoiding it altogether. If eaten raw or insufficiently cooked, symptoms of gastrointestinal poisoning can occur within 30 minutes to two hours, including  nausea, vomiting, abdominal  cramps,  and diarrhoea. A full recovery can be expected within 24 to 48 hours if fluid losses are restored.

Suillellus luridus has been suspected of causing an enhanced alcohol sensitivity similar to that caused by the common ink cap (Coprinopsis atramentaria), with gastric symptoms. A German mycologist reported having suffered symptoms himself upon imbibing alcohol with this "otherwise excellent" mushroom. A 1982 report of three cases from Switzerland further incriminated the species, yet a 1994 study casts doubt on this; researchers Ulrich Kiwitt and Hartmut Laatsch looked for antabuse-like compound coprine content in S. luridus and similar species, and found none in the historical suspect but did find indications for it in the rare Imperator torosus. They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical incidents was a misidentification of B. torosus with S. luridus, though they could not rule out S. luridus containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol-related reactions.

Chemistry

The composition of the volatile flavour compounds of Suillellus luridus consists largely of linoleic acid, with smaller proportions of 1-butanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, pentadecanoic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid methyl ester, and heptadecanoic acid. Pyrazine compounds might be responsible for the characteristic odour of the dried mushroom. The predominant sterol present in the fruit bodies is ergosterol, with smaller amounts of closely related derivative compounds. The main fatty acids of the mushroom include linoleic acid (53.4% of total fatty acids), oleic acid (24.1%), and palmitic acid (10.2%). Arginine is the free amino acid found in the highest concentration (96.9 μM per gram of dry weight), followed by glutamine (9.7) and alanine (8.2).

The carotenoid content of the fruit bodies differs substantially between the cap, the tubes, and the stem. The upper part of the cap, which contains 3.1 micrograms of carotenoid per gram (µg/g) fresh weight, has predominantly mutatochrome (47% of total carotenoids), 4-keto-α-carotene (40.2%), and δ-carotene (6.4%). The major carotenoids in the tubes (totaling 4.3 µg/g) include neurosporaxanthin (31.1%), auroxanthin (17.2%), 4-keto-α-carotene (17.1%),  and rhodopin (15.8%). The stem (1.2 µg/g) contains primarily auroxanthin (32.5%), followed by 4-keto-α-carotene (19.9%), β-zeacarotene (18.5%), and rhodopin (11.4%). The colour change observed with tissue injury is caused by variegatic and xerocomic acids, both of which turn blue when oxidized enzymatically upon exposure to air.

See also
List of North American boletes

References

External links

luridus
Edible fungi
Fungi described in 1774
Fungi of Asia
Fungi of Central America
Fungi of Europe
Fungi of Mexico
Fungi of North America
Fungi of Western Asia
Taxa named by Jacob Christian Schäffer
Fungi without expected TNC conservation status


Bouvières (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

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Communes of Drôme


Bouvante () is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department
Parc naturel régional du Vercors

References

Communes of Drôme


Bourg-lès-Valence (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. It is a suburb of Valence. The archaeologist and Hellenist Fernand Courby (1878–1932) was born in Bourg-lès-Valence.

In 2014–2019, Bourg-lès-Valence was twinned with the town of Shusha (Shushi) of the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, but de jure part of Azerbaijan. In 2019, the administrative court of Grenoble declared the partnership treaty null and void due to the municipality having exceeded its power by unilaterally signing it and France's non-recognition of the de facto state.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bourdeaux (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

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Communes of Drôme


Boulc is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bouchet (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beaumont-Monteux (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Best bin first is a search algorithm that is designed to efficiently find an approximate solution to the nearest neighbor search problem in very-high-dimensional spaces. The algorithm is based on a variant of the kd-tree search algorithm which makes indexing higher-dimensional spaces possible. Best bin first is an approximate algorithm which returns the nearest neighbor for a large fraction of queries and a very close neighbor otherwise.

Differences from kd tree

 Bins are looked in increasing order of distance from the query point. The distance to a bin is defined as a minimal distance to any point of its boundary. This is implemented with priority queue.
 Search a fixed number of nearest candidates and stop.
 A speedup of two orders of magnitude is typical.

References

Search algorithms


Vinsobres (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France.

Geography
Vinsobres is located 9 km south-west of Nyons, 14 km north-east of Tulette, 12 km south-east of Valréas, and 15 km north of Vaison-la-Romaine.

The neighbouring communes are Mirabel-aux-Baronnies and Saint-Maurice-sur-Eygues.

History
Alphonse de Bounard was the Marquis of Archimbaud, Lord of Roquebrune, Vérone and Vinsobres, Baron of Montguers and royalist member of parliament for Nyons.

According to the tradition he was descended from the Cort Palatine and Italian painter, Arcimboldo.

Toponymy
The oldest form is de Vinzobrio, attested in 1137.  It is made up of the root, vintio-, which originates from the pre-Celtic vin-t (height), and from the Celtic suffix briga (mountain).

Population

Sights
 The ruins of a castle keep tower over the village, and the remains of the medieval enclosure and one gate, known as the "Portalou" can also be seen.
 La Touche, Deurre and the Château of Véronne: are all fortified houses dating from the Modern Period.

Economy

Wine

Vinsobres is an appellation for red wine since 2006.

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Venterol () is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Taulignan (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Serves-sur-Rhône (, literally Serves on Rhône) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Geography
Serves-sur-Rhône is positioned on the left bank of the River Rhône, on the Route Nationale 7, roughly  from Lyon and  from both Valence and Romans-sur-Isère.

Population

Wine
The commune is in the AOC Côtes-du-Rhône wine-producing region of Crozes-Hermitage.

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Maryland Airport  is a privately owned, public use airport located four miles (6 km) east of the central business district of Indian Head, in Charles County, Maryland, United States.

Facilities and aircraft
Maryland Airport covers an area of  which contains one operational runway: 2/20 with a 3,740 x 75 ft asphalt surface. For the 12-month period ending September 19, 2013, the airport had 17,020 aircraft operations, an average of 47 per day: 88% local general aviation, 6% transient general aviation, 6% military and <1% air taxi.
Phase 3 of the airport's expansion will include extending the runway to 4,300 feet, along with construction of a parallel taxiway, a ramp to accommodate 75 planes, an access road to Bumpy Oak Road, and a new terminal.

See also
 List of airports in Maryland

References

External links
Maryland Airport at Maryland Office of Regional Aviation Assistance

Airports in Maryland
Transportation buildings and structures in Charles County, Maryland


Mérindol-les-Oliviers (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Mercurol () is a former commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. It was located in the district of Valencia. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune Mercurol-Veaunes.

Population

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Communes of the Drôme department

References

Former communes of Drôme


Livron-sur-Drôme (, literally Livron on Drôme; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

History

 Livron was initially a rural commune. Extending over 3,817 ha, its territory comprises three zones: a small Cretaceous massif to the south-east; the remains of alluvial terraces constituting the "hillside" to the east; and a vast plain extending to the Rhone to the west.

This tripartition has, for centuries, marked the life of Livron. The hillside and the plain did not offer the same agricultural possibilities in the past as they do today. The light soils of the hillsides were long preferred to the heavy soils of the plain, which required powerful tools and a large labour force. It was not until the 18th century with population growth, the use of better plows and irrigation by canals that the development of the vast Livronnaise plain really began. This enhancement then extended and developed further by combining with the commercial, artisanal and industrial development of Livron in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The origin of Livron as a city is attested from 1113, but a Livronnais culture dates back further to Roman civilization as reflected by its name.
The old name “Castrum Liberonis” would have for origin “the domain of a free man” or called “Liber”.

The Via Agrippa was already running through this area in Roman times.
Livron was, for a long time, only a castle surrounded by a few hovels. However, its great location quickly made it a safe place and an excellent refuge for its lord, the Bishop of Valence. In 1157, the possession of this castle was recognized to the bishop of Valence by Frederic Barbarossa, Germanic emperor then suzerain of the region.

Very early, a legend flourished in this town: the Tower of the Devil, clinging to the slope of Brézème, still keeps its mystery resulting from strange facts, reported by Gervais de Tilbury, in 1211, in his Otia Imperiala: "...at the castle of Livron, there is a bishop's tower. Very high, it does not support a night watchman; if one installs one there, he will feel in the morning transported into the valley below without having experienced the anguish of falling or the terror of the impact on the ground; he will find himself deposited at the bottom without having felt touched or struck by anyone".

From the 12th century, the population grew rapidly and saw its rights recognized at the beginning of the 14th century: the Livronnais obtained a charter from their bishop in 1304.

From 1032 to 1378, the regions located between the Alps and the Rhône were placed under the authority of the Germanic Empire. At the end of the 14th century, this region, of which Livron was a part, was ceded to the Dauphin of France and became the Dauphiné. At the end of the Middle Ages, markets and fairs were in full swing and exchanges were organized which led to such a boom in the city that around 1500, it largely overflowed the walls.

The 14th century saw multiple tragedies: ransacking during wars fought between small neighbouring lords, population decimated by the terrible plague of 1348, looting and abuses by the Rovers (soldiers released by the truce of the Hundred Years' War). All of this led to Livron retreating again behind a belt of walls around the old town.

In the 16th century, a new enclosure was built fixing the limits of the "Bourg". These walls are pierced by four gates flanked by solid towers ensuring a very strong defence: La porte de la Barrière to the south, Empêchy to the west, Chanal to the north and Tronas to the east.

In the 16th century, protestant doctrines won over Dauphiné and Vivarais and terrible religious struggles ensued. During these religious wars, Livron, besieged by the troops of Henri III, repelled the attacks of the royal army several times (1574-1575). This failure caused a stir and Livron, a protestant stronghold, became famous.

In the 17th century, fighting against these protestant strongholds, Louis XIII and Richelieu ordered the demolition of all walls of Livron in 1623. Only "the devil's tower" (Tour de Raspans) remained, which no one dared touch. After the glory, the Livronnais must go back to living in a devastated city where other misfortunes are added: Again the plague which makes dark cuts in the population, the agricultural difficulties of the middle of the century, the continual passages of troops, and from 1685, the religious persecutions which followed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

The area started to recover around the middle of the 18th century: The silk processing industry was booming: spinning, milling, weaving and breeding silkworms created many jobs. Imposing buildings still bear witness to this in Livron and throughout the Drôme Valley.

The Rhône is a convenient means of transporting goods. The boats easily go down the river with the current but going up the river, they must be pulled by many heavy draft horses. Skippers on the Rhône used the towpaths thereby supporting the residents living close to the river. Some found work by running inns welcoming sailors, others were in charge of taking care of the draft horses.

In 1767, the construction of the current stone bridge which spans the Drôme, began. Stagecoaches, coaches and carts could finally take the Grande Route Royale (RN 7) without worrying about flooding. These had swept away several bridges and many convoys that had been using the ford since 1521. It was the increase in traffic on this main road that was to be at the origin of the development of the lower town with its relays and hostels.

The general economic crisis of the years 1787-1790 did not spare Livron, which soon welcomed the Revolution with enthusiasm. Livron took part, as everywhere in Dauphiné, in the 1st States General in 1788 and in the 1st Federation of National Guards in 1789 at Etoile.

The years of the Consulate and the Empire were a period of organization: with the first cadastral plan in 1809, the plots of land were united, the districts in the countryside developed. Half of the population lived there, notably in St Genys, Les Petits Robins, and Domazane.

Economic changes manifested themselves through the rise of small industries. These were mechanized by using the driving force of the network of canals that crisscrosses the entire Commune.

A “Chappe” telegraph station was established at the beginning of the 19th century. It allowed the circulation of dispatches from the State of Paris to Toulon.

This period ended with the sound of arms of the fight between royalists and imperialists, on the bridge of Livron, April 2, 1815, while Napoleon returning from the Island of Elba had re-entered Paris.
If the middle of the 19th century was a period of intense development for Livron, it was only after 1918, in the period between the two wars, that the "descent" of public and religious buildings was to consecrate the preponderant role played by the lower town.

Another battle raged near this same bridge on the night of August 16 to 17, 1944. An FFI commando blew up one of the arches to cut off the retreat to the north of the Seventh German Army. The famous victory of the "Battle of Montélimar" would be a direct result directly from it.

Castle

At the prow of a small Cretaceous massif, the Vizier hill, dominating the Drôme and the road from Lyon to Marseille, was a remarkable site. A castle was established there at the end of the 11th century by the lord of these lands, the bishop of Valence. This one, in November 1157, obtained from the Germanic emperor Frederic 1st Barbarossa the confirmation of all the temporal privileges of his Church and thus took rank among the great vassals of the Empire; he was at the head of an independent state with the right to mint coins and possessing a large number of places, including Livron, Loriol, Étoile, Allex, Montvendre, Montéléger, etc.

The castle of Livron gave birth to a legend reported by Gervais of Tilbury in 1209 in his "Otia imperiala". It was said that one of its towers was enchanted: often, the guard who spent the night there was found in the morning at the bottom of the hill where he had been transported without harm, in an inexplicable way (in the 19th century, this legend was linked to the only surrounding tower that remained standing which then received the name of Devil's Tower.

In the political field, for the sector of Livron, the bishops of Valence, the counts of Valentinois and the lords of La Voulte will be opposed throughout XIIIe and XIVe centuries; by intervening in their struggles, the Germanic Emperor and the King of France will do everything to extend their influence and enlarge their respective domains. Between the counts of Valentinois and the bishops of Valence, an intermittent war lasting almost a hundred years would begin and continue to the great displeasure of the populations.

The village, the city, the town (1304-1493). The small town of Livron had settled below the castle, to the northwest of the hill. Its population, at the beginning of the 14th century, was strong enough for the Bishop of Valence to grant the inhabitants, on October 14, 1304, a charter of franchises. Shortly after, in February 1311, the Livron community found the resources to retire the seigniorial ovens.

If Livron was touched in the spring of 1348 by the epidemic of black plague going up the valley of the Rhone, and had to undergo, as of after 1360, the multiple exactions of the Rovers. Less calamitous times came in the fifteenth century.

The small community was able to ensure control over the local bread production circuit by raising, in April 1412, the mills of Livron, the management of which weighed on the lord bishop. And this one authorized, on March 30, 1423, the creation of a market in the locality, on Tuesday of each week, hoping thus to initiate an economic and demographic revival which he wished like the inhabitants.

The reputation of the Château de Livron – a very strong place deemed impregnable – has not only brought advantages. Geoffroy de Boucicaut (brother of the Marshal of France taken prisoner by the English at Agincourt in 1451) had married, in 1421, the niece of the Bishop of Valence Jean de Poitiers. Having served Pope Benedict XIII in the city of Avignon until 1413, he demanded the payment of unpaid wages and, faced with the refusal that was opposed to him, he had undertaken operations in the Comtat. Soon threatened, he came in 1427 to seek refuge in his uncle's castle in Livron. It was besieged there, from March 1427, by nearly 600 soldiers from Avignon; Boucicaut will have to capitulate on May 7, 1427. If the local population was not too seriously affected during this operation, as a retaliatory measure, the Livronnais castle will be partially destroyed.

The political situation had evolved in the region. Whereas, since 1305, the Rhone constituted the border between the Kingdom of France and the Empire, the latter had little by little lost all influence on the left bank of the river. In April 1446, the Valentinois was annexed to the Dauphiné, and the Dauphin Louis II (future King Louis XI) worked, from 1447, to reduce all the parcels of sovereign authority that some great feudatories still held: among them the lord of Livron, bishop of Valence and Die. Between the latter and the Dauphin was concluded, on September 10, 1450, a pariage treaty which will be rearranged in 1456.

In the middle of the 15th century, in the consular accounts of Livron (where an already diversified administration functioned under the direction of elected inhabitants), the average both of receipts and of expenditure was around 177 florins (i.e. the value of 265 rows of wheat, that is to say about 12 tons). This rather modest level shows the mediocre importance of the funds then managed by the community of inhabitants.

Soon, a stage was going to be crossed in the constitution of the agglomeration of Livronnaise. The "city", fairly close to the castle, had already extended beyond the first surrounding walls (the so-called "Villeneuve" street testifies to this distant extension). If, in 1461, there were 192 heads of families in Livron, i.e. between 700 and 800 inhabitants, at the end of the 15th century the original town was doubled by a small "village" which was to grow in the first half of the following century. .

Revealing fact of an urban emergence, a large collegiate church was built; placed under the invocation of Saint-Prix, it will be consecrated in 1493.

In the region, and in Livron in particular, we had witnessed, throughout the 15th century, the extension of Church lands; Alongside a fringe of rich or, at least, well-to-do families, a large part of peasant society then constituted a kind of proletariat of miserable people whose indebtedness was undoubtedly the most striking aspect of the social situation in the end of the fifteenth century.

The golden age of the “bourg” (1494 – 1562). While there was no bridge in Livron since 1306 to cross the Drôme, a new structure was built from 1511, unfortunately carried away in 1521 by a flood of the river. It was not until the 18th century that a lasting bridge was established.

The first half of the 16th century is the period during which the perched village had the most inhabitants: with 369 houses listed in 1556, it must have had around 1,200 inhabitants. This large population and the full functioning of local institutions mean that this period can be considered as the "golden age" of the hilltop town.

This growing little town was to welcome the Reformation. The movement was going to be favoured, even reinforced in our region, by the nomination of a new bishop for Valence and Die: Jean de Montluc. Broad-minded, acquired by the idea of a reform of the Catholic Church, this bishop will be very receptive to the novelties in his diocese.

In Livron, the Reformed nucleus grew rapidly. Protestant leaders were quick to write to Geneva to obtain a pastor. And, while the passages of troops multiplied, on Thursday May 7, 1562, the pastor Jehan Penin, sent from Geneva, arrived in Livron. On May 24, the inhabitants decided to keep it: the Reformed Church of Livron was born and it was firmly established.

1562 to 1633

On April 27, 1562, La Motte-Gondrin, Lieutenant General of Dauphiné, was killed in Valence, which sparked the civil war in the province.

Reformed stronghold, Livron will be affected by the war from this year 1562, with the accommodation of troops, the supply of men and food, but the operations will not directly affect the town until the spring of 1570 when the Protestant leader Montbrun will stay there. part of his troop.

The royal coup de force of Saint-Barthélemy, in August 1572, put a stop to military actions for a time and the Livronnais pastor Pierre de Vinays took refuge in Geneva. But, from 1573, Montbrun resumed operations. Livron besieged for the first time without success in June–July 1574, will again be surrounded, from December 1574 to January 1575, by royal troops 6,000 strong. This memorable siege, success for the besieged, will bring Livron into the great story; but the aftermath will be very difficult due to the depletion of resources and the damage caused, the old town being partially destroyed, a large part of its walls having served to reinforce the outer enclosure.

Ceded to the royal troops under a provincial agreement, Livron was completely dismantled in 1582. Reoccupied by Protestant troops, the town found a new enclosure in 1590 before becoming, in 1599, one of the twelve places of safety granted to Protestants in Dauphiné.

The 17th century would see a gradual loss of influence from the local Protestant party. The abjuration of the Livronnais pastor Barbier in 1615 will be like a prelude to this decline. In 1623, Livron will be definitively dismantled. The terrible plague epidemic of 1629/1631 passed, the fight will resume and this time the Catholic party will emerge victorious: seizure of the Protestant temple in 1632, temple which will become the Catholic church of the place. And the demolition of the castle in 1633, on the orders of Louis XIII and Richelieu, would mark a new stage: for Livron its use as a stronghold was over.

The Catholic reconquest (1634 – 1715). The power of the local Protestant party was gradually destroyed from 1635 to 1684. First, the Catholics, although still very much in the minority, intrigued to obtain advantages in the municipal administration. An agreement was reached on January 28, 1635: from now on, the council of the community, which was elected each year, would be half-party, that is to say that it would be made up of 3 advisers from each religion.

Thirty years later, although still largely in the majority, the Protestants were to take second place in the local administration. Indeed, from 1666, the council will remain half-party, but two consuls will be elected each year, one from each religion, the first consul being necessarily Catholic. This pre-eminence was also ensured by the presence at all meetings of the council of the parish priest Antoine Bellin as syndic of the Catholics.

Then came the time to purely and simply eliminate the Protestant religion. Both the carrot and the stick were employed by the State: a bonus or tax exemption was offered in the event of abjuration, otherwise the dragoons were threatened. Bans on worship and orders to demolish temples increased in the region from the end of 1683 to the end of 1684.

The Livronnais Protestants will not abjure easily; it will be necessary, in the autumn of 1685, of hard dragonnades so that the things change. Pages are missing in the parish register of Livron, and not everything can be counted, but from October 10 to 16, 1685 alone, the priest will register 420 abjurations; a few others will follow until November, and there were certainly many before October 10. It happened in a similar way all over the country, so much so that, on paper at least, almost all the Protestants had abjured. Also, on October 17, 1685, in Fontainebleau, Louis XIV was able to sign the revocation of the Edict of Nantes: the Protestants having almost all joined – he said – the Catholic religion, the edict had become without object. A significant figure: in 1687, two years after the Revocation, the bishop of Valence counted, among the 1,366 inhabitants of Livron, 71% of “new converts” (former Protestants); that is to say that here, before the Revocation, the "regular" Catholic reconquest had only begun.

Livronnaises and Livronnais emigrated: we find traces of about thirty of them rescued by the Geneva Stock Exchange. This emigration was mainly directed towards Germany.

The end of the reign of Louis XIV was to be very difficult. In 1701, a new tax, the capitation, had already come to increase the charges, but soon a meteorological disaster, the terrible winter of 1709, will bring many deaths and an upsurge in misery.

Although now banned, the Protestant religion had not died out. In the family environment, the Protestants maintained their faith which thus kept an astonishing vitality: the numerous burials "in the fields" that the Livronnais priest noted in his parish register bear proof of this.

18th Century

It was made especially from the 18th century. Already in the 17th century, with the end of the internal wars, residence outside the town walls no longer entailing great risks, we saw more and more frequently farmers residing on their land. The phenomenon had first affected the hillside; in the 18th century, it would completely change the face of the plain. While in 1635, it only included 13.8% of the Livronnaise population, it will include 32.9% in 1801 (for a total population of 2,265 inhabitants) and 44.8% in 1841 (out of a total of 3,730 inhabitants).

Agricultural progress and innovations accompanied this settlement of the vast Livronnaise plain throughout the 18th century.

Let us first note an attempt that will not be crowned with success. As part of the "Rizières de France" operation, rice fields had been planned for Livron: they were granted in December 1740. The installation began at the end of winter in a part of the plain to the west. of the town. But, from the month of June 1741, in front of the complaints of the inhabitants, it will be necessary to undertake to make estimate by experts the damage caused to certain Livronnais funds by the constructions of channels and the flooding of the grounds. Soon the installations were sabotaged: filling of canals, deterioration of the valves, etc. In addition, the stagnant waters of the rice fields brought many cases of malaria. Also, the low yield obtained not ensuring profitability, the cultivation of rice was very quickly abandoned.

The development of silkworm breeding would provide everyone with new resources. An industrial activity ensued. In 1756, the Dessoudeys brothers established, at the foot of Brézème, an important mill where 4 water wheels, driven by the waters of the Drôme, operated 12 mills (2,870 spindles and 5 doubling banks of 25 spindles each) and, on the first floor 16 reeling banks of 94 tavelles each. The company was going to occupy a hundred workers and especially workers originating, for the majority, from Vivarais.

The absence of a bridge over the Drôme often forced merchants, in times of high water, to turn towards Crest to bring their carts across the river. Because the use of the Livron ferry was not without risks. For example, on January 7, 1764, an accident almost cost the life of the Courrier de France: the cable of the ferry having broken, the car fell into the river and it took a lot of effort to save the man, the horse and the vehicle. Moreover, there was a lot to be said about the quality of the service if we are to believe the engineer Paulmier de la Tour who wrote in this year 1764: “The owners are very negligent and often prefer the cabaret to the ferry; everyone complains about it and I have experienced it myself, which is all the more reprehensible since the ferry is a gunshot below the direction of the road. The engineer having intervened with the farmer, the latter promised to see to it from now on "that the bosses be exact and less corsair". Only a bridge could provide the solution to all these difficulties. It will be built from 1767 to 1789 according to the plans of the engineer Bouchet. A well-designed stone structure, it could have been used as early as 1778 when the structural work was completed. In connection with the works of the bridge, water intakes were established on the river which made it possible to supply a whole network of new canals intended for the irrigation of the plain. A well-designed stone structure, it could have been used as early as 1778 when the structural work was completed. In connection with the works of the bridge, water intakes were established on the river which made it possible to supply a whole network of new canals intended for the irrigation of the plain. A well-designed stone structure, it could have been used as early as 1778 when the structural work was completed. In connection with the works of the bridge, water intakes were established on the river which made it possible to supply a whole network of new canals intended for the irrigation of the plain.

In the years that preceded the Revolution, with population growth, there was an impoverishment of a large part of the peasantry; the latter could no longer buy land which, coveted by the privileged classes, saw its prices soar. And, while the preparation of the Estates General focused the attention of public authorities and wealthy people, a serious economic and social crisis was preparing against which nothing had been planned. While the peasants had to suffer a serious deficit in sericulture in 1787 and a disastrous harvest in 1788, terrible weather was to ruin all hopes for 1789: after a series of catastrophic rains in the fall, the winter of 1788-1789 was terrible. Walnut trees, mulberry trees and vines were going to suffer a lot.

With the Revolution, the Consulate and the Empire, the rules and conditions of agricultural work were changed: abolition of seigniorial rights, sale of national property, etc. Population growth, already well under way, would continue with the contribution of foreign population. The mayor of Livron could write in 1831: "The remarkable progress of our population can be attributed to various causes (apart from the proliferation of marriages under the laws of conscription): in the vicinity of the department of Ardèche which annually dumps entire families , to the division of property which facilitated the establishment of these emigrants, to the care taken by the authority to protect them – in a way against the wishes of the natives who saw only a burden in their poverty.

19th Century

On August 15, 1944, Franco-American troops landed in Provence despite opposition from the 19th German Army. The latter, in its withdrawal movement, chose to go up the Rhone Valley: the Germans took the National 7 in our region rather than the RN 86 or the departmental roads passing through Crest because these last two routes were too favorable to ambushes by the Ardèche or Drôme maquis.

To hinder the German retreat as much as possible, it was necessary to immediately destroy the bridges on the RN 7; but that of Livron posed a problem because the proximity of the town made any bombardment dangerous for the civilians. So the decision was made to blow it up.

A well-organized operation on August 15 at 4:30 p.m., Captain Gérard/Albert (Henri Faure) head of the SAP (Airdrop landings section) received this message from Commander Legrand (General de Lassus) head FFI of the Drôme: "Blow up the Livron bridge , give an account of the execution”.

From the morning of August 16, Henri Faure checked the available armament and had Dieulefit collect plastic sticks to add to those he already had. Towards the evening, at 7 p.m., a reconnaissance was carried out: German vehicles parked during the day on either side of the bridge had left. After discussion at the Brunel farm, 3 km upstream, it was decided to go to the place of operation around 10 p.m. At 10:30 p.m., a reconnaissance group, composed of Henri Faure, Jean Mathon, Jacques Monier and Louis Valette, cautiously approached the RN 7; the guerrillas heard the singing of the Germans quartered near the bridge. The North Protection Group, composed of Louis Valette, Philippe Monier, Jean Boyer, Maurice Brunet, Léon Brunel, Pierre Chastel and Jean Mathon, came to take position. The Germans were still singing, their shutters were closed; then the rest of the commando quickly crossed the bridge along the parapet, and the South Protection Group comprising Henri Faure, Charles Comer, Camille Planet, Max Lafont, René Achard, Jean Boulanger, Philippe Vitali, Raymond Baulac and Raymond Bertalin, took position on the side of Loriol.

The most important and the most delicate thing remained to be done: digging the mine shafts. German tanks were well stationed to the south, about 600 m on either side of the RN 7, but the miners could not be seen. These, divided into two groups, Jean Didier and Marcel Testut on one side, Charles Bonnet and Élie Mourier on the other, began to dig, 6 m apart, two mine shafts on the keystone of the southernmost arch. The crowbars had been wrapped in rags, but it was necessary, out of prudence, to space out the blows well. Suddenly, very close, the door of the cantonment opened, a shade left: was it the alarm? No, luckily the soldier was just out to urinate. Another concern, shortly after, a German patrol, all fires on, appeared to the south but turned around at the level of the tanks stopped there. The work continued slowly and finally, under the removed sand, appeared the vault of the bridge. So three plastic cells were placed in each hole, the slow bits put in place, and everything was carefully backfilled.

And it was the retreat, we passed again in front of the enemy cantonment and we joined on the road of Allex the vehicle used to come. We waited little; around three o'clock in the morning, a sudden flash followed by a terrible crash: the plastique had just exploded! And of course everyone asks themselves the question: had the bridge been cut? We had to wait for daylight to find out.

A severely hampered retreat! Yes, the operation had succeeded: the explosion had opened a breach of 27 meters in the south arch! And it was – we will soon learn – three meters too long for the German Engineers to repair it with their equipment! From that day on, motorized convoys began to pile up on the south bank and came under Allied fire. Only the tanks of the 11th SS Panzer were able to cross the river without major damage. On the 19th, the Brigade of the American General Butler having come to take up position on the heights of Marsanne alongside the maquisards, many Germans tried to cross the Drôme much further downstream. Even though the river was low at the time, many light vehicles were going to get stuck:

Wedged by the destruction of the Livron bridge and the outflanking to the east of General Butler's army, the German XIX Army had to suffer heavy losses during the great battle of Montélimar, but it was not exterminated as we have seen. has too often said: very diminished, dislocated, it was still able to partially reconstitute itself in the Vosges. It was for her a very serious failure to which the action of the commando led by Faure on the night of August 16 to 17, 1944 had greatly contributed.

19th Century

Transformation of the agglomeration (the bridge and the lower town): Until the middle of the 18th century, the village remained resolutely perched (less than twenty houses along the Grande Route until 1780!!!). It was the construction of the bridge over the Drôme that changed things. While the ferry obliged the traveler to mark a stop in Livron (we then often went up to the village while waiting for the boat to be ready), the bridge now made it possible to “burn” the old town. Also traders and artisans such as innkeepers, farriers, wheelwrights, etc. were they the first to settle along the road creating the beginning of what was to be called "the Lower", the old town becoming "the Upper".

Political changes: In Livron, a balanced religious bipartisanship (in 1872, 52% Catholics and 48% Protestants) marked the local political evolution in an original way. The debates around the school question and the principles of the Republic (which will prevail in 1870) will take on increased importance there.

Economic changes: With the development of irrigation (canals derived from the Drôme), the improvement of seeds, the use of fertilizers, the extension of artificial meadows, the progress of tools and the use of machines, agriculture experienced a wonderful boom after the first quarter of the 19th century.

Using for the most part, the force of water wheels established on the new canals, workshops and factories multiplied. A report, established in 1843, is revealing: 5 spinning mills, 3 spinning mills, 4 tool factories, 1 marble sawmill, 1 puddler oven, 2 wood sawmills, 2 tanneries, several tile factories and brick factories.

A crossroads of traffic routes: At the confluence of the Rhône, Drôme and Ouvèze valleys, Livron found itself at a rail crossroads with the commissioning of the lines: Lyon-Avignon in 1856, Livron- La Voulte in 1861, Livron-Crest in 1870 (extended to Die in 1885). And, at the same time, the locality has seen its role as a crossroads grow: the road from Livron to Allex and Crest, entered on the main road from Lyon to Provence, has been established at the foot of the hill, the road to the Ardèche has benefited, to cross the two arms of the Rhône, from the construction of two bridges, one in 1891, the other in 1892.

To conclude this overview, let us read Ardouin-Dumazet who wrote in 1890: “The modern town of Livron, or lower town, opens onto the bridge spanning the Drôme, near a halt on the Die railway. It's a big, wide street, lined with opulent houses... On the sheer rock is the old town ... it is a rather painful stay despite the splendor of the panorama. So the inhabitants descend one by one into the lower town where the silk mills are ... where the canals derived from the Drôme have made the stony plain a marvel of freshness and agricultural wealth. Between the city and the railway, the fields are superb. The main station is quite far from the city, but it is important; there the lines of Privas and Briançon stand out. It is at this junction of railway lines that Livron, a simple commune.

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Roche-de-Glun (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. It lies on the left bank of the Rhône, opposite the village Glun (Ardèche department).

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


KGLO (1300 kHz) is a commercial AM radio station in Mason City, Iowa, owned by Alpha Media, through licensee Digity 3E License, LLC.  It airs a news/talk radio format.  The radio studios and offices are on South Yorktown Pike.

KGLO is a Class B AM station, powered at 5,000 watts.  It uses a directional antenna with a three-tower array.  The transmitter is on 200th Street near Partidge Avenue (U.S. Route 65).Radio-Locator.com/KGLO

Programming
Weekdays begin with The Tim Fleming Morning Show, including news, weather, farm reports and interviews with newsmakers.  There is also a midday news block and sports most evenings.  The rest of the weekday schedule is nationally syndicated talk shows:  The Ramsey Show with Dave Ramsey, Markley, Van Camp & Robbins, The Sean Hannity Show, Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis and Coast to Coast AM with George Noory.

The station airs local high school football and basketball games.  It also carries Minnesota Twins baseball games.  Most hours begin with an update from CBS News Radio.

History

Globe Gazette newspaper
KGLO signed on the air on .  Originally it was assigned the frequency of 1210 kilocycles.  It was owned by Lee Enterprises, which also owned the Globe Gazette.  The call sign derives from the daily newspaper's name.

The founding general manager of KGLO and Lee Broadcasting was Francis C. Eighmey. KGLO began operation with only 250 watts of power by day and 100 watts at night.  It was the lowest wattage radio station to be an affiliate of the CBS Radio Network, but the station served what was recognized as a key market area in the Midwest.

Signal upgrade
In the early 1940s, the station moved to its present frequency of 1300 kHz, coupled with a power upgrade.  On March 29, 1941, power was increased to 1,000 watts day and night with a non-directional antenna.  The transmitter was on old Highway 18 just west of Mason City.  Shortly thereafter, power was increased to 5,000 watts and two flanking towers were added to produce a directional signal at night with deep nulls to the east and west. In 1998, the transmitter was moved to six miles south of Mason City with directional pattern both day and night to provide a better signal over Mason City.

The revenue generated by KGLO radio provided for significant corporate expansion.  Eighmey began this process with the acquisition of WTAD in Quincy, Illinois. Additional radio stations were later added in Wisconsin.  Lee Broadcasting established KGLO-TV, the area's CBS affiliate, in 1954.  That station is now KIMT-TV.  Other television stations were acquired, including KGMB-TV in Honolulu and KOIN-TV in Portland, Oregon.

Full Service and News-Talk
In the 1960s, the Lee Newspapers were merged with Lee Broadcasting.  As network programming shifted from radio to television, KGLO began a full service, middle of the road format of popular adult music, news, sports and farm reports.  The station shifted to adult contemporary music in the 1980s.

By the 1990s, listeners were tuning to FM radio stations for music, so KGLO made the transition to all-talk with frequent news, sports and farm reports.

In 2007, the station was acquired by Clear Channel Communications, based in San Antonio.Broadcasting & Cable Yearbook 2010, page D-222. Retrieved on October 9, 2023.  Clear Channel (today known as iHeartMedia) later sold the station to Alpha Media, based in Portland, Oregon.

References

External links
KGLO official website
KGLO's news website

GLO
News and talk radio stations in the United States
Mason City, Iowa
Alpha Media radio stations
Radio stations established in 1938
1938 establishments in Iowa


Larnage () is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Gervans () is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Crozes-Hermitage (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

Wine

Wine is produced under the Crozes-Hermitage AOC designation.

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Chanos-Curson is a commune of the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Jim Falk (born ) is a physicist and academic researcher on science and technology studies.

Background
Falk was born in Oxford, England. His father was the philosopher Werner D. Falk (latterly professor at the University of North Carolina), and his mother an Australian, Dr. Barbara Cohen.  Werner Falk had fled Germany prior to World War II and was studying and lecturing at the University of Oxford. The family moved to Australia when Jim Falk was young, when his father worked at the University of Melbourne. Falk attended Scotch College from 1952 to 1964, graduated with first class honours in physics at Monash University in 1968, and received his PhD from Monash in theoretical quantum physics in 1974. His late partner for 47 years was Emeritus Professor Sue Rowley (1948-2016), with whom he had two children. Jim Falk lives in Melbourne.

In December 2010 he retired, but remained an honorary professorial fellow in the Melbourne Sustainable Society Institute, at The University of Melbourne.  He was the founding director of Climate Change research for the Association of Pacific Rim Universities World Institute, and holds appointments also of visiting professor to the Institute of Advanced Studies of Sustainability at the United Nations University (in Yokohama, Japan), and emeritus professor at the University of Wollongong.

Scholarly contributions

For over 35 years Falk has studied science and technology in their social contexts. He has worked towards advancing understanding of the political, economic and cultural factors which constrain or facilitate the exercise of social control over technological change, latterly in relation to climate change and information technology but particularly nuclear technology, arms races and militarisation.  Most recently he has focused on the broad issues of human governance (including what needs to be done to respond to challenges faced by humanity from climate change, to energy policy, and to issues associated with information flows and military threats).

One of Falk's books, co-authored with Joseph Camilleri, was launched by UNDP head, the Hon Helen Clark, in Sydney, Australia in February 2010.  The book "Worlds in Transition: Evolving Governance Across a Stressed Planet", Edward Elgar, UK, is a synoptic overview of the way in which humans have come to collectively seek to shape their futures, and the challenges posed to that in a time of rapid transition.

Falk has made a number of media appearances in relation to the nuclear accidents at Fukushima and the implications for future energy policy.  Jim Falk has recently authored a short e-book "Things that Count: the rise and fall of calculators" on the social history of calculation technology. It can be downloaded from a website he maintains on the subject. His current scholarly work is on the proposals associated with geoengineering, which were the subject of a seminar he presented at the United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies in Yokohama, Japan, in October 2013.

Publications
Books
J. Camilleri and J. Falk. 2010.  Worlds in Transition: Evolving governance across a stressed planet, Edward Elgar, UK. 670 pp.
J. Camilleri and J. Falk. 1992. The End of Sovereignty?: The future shaping of world politics, Edward Elgar, London. 312 pp.
J. Falk and A. Brownlow. 1989. The Greenhouse Challenge: What’s to be done?, Penguin, Melbourne. 340 pp.
J. Falk. 1983. Taking Australia Off the Map: Facing the Threat of Nuclear War.  Penguin and Heinemann Publishers, Melbourne.310 pp.
J. Falk (ed.). 1983. Preventing Nuclear War: Australia’s Role, edited proceedings of a Symposium held at the University of Wollongong on 10 September 1982, Uniadvice, the University of Wollongong, Wollongong. 80 pp.
J. Falk. 1982. Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. 410 pp.
D. Hayes, J. Falk, and N. Barrett. 1976. Red Light for Yellow Cake: the case against uranium mining, FOE, Melbourne. 96 pp.

eBooks
 "Things that Count: the rise and fall of calculators", things-that-count.net, Melbourne, 2014.  187 pp.

References

External links

Sustainability advocates
People associated with energy
Australian anti–nuclear power activists
Living people
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne
Academic staff of the University of Wollongong
People educated at Scotch College, Melbourne
Monash University alumni
Academic staff of RMIT University
Academic staff of Western Sydney University
Academic staff of the Victoria University, Melbourne
People from Oxford
English emigrants to Australia
1946 births
Ethics of science and technology


Montbrison-sur-Lez is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Érôme (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bonlieu-sur-Roubion () is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bézaudun-sur-Bîne (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bésignan (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bésayes (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bénivay-Ollon (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bellegarde-en-Diois (; Vivaro-Alpine: Bèlagarda de Diés) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bellecombe-Tarendol is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Bégude-de-Mazenc is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beauvoisin (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beauvallon (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


God Loves Fiasco is the first full-length album by the band Fiasco.

Track listing
 "Hot House" - 4:02
 "Fed Up" - 1:31
 "Vertical Litter" - 2:16
 "Sir Gentleman" - 1:16
 "Jonathan's Voice Cracks" - 0:05
 "Wild Goose Chase Rag" - 3:23
 "Stargaze" - 7:35
 "Stop That" - 1:21
 "Nothing To Lose" - 3:15
 "0157:H7" - Spy Song" - 2:20
 "Rod Ferrell" - 4:27
 "Disappointment" - 5:49
 "Shot In My Sleep" - 3:55
 "TK-421" - 1:07
 "True Story" - The Aquarium" - 5:17
 "We Think You're Wrong" - 1:34
 "Execute Order 66" - 4:07
 "Red Delicious" - 3:30
 "Song For Ian" - 5:17
 "Jonathan Messes Up" - 0:09
 "You Never Know" - 2:46
 "Träume" - 4:04
 "Don't Mind The Killings" - 9:12

Personnel
Jonathan Edelstein - Guitar, vocals
Julian Bennett Holmes - drums
Lucian Buscemi - Bass, Vocals

References

2007 debut albums
Fiasco (band) albums


Beausemblant (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beaurières (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beauregard-Baret (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

External links

 Official site

Communes of Drôme


Beaumont-lès-Valence (, literally Beaumont near Valence; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beaumont-en-Diois (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Beaufort-sur-Gervanne (; Vivaro-Alpine: Beufòrt de Gervana) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department
Parc naturel régional du Vercors

References

Communes of Drôme


Radhaa Ki Betiyaan Kuch Kar Dikhayengi is an Indian soap opera which aired on NDTV Imagine. The series was produced by DJ's a Creative Unit.

Plot
The show narrates the story of a widow Radha, and her three capable daughters - Rohini (Meethi) who is righteous and sensible, Ragini (Ginni) who is bold and energetic, and Ruchi (Chhutki) who is meek and timid. The sisters are unlike each other and aspire for different careers but support each other through life.

The family comes to Mumbai, after a troubled phase in Meerut, and stay at Radha's friend Shefali's house. Rohini wants to be a fashion designer, Ragini wants to pursue modelling, and Ruchi wants to be an astronaut. They struggle to find their place in the big city of Mumbai.

Rohini finds herself constantly put down by her competitive colleague, even though her choices and ideas are better. Ragini lies about her financial status in her college to fit in, and is busted. Ruchi fails to get into college because of her quiet nature, but is helped by her friend Adi.

When their mother sells her jewellery to get a nice gift for a relative's wedding, the sisters enroll themselves in a dance competition, win it, and repurchase the jewellery. They also save the Roshan Villa, where they live, from auctioning away. As their previous acquaintances return, the sisters find it difficult to deal with their problems but manage to win through in the end.

Cast
 Supriya Pilgaonkar as Radhaa Sharma
 Anita Kanwal as Roshan Ammu; landlady, grandmother
 Mona Vasu as Rohini Sharma; Meethi (eldest daughter)
 Ragini Khanna as Ragini Sharma; Gini (middle daughter)
 Ratan Rajput as Ruchi Sharma; Chutki (youngest daughter)
 Apurva Agnihotri as Dr. Shekhar Kapoor, Ammu's doctor, Varun's childhood friend, Rohini's husband
  Nikhil Roy as Nikhil, Ragini's close friend and love interest
 Sanaya Irani as Sanaya, Ragini friend
 Abhimaan Balhara as Aditya, Ruchi's love interest
 Meghna Malik as Revati, Rohini's boss, owner of Gulmohar Fashion House, Nikhil's mother
 Vinay Jain as Varun Shamsher Singh, Ammu's son
 Payal Nair as Shefali Varun Singh, Ammu's daughter-in-law, Varun's wife, Radhaa's close friend
 Mona Singh as Raunaq Makhija, Rohini's supervising designer, Dr. Shekhar's first
 Vivek Madan as Aniruddh (Ani)
 Garima Kapoor as Fatima (Fatty)
 Manish Paul as Karan, the photographer
 Amit Sareen as Gaurav
 Ridhi Dogra as Rani
 Chitz as Karan, Aditya's friend

External links
Official Site
Radhaa Ki Betiyaan Kuch Kar Dikhayengi on Dangal Play

Imagine TV original programming
Indian television soap operas
2008 Indian television series debuts
2009 Indian television series endings


La Baume-d'Hostun (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Baume-de-Transit (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Baume-Cornillane (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Its inhabitants are called Balmois.

Geography

La Baume-Cornillane is located 15 km from Crest and 18 km from Valence. The territory of the municipality consists of three parts: the plain, the foothills of the Vercors Massif and the mountain.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Bâtie-Rolland (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


La Bâtie-des-Fonds (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Bathernay (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Netshell may refer to:

Netsh
NetShell


Barsac (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Barret-de-Lioure (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Barnave is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Geography
Barnave is a small village, located opposite the Dome Pie Ferre (2040m) of Glandasse. The territory is crossed by the Barnavette River, a small creek which empties into the Drôme. The village lies 13 kilometres from the canton capital of Luc-en-Diois.

Hamlets

Le Serre: A sheep farm destined for organic meat production.
La Louine: Contains three residential houses and two farms. The distillery, formerly owned by the  CUMA, dates from 1946 but the structure fell into ruin, and was sold in 2007 and is now in production again.
La Bégude: Residential hamlet.
Le Moulin de Jansac: Housing, largely dependent on Recoubeau-Jansac.
La Perlette: The hamlet now has more than one farm and is about 3 km from the village as the crow flies, on the other side of the Drôme.
Les Brunets: Imposing farmhouse converted into a second home.

Population

Architecture
The typical architecture of houses in the village of Barnave is a mixture of Roman influences and early medieval. The stone extracted from fields and limestone form the basis for almost all houses that make up the village. There are still significant remnants of feudal times in Barnave. The ruins of the old village are still visible, as is the traces of a castle. A large portion of the castle wall is still standing. The commune also contains a nineteenth-century church and a temple.

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Barcelonne (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Barbières (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France.

Population

See also
Communes of the Drôme department

References

Communes of Drôme


Count Angelo Geraldini (1422–1486) was an Italian humanist and diplomat, who became a bishop.

He studied canon law at the University of Perugia, and was professor there 1444–46. In the papal curia he was appointed count palatine by Pope Callistus III in 1455.

He served under Niccolò Fortiguerra in the papal forces fighting Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, and against Ferrante.

He was legal adviser to Cardinal Domenico Capranica. In France he governed the Venaissin, at two periods. He went on missions to the Council of Basel in 1482, and to the court of John II of Aragon, leading to a Spanish ministerial appointment and close involvement in the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs.

He was bishop of Sessa Aurunca in 1465 and bishop of Kammin, from 1482 to 1485.

References
Jürgen Petersohn (1985), Ein Diplomat des Quattrocento: Angelo Geraldini (1422-1486)
Jürgen Petersohn (editor) (1987), Diplomatische Berichte und Denkschriften des Päpstlichen Legaten Angelo Geraldini aus der Zeit seiner Basel-Legation (1482-1483)

Notes

1422 births
1486 deaths
Papal counts
15th-century Italian jurists
University of Perugia alumni
Diplomats of the Holy See
Bishops in Campania
15th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Poland
Italian Renaissance humanists
15th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops