The Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula, also known as Bridge Formula B or the Federal Bridge Formula, is a mathematical formula in use in the United States by truck drivers and Department of Transportation (DOT) officials to determine the appropriate maximum gross weight for a commercial motor vehicle (CMV) based on axle number and spacing. The formula is part of federal weight and size regulations regarding interstate commercial traffic (intrastate traffic is subject to state limits). The formula is necessary to prevent heavy vehicles from damaging roads and bridges. CMVs are most often tractor-trailers or buses, but the formula is of most interest to truck drivers due to the heavy loads their vehicles often carry.

Early 20th-century weight limits were enacted to protect dirt and gravel roads from damage caused by the solid wheels of heavy trucks. As time passed, truck weight limits focused primarily on gross weight limits (which had no prescribed limits on length). By 1974, bridges received special protection from increasing truck weight limits. The bridge formula law was enacted by the U.S. Congress to limit the weight-to-length ratio of heavy trucks, and to protect roads and bridges from the damage caused by the concentrated weight of shorter trucks. The formula effectively lowers the legal weight limit for shorter trucks, preventing them from causing premature deterioration of bridges and highway infrastructure.

Compliance with the law is checked when vehicles pass through a weigh station, often located at the borders between states or on the outskirts of major cities, where the vehicle may be weighed and measured. The one exception to the formula allows a standard five-axle semi-truck configuration to weigh the maximum legal gross weight. This exception was specifically requested by the American Trucking Associations to allow tank trucks to reach the maximum legal gross weight without violating the bridge formula law.

History

The first truck weight limits were enacted by four states in 1913, ranging from  in Maine to  in Massachusetts. These laws were passed to protect earth and gravel-surfaced roads from damage caused by the steel and solid rubber wheels of early heavy trucks. By 1933, all states had some form of truck weight regulation. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 instituted the first federal truck weight regulation (set at ) and authorized the construction of the Interstate Highway System.

In the late 1950s, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) conducted a series of extensive field tests of roads and bridges to determine how traffic contributed to the deterioration of pavement materials. In 1964, the AASHTO recommended to Congress that a bridge formula table be used instead of a single gross weight limit for trucks. The Federal-Aid Highway Act Amendments of 1974 established the bridge formula as law, along with the gross weight limit of .  Current applications of the formula allow for up to 7 axles and 86 feet or more length between axle sets, and a maximum load of 105,500 lbs.

Usage

The formula was enacted as law to limit the weight-to-length ratio of a commercial motor vehicle (CMV). The formula is necessary to prevent the concentrated truck's axles from overstressing pavements and bridge members (possibly causing a bridge collapse). In simplified form, this is analogous to a person walking on thin ice. When standing upright, a person's weight is concentrated at the bottom of their feet, funneling all of their weight into a small area. When lying down, a person's weight is distributed over a much larger area. This difference in weight distribution would allow a person to cross an area of ice while crawling that might otherwise collapse under their body weight while standing up. For an overweight truck to comply with the formula, more axles must be added, the distance between axles must be increased, or weight must be removed.

While the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (FMCSA), regulates safety for the U.S. trucking industry., the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) oversees the State enforcement of truck the size and weight Federal limits set by Congress for the Federal Aid System as described in 23 CFR 658. The Federal size limits apply in all States to the National Network (NN) which is a network of Interstate Highways, U.S. Highways, and state highways. Provided the truck remains on the NN,  in all States and a truck is not subject to State size limits. In a similar fashion, the Federal weight limits and the Federal Bridge Formula apply to the Interstate System in all States. The State truck size and weight regulations apply to the Federal Aid System routes that do not have Federal limits.

The weight and size of CMVs are restricted for practical and safety reasons. CMVs are restricted by gross weight (total weight of vehicle and cargo), and by axle weight (i.e., the weight carried by each tire). The federal weight limits for CMVs are  for gross weight (unless the bridge formula dictates a lower limit),  for a tandem axle, and  for a single axle. A tandem axle is defined as two or more consecutive axles whose centers are spaced more than  but not more than  apart. Axles spaced less than  apart are considered a single axle.

In effect, the formula reduces the legal weight limit for shorter trucks with fewer axles (see table below). For example, a  three-axle dump truck would have a gross weight limit of , instead of , which is the standard weight limit for  five-axle tractor-trailer. FHWA regulation §658.17 states: "The maximum gross vehicle weight shall be  except where lower gross vehicle weight is dictated by the bridge formula."

Bridge collapse

The August 2007 collapse of the Interstate 35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis brought renewed attention to the issue of truck weights and their relation to bridge stress. In November 2008, the National Transportation Safety Board determined there had been several reasons for the bridge's collapse, including (but not limited to): faulty gusset plates, inadequate inspections, and the extra weight of heavy construction equipment combined with the weight of rush hour traffic.  The I-35 Trade Corridor Study reported that the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) expressed concern over bridges on the I-35 corridor due to an expected increase of international truck traffic from Canada and Mexico, with the FHWA listing it as "high-priority" in 2005.

As of 2007, federal estimates suggest truck traffic increased 216% since 1970, shortly before the federal gross weight limit for trucks was increased by . This is also the period during which many of the existing interstate bridges were built. Research shows that increased truck traffic (and therefore, increased stress) shortens the life of bridges. National Pavement Cost Model (NAPCOM) estimates indicate that one  truck does as much damage to roads as 750  cars.

Some smaller bridges have a weight limit (or gross weight load rating) indicated by a posted sign (hence the reference to a "posted bridge"). These are necessary when the weight limit of the bridge is lower than the federal or state gross weight limit for trucks. Driving a truck over a bridge that is too weak to support it usually does not result in an immediate collapse. The bridge may develop cracks, which over time can weaken the bridge and cause it to collapse. Most of these cracks are discovered during mandated inspections of bridges. Most bridge collapses occur in rural areas, result in few injuries or deaths, and receive relatively little media attention. While the number varies from year to year, as many as 150 bridges can collapse in a year. About 1,500 bridges collapsed between 1966 and 2007, and most of those were the result of soil erosion around bridge supports. In 1987, the Schoharie Creek Bridge collapsed in upstate New York, due to erosion of soil around the foundation, which sparked renewed interest in bridge design in inspection procedures.

In special cases involving unusually overweight trucks (which require special permits), not observing a bridge weight limit can lead to disastrous consequences. Fifteen days after the collapse of the Minneapolis bridge, a heavy truck collapsed a small bridge in Oakville, Washington.

Formula law
CMVs are required to pass through weigh stations at the borders of most states and some large cities. These weigh stations are run by state DOTs, and CMV weight and size enforcement is overseen by the FHWA. Weigh stations check each vehicle's gross weight and axle weight using a set of in-ground truck scales, and are usually where a truck's compliance with the formula is checked.

FMCSA regulation §658.17 states:
 No vehicle or combination of vehicles shall be moved or operated on any interstate highway when the gross weight on two or more consecutive axles exceeds the limitations prescribed by the following formula:

 W = the maximum weight in pounds that can be carried on a group of two or more axles to the nearest .
 L = spacing in feet between the center of the outer axles of any two or more consecutive axles.
 N = number of axles being considered.

Two or more consecutive axles may not exceed the weight computed by the bridge formula, even the gross weight of the truck. This means that the "outer group" or axles 1-5 which comprises the entire Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW) of truck and all interior combination of axles must also comply with the bridge formula. State may not issue less than four citations when a truck violate each of the Federal weight limits on the Interstate System which are: 1) Single axle 2) Tandem axle, 3) Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW), 4) Inner Group.

Penalties for violating weight limits vary between states (bridge formula weight violations are treated as gross weight violations), as the states are responsible for enforcement and collection of fines. Some states, such as Connecticut, issue fines on a percentage basis (e.g. 20% overweight at $10 per ), which means larger trucks pay higher fines. For example, a truck with a legal gross limit of  that violates the limit by  would pay a fine of $500, while a truck with a legal gross limit of  that violates the limit by 5,000 pounds would pay a fine of $250. Other states, such as New York, issue fines on a per-pound basis (e.g., 5,000 pounds overweight equals a $300 fine). Others, such as Massachusetts, impose a less complicated fine schedule whereby a vehicle that violates the limits by less than  is fined $40 per , while a violation over  pays $80 per  (e.g.  overweight equals a $200 fine).

Some states require overweight trucks to  offload enough cargo to comply with the limits. In Florida, any vehicle that exceeds the limits by more than  is required to be unloaded until the vehicle is in compliance. Florida also includes a scale tolerance, which allows for violations of less than 10% to be forgiven, and no fine issued. Florida also allows for a load to be shifted (e.g., moved from the front towards the rear of the vehicle) for the vehicle to comply with axle weight limits, without penalty.

Exception
There is one exception to the formula: two consecutive sets of tandem axles may carry  each if the overall distance between the first and last axles of these tandems is  or more. For example, a five-axle truck may carry 34,000 pounds both on the tractor tandem axles (2 and 3) and the trailer tandem axles (4 and 5), provided axles 2 and 5 are spaced at least  apart.

This exception allows for the standard 5-axle semi-truck configuration to gross up to  (the legal limit) without being in violation of the bridge formula law. Without it, the bridge formula would allow an actual weight of only  to  on tandems spaced  to  apart; compared to  with the exception. This exception was sought by the American Trucking Associations so trucking companies could use  trailers and weigh . It was the only way tank truck operators could reach 80,000 pounds without adding axles to their fleets of trailers already in operation.

A CMV may exceed the bridge formula limits (or gross weight and its axle weight limits) by up to  if the vehicle is equipped with an auxiliary power unit (APU) or idle reduction technology. This is permitted "in order to promote reduction of fuel use and emissions because of engine idling". To be eligible, the vehicle's operator must prove the weight of the APU with written certification, or—by demonstration or certification—that the idle reduction technology is fully functional at all times. Certification of the APU's weight must be available to law enforcement officers if the vehicle is found in violation of applicable weight laws. The additional weight allowed cannot exceed 550 pounds or the weight certified, whichever is less.

Issues
The bridge formula (also referred to as Formula B) is based on research into single-span bridges, and fails to consider multiple-span bridges. Two-span bridges may not be fully protected by Formula B, depending on the truck length, span length, and other factors. Shorter wheelbase vehicles (usually specialized trucks such as garbage trucks and water trucks) have trouble complying with Formula B.

In 1987, the U.S. Congress passed the Surface Transportation and Uniform Relocation Assistance Act, requesting the Transportation Research Board (TRB) to conduct a study to develop alternatives to Formula B. The study recommended several that were never implemented. It suggested that Formula B was too strict for trucks with shorter axle lengths. One of the alternative formulas (later known as the TTI HS-20 Bridge Formula) was developed in conjunction with the Texas Transportation Institute. TTI HS-20 allowed shorter trucks to have higher weight limits than Formula B. For a 3-axle truck with an axle length of , the weight limit increased from  to . TTI HS-20 also failed to address the problem of multiple-span bridges.

 1 Calculated values reflect FHWA policy of rounding down when distances fall exactly between  increments.
 2 Calculated values reflect FHWA policy of rounding down when weights fall exactly between  increments.
 3 Tandem axle by definition.
 4 Distances between  to   may not be rounded down.
 5 __ Maximum legal weight limit based on number of axles. Increased axle lengths beyond these do not increase maximum legal weight.
 6 __ Exception to the formula: when the four axles under consideration are two tandem axles spaced at least  apart, a gross weight of  is allowed.
 __ Upper blank areas represent unrealistic configurations.

See also
 Long combination vehicle
 Dolly (trailer)

References

External links
 Bridge formula weights calculator

Trucking industry in the United States
Trucks
United States transportation law
Vehicle law
United States Department of Transportation
Bridges in the United States


"The Fear of Being Alone" is a song written by Walt Aldridge and Bruce Miller, and recorded by American country music singer Reba McEntire.  It was released in September 1996 as the first single from her 22nd album, What If It's You (1996). The song peaked at #2 on the US Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.

Critical reception
Deborah Evans Price from Billboard wrote, "McEntire's last album of cover tunes spawned only one top 10 single, but this first single from her new disc signals a return to original form. The lyric paints a picture of two disillusioned people tentatively approaching a new relationship, and McEntire's vocal performance infuses the song with a mixture of hope and caution. Penned by Walt Aldridge and Bruce Miller, it's a strong song, and McEntire's vibrant performance should serve her well at country radio."

Music video
The accompanying music video for "The Fear of Being Alone" was directed by Dominic Orlando, and premiered in late 1996. It was filmed at Starstruck Studios, and features Reba singing at a recording studio.

Chart performance
The song debuted at #41 on the Hot Country Singles chart for the week of October 5, 1996 and peaked at #2 for the week of December 7, 1996, behind Alan Jackson's "Little Bitty". It stayed at #2 for three weeks. It stayed in the Top Ten for 10 weeks.

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

References

1996 singles
1996 songs
Reba McEntire songs
Songs written by Walt Aldridge
MCA Records singles


"There's a Long, Long Trail" is a popular song of World War I.  The lyrics were by Stoddard King (1889–1933) and the music by Alonzo "Zo" Elliott, both seniors at Yale.
It was published in London in 1914, but a December 1913 copyright (which, like all American works made before 1923, has since expired) for the music is claimed by Zo Elliott.

In Elliott's own words to Marc Drogin shortly before his death in 1964, he created the music as an idle pursuit one day in his dorm room at Yale in 1913.  King walked in, liked the music and suggested a first line.  Elliott sang out the second, and so they went through the lyrics.  And they performed it—with trepidation—before the fraternity that evening.  The interview was published as an article in the New Haven Register and later reprinted in Yankee magazine.  It then appeared on page 103 of The Best of Yankee Magazine   In the interview, he recalled the day and the odd circumstances that led to the creation of this historic song.

Lyrics
THERE'S A LONG, LONG TRAIL

(From the 1914 sheet music)

Recordings

  James Reed and James F. Harrison (single) 1915
  George W. Ballard (Edison Diamond Disk) 1916
  John McCormack (single) 1917
  Oscar Seagle, with the Columbia Stellar Quartette, November 14, 1917
  Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby sang it as a duet on radio in the 1950s.
  New Victory Band on One More Dance and Then (1978) as "Long, Long Trail"
 Roberts and Barrand on A Present from the Gentlemen (1992) as "Long, Long Tail" in "Great War Trilogy"
 Friends of Fiddler's Green on The Road to Mandalay (1994) as "The Long, Long, Trail"
 Sons of the Pioneers, 1941
 Harp and a Monkey recorded a version called "Long, Long Trail"' on their 2016 War Stories album, using the choruses and melody from the original song. The verses used a spoken word story by a woman from Rochdale recounting the story of her father being wounded in World War I.
 David Whitfield, the British singer sang the chorus of this song and sang three others on television in 1958
 Words of the chorus appear at the end of Anthony Powell's A Dance to the Music of Time: Third Movement

Film
  There's a Long, Long Trail (1926) by H. Brian White. Black and white animated cartoon.
 Smilin' Through (1941). Sung by Jeanette MacDonald with a male chorus.
 Random Harvest (1942). Among the songs sung by a crowd celebrating the war's end early in the film
  For Me and My Gal (1942). Sung by The King's Men.
  Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo (1944). Sung by officers and guests in Goodbye Dance scene.
  Three Came Home (1950)
  Dumb Patrol (1964). Music over opening titles in this Bugs Bunny short.
  Oh What A Lovely War (1969) by Richard Attenborough.
  Escape from Tomorrow (2013) chorus sung by Roy Abramsohn.

Television
 Schroeder performs the song on piano for Snoopy in It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown.
 Charlie Brown and his fellow summer campers sing the song around the campfire in It Was a Short Summer, Charlie Brown as the scene dissolves into the next morning's reveille.
 In M*A*S*H, Colonel Potter, Hawkeye, and B.J. sing a chorus in harmony near the end of the season four  episode "Change of Command".
 Students at Bamfylde School sing the song in To Serve Them All My Days.
 Jack Ford (James Bolam) and Matt Headley (Malcolm Terris) get drunk and sing this together in an episode of When The Boat Comes In.
 Fictional character Jason Walton performs a portion of the song in The Waltons episode "The Hero".
 In an episode of The Lucy Show, Lucy and Viv sing the first two lines of the chorus in a failed attempt to entertain their children after the TV set breaks down.
 In episode five of The Crimson Field the VADs (Flora Marshall, Rosalie Berwick and Kitty Trevelyan) perform this song together at a concert organised by Flora.
 In "Death & Histeria", Season 3, Episode 5 of Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries, Phryne Fisher (Essie Davis), Cec (Anthony Sharpe) and Dr. Samuels (Philip Quast) perform the song for Aunt Prudence (Miriam Margolyes).

Fiction
 In the 1934 novel The Postman Always Rings Twice by James M. Cain, the first two verses of the chorus are quoted at the beginning of Chapter 7. ( (pbk.), p. 39).
 In author Russell Kirk's short story "There's a Long, Long Trail A-Winding".
 In John Dos Passos's novel, 1919, the lyric is featured in Newsreel XXII.
 In R.C. Sheriffs play, Journeys End, the song is sung in Act 3, Scene 3.
 Though not mentioned by name, the song is sung in the Amelia Peabody book He Shall Thunder in the Sky; it is identifiable by the lyric mentioned “long, long time of waiting”.

References

External links
 Note and audio at firstworldwar.com
 Sheet music for "There's a Long, Long Trail", M. Witmark & Sons, 1914.

1914 songs
Songs of World War I


Emilio Bigi (1 July 1910 – 28 May 1969) was the son of Elisa Bigi, from the Italian collectivity in Paraguay.

Childhood and youth
As a small child, Bigi was part of the “Batallón de exploradores” (Explorers battalion), directed by the Salesiano priest Ernesto Pérez Acosta (Pa’i Pérez). Later, he played the bass in the Capital Police Band of Musicians.

Early moments
Emilio studied the accordion, theory and solfeggio in the Paraguayan Athenaeum and later, the bandoneon. He played this instrument as part of the popular orchestra of Gerardo Fernández Moreno and other groups. He eventually formed his own orchestra. Bigi was part of the delegation of President Higinio Morínigo, in an official visit to Argentina.

Trajectory / Path
Settled in Buenos Aires, and continued to study theory and solfeggio, harmony, contrapunto (counterpoint) and piano, at the Academy Rubbione. Soon after concluding his courses, Bigi presented his thesis about “Variations about a Guarani subject”. Was temporally part of “Trío Guaireño” leadered by Gumersindo Ayala Aquino and later on, formed his own group. With this group he accompany several singers, being part of the Guaraní Folkloric Grouping, which had a prolific activity in the Argentine capital.
In 1952, he went on tour with Ayala Aquino, Carlos Federico Reyes (“Mita’i churi”) and Paty de Ayala. He moved to San Cristóbal, Táchira, Venezuela. There, he worked as a musician and teacher. He also worked as a director in the Orfeón of the Alberto Adriani Institute, as a professor in the Music School Miguel Angel Espinel and as an instrumentalist of the Band of Táchira and the Typical Orchestra of the State.

Family
He married Venezuelan Carmen Osorio. The couple had two daughters.

Last years
He died on 28 May 1969, in San Cristóbal, Venezuela and was buried there.

Work
Among his most representative work in erudite music, are found:
 “Cuarteto de cuerdas” (Spring quartet)
 “Aire Nacional Op. 3” (National air Op. 3)
 “Renacer guarani” (Guaraní resurgence)
 “Poema sinfónico” (Symphonic poem)
 “Aires nacionales para piano” (National airs for piano)
 “Canciones” (Songs)

In popular music outstand, because of their beauty and the success the accomplish:
 “Paraguay”
 “El suspiro” (Sigh)
 “Mimby pu”
 “Amanecer” (Sunrise)
 “Achuita”
 “Minero sapukai” (Miner song)
 “Pobre de mi” (Poor me)
 “La canción de mimby” (Mimby's song)
 “Mutilado en la guerra” (Mutilated in war). Lyrics by Rigoberto Fontao Meza.
 “Acosta Ñu”. Touching epic song, that enhance the heroism of the martyrs children that fought on August 16, 1869 the battle of the same name, in the last period of the Guerra de la Triple Alianza (War Against the Triple Aliace).
 “Teresita”
 “Por tu cariño, madre” (Because of your love, mother)

References
 Centro Cultural de la República El Cabildo
 Biographic Dictionary "FORJADORES DEL PARAGUAY", First Edition. January, 2000. Distribuidora Quevedo. Buenos Aires, Argentina.

20th-century Paraguayan male singers
1910 births
1969 deaths
Guarani-language singers
20th-century Argentine male singers
20th-century Venezuelan male singers


Lego Belville (stylized as LEGO Belville) was a Lego theme designed to appeal primarily to girls. First introduced in 1994, the theme included multi-jointed doll-like characters that were larger in scale than the traditional Lego minifigure. The toy sets were produced from standard Lego bricks and larger pieces, often in a pink and purple colour scheme, and depicted scenes from fairy tales and fantasy as well as everyday life. The product line was discontinued in 2009. Belville's direct successor is Lego Friends, which was introduced in 2012. Other Lego product ranges that have been designed for girls include Homemaker (1971-1982), Paradisa (1991–1997) and Scala (1997–2001).

Overview
Belville was a product line that was marketed at girls. It was produced from standard Lego bricks, but also featured larger decorative pieces. The range also featured pink Lego pieces, which had been introduced for the first time in the Paradisa sets. Belville figures were larger than the Lego minifigure, but their feet could still attach to traditional Lego pieces. The figures had several points of articulation, such as at the head, shoulders, elbows, wrists, knees and ankles, and more overall detail than traditional minifigures. The early Belville toy sets featured scenes from everyday life.

Launch
Belville originated in earlier Lego themes, such as Scala, which was launched in 1979 and Paradisa, which appeared in 1992 as a sub theme of Lego Town. Lego products had previously been marketed towards both boys and girls as far back as 1958, when Town Plan toy sets featured images of boys and girls on the boxes. However, it was not until 1971, with the release of Living Room set (260) and Complete Kitchen set (261), that Lego products were marketed specifically to girls. In 1979, a product range called Scala was launched, which was a range of jewellery targeted directly at girls. However, due to its poor performance, Scala jewellery products were discontinued in 1981. This was followed by the launch of the Lego Town sub-theme named Paradisa in 1992, which was also marketed to girls and focused on a beachside community. The Paradisa product line lasted for four years before being discontinued and was joined by a new brand named Belville in 1994.

Construction sets
According to Bricklink, 88 toy sets were released as part of the Belville product line. The product line was eventually discontinued by the end of 2009.

The earliest Belville toy sets featured domestic scenes, including a playhouse and playpark, and a nursery set named Love 'N Lullabies (5860), which continued for seven years. In addition, horse and pony sets were released in 1997, such as Jennifer's Foal (5822), and beach sets were released in 1998. Following this, a fairytale fantasy theme was launched in 1999, which dropped the "System" name from the packaging. The fairytale theme featured the characters Princess Rosaline and Prince Justin in various toy sets, such as royal coach (5827) and enchanted palace (5808). In 2001, some toy sets featured story books, such as Enchanted Garden (5834), which included a book titled The Adventures of the Little Princesses.

In 2002, a range of Belville toy sets was released known as Belville: Cold North due to its winter wonderland setting. The toy sets featured various characters, including Queen Rose, Wicked Madam Frost and Vanilla. This was replaced in 2003 by a desert theme, known as Golden Palace or Golden Land, and a flower fairy theme. In 2004, the Belville range returned to everyday scenes, but replaced domestic settings with toy sets centred on music and talent shows, such as Pop Studio (5942) and Interior Designer (5943).

In 2005, five toy sets were released based on the work of Hans Christian Andersen. Belville: Hans Christian Andersen released toy sets based on fairytales, including The Mermaid Castle (5960), The Snow Queen (5961), The Tinderbox (5962), The Princess and the Pea (5963) and Thumberlina (5964). These were followed by other fairytale toy sets in 2006, including Winter Wonder Palace (7577) and Ultimate Princesses (7578).

In 2008, the Belville theme released four non-fantasy playsets that centred around horse-riding, including Playful Puppy (7583), Horse Stable (7585), Sunshine Home (7586) and Horse Jumping (7587).

Other merchandise
The Lego Group also sold other items under the Belville trademark such as ice cube trays with unique shapes and purses.

Reception
Helen Ashcroft for The Gamer included two Belville sets Rosita's Wonderful Stable (set number: 5833) and Garden Fun (set number: 5820) on a list of "The 15 Worst Lego Sets".

See also
 Lego Friends
 Lego Disney
 Lego DC Super Hero Girls
 Lego Elves
 Lego Unikitty!
 Lego Gabby's Dollhouse

References

External links
 Official Lego Belville site

Lego themes
Products introduced in 1994
Products and services discontinued in 2009


WFDM-FM (95.9 MHz, "Freedom 95") is a commercial radio station licensed to Franklin, Indiana, and serving the greater Indianapolis metropolitan area.  The station is owned by Pilgrim Communications LLC and airs a conservative talk radio format.  It is simulcast with co-owned AM 950 WXLW.

The studios and offices are on Industrial Drive in Franklin, Indiana.  The transmitter is co-located with the studios, near U.S. Route 31.  WFDM-FM is a Class A FM station with an effective radiated power (ERP) of 3,400 watts.  By contrast, some Indianapolis stations are powered at 50,000 watts.

Programming
WFDM-FM and WXLW have one local show, with morning host Todd Huff.  The rest of the weekday schedule is made up of nationally syndicated talk shows, including Dave Ramsey, Glenn Beck, Sean Hannity, Mark Levin, Ben Shapiro, Joe Pags, "Our American Stories with Lee Habeeb" and "This Morning, America's First News with Gordon Deal."  Most hours begin with world and national news from USA Radio News.

History
The station signed on the air on December 15, 1961, as WIFN with a middle of the road (MOR) format.  It was owned by Howell B. Phillips and was powered at only 790 watts.  In 1970, the station was acquired by William R. Vogel and Ronald Douglas.  The partners continued the MOR format and boosted the power to 3,000 watts.

In 2000, it became "95.9 the Point," airing mainly conservative talk programming.  On July 1, 2003, the station flipped formats to Contemporary Christian Music (CCM) and became WIJY, "Joy 96," after another Indianapolis-area station that had aired CCM music, 98.3 WXIR, switched to "Radio Disney" as WRDZ-FM.

On September 21, 2005, it flipped again, this time to Oldies as WIAU "Gold 95.9." It used the ABC "Pure Gold" format and the same image campaign previously used on "Gold 104.5" WGLD in Indianapolis, which had just flipped to adult hits "Jack FM" WJJK.

On Monday, November 12, 2007, the station dropped the Oldies format, and WFDM-FM "Freedom 95.9" began.  It carried virtually the same weekday lineup that had previously been heard on Indianapolis-area station 93.9 WWFT (now WNDX). Beginning in September 2012, Pilgrim Communications began simulcasting WFDM-FM's talk programming on AM 950 WXLW, broadening the station's coverage area, including communities north of Indianapolis that have trouble receiving the FM signal.

References

External links
WFDM website
Indiana Radio Archive, WFDM

News and talk radio stations in the United States
FDM-FM
Mass media in Indianapolis


The Massachusetts Coastal Railroad  is a Class III railroad serving south-eastern Massachusetts. The railroad maintains track from Hyannis to Framingham, operating over 97 miles of track between Hyannis and Fall River/New Bedford. The railroad is the successor operator of portions of the Bay Colony Railroad.

History
On December 31, 2007, the contract to operate the freight railroad lines owned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts administered by the Executive Office of Transportation (EOT) expired.  These railroad lines included the Cape Main Line, as well as several shorter lines both on Cape Cod and in Southeastern Massachusetts.  The new contract was awarded to a new company, the Massachusetts Coastal Railroad, which took over on January 1, 2008.  At that time, the Bay Colony ceased operations on those lines, but continues to operate in other areas of the Commonwealth, including on the Watuppa Branch in Dartmouth and Westport, and the Millis Branch in Millis.

The Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is headquartered in Lakeville, Massachusetts.

Operations

The railroad operates the "trash train" hauling refuse from the Upper Cape Regional Transfer Station in Falmouth and the Yarmouth-Barnstable Regional Transfer Station in Yarmouth to the Southeastern Massachusetts Resource Recovery Facility, a waste-to-energy plant in Rochester, MA, as did its predecessor. The operations occur entirely along the Cape Main Line, including the spur to Falmouth. However, Massachusetts Coastal operates the train under the new name, "Energy Train" using 20 former Canadian Pacific bath tub coal hopper cars rebuilt into "Energy" cars. These "Energy Cars" are numbered 1000–1019. These cars are painted in a Pullman green scheme with a black band. The first 6 cars were fully painted with "MASS COASTAL" lettering, and "ENERGY TRAIN" written along the sides and gold stripes. The remaining 14 cars are in an abbreviated scheme with no lettering or stripes. This was done to speed up the delivery process. As of January 2015, the Energy Train operates Monday through Friday in the morning and afternoon.

In addition to the energy train, Mass Coastal offers general freight transport for companies based on Cape Cod and the south coast, specifically along the Cape Main, Middleboro Secondary, New Bedford Subdivision, Fall River Secondary, and the Dean Street Industrial Track (the latter of which is located in Taunton). Interchanges are done with CSX in Middleboro several times a week, to allow for long-distance shipping to and from the region. Operations in Fall River, New Bedford, and Taunton can be seen some days Monday through Friday.

Mass Coastal does not operate freight trains on Sundays or holidays unless needed.

The Cape Cod Central Railroad is owned by the same parent company, and operates passenger trains as a heritage railroad.  A plan to start "Mass Coastal" commuter rail service between Middleborough and Buzzards Bay or Sandwich in 2010 has not been implemented as of 2023, but the seasonal CapeFLYER train started running to Hyannis in summer 2013.

In 2012, Chicago-based Iowa Pacific Holdings acquired Cape Rail, Inc and its subsidiaries Mass Coastal and Cape Cod Central.

Mass Coastal took over CSX tracks from Taunton, MA to Fall River and New Bedford, MA. The railroad continues to operate track south from the connection with CSX at Cotley Junction in Taunton to both New Bedford and Fall River.

References

External links

Massachusetts Coastal Railroad official website

Massachusetts railroads
2007 establishments in Massachusetts


The Shadow Cabinet of Thailand ( is an unofficial group of senior opposition party's spokespeople who form an alternative cabinet to the government. The shadow cabinet members shadow or mark each individual member of the government. Although the Leader of the Opposition is an officially appointed position, the shadow cabinet currently bears no legal status. , shadow cabinets have only been formed twice, both times by the Democrat Party.

After the People's Power Party's victory in the 2007 general election, the Democrat Party became the sole official opposition party. Abhisit Vejjajiva, leader of the Democrat Party, expressed his intention to set up a shadow cabinet to track the new administration's performance, to propose better solutions, and to provide the Democrat's standpoint on each government decision. The shadow cabinet line-up was announced on February 8, 2008 after the Samak's administration had officially assumed office. On 15 December 2008, Abhisit was elected by the House of Representatives to become the next Prime Minister, with many of the members of his new cabinet drawn from the shadow cabinet. A day later, the main opposition Pheu Thai Party MP Jatuporn Prompan stated that his party would not be forming a shadow cabinet.  After the 2011 elections, the Pheu Thai Party won the election under the leadership of Yingluck Shinawatra, and the Democrat Party was once again the main opposition party with Abhisit as its leader, which led to the formation of a second shadow cabinet by Abhisit.

Members
Abhisit Vejjajiva's 2nd shadow cabinet, active from 6 September 2011 - 7 May 2014.

See also
 Shadow Cabinet
 Cabinet of Thailand
 Leader of the Opposition (Thailand)

References

Politics of Thailand
Thailand


This is a list of Green Party leaders and deputy leaders in Canada.

References

List of Green party leaders in Canada


Leidolf was a manufacturer of optical equipment situated in Wetzlar, Germany.  It was founded by Rudolf Leidolf in 1921, initially producing lenses for microscopes. In 1948 camera production was started and in 1962 the factory ceased operations. Leidolf is in no way related to Leitz (the manufacturer of Leica), even though Wetzlar has been the historical location for both companies. The company would later be commissioned by Adams, producing the Adams model 351 and 352 sold by Montgomery Ward, before going bankrupt.

Camera models
 Leidax, Leidox (1949)
 Lordomat (C35/SE/SLE) (1953)
 Lordox Junior (1954)
 Lordette (1955)
 Lordomatic (1955)
 Lordomatic IIR (1955)
 Lordox 57 (1954)
 Lordox Vollautomat (1960)
 Lordox Super Automat (1960)
 Unimatic (1961)
 Adams model 351 (1961)
 Adams model 352 (?)

Citations

External links
Camerapedia on Leidolf
"Lordox Luxus": Vintage ad from 1958, BRD
Leidolf from UK camera
Cameras
Photography companies of Germany
Wetzlar
Lens manufacturers
German brands
135 film cameras


Seta (, also Σέττα - Setta) is a mountain village and a community in the northern part of the municipal unit of Amarynthos, on the island of Euboea, Greece.  In 2011 its population was 60 for the village and 92 for the community, which includes the village Kato Seta. It is situated in the mountainous interior of Euboea, northeast of the mountain Olympus and southeast of Dirfi, the highest mountain of the island. It is 10 km south of Stropones, 16 km north of Amarynthos and 30 km east of Chalcis. Seta suffered damage from the 2007 Greek forest fires.

Population

See also
List of settlements in the Euboea regional unit

External links
Video on Seta from ERT's travelling program Traveling in Greece (Menoume Ellada)

References

Populated places in Euboea
Eretria


The intercondylar fossa of femur (intercondyloid fossa of femur, intercondylar notch of femur) is a deep notch between the rear surfaces of the medial and lateral epicondyle of the femur, two protrusions on the distal end of the femur (thigh bone) that joins the knee. On the front of the femur, the condyles are but much less prominent and are separated from one another by a smooth shallow articular depression called the patellar surface because it articulates with the posterior surface of the patella (kneecap).

The intercondylar fossa of femur and/or the patellar surface may also be referred to as the patellar groove, patellar sulcus, patellofemoral groove, femoropatellar groove, femoral groove, femoral sulcus, trochlear groove of femur, trochlear sulcus of femur, trochlear surface of femur, or trochlea of femur.

On a lateral radiograph, it is evident as Blumensaat's line.

Additional images

References

Bones of the lower limb
Femur


A perineal dilator is an inflatable balloon-like device sometimes used to create a functional vagina in women with vaginal agenesis.  The device, usually made out of silicone, is inserted into the vagina and inflated.

References

Gynaecology


Kashmir Solidarity Day () or Kashmir Day is a national holiday observed in Pakistan on 5 February annually. It is observed to show Pakistan's support and unity with the people of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir and Kashmiri separatists' efforts to secede from India, and to pay homage to the Kashmiris who have died in the conflict. Solidarity rallies are held in the Pakistani-administered territory of Azad Jammu and Kashmir,
Pakistan and by Mirpuri Kashmiris in the United Kingdom.

Kashmir Day was first proposed by Qazi Hussain Ahmad of the Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan in 1990, and supported by Nawaz Sharif. The current commemoration was started by the Pakistani minister for Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas in 2004.

History
Kashmir Day was first proposed by Qazi Hussain Ahmad of the Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan in 1990. In 1991, the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif called for a "Kashmir Solidarity Day Strike". Sharif had come to power with the help of the Jamaat in the previous year, and the 1991 event was also a Jamaat affair.

The current 'Kashmir Solidarity Day' was started by the Pakistani minister for Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas in 2004.

The 2007 event was organized by Jamaat-ud-dawa, the religious charity associated with the banned Islamist terrorist organization Lashkar-e-Taiba. The solidarity rally was addressed by Hafiz Saeed, the chief of Lashkar-e-Taiba.

In 2021, the New York State Assembly passed a resolution calling on the Governor of New York to recognize the day as Kashmir American Day. According to the resolution, the day is meant to recognize New York's Kashmiri community and to "champion human rights including the freedom of religion".

In 2022, the Pakistani franchises of international companies such as Hyundai and Kia Motors, Suzuki Motors, Toyota, KFC and Pizza Hut issued advertisements in favour of Kashmiris 'right to freedom'. The Indian franchises of these companies apologised for the partisan nature of the acts and said that their parent company's brand names were used without authorisation.

See also

 All Parties Hurriyat Conference
 Human rights abuses in Jammu and Kashmir

Notes

References

External links

Nation to observe Kashmir Day today, Pakistan Today, 4 February 2015.

Kashmir conflict
Public holidays in Pakistan
Nawaz Sharif administration
Azad Kashmir
Culture of Jammu and Kashmir
February observances


John Wells (born  February 11, 1946) is a Canadian sportscaster. His most recent show, which ended in April 2008, was  Wells And Company on CJOB radio in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. He broadcast Canadian Football League games for over 30 years. He is the son of "Cactus" Jack Wells. He was inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame in 1995.

Biography

Early life and career
Wells broadcasting career began in 1965 at Winnipeg's CKY-FM. He moved to television in 1969 as sports director for CKCK-TV in Regina.  Wells spent six years as a play-by-play announcer for CFL on CTV. He also spent nine years with CBXT in Edmonton.

CBC Sports
In 1971, Wells began working for CBC Sports. At CBC, he worked at two Canada Games (1971 & 1979) and hosted the 1978 Commonwealth Games, the 1983 World University Games, and the 1984 Summer and Winter Olympics. He also worked on Hockey Night in Canada from 1979 to 1984 as a rinkside reporter and host for telecasts from Edmonton and as a studio host and play-by-play announcer on the CFL on CBC from 1973 to 1983.

TSN
In 1984, Wells joined the new cable specialty channel, The Sports Network. At TSN, he hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics and was the first host of the NHL on TSN, and the first play by play man of the CFL on TSN. He was also one of the original SportsDesk hosts and also hosted TSN Sunday and SportsDesk X-tra. He also covered Canada Cup hockey, Canadian college football, Blue Jays baseball, boxing, horse racing, and other variety of sports. From 1990–1993, he hosted coverage of the NHL Entry Draft. When the NBA came to Canada in 1995, Wells became the host of TSN's pre-game show, NBA Tonight. Wells also contributed on TSN's coverage of curling, including calling the early rounds of the 2001 Nokia Brier and the 2003 Scott Tournament of Hearts. For years, he hosted the CFL Outstanding Player Awards and the annual Hockey Hall of Fame induction ceremony. He was also a frequent guest and co-host on the Fan 590, and panelist on Prime Time Sports.

Departure from TSN and move to CJOB radio
By 2006, Wells had been phased out at TSN after Chris Cuthbert joined the network. He moved to CJOB radio in Winnipeg, where he became the host of an afternoon show. Wells left CJOB in April 2008.

References

Canadian television sportscasters
People from Winnipeg
National Hockey League broadcasters
Living people
Canadian Football League announcers
Olympic Games broadcasters
Curling broadcasters
Canadian radio sportscasters
1946 births
Toronto Blue Jays announcers
Major League Baseball broadcasters
National Basketball Association broadcasters
Boxing commentators
Canadian horse racing announcers
Canadian Football Hall of Fame inductees


The Avro Canada TR5 Orenda was the first production jet engine from Avro Canada's Gas Turbine Division. Similar to other early jet engines in design, like the Rolls-Royce Avon or General Electric J47, the Orenda nevertheless outperformed its rivals in most ways, and the Orenda-powered Canadair Sabres were among the fastest of all first-generation jet fighters. Over 4,000 Orendas of various marks were delivered during the 1950s, Avro's greatest engine success.

Development

The Orenda design started in the summer of 1946 when the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) placed an order with Avro Canada for a new night/all-weather fighter. To power the design, Avro decided to build their own engines. Avro had recently purchased Turbo Research, a former crown corporation set up in Leaside, Toronto, to develop jet engines.

Turbo Research was in the midst of designing their first engine, the  TR.4 Chinook, which could easily be scaled up for the new fighter design. It was decided to continue working on the Chinook to gain experience even though they had no intention of producing it.

As work on the Chinook continued, Avro's newly christened Gas Turbine Division started work on the larger  thrust design needed for the RCAF contract. Winnett Boyd started detailed design in autumn 1946, and a formal contract was received in April 1947. The only major change was the addition of a tenth compressor stage of stainless steel, and changing the third stage from aluminum to steel as well. The design work was completed on 15 January 1948, just prior to the first run of the Chinook on 17 March 1948. During the design Joseph Lucas of the UK was contracted to help with the combustion design, which led to a slight delay as they recommended using a longer combustion chamber than originally designed. The resulting TR-5 was named "Orenda", an Iroquois word meaning "Tribal Soul on the Right Path".

Given the experience of the Chinook, and the fact that the two designs were similar in many ways, progress on the Orenda was rapid. Parts started arriving in 1948, and the first engine was completed and run for the first time on 8 February 1949. Avro was so confident of the design that they invited high-ranking officials from the RCAF and Canadian government to witness this very first test, which went off without a hitch after fixing a minor electrical problem. Within two months the engine had already passed 100 hours of running time, and on 10 May had reached its design thrust of . At the time, it was the most powerful jet engine in the world, although it held this record only briefly until the Rolls-Royce Avon RA.3 was introduced the next year.

By 1 July it had passed 500 hours, and had run for 477 of these before requiring a rebuild. In September it was on its way to 1,000 hours when a technician's lab coat was sucked into the engine, complete with a set of razor blades in his pocket. From then on testing was carried out with a set of metal rings in the intake to avoid ingesting foreign objects. After repairing the damage the engine returned to testing, now joined by two further examples of the Orenda 1. Together they passed a total of 2,000 hours by 10 February 1950. By this point a problem with fatigue cracks in the seventh and eighth stages had become apparent, which required them to be redesigned and made much thicker. This solved the problem, and by July they had passed 3,000 hours.

Flight testing started with a converted Avro Lancaster, FM209, one of the many Mk.10's built at the Victory Aircraft (now Avro) plants during the war. The two outboard Merlin engines were replaced with the Orendas, and the new aircraft took to the sky on 10 July. Avro test pilots had much fun flying the aircraft across Lake Ontario to the Buffalo, New York area, where they were able to easily outperform the P-47 Thunderbolts of the Air National Guard that were sent to investigate. In one incident at an airshow, all four engines were turned off by mistake, but the Orenda's quick start time allowed them to save the day. The aircraft ran up 500 hours by July 1954, when this portion of flight testing ended; it was destroyed in a hangar fire on 24 July 1956.

Production

The Orenda 2 was the first production model, passing its qualification tests in February 1952. This version showed additional cracking in the ninth stage, and had to be strengthened like the earlier model. Even before being qualified, the engine had been fitted to the Avro CF-100 and flown on 20 June 1952, with a squadron of pre-production Mk.2 aircraft entering RCAF service on 17 October. The Orenda 3 was similar, but had a number of modifications to allow it to be mounted in the Sabre in place of the J47. One example was produced and sent to North American Aviation.

The first real production model was the Orenda 8, which was the powerplant of the CF-100 Mk.3. This model was first flown in September 1952 and entered service in 1953. This was soon followed by the Orenda 9 powered Mk.4 that flew on 11 October 1952, and then by the rocket-armed Mk.4A with the  Orenda 11. The Orenda 11 demanded higher airflow through the engine, and featured a second turbine stage to power the more powerful compressor. The 11 would be the primary production version for the CF-100, powering the Mk.4A and all future versions, with over 1,000 engines produced.

While work on the CF-100 continued the RCAF also started looking at a new day fighter, eventually selecting the Sabre. A single Sabre 3 was built with the Orenda 4 engine, with performance similar to the US models. Production then turned to the Sabre 5 with the Orenda 10, and then to the Sabre 6 with the Orenda 11-derived  thrust Orenda 14. The resulting Sabre was both lighter and more powerful than its J47 powered counterparts, and went on to set a number of air speed records. Most notable among these was Jacqueline Cochran's supersonic flight in the sole Sabre 3, which Canadair lent to her for the effort. Canadair built 1,815 Sabres in total, 937 of these equipped with Orendas. Several examples, notably one at Boeing, serving into the 1970s.

The engine was so successful that the Gas Turbine Division was renamed Orenda Engines when Hawker Siddeley reorganized their Canadian operations in 1955.

By 1953 the Orenda was planned to have been joined by an engine in the  thrust range, the Waconda.

Design

The Orenda was fairly conventional in layout, built in three main parts; compressor, combustion area, and turbine/exhaust.

At the front was the compressor section, containing the ten-stage compressor housed in a tapering magnesium alloy shell. The shell was machined with grooves that held the stators. At the front of the compressor was an intake fairing with a prominent "nose cone" containing the front main bearing. Four guide vanes held the cone in place, with two power takeoff shafts running inside two of them to power the top- and bottom-mounted accessories section (fuel pumps, oil pumps). The nose cone also held the electric starter motor, which acted as a generator once the engine was up and running. The engines used on the CF-100 also contained a uniquely Canadian invention, two prominent winglets at the very front that sprayed alcohol into the intake as a de-icing system. The CF-100 versions also mounted the debris cage, mentioned earlier.

The compressor had ten axial stages of mixed steel and aluminum construction. In the original Orenda 8, 9 and 10's this operated at a 5.5:1 compression ratio, compared to about 3.5 for wartime designs. The hub consisted of three aluminum disks carrying the first nine stages, and a steel disk bolted onto the end carrying the tenth. The central casing held the power shaft and was made from magnesium alloy. Around it were the six flame cans. The turbine was made of solid Inconel blades attached to an austenitic steel hub. The blades were air cooled by bleeding off compressed air from the fifth compressor stage and piping it to the turbine face, the six pipes lying between the flame cans. The exhaust section consisted of welded steel sheeting.

Variants

Data from:Aircraft engines of the World 1959/60, Aircraft engines of the World 1953
Orenda 1original prototype models,
Orenda 2first production model
Orenda 3An Orenda 1 modified for installation in a North American F-86A Sabre, becoming the first Orenda to fly under its own power.
Orenda 8improved reliability,
Orenda 9improved thrust, , required some changes to the nacelles
Orenda 10Orenda 9 adapted for the Sabre
Orenda 11main production version for the CF-100,
Orenda 11Rwith afterburner
Orenda 14similar to the  Orenda 11, used on both the CF-100 and Sabre
Orenda 17combined the compressor from the 9 with the turbine of the 11, along with an afterburner  wet

Specifications (Orenda 14)

See also

References

Further reading

External links

 Orenda, Avroland
 Lancaster FM-209, images of the Orenda installations
 Orenda-8
 "Avro Orenda" a 1949 Flight'' article
 The Avro CF-100 Canuck, Greg Goebel
 The Canadian Built Avro Lancasters, FM209

1940s turbojet engines


HR 5553 is a binary star system located thirty-eight light-years away from the Sun, in the northern constellation Boötes. It has the variable star designation DE Boötis, and is classified as an RS Canum Venaticorum variable that ranges in apparent visual magnitude from 5.97 down to 6.04, which is bright enough to be dimly visible to the naked eye. The system is drifting closer to the Sun with a radial velocity of −30 km/s, and is expected to come as close as  in 210,000 years.

Orbital elements for this single-lined spectroscopic binary was first calculated in 1981 using radial velocity measurements from David Dunlap Observatory combined with older measurements from Mount Wilson Observatory and Dominion Astrophysical Observatory. The two stars orbit each other with a period of 125 days and a large eccentricity of 0.51.

The primary, designated component A, is a K-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of K0 V. It is around one billion years old and is spinning with a projected rotational velocity of 4 km/s.The star has 84% of the mass of the Sun and 86% of the Sun's radius. It is radiating 50% of the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 5,313 K. Component B has an estimated 45% of the mass of the Sun.

An infrared excess has been detected around this system, most likely indicating the presence of a circumstellar disk at a radius of 34.2 AU. The temperature of this dust is 40 K. The estimated mass of the dust is 0.0002 times the mass of the Earth. It is aligned to within 10° of the plane of the binary system.

References

External links

 NStars: 1453+1909

K-type main-sequence stars
Bootis, DE
RS Canum Venaticorum variables
Binary stars
Spectroscopic binaries

Boötes
Durchmusterung objects
0567
131511
072848
5553
Boötis, DE


Chocorua may refer to a place name in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, United States:

Mount Chocorua, a distinctive rocky summit
Chocorua, New Hampshire, a village in the town of Tamworth near the mountain
Chocorua Lake, at the base of the mountain
The Chocorua River, the outlet of Chocorua Lake

Other uses
 a genus of spiders; synonym of Diplocephalus


Esporte Clube Internacional, usually known as Inter de Santa Maria, Internacional de Santa Maria, Inter-SM, is a Brazilian football club based in Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul. It currently plays in Campeonato Gaúcho Série A2, the second level of the Rio Grande do Sul state football league.

Founded on May 16, 1928. The club competed in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A in 1982, finishing 21st. Inter plays its home matches in its own stadium, Estádio Presidente Vargas, which has a maximum capacity of 12,000 people and is also known as Baixada Melancólica.

Achievements
 Copa Governador do Estado:
 Winners (2): 1979, 1987
 Campeonato Gaúcho Série A2:
 Winners (2): 1968, 1991

References

Association football clubs established in 1928
Football clubs in Rio Grande do Sul
1928 establishments in Brazil


The Powers of the Union (Poderes de la Unión, in Spanish) is a constitutional term to refer to the three branches of the Mexican government jointly:

 the executive power, the president of the United Mexican States;
 the legislative power, the Congress of the Union, and
 the judicial power, the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation.

These are the three branches of government, or powers, of the federated "Union" of the thirty-one constituent states. The Powers of the Union are also referred to as the Supreme Power of the Federation (Supremo Poder de la Federación). Mexico City is constitutionally defined as the federal district and seat of the "Powers of the Union".

See also
 Politics of Mexico

References

Politics of Mexico

es:Poderes de la Unión


Campo de Provas Brigadeiro Velloso – CPBV ()  is a large complex of the Brazilian Armed Forces located in Serra do Cachimbo (), in the southern part of Pará, Brazil. It is named after Haroldo Coimbra Velloso (1920–1969), a soldier and politician who was responsible for the complex's creation.

It includes Cachimbo Airport.

History
Campo de Provas Brigadeiro Velloso has an area of 21,588 km2 and perimeter of 653 km within the limits of four municipalities: Altamira, Itaituba, Jacareacanga, and Novo Progresso

The complex has its origins on an airfield opened on January 20, 1954 when the Brazilian Government saw the need for a  support facility for aircraft flying between the Northern Region (such as to the Amazon Rainforest) and the Southeast Region of Brazil (and to Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo). Before the construction of the airfield travel was only possible by following a much longer coastal route.

In the 1970s work was done in order to upgrade the facility to be a center of weapons testing for Brazilian Armed Forces with the purpose of the development of nuclear weapons. Rumored to have been carried out with technological aid from the Iraqi government,  it was initially ordered by military dictator Ernesto Geisel and ran from 1975 to 1990. At its conclusion, the work was characterized by the New York Times as such, "Brazilian physicists have concluded that the military was one or two years away from having the materials - 20 to 35 pounds of weapons-grade enriched uranium - to make a Hiroshima-type bomb."

In 1990 it was decommissioned in a ceremony for media and scientific officials by the then President of Brazil Fernando Collor de Mello who symbolically threw a shovel full of concrete into an over 1,000-ft shaft of steel reinforced concrete which would have been the site of a nuclear detonation had the Brazilians been successful. A week later Fernando Collor de Mello had this to say to the United Nations General Assembly, "Brazil today rejects the idea of any test that implies nuclear explosions, even for peaceful ends''.

The facility now houses accommodations for 240 military personnel and a hospital for not only service members, but the local civilian populace too. In addition, the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources maintains a research facility nearby

Accidents and incidents
7 December 1960: a Real Transportes Aéreos  Curtiss C-46A-60-CK Commando registration PP-AKF en route from Cuiabá to Manaus-Ponta Pelada crashed in Cachimbo mountains. The No.2 engine failed during the flight, and as altitude was lost the crew began to jettison cargo. But the aircraft continued its descent leading to a crash and subsequent fire, as well as the death of 15 passengers and crew.
29 September 2006: a damaged Embraer Legacy 600 performed a successful emergency landing on Cachimbo Airport, after a mid-air collision with a Gol Transportes Aéreos Boeing 737-800, flight 1907. The Boeing subsequently crashed in the jungle killing all 154 people on board.

References

Brazilian Air Force
Buildings and structures in Pará
Nuclear test sites
Brazilian nuclear test sites
Military installations of Brazil
Underground nuclear weapons testing
1954 establishments in Brazil


A sexual field is an arena of social life wherein individuals seek intimate partners and vie for sexual status.  Sexual fields emerge "when a subset of actors with potential romantic or sexual interest orient themselves toward one another according to a logic of desirability imminent to their collective relations and this logic produces, to greater and lesser degrees, a system of stratification" (Green 2014:27).  The term builds on Pierre Bourdieu's (1980) concept of field and has been defined as a "set of interlocking institutions" (Martin and George 2006) and an "institutionalized matrix of relations" (Green 2005, 2008, 2011) that confers status upon sexual actors based on individual variation in sexual capital.  Relative to those with a sexual capital deficit, actors in possession of sexual capital reap the rewards of the sexual field—including the ability to select desired sexual partners and the acquisition of social significance.

Sexual fields are themselves distinguished by distinct "currencies of erotic capital" (Green 2005, 2008), the latter which are quite variable, acquiring dominance in relation to the collective preferences of players.  For example, Green (2005, 2008) argues that the characteristics which confer sexual capital in one field may not in another.  Thus, in a gay leather bar, a bearded, stocky white man in his late-thirties dressed in Levi's jeans and a leather jacket will possess an optimal form of sexual capital, whereas the same man in a swanky Martini bar catering to a twenty-something, high-fashion, urban gay customer base will face a sexual capital deficit.  This variation in power and status occurs because a gay leather bar and a gay Martini bar are physical sites organized by the logic of two distinct sexual fields with contrasting currencies of sexual capital (Green 2005, 2008)—i.e., distinct "hegemonic systems of judgment" (Martin and George 2006).

For sociological theory, the study of the sexual field in the sexual fields framework offers a framework for analyzing how collective attributions of desire and desirability are shaped by the sexual field itself.  That is, rather than see desire and desirability as a simple function of individual wants and judgments, the sexual fields framework suggests that such wants and judgments are the consequence of sexual social life.  In this approach, the sexual field acts back on what we find desirable such that desires and desirability are regarded as field effects (Green 2014).

To the extent that sexual stratification is related to but not isomorphic with the structure of alternative fields, so the study of sexual fields cannot be subsumed to the study of an economic or political field, for example.  Nevertheless, to the extent that race, class, gender, ethnicity, age and ability, among others, are organizing features of sexual status within a given sexual field, so the relationship of sexual fields to broader historical systems of stratification requires consideration (Green 2005, 2008, 2011. 2014).

See also
Field (Bourdieu)

References
Bourdieu, Pierre. 1980.  The Logic of Practice.  Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
Green, Adam Isaiah. 2008. "The Social Organization of Desire: The Sexual Fields Approach". Sociological Theory. 26: 25–50.
Green, Adam Isaiah. "The Social Organization of Desire", Paper presented at the 2005 Annual American Sociological Association, Philadelphia.
Green, Adam Isaiah. 2011.  "Playing the (Sexual) Field: The Interactional Basis of Sexual Stratification."  Social Psychology Quarterly. 74: 244–266.
Green, Adam Isaiah. 2014.  Sexual Fields: Toward a Sociology of Collective Sexual Life.  Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
John Levi Martin and Matt George. 2006. "Theories of Sexual Stratification: Toward an Analytics of the Sexual Field and a Theory of Sexual Capital." Sociological Theory. 24:107–132.

Sexuality and society


Harry Holiday, Jr. (July 2, 1923 – February 16, 1999) was a world record holder in the backstroke at the University of Michigan in the 1940s and the president of steelmaker American Rolling Mill Co. (Armco) from 1974 to 1986.

Holiday was the NCAA backstroke champion in 1943 and 1947, won six NCAA swimming championships, and set seven world records and 18 American records.  He missed the opportunity to compete in the Olympic games which were cancelled in 1940 and 1944 due to World War II.  He was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1981 and the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1990.

He worked for Armco from 1949 until his retirement in 1986.  He was the company's president from 1974 to 1986, adding the title of chief executive officer in 1979 and chairman in 1982.

Early years
A native of Butler, Pennsylvania, Holiday trained with U-M swimming coach Matt Mann.  While still in high school, Holiday attended Mann's summer camps north of Toronto.  He enrolled at Michigan in 1941 and became eligible for the varsity swim team in 1943.  At the end of 1942, U-M swimming coach Mann predicted that his 18-year-old, 6’ 5” sophomore, Harry Holiday, would break every backstroke record.  Mann said, "Holiday is the best the world has ever seen on his back and one of the finest of all time in the free-style."  In an exhibition in late 1942, Holiday swam the 100-yard backstroke in 57 seconds, two-tenths of a second under the world record.  In the 150-yard backstroke, he swam at 1:33 –- a full second under the NCAA record.  Holiday had attended summer camps conducted by Mann in Canada for several years before enrolling at Michigan. In 1940, he finished second in the Canadian two-mile freestyle championship, 30 yards behind the winner, even though he swam backstroke the entire way.

1943 swim season

In a January 1943 meet against Ohio State, Holiday finished three quarters of a length ahead of the nearest competitor in the 150-yard backstroke with a time of 1:35.9, one second ahead of the conference record.  He also broke the world record in the 100-yard backstroke with a time of 57.3 seconds, won the 50-yard freestyle, and swam the winning leg of the 300-yard medley relay.

In early February 1943, Holiday received word that his U.S. Army reserve unit would be called to active duty in June.   In a meet against Michigan State in February 1943, he set more records, including an NCAA record for the 150-yard backstroke (1:31.4).  He also swam his leg of the 300-yard medley in a time of 56.9, three tenths of a second under the world record.

At the Big Ten meet in March 1943, he swam the 150-yard backstroke in 1:31.7 to set a conference and NCAA mark.  He also paced the U-M team to an NCAA record in the 300-yard medley.

At the National AAU swimming championship in April 1943, Holiday finally went head-to-head with world-record holder Adolph Kiefer.  Holiday beat Kiefer in the 150-yard backstroke at the AAU meet.  The defeat was the first for Kiefer in eight years.

In his first two months of varsity competition, Holiday broke two of Adolph Kiefer's world records, lowering the 100-yard backstroke mark to 57 seconds and the 200-meter standard to 2:22.9.  In August 1943, the NCAA also recognized Holiday as the holder of the new world record in the 150-yard backstroke with a mark of 1:31.5.

World War II
Holiday was called into active duty in the Army and did not compete for Michigan in 1944, 1945, or 1946.  In June 1946, he did compete for the University of Hawaii, setting new Hawaiian records in the 200-yard medley and 150-yard backstroke event.

1947 swim season
He returned to Michigan in 1947.  That year, he set world and American records in the 140-yard individual medley, the 300-meter and 40-yard backstroke events.  He was the favorite at the 1947 NCAAs but was forced to withdraw after contracting the flu.

Swimming accomplishments
Despite losing three years of his U-M swimming career to the war, Holiday set seven world records as a swimmer in the 100-yard backstroke, 200-meter backstroke, 440-yard backstroke, 300-meter individual medley, and in three relay events.  He also won six NCAA championships in the 150-yard backstroke, the 100-meter backstroke, and in four relay events.  He also set 18 American records including the 100-yard backstroke, 150-yard backstroke, 150-meter backstroke, 100-meter backstroke, 200-yard backstroke, 400-yard backstroke, 440-yard backstroke, and nine in relay events.   Holiday was an NCAA champion every year he competed for the Wolverines.

Business career with Armco
In 1949, Holiday went to work for steelmaker Armco, Inc. (originally American Rolling Mill Co.), where his father had been a plant manager for many years.  Holiday began as an assistant metallurgist in the company's Middletown, Ohio plant, and stayed with the company for 36 years until his retirement.  He was appointed president in 1974, and chief executive officer in May 1979, and added the title of chairman in 1982.  Holiday, "known for his optimistic determination, helped lead the steel industry through the boom of the 1960s and the troubled times that followed in the 1970s and 80's."  He frequently called on the federal government to ensure that steel imports were legal, and, facing an economic downturn in the 1970s, pushed Armco to diversify.  In 1984, Holiday had a heart attack, but recovered and returned to his position as Armco's CEO.  Holiday retired from Armco in January 1986 and later served as a director for Adience, Inc., NBD Bank, N.A., ASARCO Incorporated, and Birmingham Steel Corp.  In 1998, as Armco fell on hard times, Holiday and the company's other retired executives successfully sued to restore life insurance benefits granted under a plan that was supposed to last their lifetimes.

In February 1999, Holiday died of a heart attack in Boynton Beach, Florida.
Holiday was survived by his wife of 51 years, Kay Watson Holiday, a daughter, Edith E., two sons, Harry Holiday III, and Albert Holiday. Edith E. Holiday, an attorney and former General Counsel to the Department of the Treasury and later Assistant to the President and Secretary of the Cabinet under George H. W. Bush, is a member of several corporate boards including Heinz, Hess, Franklin Templeton Funds, White Mountain Insurance and Canadian National Railways.

See also
 List of members of the International Swimming Hall of Fame
 University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor

Notes

1923 births
1999 deaths
American male swimmers
World record setters in swimming
Michigan Wolverines men's swimmers
People from Butler, Pennsylvania
Sportspeople from Butler County, Pennsylvania
Sports world record holders


John David Alexander Robb (24 February 1932 – 13 February 2018) was a surgeon from Ballymoney in County Antrim, Northern Ireland who served for seven years a member of Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (the legislature of the Republic of Ireland).

Career
A liberal Protestant in the all-Ireland tradition, Robb was educated at Rockport School, Holywood, County Down, and at Merchiston Castle School, Edinburgh. He then trained in medicine at Queen's University, Belfast and later specialised in surgery.

Later, he became a member of the Wolfe Tone Society in the 1960s, and in the early 1980s he founded the New Ireland Group, which sought to promote a new vision of Ireland which would radically differ both from the Unionist viewpoint and from the Catholic and Gaelic vision which was then perceived to be on offer as an alternative to Unionism.

In 1982, he was nominated by the Taoiseach Charles Haughey to be a member of the 16th Seanad. He was nominated to the 17th Seanad by the Fine Gael Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald, and by Haughey to the 18th Seanad. After the 1989 general election he was not nominated to the 19th Seanad.

He died on 13 February 2018.

References

External links
 New Ireland Group

1930s births
2018 deaths
Protestants from Northern Ireland
Surgeons from Northern Ireland
Medical doctors from County Antrim
Members of the 16th Seanad
Members of the 17th Seanad
Members of the 18th Seanad
People from Ballymoney
People educated at Merchiston Castle School
People educated at Rockport School
Alumni of Queen's University Belfast
Nominated members of Seanad Éireann
Independent members of Seanad Éireann


The Via Sublacensis was a Roman road constructed to connect Nero's palace (the Villa Sublacensis) in present-day Subiaco to Rome, splitting off from the Via Valeria near Varia (modern Vicovaro), about 10 km northeast of Tivoli.

It was referred to in relation to the source of the Aqua Anio Novus, a major aqueduct which was originally at the 38th milestone of the Via Sublacensis.

The junction of the Via Sublacensis with the Via Valeria was discovered in 1889 at Casaletti in the valley below Roviano during the construction of an aqueduct at a distance from Rome of 36 miles according to the preserved milestones.

References

Sublacensis, Via


Angel with the Crown of Thorns is a statue by Italian artist Gian Lorenzo Bernini. Originally commissioned by Pope Clement IX for the Ponte Sant'Angelo project, the statue was replaced with a copy and the original was moved to Sant'Andrea delle Fratte in Rome, Italy. The statue was started in 1667 and completed in 1669. A terracotta modello for the sculpture is held by the musée du Louvre in Paris.

The statue depicts the crown of thorns mentioned in the canonical gospels.

See also
 List of works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini

References

External links

1669 sculptures
Marble sculptures in Italy
Sculptures by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Sculptures of angels
Crown of thorns


May Emma Campbell (née Pearce) MBE (2 November 1915, in Wagin, Western Australia – 16 February 1981) was a field hockey player who represented Australia in the sport from 1935 to 1948.  From the tiny wheatbelt town of Moulyinning, her career spanned 50 years as a player, coach, selector and administrator in several Australian states as well as national duties.  She was considered one of Western Australia's and Australia's greatest players, with Indian champion Dhyan Chand saying of her: "May Campbell is one of the finest players I have seen, man or woman."

As a player, 1936 was May Campbell's best year: on the Australian tour of the United States and Canada she was Australia's highest goalscorer, she also toured England and New Zealand, and managed a haul of 100 goals in club, national and international matches.  In 1938, she scored 20 of WA's 30 goals in the National Championships.  During her many years as Western Australian captain, the state failed to win the national title only twice.

Campbell played local hockey with Surf Hockey Club (now YMCA Coastal City Hockey Club) with sisters Jean Wynne, (also played for Australia from 1946 to 1953), Morna Hyde (played for Australia in the late 1940s) and Caroline "Tib" Ash.   May, Jean and Norma all captained the Australian Women's hockey team and the state team at various times and Tib also played at State and national levels.

She was made a Member of The Order of the British Empire (Civil) in 1980 and during the WAY 1979 celebrations, was named as the all-time great of women's hockey.   She was inducted into the Western Australian Hall of Champions in 1986.  The "May Campbell Service to Sport Award" is given annually to a sports administrator who has displayed outstanding service to sport in the state.

By coincidence, the four hockey playing Pearce sisters shared the same surname as the five Anglo-Indian hockey playing brothers, Cec, Mel, Eric, Gordon and Julian Pearce.  Both sets of siblings played for Western Australia and Australia with the sisters dominating in the 1930s through to the mid 60s and the brothers in the 1950s and 60s.

John Hyde, MLA for Perth, is Morna Pearce's son and hence May's nephew.

References

Further reading

1915 births
1981 deaths
Australian female field hockey players
People from Wagin, Western Australia
Field hockey people from Western Australia


Karandighi is a community development block that forms an administrative division in Islampur subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district in the Indian state of West Bengal. Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Dalkhola, Uttar Dinajpur was established  in 2005. The school is temporariliy running at Teest Colony, Dalkhola , Uttar Dinajpur. It is adjacent to Primary Health Center, Dalkhola on NH 34. The land for the construction of permanent building has been transferred and construction work is about to start at Village Sima Anandapur of Panchayat Raniganj. The temporary site is about 3.5 Km from Dalkhola Railway Station.

History
Historically the western frontier of ancient Pundravardhana kingdom, bordering ancient Anga of Mahabharat fame, the Dinajpur area remained somewhat obscure in the major empires that held sway over the region and beyond till the rise of the Dinajpur Raj during the Mughal period. Some areas later forming a part of Uttar Dinajpur were parts of kingdoms in Nepal. Dinajpur district was constituted by the British in 1786, with a portion of the estate of Dinajpur Raj. Subsequent to the Permanent Settlement in 1793, the semi-independent Dinajpur Raj was further broken down and some of its tracts were transferred to the neighbouring British districts of Purnea, Malda, Rajshahi and Bogra. In 1947, the Radcliffe Line placed the Sadar and Thakurgaon subdivisions of Dinajpur district in East Pakistan. The Balurghat subdivision of Dinajpur district was reconstituted as West Dinajpur district in West Bengal.  Raiganj subdivision was formed in 1948.

In order to restore territorial links between northern and southern parts of West Bengal which had been snapped during the partition of Bengal, and on the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission a portion of the erstwhile Kishanganj subdivision comprising Goalpokhar, Islampur and Chopra thanas (police stations) and parts of Thakurganj thana, along with the adjacent parts of the erstwhile Gopalpur thana in Katihar subdivision were transferred from Purnea district in Bihar to West Bengal in 1956, and were formally incorporated into Raiganj subdivision in West Dinajpur. The township of Kishanganj and its entire municipal boundary remained within Bihar. Islampur subdivision was formed in March 1959. At the same time, the portion of Chopra PS lying to the north of the Mahananda river covering an area that now comprises Bidhannagar-1 gram panchayat, Bidhannagar-2 GP, Chathat-Bansgaon GP and the southern half of Phansidewa-Bansgaon Kismat GP in Darjeeling district, was transferred from West Dinajpur to the jurisdiction of Phansidewa PS in Darjeeling district. With the introduction of the Community Development Programme in 1960–61, community development blocks were set up in West Dinajpur district.

In 1992, West Dinajpur district was bifurcated and Uttar Dinajpur district was established.

Geography
Karandighi is located at Uttar Dinajpur district of West-Bengal state, India. The latitude 22.57 and longitude 88.36 are the geocoordinate of the Karandighi.

Uttar Dinajpur district has a flat topography and slopes gently from north to south. All rivers flow in that direction. Except for the eastern fringes of Chopra CD Block, most of the district is a part of the catchment area of the Mahanada and also a part of the larger Barind Tract. The soil is composed of different varieties of alluvium. The main rivers are: Nagar, Mahananda, Kulik, Gamari, Chhiramati (Srimati) and Tangon. The rivers have little water in the dry season but with heavy rains, during monsoon, overflow the banks. The Nagar River flows along the international border with Bangladesh and then forms the boundary between Karandighi and Raiganj CD Blocks. Sudan river flows through Karandighi CD Block.

Karandighi CD Block is bounded by Goalpokhar I and Goalpokhar II CD Blocks on the north, Haripur Upazila in Thakurgaon District of Bangladesh and Raiganj CD Block on the east, Balrampur CD Block in Katihar district of Bihar on the south and Balrampur CD Block and Baisi and Amour CD Blocks in Purnia district of Bihar on the west.

Approximately 206 km of the India-Bangladesh border is in Uttar Dinajpur district. It covers the eastern boundary of the district. On the western side Uttar Dinajpur district has 227 km boundary with Bihar.

Karandighi CD Block (including Dalkhola) has an area of 390.52 km2.It has 1 panchayat samity, 13 gram panchayats, 212 gram sansads (village councils), 214 mouzas and 200 inhabited villages. Karandighi police station serves this block. Headquarters of this CD Block is at Karandighi.

Uttar Dinajpur district is one of the smaller districts in the state and stands 15th in terms of area (3,140.00 km2) in the state.

Gram panchayats of Karandighi block/ panchayat samiti are: Altapur I, Altapur II, Rasakhowa I, Rasakhowa II, Bazargaon I, Bazargaon II, Dalkhola, Domohona, Karandighi I, Karandighi II, Lahutara I, Lahutara II, and Raniganj.

Demographics

Population
As per the 2011 Census of India, Karandighi CD Block had a total population of 368,332, all of which were rural. There were 188,572 (51%) males and 179,760 (49) females. Population below 6 years was 66,984. Scheduled Castes numbered 107,936 (29.30%) and Scheduled Tribes numbered 28,773 (7.81%).

In the 2001 census, Karandighi community development bloc had a population of 318,793, of which 163,876 were males and 154,917 were females. Decadal growth for the period 1991 to 2001 was 38.53%, against 28,72% for Uttar Dinajpur district.

Large villages (with 4,000+ population) in Karandighi CD Block were (2011 population in brackets): Bagela (6,122), Raniganj (6,609), Bhulki (5,193), Gopalpur (7,109),  Rautara (4,260), Bhabanipur  (4,509), Khanta (6,457), Andharia (5,011), Bajargaon (5,296), Fatepur (4,676), Kochra (5,256), Dulepur (4,243), Sabdhan (5,834), Lahutara (4,324), Sohar (4,893), Jujhapur (8,665), Kamartor (4,995) and Raghopur (8,434).

Other villages in Karandighi CD Block included (2011 population in brackets): Altapur (3,092).

Decadal Population Growth Rate (%)

Note: The CD Block data for 1971–1981, 1981-1991 and 1991-2001 is for Karandighi PS covering the block

The decadal growth of population in Karandighi CD Block in 2001-2011 was 15.51%. The decadal growth of population in Karandighi PS  in 1991-2001 was 30.57%, in 1981-91 was 36.03% and in 1971-81 was 38.40%. The decadal growth rate of population in Uttar Dinajpur district was as follows:  30.2% in 1971–81, 34.0% in 1981–91, 28.7% in 1991-2001 and 23.2% in 2001–11. The decadal growth rate for West Bengal was 13.93% in 2001–2011, 17.77% in 1991–2001. 24.73% in 1981-1991 and 23.17% in 1971–1981.

Uttar Dinajpur district has the highest decadal population growth rate in West Bengal with a figure of 23.2% for the decade 2001-2011 and is much higher than the state average of 13.8%.

According to the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, population growth in the area that later became Uttar Dinajpur district was low in the pre-independence era and started picking up with the waves of East Bengali refugees coming in from erstwhile East Pakistan. Despite the formation of an international border in 1947, none of the PS areas in the area which later formed Islampur SD showed much increase in settlement density between 1941 and 1951, and accelerated settlement only came into evidence in this region after 1961, following their transfer from Bihar to West Bengal. Thus, as population growth in the Uttar Dinajpur region accelerated considerably under the impetus of partition migration after 1951, the Islampur SD areas offered additional living space, easing the overall migration pressure on the region.

The Human Development Report analyses, “A spurt in population growth rates first became evident between 1951-1961, and was further magnified between 1971-81 after the creation of Bangladesh when population growth in most districts bordering the Bangladesh-West Bengal frontier showed similar escalation. However, after 1981, when population growth in most other West Bengal districts had tapered off, growth rates in Uttar Dinajpur again showed a fresh spurt. Thus, no deceleration in population growth rates occurred in the district until after 1991… In addition to Hindu and tribal migrants from across the international border, a sizeable number of migrant Muslims have also settled in the district, mainly driven by economic reasons… migrants from other states comprised 23% of the total migrants residing in Uttar Dinajpur.” The large number of migrants from other states is mainly from the neighbouring areas in Bihar.

A study by North Bengal University has observed that “Immigrants from East Pakistan/Bangladesh have arrived in Uttar Dinajpur in almost equal numbers before and after 1971.”   The Human Development Report opines, “The overall post-Partition impact on the rates of demographic growth has been particularly strong in all North Bengal districts. Despite its smaller relative size, the region has received more migration in pro rata terms than the West Bengal districts lying south of the Ganga.”

Literacy
As per the 2011 census, the total number of literates in Karandighi CD Block was 160,973 (53.42% of the population over 6 years) out of which males numbered 93,115 (60.42% of the male population over 6 years) and females numbered 67,858 (46.08% of the female population over 6 years). The gender disparity (the difference between female and male literacy rates) was 14.34%.

The literacy rate in Uttar Dinajpur district at 60.13% in 2011, up from 47.89% in 2001, was the lowest amongst all districts of West Bengal. The highest literacy rate amongst the districts of West Bengal was that of Purba Medinipur district at 87.66% in 2011.

According to the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district,  “Goalpokhar-1, Goalpokhar-2, Karandighi and Islampur blocks in that order stood at the very bottom of the literacy scale in the state. This pooling of illiteracy within Islampur SD also led to the low ranking of Uttar Dinajpur at 494th position out of 595 Indian districts in terms of literacy rates in 2001, despite which its rank had improved considerably in relative terms from the 523rd rank it had occupied in 1991.”

The five blocks transferred from the state of Bihar to form a new subdivision in West Dinajpur in 1959 had until 1956 been part of the Kishanganj region which is still characterised by a low overall literacy rate of 31 percent in 2006–07, against which the corresponding rate for Uttar Dinajpur as a whole is a literacy rate of 48 percent... “Like Kishanganj which is now a full-fledged Bihar district, Islampur SD too has a largely rural profile, a large Muslim population and deep concentration of rural poverty”... Persisting regional disparities in access to education and infrastructure, rather than the response and enthusiasm of the local people are largely responsible for making Uttar Dinajpur the least literate district in West Bengal. “Thus, a major challenge facing the district relates to the improvement of educational attainments of the weaker social sections and women, especially among the Muslim community which has a dominant presence in the Islampur SD region… A huge gulf separates the Muslim literacy rate of 36 percent in Uttar Dinajpur from the Muslim literacy rate of 58 percent achieved by West Bengal as a whole.”

See also – List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate

See also - Literacy in Bihar

Language and religion

In the 2011 census, Muslims numbered 197,832 and formed 53.71% of the population in Karandighi CD Block. Hindus numbered 168,462 and formed 45.74% of the population. Christians numbered 1,460 and formed 0.40% of the population. Others numbered 578 and formed 0.16% of the population. In Karandighi CD Block, as per the District Statistical Handbook for Uttar Dinajpur, while the proportion of Muslims increased from 47.25% in 1991 to 49.36% in 2001, the proportion of Hindus declined from 52.42% in 1991 to 49.95% in 2001.

In the 2011 census, Uttar Dinajpur district had 1,501,170 Muslims who formed 49.92% of the population, 1,482,943 Hindus who formed 49.31% of the population, 16,702 Christians who formed 0.56% of the population and 6,319 persons belonging to other religions who formed 0.23% of the population. While the proportion of Muslim population in the district increased from 45.3% in 1991 to 49.9% in 2011, the proportion of Hindu population declined from 54.2% in 1991 to 49.2% in 2011.

At the time of the 2011 census, 72.02% of the population spoke Bengali, 6.35% Santali, 6.02% Surjapuri, 3.76% Hindi, 2.68% Rajbongshi and 1.38% Urdu as their first language. 3.82% of the population recorded their language as 'Others' under Bengali in the census.

The Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur describes the Islampur subdivision as “a region where Urdu and Hindi are widely spoken as a first language because of the prior transfer of this territory to West Bengal from Bihar”

Rural poverty
As per the Rural Household Survey conducted in 2002, 37.2% of the rural families in Karandighi CD Block belonged to the BPL category, against 46.7% of rural families in Uttar Dinajpur district being in the BPL category.  As per the Human Development Report for Uttar Dinajpur district, Islampur and Karandighi rank sixth and seventh in terms of human development, with respective Human Development Index (HDIs) that indicate the existence of a wide human development gap between them and the lowest ranked Raiganj SD block of Itahar. However, in terms of the concentration of human poverty, they occupy a more favourable position than Itahar.

Economy

Livelihood

In Karandighi CD Block in 2011, amongst the class of total workers, cultivators numbered 30,532 and formed 20.45%, agricultural labourers numbered 64,933 and formed  43.49%, household industry workers numbered 13,301 and formed 8.91% and other workers numbered  40,538 and formed 27.15%. Total workers numbered 149,304 and formed 40.54% of the total population, and non-workers numbered 219,028 and formed 59.46% of the population.

Note: In the census records a person is considered a cultivator, if the person is engaged in cultivation/ supervision of land owned by self/government/institution. When a person who works on another person's land for wages in cash or kind or share, is regarded as an agricultural labourer. Household industry is defined as an industry conducted by one or more members of the family within the household or village, and one that does not qualify for registration as a factory under the Factories Act. Other workers are persons engaged in some economic activity other than cultivators, agricultural labourers and household workers.  It includes factory, mining, plantation, transport and office workers, those engaged in business and commerce, teachers, entertainment artistes and so on.

Infrastructure
There are 200 inhabited villages in Karandighi CD Block. All 200 villages (100%) have power supply. All 200 villages (100%) have drinking water supply. 18 villages (9.00%) have post offices. 176 villages (88.00%) have telephones (including landlines, public call offices and mobile phones). 103 villages (51.50%) have a pucca (paved) approach road and 58 villages (29.00%) have transport communication (includes bus service, rail facility and navigable waterways). 3 villages (1.50%) have agricultural credit societies. 7 villages (3.50%) have banks.

Agriculture
“With its distinctive physiographic and agroclimatic features, the Dinajpur region has been a bread-basket area of Bengal for many centuries, growing multiple varieties of fine and coarse rice in vast quantities, along with major economic crops like jute. The livelihood profile of Uttar Dinajpur district has evolved in association with these old agricultural patterns, and more than two-thirds of its active workforce still draws livelihoods directly from agriculture and related occupations.”

Agricultural potential has been uneven across Uttar Dinajpur based on soil conditions and irrigation potential. This has generated considerable internal migration within the district, as areas with higher agricultural potential and higher labour demand has attracted large number of people. The impact of land reforms has also varied. As the Islampur subdivision blocks evolved initially under the Bihar administration, the land estates were larger in size and the extent of land acquired under ceiling laws were higher. The cultivator population in Islampur subdivision was also thinner. Such conditions have been favourable for migrants. The movement of people from agricultural activities to non-agricultural activities has been low in Uttar Dinajpur district except for some pockets.

Karandighi CD Block had 143 fertiliser depots, 14 seed stores and 49 fair price shops in 2013–14.

In 2013–14, Karandighi CD Block produced 47,741 tonnes of Aman paddy, the main winter crop from 20,985 hectares, 1,881 tonnes of Boro paddy (spring crop) from 861 hectares, 13,464 tonnes of wheat from 5,736 hectares, 1,984 tonnes of maize from 815 hectares, 118,313 tonnes of jute from 7,877 hectares, 37,365 tonnes of potatoes from 1,564 hectares and 31,370 tonnes of sugar cane from 300 hectares.. It also produced pulses and oilseeds.

In 2013–14, the total area irrigated in Karandighi CD Block was 788 hectares, out of which 68 hectares were irrigated by river lift irrigation and 720 hectares by deep tube wells.

Craft based activities
“More than eleven hundred rural households across the district are engaged in traditionalcrafts based industries, among which dhokra mat making, terracotta, village pottery and bamboo craft in the Goalpokhar-1 and Kaliaganj regions are notable.”

Beedi industry
“A flourishing beedi binding industry has taken root in Karandighi which engages vast numbers of rural women as informal
home based workers.”

Banking
In 2012–13, Karandighi CD Block had offices of 6 commercial banks and 4 gramin banks.

Backward Regions Grant Fund
Uttar Dinajpur district is listed as a backward region and receives financial support from the Backward Regions Grant Fund.  The fund, created by the Government of India, is designed to redress regional imbalances in development. As of 2012, 272 districts across the country were listed under this scheme. The list includes 11 districts of West Bengal.

Transport

Karandighi CD Block has 1 ferry service, 3 originating/ terminating bus routes. The nearest railway station is 15 km from CD Block headquarters

The Howrah–New Jalpaiguri line passes through western edge of Karandighi CD Block and there is a station at Dalkhola, outside the CD Block, but adjacent to it. In the early 1960s, when Farakka Barrage was being  constructed, a far reaching change was made. Indian Railways constructed a new broad-gauge rail link from south Bengal to connect North Bengal.

National Highway 12 (old number NH 34) passes through Karandighi village and Karandighi CD Block and meets National Highway 27 at Dalkhola.

Education
In 2012–13, Karandighi CD Block had 145 primary schools with 29,891 students, 9 middle schools with 1,437 students, 4 high schools with 6,689 students and 20 higher secondary schools with 27,422 students. Karandighi CD Block had 664 institutions for special and non-formal education with 51,519 students.

As per the 2011 census, in Karandighi CD Block, amongst the 200 inhabited villages, 11 villages did not have a school, 145 villages had 1 or more  primary schools, 44 villages had at least 1 primary and 1 middle school and 22 villages had at least 1 middle and 1 secondary school.

The mid-day meal programme for rural school children was launched in 2005 in Uttar Dinajpur district. As on 30 April 2015, 602,557 children in 3,006 schools were covered under this programme.

Healthcare
In 2013, Karandighi CD Block had 1 block primary health centre and 2 primary health centres, with total 46 beds and 7 doctors (excluding private bodies). It had 48 family welfare subcentres. 7,896 patients were treated indoor and 403,264 patients were treated outdoor in the hospitals, health centres and subcentres of the CD Block.

Karandighi rural hospital at Karandighi (with 30 beds) is the main medical facility in Karandighi CD block. There are primary health centres at Dalkhola (with 6 beds), Rasakbowa (with 10 beds).

External links

References

Community development blocks in Uttar Dinajpur district


Berenguer d'Anoia or de Noya (fl. c. 1300) was a Catalan troubadour from Majorca. He wrote the Mirall de trobar, an Occitan poetic, grammatical, and rhetorical treatise in the tradition of the Razos de trobar of Raimon Vidal and the Regles de trobar of Jofre de Foixà, a genre always popular in Catalan country.

Berenguer's parents were noble Catalans, originally from the village of Sant Sadurní d'Anoia, who settled at Inca in Majorca following its conquest by James the Conqueror. This information concerning his family and origins is found hidden in his own writings in the form of an acrostic which states:

The Mirall commences with a prologue explaining its division into four chapters that study rhetorical forms and major poetic errors. It begins thus:  Everything is illustrated with examples drawn from the compositions of previous troubadours, but not always in the correct form. Berenguer himself does not have any work to his own name, though some otherwise unattributable fragments from his treatise are assumed to be his work. The following short section is taken from his illustration of the religious alba:

The Institut Berenguer d’Anoia, founded in Inca in 1970, was named after the troubadour.

Sources
Els trobadors. Trobadors catalans. Berenguer d'Anoia (cap a 1300).
Incipitario di Berenguer d’Anoia.
Institut Berenguer d’Anoia.

People from Catalonia
People from Mallorca
Spanish troubadours
Year of death unknown
Inca, Spain
Year of birth unknown