James Thomas Hogan (1 December 1874 – 1 January 1953) was an Independent Member of Parliament for two electorates in the North Island of New Zealand.

Born in Wanganui, Hogan was a machinist in the railway workshops, and a trade union secretary.

Member of Parliament

Hogan represented the Wanganui electorate in the House of Representatives for six years from 1905 to 1911 as an Independent Liberal–Labour member. Later, he returned to Parliament as an MP for Rangitikei between 1928 and 1931.

In 1935, he was awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal.

References

Further reading

1874 births
1953 deaths
Independent MPs of New Zealand
New Zealand trade unionists
People from Whanganui
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1911 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1931 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1935 New Zealand general election


Tamba Borbor-Sawyer is a Sierra Leonean politician and a retired officer in the Sierra Leone Police. He was a member of the third parliament from the opposition Sierra Leone People's Party (SLPP) representing Kailahun District, but was suspended from the party in 2010 after taking up a cabinet position in the government led by the All People's Congress.

Borbor-Sawyer is a member of the Kissi ethnic group.

References

Living people
Members of the Parliament of Sierra Leone
Sierra Leonean police officers
Sierra Leone People's Party politicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)


Caloon (also coolan or cooloon) may refer to certain species of Australian trees within the genus Elaeocarpus including:

Elaeocarpus angustifolius
Elaeocarpus coorangooloo
Elaeocarpus ruminatus


Lana Coc-Kroft (born 1967) is a New Zealand television and radio personality, and was Miss Universe New Zealand in 1988.

Coc-Kroft began her television career appearing in Sale of the Century, and in 1991 on the New Zealand version of Wheel of Fortune as the co-host with Phillip Leishman, later Simon Barnett. She continued in this role until the show ended in 1996. In 1994 she fronted the extreme sports show On The Edge for five years, where she went diving with sharks, parachuting, caving and extreme rafting in New Zealand and around the world. During the late 1990s she hosted 91ZM breakfast radio with Marcus Lush, leaving in 2002. In 1999 she co-hosted "The Lipstick Lunch" on ZM, which was networked nationwide in 2000. The show did not rate well despite winning Top Non Breakfast Award at the New Zealand Radio Awards in 2002 and as a result show was concluded.

Over the next few years Coc-Kroft hosted a series of shows and documentaries including Can You Hackett, Make or Break, DIY Dads, On the Road, and Test the Nation. While filming Celebrity Treasure Island during April 2004 in Fiji.

From 1996 to 2005, Coc-Kroft was a host on the television show SportsCafe, and returned with the show in July 2008 another season.

Regarding the 2005 celebrity drug case involving former rugby players Marc Ellis and Brent Todd (called Project Aqua by the police), as part of the case, Coc-Kroft was granted name suppression, which she later let lapse, and she went to the police to explain her relationship with the men involved, but was not charged.

In 2009, Coc-Kroft co-hosted the show Who Dares Wins with former SportsCafe presenter Marc Ellis.

See also
 List of New Zealand television personalities

References

1968 births
Living people
New Zealand female models
New Zealand television presenters
People educated at Auckland Girls' Grammar School
Miss New Zealand winners
Miss Universe 1988 contestants
New Zealand women television presenters


Deer tick may refer to a few different Ixodes spp.:

 Ixodes scapularis, the eastern North America black-legged tick
 Ixodes pacificus, the western North America black-legged tick
 Ixodes ricinus, the European tick sometimes called a "deer tick" or "sheep tick"

Other
 Deer Tick, American alt-rock-folk band

See also
  Lyme disease, a well-known disease spread by ticks
 Deer tick virus, causes encephalitis

Animal common name disambiguation pages


The United States House of Representatives elections in California, 1936 was an election for California's delegation to the United States House of Representatives, which occurred as part of the general election of the House of Representatives on November 3, 1936. Democrats gained two Republican-held districts and the Progressive Party gained one Republican-held district.

Overview

Delegation composition

Results
Final results from the Clerk of the House of Representatives:

District 1

District 2

District 3

District 4

District 5

District 6

District 7

District 8

District 9

District 10

District 11

District 12

District 13

District 14

District 15

District 16

District 17

District 18

District 19

District 20

See also
75th United States Congress
Political party strength in California
Political party strength in U.S. states
1936 United States House of Representatives elections

References
California Elections Page
Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives

External links
California Legislative District Maps (1911-Present)
RAND California Election Returns: District Definitions

1936 California elections
1936
California United States House of Representatives


KMPT (930 AM) is a radio station licensed to serve East Missoula, Montana.  The station is owned by Townsquare Media.  It airs a talk radio format.

History

KYSS signed on the air June 27, 1959. Treasure State Broadcasting signed the station on after having acquired the construction permit, briefly known as KDOO, in 1958. KYSS-FM was started by the station in 1969.

Prior to acquiring the new call sign, KMPT was known as KLCY. The station changed to its current call letters on January 1, 2008.

Ownership
In October 2007, a deal was reached for the station (then known as KLCY) to be acquired by GAP Broadcasting II LLC (Erik Hellum, president) from Clear Channel Communications as part of a 57 station deal with a total reported sale price of $74.78 million.  What eventually became GapWest Broadcasting was folded into Townsquare Media on August 13, 2010.

References

External links
Official Website

MPT
Talk radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1959
Townsquare Media radio stations


Joseph-Antoine Raymond (September 22, 1902 – April 18, 1975) was a Canadian politician and a four-term Member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.

Background

He was born on September 22, 1902, near Kamouraska, Bas-Saint-Laurent and became a physician.

Mayor

Raymond served as Mayor of Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha! from 1947 to 1964.

Member of the legislature

He ran as a Union Nationale candidate in the 1952 election in the provincial district of Témiscouata and won.  He was re-elected in the 1956, 1960 and 1962 elections, but he did not run for re-election in the 1966 election.

Death

Raymond died on April 18, 1975.

References

1902 births
1975 deaths
Mayors of places in Quebec
Union Nationale (Quebec) MNAs
People from Bas-Saint-Laurent


MyLife, discovered by MessageLabs in 2002, is a computer worm that spreads itself by sending email to the addresses found in Microsoft Outlook's contacts list. Written in Visual Basic, it displays an image of a girl holding a flower while it attempts to delete files with certain filename extensions. It is named for a phrase appearing in the subject lines of the emails it sends. A variant, MyLife.B, also called the Bill Clinton worm, instead uses a subject line "bill caricature" and displays a cartoon image of Bill Clinton playing a saxophone. Many additional variants have been reported.
When the infected file is run, and the picture is closed, the worm runs its payload.
MyLife checks the current date. If the minute value is higher or at 45 (For example: 11:45 to 11:59), the worm searches the C:\ directory and deletes .SYS files, .COM files and the same in D:\ Drives.

References

Email worms
Bill Clinton


East and West (subtitled "China, Power, and the Future of Asia") is a 1998 book by the British politician Chris Patten about his experiences as the last Governor of Hong Kong. In this book, he attempts to provide insights into the last years of British colonial rule in Hong Kong, and defends his decision of introducing the controversial representative democracy into the territory. In the second part of the book he argues that some Asian economies had outgrown their political structures and reforms are needed for stability and economic growth. He further asserts that the so-called Asian values are nothing more than a euphemism for legitimising the totalitarian regimes.

Patten's introduction of representative democracy into Hong Kong during his governorship induced scathing criticism from the Chinese authority and he was described by high-ranking Chinese officials as "whore of the East", a "serpent" and a "criminal who would be condemned for a thousand generations". The Chinese government did not welcome its publication and it is said that China's official distaste for Patten led his original publisher, HarperCollins, owned by Rupert Murdoch, who is intent on expanding his business in China, to cancel publication. The book was finally published by Crown in the USA and Macmillan in the UK.

Overview
The book is divided into three sections. In the first section, titled "Governing", Patten recounts various important events that happened during his office as the last governor of Hong Kong from July 1992 to 30 June 1997. In particular, he describes how his proposal of electoral reforms in the Legislative Council was met with criticisms from the Chinese government, and how he was personally denounced by high-ranking officials using the "most extreme lexicon of the Cultural Revolution" as the "whore of the East", a "serpent" and a "criminal who would be condemned for a thousand generations". He also details China's tactics of using trade and access to its huge market to lobby Hong Kong businessmen and British politicians to exert pressure on him to back down. Patten argues that the success of Hong Kong is based on "a clean and open administration, the rule of law, public participation in government, a free press and respect for civil liberties." As such, China's hostility to democracy and advocacy of the so-called Asian values would undermine the very foundation of Hong Kong's success.

In the second section, titled "In the view from Hong Kong", Patten first detailed and analysed the rapid growth of the East Asian Tigers and other Southeast Asian countries after the World War II. He asserted that the growth was largely export-led and those Asian countries were benefactors of the early wave of globalisation. The Asian financial crisis that began in late 1997, on the other hand, was the results of weak regulation of banks and wild speculations of the property markets in the involved countries; Since "a number of Asian economies had outgrown their political structures", they cannot adjust to the changes as smoothly and peacefully as other more representative forms of government.

Reception

The New York Times Book Review describes East and West as a "spirited defense of his policies" and a "lucid analysis of some of the larger issues that confront the West in its dealings with Asia". The book is "fresh", "eloquent" and "unblinkered", and it "challenges some of the received wisdom on these subjects and marches with spirit and independence toward its conclusions". A review in International Affairs, a leading peer-reviewed academic journal of international relations, describes the book as an "articulate exposition" and contains "electric wit". The review concludes that the book "demonstrates how a coherent mix of engagement with China coupled with constraint on its unwelcome actions adds up to a practical China policy". On the other hand, China Daily, a Chinese Communist Party-controlled state-run publication, has a scathing review on the book. The paper calls Patten a "cold war warrior" and this book "completely exposes his anti-China obsessions". The review adds that the "retired governor has done everything he can to hurt the feelings of the Chinese people with extremely provocative language".

See also
Politics of Hong Kong

Notes

References

1998 non-fiction books
Politics of Hong Kong
Non-fiction books about diplomacy
Books about foreign relations of the United Kingdom


The word  is a Japanese-language term for various mythical techniques of rapid movement. The characters in the word can be rendered literally as "shrinking the earth," referring to how the technique reduces the spatial distance between two points to achieve its effect.

History
The word first appears in Shenxian Zhuan to describe the ability of Taoist magician Fei Changfang.

The term  suōdìmài denotes the power of teleportation attributed to some xians. Those possessing this ability were believed to be capable of moving vast distances in a single step. The term is sometimes used to refer to a similar ability in Buddhist belief.

The Japanese terms ,  or  are used for the same ability attributed to sennin.

Appearances

In martial arts
In modern Japanese martial arts, shukuchi refers to a sudden movement into an enemy's maai (space) or blind spot to attack. This definition is relatively recent, and is, therefore, used somewhat differently by various schools.

In Korea
The ability of chukjibeop (축지법 縮地法) was attributed to North Korean leaders Kim Il Sung and Kim Jong Il in the propaganda song "The General Uses Warp". According to a quote in an DPRK official newspaper, the attribution is purely a metaphor for People's War.

In popular culture
Fictionalized versions of shukuchi are common in manga, anime and video games. In this context, it is usually portrayed as short-range teleportation or as the ability to move quickly enough to become invisible.

Manga and anime
Son Goku, the main character of the Dragon Ball franchise, is seen performing this feat as a child and eventually masters the art of teleporting when an adult.
Seta Sōjirō from Rurouni Kenshin can use shukuji.
Various characters in Negima!: Magister Negi Magi employ such techniques.
In the manga and anime Prince of Tennis the shukuchi method is used by players of the Higa Middle School from Okinawa to give the illusion of moving from the baseline of a tennis court to the net in a split second.

Video games
Weaver, a character from the popular video game Dota 2, has an ability called Shukuchi, which allows it to become invisible and run with very high movement speed for a short period of time.
In the Square Enix MMORPG Final Fantasy XIV, the Ninja job has an ability called Shukuchi which allows the user to move extremely quickly to a targeted location, almost teleporting.
In the Touhou Project series, the sennin Toyosatomimi no Miko has a technique called Shukuchi Cape, which allows her to teleport.
In the video game Danganronpa V3: Killing Harmony, the character Ryoma Hoshi mentions this technique as a way to escape others quickly.
In the video game Fate/Grand Order, Shukuchi is one of Okita Souji's skills and a part of Ushiwakamaru's "Usumidori - Heavenly Blade Steps".

References

Japanese words and phrases


The office of High Sheriff is over 1000 years old, with its establishment before the Norman Conquest. The Office of High Sheriff remained first in precedence in the counties until the reign of Edward VII when an Order in Council in 1908 gave the Lord-Lieutenant the prime office under the Crown as the Sovereign's personal representative. The High Sheriff remains the Sovereign's representative in the County for all matters relating to the Judiciary and the maintenance of law and order.

The county of Avon was formed in 1974 and abolished in 1996.  Before and after this time the area covered was in a variety of other shrievalties, including Somerset, Bristol and Gloucestershire.

Officeholders
1974: Hugh Charles Innes Rogers, of Beach House, Bitton, near Bristol.
1975: John Foster Robinson, CBE, TD, of St. Georges Hill, Easton-in-Gordano, near Bristol.
1976: Simon Melville Wills, of The Manor House, Walton-in-Gordano, Clevedon.
1977: Malcolm Allinson Anson, of Hill Court, Congresbury, Bristol.
1978: Humphrey Ashley Densham, OBE, of 15 Eaton Crescent, Clifton, Bristol.
1979: Thomas Lloyd Robinson, TD, of Lechlade, 23 Druid Stoke Avenue, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
1980: Mary Ada Phoebe Towill, of Urchinwood Manor, Congresbury, Bristol.
1981: Roderick Macdonald Davidson, of 13 Buckingham Vale, Clifton, Bristol.
1982: Peter Douglas Smith, of Westbrook, Flax Bourton, Bristol.
1983: Colonel Charles James Stewart, OBE, TD, of Thornton, Midford Road, Combe Down, Bath.
1984: Christopher Wilson Thomas CBE, of Bourne House
1985: Robert Edward John Bernays, of Old Down House, Tockington
1986: Sir Alexander Walter Merrison FRS, of The Manor, Hinton Blewett
1987: Robert Alexander Chermside, of The Old Rectory, Tormarton
1988: Charles Richard Thurlow Laws, of Jerome House
1989: Sir George White, 4th Baronet, of Pypers
1990: Robert Foxcroft Robertson-Glasgow, of Hinton House, Hinton Charterhouse, near Bath.
1991: Andrew Milton Reid, of Parsonage Farm, Publow, Pensford, Bristol.
1992: Francis William Greenacre, of 3 Cecil Road, Clifton, Bristol.
1993: Hylton Henry Bayntun-Coward
1994: Christopher Marsden-Smedley, of Church Farm, Burrington, Bristol.
1995: James Napier Tidmarsh, MBE, of 8 Princes Buildings, Clifton, Bristol.
1996: George Robert Paget Ferguson, of 5 Windsor Terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

References

Avon


Péter Szervánszky (24 September 1913, Kispest – 27 March 1985, Budapest) was a Hungarian violinist.

On 5 January 1944, Szervánszky gave the first performance in Hungary of Béla Bartók's 2nd violin concerto, in which he played the tutti ending of the concerto. Bartók had already left Hungary for the United States and left the score with the eminent musicologist Bence Szabolcsi. Péter performed the work with the Székesfövarosi Orchestra, conducted by János Ferencsik.

Szervánszky is the brother of the artist Jenő Szervánszky and the composer Endre Szervánszky, and uncle of the pianist Valéria Szervánszky.

References

Hungarian classical violinists
Male classical violinists
1913 births
1985 deaths
20th-century classical violinists
20th-century Hungarian male musicians


Trevor Davey (5 July 1926 – 13 February 2012) was a Member of Parliament from Gisborne in the North Island of New Zealand who represented the Labour Party.

Biography

Davey was born in Didsbury, Lancashire, England, in 1926, the son of H. W. Davey. He received his education at Chorlton High School. Davey was a member of the 6th Airborne Division from 1946 to 1948. He married Mavis Birch Baxter in Manchester in 1949, the daughter of H. A. Baxter. They had one son.

He was the managing director of Queen's Hall, Leeds between 1956 and 1966. Davey emigrated to New Zealand with his wife and son in 1966.

Davey served on the Gisborne City Council from 1971 to 1974 where he was a member of the council's works, library, town planning and airport committees. He represented the Gisborne electorate in the New Zealand House of Representatives from , when he beat the incumbent, Esme Tombleson, the first woman who had represented Gisborne in Parliament. At the next election in , he was defeated by National's Bob Bell. He was awarded the New Zealand 1990 Commemoration Medal for service to the community.

Davey was a governor of both Gisborne Boys' and Gisborne Girls' High Schools. He was on the executive of the New Zealand Red Cross (1972–1973).

References

1926 births
2012 deaths
People from Didsbury
English emigrants to New Zealand
Members of the New Zealand House of Representatives
New Zealand MPs for North Island electorates
New Zealand Labour Party MPs
New Zealand city councillors
New Zealand businesspeople
People from Gisborne, New Zealand
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1969 New Zealand general election
Unsuccessful candidates in the 1975 New Zealand general election
New Zealand expatriates in England


The Sub-district VI of Praga (of Armia Krajowa) (Polish: Obwód VI Praga) - a territorial organisational unit of the District of Warsaw of Armia Krajowa. It covered the area of Praga of Warsaw, fought in conspiracy during the German occupation of Poland and openly during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944.

Period of conspiracy
The sub-district VI of Praga of the then Związek Walki Zbrojnej was created in November 1939 and was commanded by lieutenant-colonel Szramka Gliszczyński pseudonym "Zawisza".

In 1941 the sub-district was divided into regions of training, tactics and organisational purposes. Five regions were created, equipped with their staffs and service units.

Region I: Nowe Bródno / Pelcowizna - commanded by captain Zygmunt Pawlik pseudonym "Antoni".
Region II: Bródno / Targówek / Targówek Fabryczny - commanded by captain Kazimierz Lichodziejowski pseudonym "Tara".
Region III: Grochów / Saska Kępa - commanded by captain of horse  Tadeusz Schollenderger pseudonym "Rakowski".
Region IV: Michałów - commanded by major Henryk Bełdycki pseudonym "Stefan".
Region V: Praga Centralna - commanded by captain Zygmunt Bobrowski pseudonym "Ludwik".

Since 24 July 1944 German motor infantry, artillery and tank units began to come in large number into Praga. On 1 August at 7:30 a.m. the commander of the sub-district received an order to start military action on 5:00 p.m. Special emphasis was put in it on barring the bridges on Wisła river. Because of late reception of the order, which in accordance with the assumptions ought to have been delivered 24 hours prior to the commencement of the fights, the mobilisation of forces and means of the sub-district was deficient. In connection with a large concentration of German forces in Praga as well as execrable state of armament of conspirators, which had become manifest during previous action stations, part of officers and soldiers of the sub-district put in question the use to take up fight in Praga.

Period of fights in the Warsaw Uprising 1944
At the hour "W" ca 40% soldiers out of the nominal number of the sub-district were mobilized. The weapon in possession until the uprising was by far insufficient  and included:

272 pcs of rifles of various models with 4,800 pcs of ammunition,
6 heavy machine-guns with 2,600 pcs of ammunition,
7 pcs of hand machine-guns,
1 pcs of anti-tank gun with 80 cartridges,
10 pcs of submachine-guns and 900 pcs of ammunition,
35 pcs of Sten submachine-guns,
1000 pcs of hand-grenades (including 500 pcs of so-called sidol hand-grenades manufactured in conspiracy),
ca 600 pcs of incendiary bottles.

Because of a shortage of weapon (often a failure to deliver it to places of assembly) and incomplete mobilisation, many units of the sub-district did not reach the state of fighting readiness.

Region I: Fight was started at 5:00 on 1 August. Railway workshops in Oliwska street defended by ca 200 German soldiers were attacked. In face of strong resistance of the enemy it was made a retreat to the building of a school in Bartnicza street. Attacks on a bridge on the Wisła-Bug canal and on barracks in Golędzinów failed. Upon an introduction of tanks into fight by Germans, the insurgents were forced to withdraw to Targówek.
Region II: An attack on a battery of anti-aircraft artillery broke down under a heavy fire of guns and machine-guns. The building of the administration of Bródno cemetery was not seized. Bur the building of a school in Oszmiańska street was captured as well as the building of the 24th Police Station where from ten to twenty pcs of rifles and pistols were found.
Region III: Because of the presence of strong German armoured units and very poor armament, insurgents did not decide to start the attack.
Region IV: The attack on the barracks of the 36th Infantry Regiment of "Academic Legion" (Polish: 36 Pułk Piechoty Legii Akademickiej) in 11 Listopada street broke down under heavy fire of enemy machine-guns and 16 tanks. The attack on a railway guard post in Św. Wincentego street, defended by an armoured train, failed.
Region V: There were captured the Warsaw Wilno Railway Station (Polish: Warszawa Wileńska), building of the administration of the Polish State-owned Railways (Polish: Polskie Koleje Państwowe), the post office and the telephone exchange in Wileńska street, building of the slaughter-house in Sierakowskiego street and a school building in Kawęczyńska street. The attack on the strongly defended Kierbedź Bridge (Polish: Most Kierbedzia) and on the gendarmerie station in Targowa street failed. A group of 12 German tanks moved along Grochowska / Targowa / 11 Listopada streets and make impossible to the insurgents to erect barricades. Also, because of an overwhelming advantage of fire by the enemy, the seizure of the Poniatowski Bridge (Polish: Most Poniatowskiego) failed.

On the second day of the uprising, several hundred insurgents continued their fight  in several points of Praga.
Because of an overwhelming German advantage, incomplete mobilisation of sub-district's forces and poor armament, fight in Praga went out after 3 days.

On 4 August the commander of the sub-district lieutenant-colonel Antoni Żurowski pseudonym "Bober", "Papież", with approval of the commander of the District of Warsaw (of Armia Krajowa), ordered to go back to conspiracy.

Some insurgents forced their way to Mokotów, Sadyba and Czerniaków. Two units were transferred to the Kampinos Forest.

See also
 Military description of the Warsaw Uprising

References
 Struktura Organizacyjna Armii Krajowej, Marek Ney-Krwawicz w: Mówią wieki nr 9/1986.

Units and formations of the Home Army
Warsaw Uprising


Ian Lawson McKay (9 March 1923 – 3 April 2010) was an Australian rules footballer who played with North Adelaide in the SANFL. He played a total of 164 games for North Adelaide.

Recruited from Sydney club St George where he had played during his war service, McKay joined North Adelaide in 1946 and although he started as a centre half back he played at fullback from 1949 until his retirement. McKay was selected to the South Australian interstate side in his debut season, the first of 14 times that he would represent his state. He won the Magarey Medal in 1950, the first fullback to win the award. He captained North Adelaide for eight seasons and led them to premierships in 1949 and 1952, also captaining South Australia twice. In 2000 he was named North Adelaide Team of The Century captain in a team that included Tom Leahy, Ken Farmer, Barrie Robran, Don Lindner, Darren Jarman and Andrew Jarman.

Ian was perhaps the only full back to have the great John Coleman's measure. Prior to Coleman's debut McKay had already proven himself against the "Big V", being chosen by the Victorian selectors as South Australia's best player in the 1946 clash between the states and thus being awarded the O'Halloran Trophy. Coleman and McKay were opposed 4 times and McKay kept Coleman to a tally of 10 goals in the four games at an average of 2.5 goals per game. McKay had the pace to go with Coleman and as freakish as Coleman's marking was McKay probably had an even better leap. No less a judge than Fos Williams stated that one of the main reasons South Australia defeated Victoria in both 1951 and 1952 was McKay's brilliance in curtailing Coleman.

In 1976 respected journalists Mike Coward and Geoff Kingston named South Australia's greatest 40 players of the first 100 years of SANFL football. They rated McKay as the 9th greatest SA footballer of the first 100 years. He was an inaugural member of the SANFL Hall of Fame yet incredibly he is still not in the AFL Hall of Fame.

Further in 1977, Merv Agars named South Australia's greatest team of the first 100 years and McKay was named full back.

Prior to official All Australian teams being selected the Sporting Life magazine annually chose an All Australian team and McKay was named full back in both 1951 and 1952. There teams were officially recognised by the AFL for a time.

McKay was also notable for an overhead mark he took in the 1952 SANFL Grand Final against Norwood.  The photograph of the mark captured McKay's dramatic leap over Norwood's Pat Hall and was reputedly distributed around the world.

References

External links

Ian McKay's obituary
John Coleman's nemesis

1923 births
2010 deaths
North Adelaide Football Club players
St George AFC players
Magarey Medal winners
Australian rules footballers from South Australia
South Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees
Australian military personnel of World War II


André Pelletier (28 April 1898 – 28 August 1952) was a Canadian politician and a two-term Member of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.

Background

He was born in Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha!, Bas-Saint-Laurent and became an insurance agent. He served as School Board President of Saint-Louis-du-Ha! Ha! from 1937 to 1944.

He ran as a Union Nationale candidate in the 1944 election in the provincial district of Témiscouata and won against Liberal incumbent Joseph-Alphonse Beaulieu.  He was re-elected in the 1948 election, but he did not run for re-election in the 1952 election.

Pelletier died on August 28, 1952, in Rivière-du-Loup.

References

1898 births
1952 deaths
French Quebecers
Union Nationale (Quebec) MNAs
People from Bas-Saint-Laurent


HMNZS Hickleton (M1131) was a  that operated in the Royal Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN). She was named after a small village near Doncaster.

Built for the Royal Navy by John I Thornycroft of Southampton, the minesweeper was launched on 26 January 1955 and later commissioned as HMS Hickleton

She was commissioned into the RNZN in 1965 and decommissioned in 1966. After leaving New Zealand service, she was transferred to the Argentine Navy and renamed ARA Neuquen (M1).

Operational history

United Kingdom

New Zealand
Early in 1965, Indonesia was employing a policy of confrontation against Malaysia. New Zealand agreed to assist Malaysia by deploying two Royal Navy minesweepers then in reserve at Singapore. These were commissioned into the RNZN on 10 April 1965 and joined the Royal Navy's 11th Minesweeping squadron (also Ton class), taking part in anti-infiltration patrols in Malaysian waters.

In her first year Hickleton, together with her sister ship , carried out 200 patrols, with 20 incidents involving intruding Indonesians, often taking as prisoners those aboard the intercepted craft. By the time the Indonesian confrontation policy ended in August 1966 Santon had steamed . Following the withdrawal of Commonwealth ships from the anti-infiltration patrols, the RNZN crew took her back to England, where she paid off in reserve at Portsmouth.

Argentina
The ship was subsequently sold to Argentina and renamed Neuquen (M1). She was decommissioned in 1996.

See also
Minesweepers of the Royal New Zealand Navy

References

Notes

Bibliography
 McDougall, R J (1989) New Zealand Naval Vessels. pp. 83–84. Government Printing Office.
 Wright, Gerry (2006) A Kiwi on our Funnel: The story of HMNZ Ships Hickleton and Santon, Zenith Print and Design.

Ships built in Southampton
1955 ships
Cold War minesweepers of the United Kingdom
Ton-class minesweepers of the Royal New Zealand Navy
Ships built by John I. Thornycroft & Company


Bahri, formerly known as the National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia, is a transportation and logistics company, positioned as the national shipping carrier of Saudi Arabia.

Overview

The company structures its operations around five business units that include Oil, Chemicals, Logistics, Dry Bulk, and Ship Management. Bahri's service offering includes transportation of crude oil, oil products, chemical, bulk cargo, Roll-on/roll-off as well as ship management and Bahri marine.

Today, Bahri one of the largest owner and operator of Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs) in the world, and one of the owner of chemical tanker ships in the Middle East.[1] The company currently owns 92 vessels with more on order, including 39 VLCCs, 36 chemical/product tankers, 6 multipurpose vessels and 11 dry bulk carriers.[2]

History
The National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia was created by a Royal Decree as a public company in 1978, with 22% ownership stake held by the Public Investment Fund (PIF) of the Saudi government, 20% by Saudi Aramco Development Company (SADCO), and the remaining shares listed on the Saudi stock exchange (Tadawul).

Business Units
Bahri Oil -
Bahri Oil was established in 1996 to serve the crude oil transportation needs of Saudi Arabia and other oil-producing countries in the region. Presently, Bahri Oil commercially manages a total of 39 VLCCs.

Bahri Chemicals -
Bahri Chemicals is one of the chemical/product tanker owner and operator in the Middle East. Established in 1990, Bahri Chemicals’ fleet consists of 36 chemical/product tankers with a fleet capacity of 1.3 million DWT.

Bahri Logistics -
Founded in 1979, Bahri Logistics was the first strategic business unit to be created within Bahri. Bringing a novel approach to its focus on optimal cargo mix, Bahri Logistics operates a total of 6 state-of-the-art multipurpose vessels on a regular liner schedule.

Bahri Dry Bulk -
Bahri Dry Bulk was set up in 2010 as a joint venture (JV) between Bahri and Arabian Agricultural Services Company (ARASCO), with a mandate to acquire, own, charter and commercially operate a fleet of dry bulk vessels. The JV paved the way for Bahri's diversification into dry bulk transportation, which represents about 23% of the total cargo imported to Saudi Arabia.

Bahri Ship Management -
Bahri Ship Management was established in the year 1996 jointly by Bahri and Acomarit, a ship management company based in Scotland, to provide ship management services to companies across the region. Based in Dubai, the company presently manages 96 ships comprising VLCCs, chemical carriers, dry bulk ships.

Bahri Roll-on/roll-off -
Cars, machineries and mafi roll trailers sea carriage and shipping division.

Floating Water Desalination Barges - Bahri expands business with SWCC through a 20-year agreement, establishing three floating desalination barges. These cutting-edge barges process 150,000 cubic meters of seawater per day using advanced treatment processes like reverse osmosis, remineralization, and integrated ultrafiltration. The partnership with Metito, a global player in water and alternative energy solutions, ensures successful execution of the project. Metito, as the lead contractor, utilizes state-of-the-art technologies to support Bahri in delivering exceptional value to SWCC and contributing to Saudi Vision 2030 goals.

See also
 List of largest container shipping companies
 Nippon Yusen Kaisha
 American Roll-on Roll-off Carrier
 Toyofuji Shipping
 Messina Line

References

1978 establishments in Saudi Arabia
Shipping companies of Saudi Arabia
Government-owned companies of Saudi Arabia
Companies based in Riyadh
Conglomerate companies of Saudi Arabia
Transport companies established in 1978
Car carrier shipping companies
Ro-ro shipping companies
Container shipping companies


Barrie Barbary (10 February 1939 – 11 February 2023) was an Australian rules footballer who played 213 games for North Adelaide and Woodville in the SANFL between 1957 – 1970. He was the 1960 Magarey Medalist and had a 14-year SANFL career. He is also a cousin to John Cahill and Darrell Cahill.

North Adelaide playing career
Combining solidity of build with enormous pace and superb ball handling ability, Barrie Barbary was a most damaging player for North Adelaide. After displaying consistent brilliance all year, he earned the 1960 Magarey Medal, and backed this up with a premiership medal as well, as North held off a stern challenge from Norwood to win by 5 points.

Jeff Pash, former footballer and then journalist with "The News" reflected on his 1960 season:As a footballer, he must please the most severe critic; his play is based on the solid, boring rush forward, complete technical mastery of his craft, and a serene, Bunton-like concentration.  Strength plus dexterity makes for the brilliant effects.

State representative
In his debut SANFL season he impressed enough to earn interstate selection and would go on to represent South Australia 18 times. In 1963 Barbary was part of arguably South Australia's greatest ever state team that overcame Victoria at the MCG. The game was a fierce, uncompromising and close encounter, with the South Australians getting home in a tense and thrilling last quarter by 7 points, in front of a 59,260 fans. South Australian coach Foster Williams stated "the win is the climax to my football career".

In a match featuring superstars Ron Barassi, Kevin Murray, John Nicholls, Graham 'Polly' Farmer, Darrel Baldock, Brian Dixon, Doug Wade, Sergio Silvagni, Noel Teasdale, Alistair Lord, Lindsay Head, John Halbert, Neil Kerley, Don Lindner, Bill Wedding, Robert Day, John Cahill, Ken Eustice, Geof Motley, John Halbert, Ron Benton, and Neil Hawke Barbary put in the best on ground performance, earning the O'Halloran Trophy. The Adelaide Advertiser reported on Barbary's performance: At the MCG on Saturday his speed, tenacity and sure ball-handling were dominating factors in SA's seven point win over Victoria.  As SA's best player, chosen by the Victorian selectors, Barbary won the trophy given by a leading oil company......  A steadfast refusal to admit defeat and the ability to gain possession against overwhelming odds are two of Barbary's greatest attributes.  Barbary knows his capabilities, exploits his skill to the full and lifts the morale of his team mates with his courageous and dashing approach.

SANFL Retirement
Barbary retired from the SANFL at the end of 1964. He played country football, as captain-coach of Kybybolite, in the Kowree-Naracoorte Football League and won two successive Mail Medals in 1965 and 1966.

Woodville FC
In 1967 Barbary returned to the SANFL, joining the Woodville Football Club. He played 66 senior games, his experience and well-practiced skills being valuable to a young side. In 1971, Barbary captain-coached Woodville's seconds side, before being appointed non-playing coach of senior team for seasons 1972 and 1973. Woodville won the Coca-Cola Cup in 1972 and a young Malcolm Blight won the Magarey Medal in the same year.

Honours cited in Hall of Fame Induction
 Member of premiership side of North Adelaide 1960
 Played 18 matches for South Australia
 Magarey Medallist, 1960
 Two time North Adelaide best and fairest
 O'Halloran Trophy 1963
 Coached Woodville 1972, 1973

On 23 August 2000, Barbary was awarded the Australian Sports Medal for being a recipient of the highest individual honour in South Australian Football.

References

External sources

1939 births
2023 deaths
Place of birth missing
North Adelaide Football Club players
Woodville Football Club players
Woodville Football Club coaches
Magarey Medal winners
Australian rules footballers from South Australia
Recipients of the Australian Sports Medal
South Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees


Potosi was a five-masted steel barque built in 1895 by Joh. C. Tecklenborg ship yard in Geestemünde, Germany, for the sailing ship company F. Laeisz as a trading vessel. Its primary purpose was as a "nitrate clipper" collecting guano in South America for use in chemical companies in Germany (mainly for making explosives and fertiliser). As its shipping route was between Germany and Chile, it was designed to be capable of withstanding the rough weather encountered around Cape Horn.

Potosi was named after the Bolivian town of Potosí (the highest city in the world), its name beginning with "P" according to a Laeisz' tradition begun in the 1880s. The Potosi and sister ships became known as the Flying P Line and were described by Robert Carter as "without doubt, the most successful fleet of sail-driven ships ever assembled under one flag..."

Potosi had five masts and was rigged as a barque, meaning that the first four masts were square-rigged, each carrying six sails, and the fifth mast carried three fore-and-aft-sails. She was the third windjammer in the world merchant fleet with that kind of rigging, after the France I of the Antoine-Dominique Bordes line of Bordeaux, and the first German (auxiliary) steel barque Maria Rickmers of the Rickmers line. In total, within the world merchant fleet, there were only six windjammers of this class of five-masted barque rigging, with four masts having carried five, six or partly seven sails on each mast: France I, Maria Rickmers (carried seven sails (skysails) on fore, main, mizzen masts, jigger mast with six sails), Potosi, R.C. Rickmers, France II (carried five sails as a bald header), and København. The Potosi's shipping line sister ship, Preussen also had five masts, but was square rigged on each mast.

The idea of building such a ship for the Laeisz fleet came from the famous Laeisz-captain Robert Hilgendorf, who was to become the Potosi's first master. His considerations and ideas had a great influence on the ship's design and he was the supervising ship officer when the huge barque was under construction. She was assigned the call sign RKGB, and as with all P-liners her hull was black with a white waterline and a red underwater ship—the colours of the German flag at that time. Author Daniel S. Parrott describes the features of the "Flying P-Liners" and says "The effectiveness of the Flying P-Line lay not only in the construction of the vessel but also in their management." He also points out that "none of the four- or five-masted Laeisz ships ever foundered or was dismasted in a Cape Horn storm in the course of countless voyages."

During World War I, she was interned in Chile, and was then given away as reparation. Under Chilean ownership, she was renamed the Flora (sign QEPD). In 1925, she caught fire in the Atlantic and eventually had to be sunk by artillery.

History

The Potosi was launched in 1895 at the shipyard of J. C. Tecklenborg AG, Geestemünde and was used in the saltpetre trade (Salpeterfahrt) between Chile and Germany, setting record speeds in the process, due to her excellent sailing characteristics. She made twenty seven "round voyages" (Hamburg to Chile and back) under five captains between 1895 and 1914. Her first master, the legendary sea captain Robert Hilgendorf, sailed her up to 1901. Capt. Georg Schlüter (2 round voyages), Jochim Hans Hinrich Nissen (10), Johann Frömcke (3), and Robert Miethe (4) followed.

On 23 September 1914, due to the onset of the First World War, the Potosi was held at Valparaiso harbour. In 1917 while still moored in Valparaiso, she was sold to the F. A. Vinnen shipping company of Bremen, but on October 2, 1920, she was given to France as part of the vast war reparation demanded from Germany. The French government sold her to Argentina which transferred her to the Floating Docks Co. of Buenos Aires. However the ship remained unmoved in Valparaiso harbour. In 1923 she was eventually purchased by a local company González, Soffia & Cía. of Valparaíso, and renamed the Flora.

After a year of repair and refit, in December 1924, under the name of "Flora", August Oetzmann, a former Laeisz captain, sailed her to Hamburg with a cargo of nitrate in 110 days arriving on 30 March 1925. Many people of Hamburg came to welcome the old lady and wished Laeisz to purchase her from the Chilean owner but this was not possible.

The Flora sailed back to Chile (May 25) via Cardiff (July 17) taking a cargo of 800 tons of coal and 5000 tons of "patent fuel" bound for Mejillones. On September 15, 1925, en route to Cape Horn, the ship caught fire off the Patagonian coast northwest of the Falkland Islands (at 50°17.5'S, 61° 42'W). Captain A. Oetzmann decided to set course to Comodoro Rivadavia, reaching the harbour, which was merely a bay with a sandy beach, a long wooden pier, and several petrol tanks, on September 18, 1925. He anchored the ship five miles (8 km) off the coast in the roads of Comodoro Rivadavia and alerted the harbour authorities to fight the fire in the ship. As no proper equipment was available, it took three days before help came. The ordered fire engine that came was not able to extinguish the fire. Next day a huge explosion ripped her steel decks apart. The main mast fell overboard pulling the rest of the rigging with it except for the foremast. A tug tried to tow her away from the petrol tanks, and succeeded after several attempts. The Flora ran aground on the sandy beach. The seamen dropped the anchor and took everything usable from the ship. The fire kept burning while the ship's hull was repeatedly lifted by the waves and slammed into the shore. The coal-filled hull burned for some days. One morning the ship had disappeared from the beach. The rudderless hull was found a few days later floating  off the coast and  to the north of Comodoro Rivadavia. The Argentine cruiser Patria sank the burning hull of the former famous ship by gunfire on October 19, 1925. The wreck lies near the position .

Technical data

The Potosi was steel-built, with a waterline length of 110 m and a total hull length of 122.42 m. The hull was 15.15 m wide and the ship had a displacement of 8,350 tons, for an effective carrying capacity of 6,400 tons. The ship had only one bulkhead in the bow section—the collision bulkhead. The ship had five masts, four of which were fully rigged, with courses, upper and lower topsails, upper and lower topgallant sails, and royals. Counting the staysails (12) including jibs (4), she carried 43 sails (24 square sails in six storeys, 12 (normally 9) staysails between the five masts, four foresails (jibs) and three fore-and-aft spanker sails including two spanker sails on two gaffs and a spanker topsail) with a total sail area of  [5,250 sq metres]. Not only the hull was steel, but also her masts ( in diameter on deck level, lower and top mast were made in one piece) and most of all spars (yards except for the royal yards, spanker boom) were constructed of steel tubing, and much of the rigging was steel cable. The only wooden spars were the four royal yards, the four topgallant masts and the two gaffs of the spanker fore-and-aft sails. She was designed as a so-called "three-island-ship", i.e. a ship that has a midship island (), also called midship bridge or "Liverpool house" (the first ships equipped with that feature came from Liverpool yards), beside the forecastle () and poop () decks. There, inside the Liverpool house, dry and well-ventilated accommodation for crew, mates, and captain were installed, as well as the pantry and chart room. The main helm—a double rudder wheel of  diameter—stood on top, well protected against huge waves. A second helm was near the stern. Under good conditions, the huge barque could reach a speed of . Her best 24-hour-run were 376 nm in 1900 under Capt. Hilgendorf. The Potosi was manned by a crew of 40–44. She was the fastest P-liner apart from the five-masted fully rigged ship Preußen which could reach speeds of more than , but was less maneuverable.

Mast names

From bow to stern her five masts were named as follows:

Fore mast, main mast, middle mast, mizzen mast (also: after mast or "Laeisz" mast), spanker mast

In German:
 Fockmast, Großmast, Mittelmast, Kreuzmast und Besanmast

Standard nomenclature for five-masted schooners and barquentines
Fore mast, main mast, mizzen mast, jigger mast, spanker mast

See also
List of large sailing vessels

References

 Oliver E. Allen: Die Windjammer, Time-Life Books, Amsterdam 1980 (Original US edition: 1978)
  Björn Landström: Das Schiff, C. Bertelsmann Verlag, München 1961
 C. A. Finsterbusch: Last Voyage of the Mighty Potosi Under the German Flag. Sea Breezes Vol. XVIII (1934), pp 135–137, ill.
  Hans-Jörg Furrer: Die Vier- und Fünfmast-Rahsegler der Welt. Koehlers Verlagsges., Herford 1984, p 168,  [The four- & five-masted square-rigged ships of the world]
  Hans Blöss: Glanz und Schicksal der "Potosi" und "Preussen", Hamburgs und der Welt größte Segler.  Schmidt u. Klaunig Verlag, Kiel 1960 [Glamour and fate of the "Potosi" and "Preussen", Hamburg's and the world's largest sailers]
  Hans Georg Prager: „F. Laeisz“ vom Frachtsegler bis zum Bulk Carrier.  Koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Herford 1974,
  Peter Klingbeil: Die Flying P-Liner. Die Segelschiffe der Reederei F. Laeisz. Verlag "Die Hanse", Hamburg 1998 u. 2000,
  Hermann Ostermann: Potosi - Stolz der deutschen Segelschiffsflotte. In: Das Logbuch 31. Jahrg., Brilon-Gudenhagen 1995. pp 184–189. [Potosi - Pride of the German tall ship fleet]
  Ernst Römer: Die zwei schnellsten Reisen der Potosi. In: Der Seewart, No. 6, Hamburg 1954 [The two fastest voyages of the Potosi]

External links

  description, plans, history
  Beschreibung mit Fotos
 Potosi at www.bruzelius.info
  Steckbrief der Potosi
 CapHorniers on F. Laeisz (and A. D. Bordes & Fils), Chile, Fotos etc.
  photograph of the Potosi under sail
  photograph of the Potosi in Hamburg harbour

1895 ships
Barques
Five-masted ships
Maritime incidents in 1925
Maritime incidents in Argentina
Merchant ships of Chile
Merchant ships of Argentina
Merchant ships of France
Ships built in Hamburg
Shipwrecks of the Argentine coast
Tall ships of Germany
Merchant ships of Germany
Windjammers


Domenico Agostini (31 May 1825 — 31 December 1891) was an Italian Roman Catholic Cardinal and Patriarch of Venice.

Born near Treviso, he studied in the local seminary, then in the University of Padua. He took a doctorate of philosophy and law, but he left the clerical state to join the citizen militia during the war with Austria in the period 1848–1850. He received the minor orders in 1850, after rejoining the clerical state.

He was ordained priest on 26 January 1851 in Venice and incardinated in the diocese of Treviso. Elected bishop of Chioggia on 27 October 1871. Then he was promoted to the patriarchal see of Venice on 22 June 1877.

Agostini was created cardinal priest in the consistory of 27 March 1882 by Pope Leo XIII with the title of Sant'Eusebio. Opted for title of Santa Maria della Pace on 7 June 1886.

Cardinal Agostini died on New Year's Eve, 1891 and was interred at the San Michele cemetery on the Isola di San Michele in Venice.

External links
The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church - Biographical Dictionary
Catholic Hierarchy data for this cardinal

1825 births
1891 deaths
Burials at Isola di San Michele
People from Treviso
19th-century Italian Roman Catholic bishops
Cardinals created by Pope Leo XIII
19th-century Italian cardinals


Mukaa is a village and location in Makueni County, Kenya. The community is a tight and small one, and they are generally peaceful. Mukaa was founded in the late 19th century by AIM (Africa Inland Mission, Later Africa Inland Church) Missionaries. They built a church.

Institutions
 Mukaa A.I.C Church (Founded 1888)
 Mukaa Primary School
 A.I.C Mukaa Children's Home
 Mukaa Boys High School
 Salama Baptist Church
 Salama Kenya Baptist Children's Home

Makueni County
Populated places in Eastern Province (Kenya)


Gondal may refer to:

Places
 Gondal, India, a city in Gujarat, India
 Gondal Assembly constituency
 Gondal railway station
 Gondal State, a princely state of the Bombay Presidency in colonial India
 Gondal, Attock, a town in Pakistan
 Gondal Bar, a region in Punjab, Pakistan
 Gondal, Somalia, an ancient town in Somalia
 Gondal (fictional country), a fictional country created by Emily and Anne Brontë

People
 Gondal (clan), a clan of Jats and a surname in Pakistan
 Nazar Muhammad Gondal (born 1950), Pakistani politician
 Usman Gondal (born 1987), Pakistani footballer
 Vishal Gondal (born 1976), Indian entrepreneur

See also
 Gondal Gilan, a village in Iran
 Gondalpara, a town in West Bengal, India
 Gundala gondal, a village in India


Howard Thomas Platt (born June 5, 1938) is an American stage and television actor, singer and director, best known for his role as "Officer Hopkins" on the TV series Sanford and Son (1972–76). Platt wrote and performed “Riverwinds” for LaSalle: Expedition II in 1977.

Career biography

Platt has made numerous comedic and dramatic appearances on television, most recently as Rev. Weber in What About Joan? Along with his role as Hoppy on Sanford And Son, Platt has also had guest roles as Dr. Phil Newman on The Bob Newhart Show (in a total of 6 episodes), Max on Alice, Major Ted Spector on M*A*S*H, and Judge Jonathan Stockfish on Evening Shade. He portrayed 5 different characters on Barney Miller.

As a series regular he played Captain Doug March on the CBS-TV sitcom Flying High (1978–79). His many movie roles include T.R. Baskin, Nixon, The Cat from Outer Space, and Norma Jean & Marilyn.

Directorial credits
As a director, Platt has directed a dozen shows including A Couple of Blaguards, Don't Dress For Dinner, Pump Boys and Dinettes, Love Letters and Steel Magnolias.

Filmography

Film

Television

External links

1938 births
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Male actors from Chicago
Living people


Gondal is a town in Attock District of Punjab Province in Pakistan on the N-5 National Highway Grand Trunk Road.

References

Cities and towns in Attock District


The United States House of Representatives elections in California, 1934 was an election for California's delegation to the United States House of Representatives, which occurred as part of the general election of the House of Representatives on November 6, 1934. Democrats gained three districts while losing one.

Overview

Delegation composition

Results
Final results from the Clerk of the House of Representatives:

District 1

District 2

District 3

District 4

District 5

District 6

District 7

District 8

District 9

District 10

District 11

District 12

District 13

District 14

District 15

District 16

District 17

District 18

District 19

District 20

See also
74th United States Congress
Political party strength in California
Political party strength in U.S. states
1934 United States House of Representatives elections

References
California Elections Page
Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives

External links
California Legislative District Maps (1911-Present)
RAND California Election Returns: District Definitions

1934
California United States House of Representatives
1934 California elections


The history of Macedonians has been shaped by population shifts and political developments in the southern Balkans, especially within the region of Macedonia. The ideas of separate Macedonian identity grew in significance after the First World War, both in Vardar and among the left-leaning diaspora in Bulgaria, and were endorsed by the Comintern. During the Second World War these ideas were supported by the Communist Partisans, but the decisive point in the ethnogenesis of this South Slavic people was the creation of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia after the World War II, as a new state in the framework of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Ancient period
The region that today forms the country of North Macedonia has been inhabited since Paleolithic times. It occupies most of the ancient kingdom of Paionia and part of the territory of what was in antiquity Upper Macedonia (which coincides with some parts of today's southern Republic of North Macedonia), the region which became part of the kingdom of Macedon in the early 4th century BC. It was settled by the Paionians and Dardani, peoples of mixed Thraco-Illyrian origin. The Paionians founded several princedoms which coalesced into a kingdom centred in the central and upper reaches of the Vardar and Struma rivers until they were finally conquered by Philip II, father of Alexander the Great, in 358 BC.

The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC. By the 4th century AD the Paionians had become fully Hellenized or Romanized and had lost their ethnic identity. During most of Late Antiquity and the early Middles ages, Macedonia (as a region) had been a province of the Byzantine Empire. In the 6th century AD, the part which today forms the Greek region of Macedonia was known as Macedonia Prima (first Macedonia), and contained the Empire's second largest city, Thessaloniki. The rest of the modern region (today's Republic of North Macedonia and Western Bulgaria) was known as Macedonia Salutaris.

Middle Ages

Settlement

Arrival of the Slavs

The Slavic tribes invaded the Balkan Peninsula in the 5th, 6th, and 7th centuries CE, settling in the Danube river basin and in the region of Macedonia, encountering the Byzantine population who lived in the region. According to Procopius, the first attack on Byzantium took place in 523 and later in 617-619 by the Draguvites and Sagudates. Initially, the Slavic tribes retained independent rule with their own political structure. These units were referred to as Sclaviniae or Zhupas.

Successive Byzantine emperors tried to directly incorporate the Slavs of the region of Macedonia into the socio-economic system of the Byzantine state, with varied success. Emperors Constans II (656) and Justinian II (686) had to resort to military expeditions and forced re-settlement of large numbers of Slavs to Anatolia, forcing them to pay tribute and supply military aid to the empire.

Arrival of the Bulgars

Historical records document that in 682AD - 685AD a group of Bulgars led by a Bulgar called Kuber settled in the region of Keramisian plain, centred on the city of Bitola. Kuber was a chief, who was vassaled to the Avar Khagan. However, whilst he was certainly a Bulgar, he was made chief of a settlement consisting of the descendants of various peoples who had been subjegated by the Avars and actively re-settled in Sirmium, nearer to the Khanate's centre.  They may have consisted of Bulgars, Byzantine soldiers and mercenaries, Slavs and even Germanic peoples such as Gepids and Franks. They referred to themselves as Sermesianoi, and at 680 AD they rebelled against the Avars and departed from Sirmium. Some sources suggest Kuber was the brother of Khan Asparuh, who founded the Danubian Bulgarian state in 681, known as First Bulgarian Empire in southeastern Europe. They had close contacts and may have merged with the Slavic tribe called Dragoviti, who were already established in the area.
In the following decades, these people launched campaigns against the Byzantine city of Salonica and established contacts with Danubian Bulgaria.  By the early 9th century the lands that Kuber settled had been incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire. The archaeologist from Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Professor Ivan Mikulčić, revealed the presence not only of the Kuber group, but the whole later Bulgar archaeological culture throughout Macedonia. He describes the traces of Bulgars in this region, which consist of typical fortresses, burials, various products of metallurgy and pottery (including the treasure of Erseke with supposed Bulgar origin or ownership), lead seals, minted from Kuber, amulets, etc. However, it is likely that these artifacts actually represent evidence of Avar presence in the region, which fits with known historiography. Truly, there were vast similarities between early Avar and Bulgar material culture found in Old Bulgaria.

Christianization and adoption of Cyrillic alphabet

The historical phenomenon of Christianization, the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once, also includes the practice of converting pagan practices, pagan religious imagery, pagan sites and the pagan calendar to Christian uses. After Roman Empire was declared a Christian Empire by Theodosius I in 389, laws were passed against pagan practices over the course of the following years. The Slavic tribes in Macedonia accepted the Christianity as their own religion around the 9th century mainly during the reign of prince Boris I of Bulgaria. The Christianization of Bulgaria was the process of converting 9th century medieval Bulgaria to Christianity as state religion.

The creators of the Glagolitic alphabet were the Byzantine Christian monks Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius. Under the guidance of the Patriarchate at Constantinople they were promoters of Christianity and initiated Slavic literacy among the Slavic people. They developed their alphabet from their extensive knowledge of the local Slavic dialect spoken in the hinterland of Thessaloniki, which became the basis for Old Church Slavonic, the first literary Slavic language. Their work was accepted in early medieval Bulgaria and continued by the St.Clement of Ohrid, creator of the Cyrillic script and St.Naum of Ohrid as founders of the Ohrid Literary School. Cyril and Methodius evangelized from Constantinople into the Balkans In the legacy of Cyril and Methodius, carried on by Clement and Naum, the development of Slavic literacy was crucial in preventing assimilation of the Slavs either by cultures to the North or by the Greek culture to the south.
The introduction of Slavic liturgy paralleled Boris I' continued development of churches and monasteries throughout his realm.

In the early 9th century, most of the region of Macedonia (excluding the area of Thessaloniki), as well as large parts of the Balkan peninsula, were incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire. With the defeat of the Bulgarian empire by Byzantium in the mid 10th century, the eastern part of the Bulgarian empire and its capital Preslav were annexed into the Byzantine Empire. The western part continued to be independent, and was ruled by Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria, who saw himself as the successor of the Bulgarian Empire. Samuil ruled his kingdom from the island of St. Achilles in Prespa. He was crowned in Rome in 997 as Tsar of Bulgaria by Pope Gregory V. The remains of his castle are still present in the city of Ohrid. Under Samuil, the fortunes of the empire and the great military rivalry against Byzantium were once more revived, albeit temporarily. However, Samuil's army was soundly defeated in 1014 by Basil II The Bulgar-Slayer of the Macedonian dynasty and emperor of Byzantium. Four years later the Bulgarian Empire fell once again under Byzantine control.

In the 13th century, the region was briefly passed to Latin, Bulgarian and back to Byzantine rule. For example, Konstantin Asen, a former nobleman from Skopje, ruled over the region as the Tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277.

From the 13th century, Macedonia was incorporated into the Serbian Kingdom. The Serbs saw themselves as liberators of their Slavic kin. Macedonia was very urbanised and lay along the important trade routes, thus it became the centre of Tsar Stefan Dušan's empire, making Skopje his capital. With his death the region fell under leadership of local nobles, who divided his territories between them. Medieval Macedonia saw King Marko become the new king in 1371 AD, with the capital at Prilep. Grammarist and historian Krste Petkov Misirkov mentions that according to contemporary historical sources and documents, the surname of King Marko was unknown. Disunited, the Balkan provinces fell to the emerging Ottoman Empire one by one.

Ottoman Empire, Turkification and Islamization

This expansion of medieval states on the Balkan Peninsula was discontinued by the occupation of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century. The region of Macedonia remained part of the Ottoman Empire for the next 500 years, until 1912. Islamization means the process of a society's conversion to the religion of Islam, or a neologism meaning an increase in observance by an already Muslim society.  Turkification is a cultural change in which someone who is not a Turk becomes one, voluntarily or by force. Both terms can be used in contexts of connection with various Slavic people in Macedonia (Pomaks, Torbesh, and Gorani), which converted to Islam during the Ottoman rule. Overall, the large majority of local Bulgarians remained Christian.

Modern era
During the rule of the Ottomans, the local Bulgarians, Serbs, Albanians and others organized a number of uprisings: Mariovo uprising (1564), Karposh's Rebellion (1689), Kresna-Razlog Uprising (1878) etc. According to the Preliminary Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed at the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78), Macedonia was granted to the new autonomous self-governing Principality of Bulgaria. However, the Great Powers, particularly England and Austria grew alarmed with what they saw as extension of Russian power, since Bulgaria was a fellow Slavic Orthodox country that could be easily swayed by Russia. Additionally, they feared that a too rapid collapse of Ottoman rule could create a dangerous power vacuum. Also, Serbia and Greece held some resentment at the establishment of what they saw as a Greater Bulgaria, and felt deprived from the spoils of Ottoman decline.

This prompted the Great Powers to obtain a revision of this treaty. The subsequent Congress of Berlin a few months later was a meeting of the European Great Powers' which revised the Treaty of San Stefano. Although Greece and Serbia succeeded in becoming independent Kingdoms, autonomous from Turkey. Bulgaria's lost much of the territory it had gained, losing Thrace and Macedonia back to the Turks. These events all conspired to create tensions which would spill over into war. The issue of irredentism and nationalism gained great prominence after the creation of Greater Bulgaria and Turkish collapse following the 1878 Treaty of San Stefano. In the first half of the 20th century, control over Macedonia was a key point of contention between Bulgaria, Greece, and Serbia.

The Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was founded in 1893 in Ottoman Thessaloniki by a "small band of anti-Ottoman Bulgarian revolutionaries". "They considered Macedonia an indivisible territory and all of its inhabitants, no matter their religion or ethnicity". The organization was secret revolutionary society with aim to make Macedonia an autonomous state but that later became an agent serving Bulgarian interests in Balkan politics. However, the results of the Balkan Wars were not favourable for the members of the IMRO, splitting Macedonia into three parts. The Greek part was heavily Hellenized by re-settlement of Greeks from other provinces, as well as through a governmental policy of linguistic and cultural Hellenization of Slav speakers. The Slavs who lived in the small portion allocated to Bulgaria continued to be considered as Bulgarians. Moreover, Bulgarians in Bulgaria believed that most of the population of Macedonia was Bulgarian. The remaining portion allocated to Serbia, renamed the Vardar Banovina following King Alexander Karadjordjevic's reorganization of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was subject to a policy of Serbianization, whereby the Macedonian language was deliberately distanced from Bulgarian, and Bulgarian Exarchate authorities were removed.
Simultaneously after the Balkan Wars, a new entity began to arise among the Slavic-speaking population — a Macedonian one.

Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia all wished to claim Macedonia, as a key strategic part of their newly formed kingdoms. Throughout the 19th century, each kingdom tried to claim Macedonia as its own. This was done through the media of church and education, particularly between Greece and Bulgaria. Through the advancement of Greek or Bulgarian language, and provision of local priests either from the Bulgarian Exarchate or Orthodox Church of Constantinople, an entire village would be claimed to be 'Greek', while its neighbour would be 'Bulgarian'. This ad hoc arrangement did not follow any geographic or ethnic correlates, and occurred at the expense of the development of a local, Macedonian identity, and often involved harassment of peoples in order to profess loyalty to Greece or Bulgaria, and abdicate profession of any independent identity.

Ilinden Uprising and after

In 1893, the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization was established, (later called Internal Macedonian-Adrianople Revolutionary Organization [IMARO]). This organization advocated the creation of an autonomous Macedonia and Thrace. The organization was founded in Ottoman Thessaloniki by a "small band of anti-Ottoman Macedono-Bulgarian revolutionaries. "They considered Macedonia an indivisible territory and claimed all of its inhabitants "Macedonians", no matter their religion or ethnicity" (although in practice their followers were primarily of Bulgarian origins). On August 2, 1903, IMRO led the locals in the Ilinden Uprising, named after the festival of the Prophet Elijah on which it began. That was one of the greatest events in the history of the population in the regions of Macedonia and Thrace. The high point of the Ilinden revolution was the establishment of the Kruševo Republic in the town of Kruševo. By November 1903, the Ilinden Uprising was suppressed. The uprising was led by activists of the IMRO including Jane Sandanski, Nikola Karev, Dame Gruev and Pitu Guli

The failure of the 1903 insurrection resulted in the eventual split of the IMRO into a left wing (federalist) and a right wing. The left-wing faction opposed Bulgarian nationalism and advocated the creation of a Balkan Socialist Federation with equality for all subjects and nationalities, including Bulgarians. The right-wing fraction of IMRO drifted more and more towards Bulgarian nationalism as its regions became increasingly exposed to the incursions of Serb, Bulgarian and Greek armed bands, which started infiltrating Macedonia after 1903. The period of time from 1905 to 1907 saw a great deal of violent fighting between the IMRO and Turkish forces as well as between IMRO and Greek and Serb detachments.

After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, both fractions laid down their arms and joined the legal struggle. The federalist wing welcomed in the revolution of 1908 and later joined mainstream political life as the Peoples' Federative Party (Bulgarian Section). The right wing formed the Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs and like the PFP participated in Ottoman elections.

Balkan Wars

During the Balkan Wars, former IMRO leaders of both the left and the right wings joined the Macedono-Odrinian Volunteers and fought with the Bulgarian Army. Others like Yane Sandanski with their bands assisted the Bulgarian army with its advance and still others penetrated as far as the region of Kastoria in the Villayet of Monastir.  In the Second Balkan War, IMRO bands fought the Greeks and Serbs behind the front lines, but were subsequently routed and driven out. Notably, Petar Chaulev was one of the leaders of the Ohrid Uprising in 1913 organized jointly by IMRO and the Albanians of Western Macedonia.

The Balkan Wars resulted in important demographic changes to the European territories of the Ottoman empire, especially after they were defeated and forced out of the region. What we may call 'Ottoman Macedonia' was divided between the Balkan nations, with its northern parts going to Serbian, the southern to Greece, and the northeastern to Bulgaria.

The wars were an important precursor to World War I, to the extent that Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory and regional status. This concern was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite of Russia. Serbia's rise in power thus contributed to the two Central Powers' willingness to risk war following the assassination in Sarajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria in June 1914.

World War I

The attack on the Balkans by the Central Powers was begun by Austria, who initially suffered setbacks by fierce Serbian resistance. It was not until Germany sent its troops that broke the resistance and allowed its allies, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria to advance. Bulgaria occupied much of Macedonia, advancing into Greek Macedonia too, ever desirous of the area. The IMRO, led by Todor Aleksandrov, maintained its existence in Bulgaria, where it played a role in politics by playing upon Bulgarian irredentism and urging a renewed war to 'liberate' Macedonia. This was one factor in Bulgaria allying itself with Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I. The IMRO organized the Valandovo action of 1915, which was an attack on a large Serbian force. In September 1915, the 11th Macedonian division in Bulgarian army was established with over 40 000 men — Bulgarian refugees from the Serbian army, volunteers etc. The Bulgarian army, supported by the organization's forces, was successful in the first stages of this conflict, managed to drive out the Serbian forces from Vardar Macedonia and came into positions on the line of the pre-war Greek-Serbian border, which was stabilized as a firm front until end of 1918.

In September 1918, the Serbs, British, French and Greeks broke through on the Macedonian front and Tsar Ferdinand was forced to sue for peace. Under the Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919), Bulgaria lost its Aegean coastline to Greece and nearly all of its Macedonian territory to the new state of Yugoslavia, and had to give Dobruja back to the Romanians (see also Western Outlands and Western Thrace).

Macedonia under Serbia

The territory of the present-day state of North Macedonia came under the direct rule of Serbia (and later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia), and was sometimes termed "southern Serbia", and, together with a large portion of today's southern Serbia, it belonged officially to the newly formed Vardar Banovina (district). An intense program of Serbianization was implemented during the 1920s and 1930s when Belgrade enforced a Serbian cultural assimilation process on the region. Between the world wars in Serbia, the dialects of Macedonia were treated as a Serbian dialects (UCLA Language Material Sources, ). Only the literary Serbian language was taught, it was the language of government, education, media, and public life; even so local literature was tolerated as a local dialectal folkloristic form. The Serbian National Theatre in Skopje even performed some plays (now the classical drama pieces) in the local language.

Greece, like all other Balkan states, adopted restrictive policies towards its minorities, namely towards its Slavic population in its northern regions, due to its experiences with Bulgaria's wars, including the Second Balkan War, and the Bulgarian inclination of sections of its Slavic minority. Many of those inhabiting northeastern Greece fled to Bulgaria and very small group to Serbia (68 families) after the Balkan wars or were exchanged with native Greeks from Bulgaria under a population exchange treaty in the 1920s. Greeks were resettled in the region in two occasions, firstly following the Bulgarian loss of the Second Balkan War when Bulgaria and Greece mutually exchanged their populations in 1919, and secondly in 1923 as a result of the population exchange with the new Turkish republic that followed the Greek military defeat in Asia minor. Thus, Greek Macedonia now came to be Greek dominant for the first time since the 7th century.

The Slavic speakers that stayed in northwestern Greece were regarded as a potentially disloyal minority and came under severe pressure, with restrictions on their movements, cultural activities and political rights.  Many emigrated, for the most part to Canada, Australia, the United States, and other Eastern European countries like Bulgaria. The Greek names for some traditionally Slavic or Turkish speaking areas became official and the Slavic speakers were forced to change their Slavic surnames to Greek sounding surnames, e.g., Nachev becoming Natsulis. A similar procedure was applied to Greek names in Bulgaria and Serbia (e.g. Nevrokop becoming Goce Delchev). In Greece, there was a government sponsored process of Hellenization. Many of the border villages were closed to outsiders, ostensibly for security reasons. The Greek government and people have never recognized the existence of a distinct "Macedonian" ethnic group, as the term "Macedonian" is already reserved for the ethnic Macedonian population that has traditionally inhabited Greece's northernmost region (Greek Macedonia). According to Peter Trudgill Slavic speakers in northern Greece with a non-Greek national identity have tended or forced to leave Greece. As a result, the overwhelming majority of remaining Slavic speakers were forced and now declare themselves as Greeks

On August 10, 1920, upon signing the Treaty of Sèvres that "measures were being taken towards the opening of schools with instruction in the Slavic language in the following school year of 1925/26". Thus, the primer intended for the "Slavic-speaking minority" children in Greek Macedonia to learn their native language in school, entitled "ABECEDAR"  was offered as an argument in support of this statement. This primer, prepared by a special government commissioner was published by the Greek government in Athens in 1925, but was printed in a specially adapted Latin alphabet instead of the traditional Cyrillic, since Cyrillic was the official alphabet of the neighboring Bulgaria. Serbian language, on the other hand, uses both Cyrillic and Latin scripts. Nevertheless, the Abecedar schoolbooks were confiscated and destroyed before they got into the reach of the children.

In 1924 IMRO entered negotiations with the Comintern about collaboration between the communists and the Macedonian movement and the creation of a united Macedonian movement. The idea for a new unified organization was supported by the Soviet Union, which saw a chance for using this well developed revolutionary movement to spread revolution in the Balkans and destabilize the Balkan monarchies. Todor Alexandrov defended IMRO's independence and refused to concede on practically all points requested by the Communists. No agreement was reached besides a paper "Manifesto" (the so-called May Manifesto of 6 May 1924), in which the objectives of the unified Macedonian liberation movement were presented: independence and unification of partitioned Macedonia, fighting all the neighbouring Balkan monarchies, forming a  Balkan Communist Federation and cooperation with the Soviet Union.

Failing to secure Alexandrov's cooperation, the Comintern decided to discredit him and published the contents of the Manifesto on 28 July 1924 in the "Balkan Federation" newspaper. IMRO's leaders Todor Aleksandrov and Aleksandar Protogerov promptly denied through the Bulgarian press that they've ever signed any agreements, claiming that the May Manifesto was a communist forgery.

The policy of assassinations was effective in making Serbian rule in Vardar Macedonia feel insecure but in turn provoked brutal reprisals on the local peasant population. Having lost a great deal of popular support in Vardar Macedonia due to his policies Ivan Mihailov, a new IMRO leader, favoured the internationalization of the Macedonian question.

He established close links with the Croatian Ustashe and with Italy. Numerous assassinations were carried out by IMRO agents in many countries, the majority in Yugoslavia. The most spectacular of these was the assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia and the French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou in Marseille in 1934. in collaboration with the Croatian Ustaše. The killing was carried out by the IMRO terrorist Vlado Chernozemski and happened after the suppression of IMRO following the 19 May 1934 military coup in Bulgaria.

During the 1930s, the Comintern prepared a Resolution about the recognition of the Macedonian nation. It was accepted by the Political Secretariat in Moscow on January 11, 1934, and approved by the Executive Committee of the Comintern. The Resolution was published for first time in the April issue of Makedonsko Delo under the title ‘The Situation in Macedonia and the Tasks of IMRO (United)’.

World War II

Upon the outbreak of World War II, the government of the Kingdom of Bulgaria declared a position of neutrality, being determined to observe it until the end of the war, but hoping for bloodless territorial gains. But it was clear that the central geopolitical position of Bulgaria in the Balkans would inevitably lead to strong external pressure by both sides of World War II.

Bulgaria was forced to join the Axis powers in 1941, when German troops prepared to invade Greece from Romania reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through Bulgarian territory. Threatened by direct military confrontation, Tsar Boris III had no choice but to join the fascist block, which officially happened on 1 March 1941. There was little popular opposition, since the Soviet Union was in a non-aggression pact with Germany.

On April 6, 1941, despite having officially joined the Axis Powers, the Bulgarian government maintained a course of military passivity during the initial stages of the invasion of Yugoslavia and the Battle of Greece. As German, Italian, and Hungarian troops crushed Yugoslavia and Greece, the Bulgarians remained on the side-lines. The Yugoslav government surrendered on April 17. The Greek government was to hold out until April 30. On April 20, the period of Bulgarian passivity ended. The Bulgarian Army entered Nazi-occupied Greece. The goal was to gain an Aegean Sea outlet in Thrace and Eastern Macedonia and much of eastern Serbia. The so-called Vardar Banovina was divided between Bulgaria and Italians which occupied West Macedonia.

At the beginning of the war in the Balkans, Macedonia shows how complicated the situation was. The political sympathies were intertwined with the national feelings. As a rule, the pro-Serbian elements were for the English-French Allies and the pro-Bulgarian, for the Axis powers. Besides, some of the former revolutionary activists were not far from the thought of solving the Macedonian question through accession of Macedonia, or parts of it, to Italy. The followers of Ivan Mihailov fought for pro-Axis and pro-Bulgarian Macedonia. In this situation, the population was divided in different groups. And time was crucial.

Thus, on April 8, 1941, in Skopje a meeting was held, where the question: "What had to be done?" was put up. What actions should be undertaken in those crucial days in order not to omit, as it had already happened, the precise moment for liberating Macedonia. On that meeting were present mainly followers of the idea for the liberation through independence of Macedonia, namely: Dimitаr Gjuzelev, Dimitur Chkatrov, Toma Klenkov, Ivan Piperkov and other popular activists of IMRO as well as members of Yugoslav Communist Party (YCP) - Kotse Stojanov, Angel Petkovski and Ilja Neshovski, invited by Trajko Popov. The latter despite a communist, member of YCP, was an active follower of the idea of IMRO for the creation of a pro-Bulgarian, Macedonian state under German and Italian protection. But the situation changed dynamically.

Ten days later, when the Bulgarian army entered Yugoslav Vardar Macedonia on April 19, 1941, it was greeted by most of the population as liberators. Former IMRO members were active in organizing Bulgarian Action Committees charged with taking over the local authorities. Some former IMRO (United) members such as Metodi Shatorov, who were leading member of the Yugoslav Communist Party, also refused to define the Bulgarian forces as occupiers (contrary to instructions from Belgrade) and called for the incorporation of the local Macedonian Communist organizations within the Bulgarian Communist Party. This policy changed towards 1943 with the arrival of the Montenegrin Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo, who began in earnest to organize armed resistance to the Bulgarian occupation. Many former IMRO members assisted the authorities in fighting Tempo's partisans.

IMRO was also active in organizing the resistance of the Bulgarian population in Aegean Macedonia against Greek nationalist and communist regiments. With the help of Mihailov and Macedonian emigrants in Sofia, several pro-German armed detachments - Uhrana were organized in the Kostur, Lerin and Voden districts of Greek Macedonia in 1943-44. These were led by Bulgarian officers originally from Aegean Macedonia - Andon Kalchev and Georgi Dimchev.

Local recruits and volunteers formed the Bulgarian 5th Army, based in Skopje, which was responsible for the round-up and deportation of over 7,000 Jews in Skopje and Bitola. Harsh rule by the occupying forces encouraged some Macedonians to support the Communist Partisan resistance movement of Josip Broz Tito. In Greece, it has been estimated that the military wing of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) had 14 000 soldiers of Slavic Macedonian origin out of total 20 000 fighters. Some Macedonians which had been supporters of Communist partisan movement few in the Italian occupied area to Tito's Partisan resistance movement, fighting the occupying Bulgarians, Germans and Italians as well as opposing the Serbian royalist Chetniks. The Macedonian resistance at the end of the war had a strongly nationalist character, not at least as a reaction to Serbia's pre-war repression.

On 2 August 1944 in the St. Prohor Pčinjski monastery at the Antifascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) with Panko Brashnarov (the former IMRO revolutionary from the Ilinden period and the IMRO United) as a first speaker, the modern Macedonian state was officially proclaimed, as a federal state within Tito's Yugoslavia, receiving recognition from the Allies.

On 5 September 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and invaded the country. Within three days the Soviets occupied the northeastern part of Bulgaria along with the key port cities of Varna and Burgas. The Bulgarian Army was ordered to offer no resistance to the Soviets. On 8 September 1944, the Bulgarians changed sides and joined the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany.

After the declaration of war by Bulgaria on Germany, Ivan Mihailov - the IMRO leader arrived in German-occupied Skopje, where the Germans hoped that he could form a Macedonian state with their support. Seeing that the war is lost to Germany and to avoid further bloodshed, he refused. The Bulgarian troops, surrounded by German forces and betrayed by high-ranking military commanders, fought their way back to the old borders of Bulgaria. Three Bulgarian armies (some 500,000 strong in total) entered Yugoslavia in September 1944 and moved from Sofia to Niš and Skopje with the strategic task of blocking the German forces withdrawing from Greece. Southern and eastern Serbia and Macedonia were liberated within a month.

Macedonians after World War II

The People's Republic of Macedonia was proclaimed at the first session of the ASNOM (on St. Elia's Day – August 2, 1944). The Macedonian language was proclaimed the official language of the Republic of Macedonia at the same day. The first document written in the literary standard Macedonian language is the first issue of the Nova Makedonia newspaper in autumn 1944. Later, by special Act, it became a constitutive part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. For the next 50 years, the Republic of Macedonia was part of the Yugoslav federation.

Vormer members of the IMRO (United) which participated in the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, ASNOM and the forming of Republic of Macedonia as a federal state of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as Panko Brashnarov, Pavel Shatev, Dimitar Vlahov and Venko Markovski were quickly ousted from the new government. Such Macedonian activists came from Bulgarian Communist Party, have declared Bulgarian ethnicity before World War II never managed to get rid of their pro-Bulgarian bias and because of that, the first and second one were annihilated. As last survivor among the communists associated with the idea of Macedonian autonomy, Dimitar Vlahov was used "solely for window dressing". They ware chanched (sic) from cadres loyal to the Yugoslav Communist Party in Belgrade, who had pro-Serbian leanings and education before the war. It was not important that thеse party members have declared Bulgarian origin during the war, as for example Kiro Gligorov, Mihajlo Apostoloski and Lazar Koliševski.

Following the war, Tito separated Yugoslav Macedonia from Serbia, making it a republic of the new federal Yugoslavia (as the Socialist Republic of Macedonia) in 1946. He also promoted the concept of a separate Macedonian nation, as a means of severing the ties of the Slavic population of Yugoslav Macedonia with Bulgaria, although the Macedonian language is close to and largely mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, and to a lesser extent Serbian. The differences were emphasized and the region's historical figures were promoted as being uniquely Macedonian (rather than Bulgarian or Serbian). A separate Macedonian Orthodox Church was established, splitting off from the Serbian Orthodox Church in 1967 (only partly successfully, because the church has not been recognized by any other Orthodox Church). The ideologists of a separate and independent Macedonian country, same as the pro-Bulgarian sentiment, was forcibly suppressed.

Tito had a number of reasons for doing this. First, he wanted to reduce Serbia's dominance in Yugoslavia; establishing a territory formerly considered Serbian as an equal to Serbia within Yugoslavia achieved this effect. Secondly, he wanted to sever the ties of the Macedonian population with Bulgaria as recognition of that population as Bulgarian could have undermined the unity of the Yugoslav federation. Thirdly, Tito sought to justify future Yugoslav claims towards the rest of geographical Macedonia; in August 1944, he claimed that his goal was to reunify "all parts of Macedonia, divided in 1915 and 1918 by Balkan imperialists."  To this end, he opened negotiations with Bulgaria for a new federal communist state (see Bled agreement), which would also probably have included Albania, and supported the Greek Communists in the Greek Civil War. The idea of reunification of all of Macedonia under Communist rule was abandoned in 1948 when the Greek Communists lost the civil war and Tito fell out with the Soviet Union and pro-Soviet Bulgaria.

Tito's actions had a number of important consequences for the Macedonians. The most important was, obviously, the promotion of a distinctive Macedonian identity as a part of the multi-ethnic society of Yugoslavia. The process of ethnogenesis, started earlier, gained momentum, and a distinct national Macedonian identity was formed. IMRO's leader in exile, Ivan Mihailov, and the renewed Bulgarian IMRO after 1990 have, on the other hand, repeatedly argued that between 120,000 and 130,000 people went through the concentration camps of Idrizovo and Goli Otok for pro-Bulgarian sympathies or ideas for independent Macedonia in the late 1940s. This has also been confirmed by former prime minister Ljubco Georgievski.

The critics of these claims question the number as it would imply roughly a third of the male Christian population at that time. And the reasons of imprisonment, they argue, were multiple as there were Macedonian nationalists, Stalinists, Middle class members, Albanian nationalists and everybody else who was either against the post war regime or denounced as one for whatever reasons. Unlike the time before World War II, when Macedonia was hotbed for unrest and terror and about 60% of the entire royal Yugoslav police force was stationed there, after the war there were no signs of disturbances comparable with pre-war times or post war times in other parts of former Yugoslavia, such as Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia. Whatever the truth, it was certainly the case that most Macedonians embraced their official recognition as a separate nationality. Even so, some pro-Bulgarian or pro-Serbian sentiment even among members of the Communist Party persisted despite government suppression;  even as late as 1991, convictions were still being handed down for pro-Bulgarian statements. Some of them even created pro-Bulgarian literary works. Local Albanian intellectuals in the area also support the local Slavic inhabitants with Pro-Bulgarian sentiments, for which they have also been repressed. Bulgarians from other parts of Yugoslavia also support Bulgaria's position on the Macedonian question.

After World War II, ethnic Macedonians living in Greece organized themselves in Narodno Osloboditelen Front (NOF) in 1945, and started fighting against the right-wing government in Athens. In 1946, NOF agreed to unite with the Democratic Army of Greece and start a join fight (see: Greek Civil War). Many of the Slavic speaking Macedonians who lived in Greece either chose to emigrate to Communist countries (especially Yugoslavia) to avoid prosecution for fighting on the side of the Greek communists. Although there was some liberalization between 1959 and 1967, the Greek military dictatorship re-imposed harsh restrictions. The situation gradually eased after Greece's return to democracy, but Greece still receives criticism for its treatment of some Slavic-speaking Macedonian political organizations. Greece, however, recognizes the Rainbow political party of the Slavic-speaking Macedonians who canvas during elections.

The Macedonians in Albania faced restrictions under the Stalinist dictatorship of Enver Hoxha, though ordinary Albanians were little better off. Their existence as a separate minority group was recognized as early as 1945 and a degree of cultural expression was permitted.

As ethnographers and linguists tended to identify the population of the Bulgarian part of Macedonia as Bulgarian in the interwar period, the issue of a Macedonian minority in the country came up as late as the 1940s. In 1946, the population of Blagoevgrad Province was declared Macedonian and teachers were brought in from Yugoslavia to teach the Macedonian language. The census of 1946 was accompanied by mass repressions, the result of which was the complete destruction of the local organizations of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization and mass internments of people at the Belene concentration camp. The policy was reverted at the end of the 1950s and later Bulgarian governments argued that the two censuses of 1946 and 1956 which recorded up to 187,789 Macedonians (of whom over 95% were said to live in Blagoevgrad Province, also called Pirin Macedonia) were the result of pressure from Moscow. Western governments, however, continued to list the population of Blagoevgrad Province as Macedonian until the beginning of the 1990s despite the 1965 census which put Macedonians in the country at 9,630. The two latest censuses after the fall of Communism (in 1992 and 2001) have, however, confirmed the results from previous censuses with some 3,000 people declaring themselves as "Macedonians" in Blagoevgrad Province in 2001 (<1.0% of the population of the region) out of 5,000 in the whole of Bulgaria.

Macedonians after the establishment of an independent Macedonian state

The country of North Macedonia officially celebrates 8 September 1991 as Independence day, with regard to the referendum endorsing independence from Yugoslavia, albeit legalizing participation in "future union of the former states of Yugoslavia". The Republic of Macedonia remained at peace through the Yugoslav wars of the early 1990s. A few very minor changes to its border with Yugoslavia were agreed upon to resolve problems with the demarcation line between the two countries. However, it was seriously destabilized by the Kosovo War in 1999, when an estimated 360,000 ethnic Albanian refugees from Kosovo took refuge in the country. Although they departed shortly after the war, soon after, Albanian radicals on both sides of the border took up arms in pursuit of autonomy or independence for the Albanian-populated areas of the Republic.

A short conflict was fought between government and ethnic Albanian rebels, mostly in the north and west of the country, between March and June 2001. This war ended with the intervention of a NATO ceasefire monitoring force. In the Ohrid Agreement, the government agreed to devolve greater political power and cultural recognition to the Albanian minority.

In this period, it has been claimed by Macedonian scholars that there exist large and oppressed ethnic Macedonian minorities in the region of Macedonia, located in neighboring Albania (up to 5,000 people), Bulgaria (up to 20,000, mainly in Blagoevgrad Province), Greece and Serbia (about 20,000 in Pčinja District). Because of those claims, irredentist proposals are being made calling for the expansion of the borders of the Republic of Macedonia to encompass the territories allegedly populated with ethnic Macedonians, either directly or through initial independence of Blagoevgrad province and Greek Macedonia, followed by their incorporation into a single state. (See United Macedonia). The population of the neighboring regions is presented as "subdued" to the propaganda of the governments of those neighbouring countries, and in need of "liberation".

The supporters of Macedonism generally ignore censuses conducted in Albania, Bulgaria and Greece, which show minimal presence of ethnic Macedonians. They consider those censuses flawed, without presenting evidence in support, and accuse the governments of neighboring countries of continued propaganda. During this period, ethnic Macedonians living in the region continue to complain of official harassment. This was confirmed in 2005 by the European Court of Human Rights with a judgment whereby Bulgaria was sentenced to pay damages amounting to 6,800 euros for a violation of Article 11 (freedom of assembly and association) of the European Convention on Human Rights for its refusal to give court registration to "UMO Ilinden-Pirin", the Macedonian political party in Bulgaria.

A similar judgment was passed against Greece for also violating Article 11 in regards of the members of the Greek far-left Rainbow party, which claims to be the "Party of the Macedonian minority in Greece" despite the fact that it enjoys minimal public support in the area where the minority purportedly lives.

See also

Demographic history of Macedonia
A list of prominent ethnic Macedonians
Macedonian nationalism
Political views on the Macedonian language
Macedonian Bulgarians

References

Ethnic Macedonian people
History of Macedonia (region)
Demographics of Yugoslavia
Macedonian nationalism